U.S. patent application number 13/609037 was filed with the patent office on 2015-07-09 for plating cup with contoured cup bottom.
The applicant listed for this patent is Jingbin Feng, Shantinath Ghongadi, Zhian He, Frederick D. Wilmot. Invention is credited to Jingbin Feng, Shantinath Ghongadi, Zhian He, Frederick D. Wilmot.
Application Number | 20150191843 13/609037 |
Document ID | / |
Family ID | 47828847 |
Filed Date | 2015-07-09 |
United States Patent
Application |
20150191843 |
Kind Code |
A9 |
He; Zhian ; et al. |
July 9, 2015 |
PLATING CUP WITH CONTOURED CUP BOTTOM
Abstract
Disclosed herein are cups for engaging wafers during
electroplating in clamshell assemblies and supplying electrical
current to the wafers during electroplating. The cup can comprise
an elastomeric seal disposed on the cup and configured to engage
the wafer during electroplating, where upon engagement the
elastomeric seal substantially excludes plating solution from a
peripheral region of the wafer, and where the elastomeric seal and
the cup are annular in shape, and comprise one or more contact
elements for supplying electrical current to the wafer during
electroplating, the one or more contact elements attached to and
extending inwardly towards a center of the cup from a metal strip
disposed over the elastomeric seal. A notch area of the cup can
have a protrusion or an insulated portion on a portion of a bottom
surface of the cup where the notch area is aligned with a notch in
the wafer.
Inventors: |
He; Zhian; (Tigard, OR)
; Feng; Jingbin; (Lake Oswego, OR) ; Ghongadi;
Shantinath; (Tigard, OR) ; Wilmot; Frederick D.;
(Gladstone, OR) |
|
Applicant: |
Name |
City |
State |
Country |
Type |
He; Zhian
Feng; Jingbin
Ghongadi; Shantinath
Wilmot; Frederick D. |
Tigard
Lake Oswego
Tigard
Gladstone |
OR
OR
OR
OR |
US
US
US
US |
|
|
Prior
Publication: |
|
Document Identifier |
Publication Date |
|
US 20130062197 A1 |
March 14, 2013 |
|
|
Family ID: |
47828847 |
Appl. No.: |
13/609037 |
Filed: |
September 10, 2012 |
Related U.S. Patent Documents
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Application
Number |
Filing Date |
Patent Number |
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13432767 |
Mar 28, 2012 |
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13609037 |
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12633219 |
Dec 8, 2009 |
8172992 |
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13432767 |
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61533779 |
Sep 12, 2011 |
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61121460 |
Dec 10, 2008 |
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Current U.S.
Class: |
204/297.01 ;
204/297.05 |
Current CPC
Class: |
C25D 17/001 20130101;
C25D 17/007 20130101; C25D 7/12 20130101; C25D 17/06 20130101; C25D
17/004 20130101; C25D 17/12 20130101; C25D 17/005 20130101 |
International
Class: |
C25D 17/06 20060101
C25D017/06; C25D 17/00 20060101 C25D017/00 |
Claims
1. A cup for engaging a wafer during electroplating in a clamshell
assembly and supplying electrical current to the wafer during
electroplating, the cup comprising: an elastomeric seal disposed on
the cup and configured to engage the wafer during electroplating,
wherein upon engagement the elastomeric seal substantially excludes
plating solution from a peripheral region of the wafer, wherein the
elastomeric seal and the cup are annular in shape; one or more
contact elements configured to supply electrical current to the
wafer during electroplating, the one or more contact elements
attached to and extending inwardly towards a center of the cup from
a metal strip disposed over the elastomeric seal; and a protrusion
attached to and extending from a portion of a bottom surface of the
cup, wherein the portion of the bottom surface of the cup is an
angular portion for alignment with a notch in the wafer during
electroplating.
2. The cup of claim 1, wherein the portion of the bottom surface of
the cup corresponds to a notch area in the cup, wherein the notch
area defines an area of the cup in which the distance from the
center of the wafer to the edge of the elastomeric seal is less
than in non-notch areas of the cup.
3. The cup of claim 1, wherein a height of the protrusion is
between about 600 micrometers and about 1000 micrometers.
4. The cup of claim 1, wherein the protrusion tapers in width along
a length of the protrusion, wherein the length of the protrusion is
perpendicular to the width of the protrusion.
5. The cup of claim 4, wherein the protrusion is widest proximate
to the center of the length of the protrusion.
6. The cup of claim 1, wherein the protrusion is aligned with the
notch of the wafer, and wherein the current density distribution
around the perimeter of the wafer is substantially uniform.
7. The cup of claim 1, wherein the elastomeric seal has a diameter
that is configured to engage the peripheral region of the
wafer.
8. A cup for engaging a wafer during electroplating in a clamshell
assembly and supplying electrical current to the wafer during
electroplating, the cup comprising: an elastomeric seal disposed on
the cup and configured to engage the wafer during electroplating,
wherein upon engagement the elastomeric seal substantially excludes
plating solution from a peripheral region of the wafer, wherein the
elastomeric seal and the cup are annular in shape; one or more
contact elements configured to supply electrical current to the
wafer during electroplating, the one or more contact elements
attached to and extending inwardly towards a center of the cup from
a metal strip disposed over the elastomeric seal; and an insulated
portion on a portion of a bottom surface of the cup, wherein the
portion of the bottom surface of the cup is an angular portion for
alignment with a notch in the wafer during electroplating.
9. The cup of claim 8, wherein the portion of the bottom surface of
the cup is provided in a notch area of the cup, wherein the notch
area corresponds to an area of the cup in which the distance from
the center of the wafer to the edge of the elastomeric seal is less
than in non-notch areas of the cup.
10. The cup of claim 9, wherein the notch area comprises an
electrically insulating coating and the non-notch areas comprise an
electrically conductive material.
11. The cup of claim 8, wherein the insulated portion has a lower
electronic conductivity than the rest of the bottom surface of the
cup.
12. The cup of claim 11, wherein the insulated portion comprises a
plastic.
13. The cup of claim 12, wherein the insulated portion extends
along an entirety of a width of the bottom surface of the cup.
14. The cup of claim 8, wherein the insulated portion comprises a
protrusion with a height between about 600 micrometers and about
1000 micrometers.
15. The cup of claim 8, wherein the insulated portion is aligned
with the notch of the wafer, and wherein the current density
distribution around the perimeter of the wafer is substantially
uniform.
16. The cup of claim 8, wherein the elastomeric seal has a diameter
that is configured to engage the peripheral region of the
wafer.
17. A cup for engaging a wafer during electroplating in a clamshell
assembly and supplying electrical current to the wafer during
electroplating, the cup comprising: an elastomeric seal disposed on
the cup and configured to engage the wafer during electroplating,
wherein upon engagement the elastomeric seal substantially excludes
plating solution from a peripheral region of the wafer, wherein the
elastomeric seal and the cup are annular in shape; a plurality of
contact elements for supplying electrical current to the wafer
during electroplating, each of the contact elements attached to and
extending inwardly towards a center of the cup from a metal strip
disposed over the elastomeric seal; and wherein each of the contact
elements in a notch area of the cup is longer than each of the
contact elements in a non-notch area of the cup, wherein the notch
area corresponds to an area of the cup in which the distance from
the center of the wafer to the edge of the elastomeric seal is less
than in non-notch areas of the cup.
Description
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS
[0001] This application claims priority to Provisional U.S. Patent
Application No. 61/533,779, filed Sep. 12, 2011 and titled "PLATING
CUP WITH CONTOURED CUP BOTTOM," which is hereby incorporated by
reference herein in its entirety for all purposes.
TECHNICAL FIELD
[0002] This invention relates to the formation of damascene
interconnects for integrated circuits, and electroplating
apparatuses which are used during integrated circuit
fabrication.
BACKGROUND
[0003] Electroplating is a common technique used in integrated
circuit (IC) fabrication to deposit one or more layers of
conductive metal. In some fabrication processes it is used to
deposit single or multiple levels of copper interconnects between
various substrate features. An apparatus for electroplating
typically includes an electroplating cell having a pool/bath of
electrolyte and a clamshell designed to hold a semiconductor
substrate during electroplating.
[0004] During operation of the electroplating apparatus, a
semiconductor substrate is submerged into the electrolyte pool such
that one surface of the substrate is exposed to electrolyte. One or
more electrical contacts established with the substrate surface are
employed to drive an electrical current through the electroplating
cell and deposit metal onto the substrate surface from metal ions
available in the electrolyte. Typically, the electrical contact
elements are used to form an electrical connection between the
substrate and a bus bar acting as a current source. However, in
some configurations, a conductive seed layer on the substrate
contacted by the electrical connections may become thinner towards
the edge of the substrate, making it more difficult to establish an
optimal electrical connection with the substrate.
[0005] Another issue arising in electroplating is the potentially
corrosive properties of the electroplating solution. Therefore, in
many electroplating apparatus a lipseal is used at the interface of
the clamshell and substrate for the purpose of preventing leakage
of electrolyte and its contact with elements of the electroplating
apparatus other than the inside of the electroplating cell and the
side of the substrate designated for electroplating.
SUMMARY
[0006] Disclosed herein are cups for engaging wafers during
electroplating in a clamshell assembly and supplying electrical
current to the wafer during electroplating. The cup can comprise an
elastomeric seal disposed on the cup and configured to engage the
wafer during electroplating, where upon engagement the elastomeric
seal substantially excludes plating solution from a peripheral
region of the wafer, and where the elastomeric seal and the cup are
annular in shape. The cup also can comprise one or more contact
elements for supplying electrical current to the wafer during
electroplating, the one or more contact elements attached to and
extending inwardly towards a center of the cup from a metal strip
disposed over the elastomeric seal, and a protrusion attached to
and extending from a portion of a bottom surface of the cup. The
portion of the bottom surface of the cup is an angular portion for
alignment with a notch in the wafer during electroplating.
[0007] In some embodiments, the protrusion is provided in a notch
area of the cup, where the notch area corresponds to an area of the
cup in which the distance from the center of the wafer to the edge
of the elastomeric seal is less than in non-notch areas of the cup.
In some embodiments, a height of the protrusion is between about
600 micrometers and about 1000 micrometers.
[0008] Also disclosed herein are cups for engaging wafers during
electroplating in a clamshell assembly and supplying electrical
current to the wafer during electroplating. The cup can comprise an
elastomeric seal disposed on the cup and configured to engage the
wafer during electroplating, where upon engagement the elastomeric
seal substantially excludes plating solution from a peripheral
region of the wafer, and where the elastomeric seal and the cup are
annular in shape. The cup can also comprise one or more contact
elements for supplying electrical current to the semiconductor
substrate during electroplating, the one or more contact elements
attached to and extending inwardly towards a center of the cup from
a metal strip disposed over the elastomeric seal, and an insulated
portion on a portion of a bottom surface of the cup. The portion of
the bottom surface of the cup is an angular portion for alignment
with a notch in the wafer during electroplating.
[0009] In some embodiments, the insulated portion is provided in a
notch area of the cup, where the notch area corresponds to an area
of the cup in which the distance from the center of the wafer to
the edge of the elastomeric seal is less than in non-notch areas of
the cup. In some embodiments, the insulated portion has a lower
electronic conductivity than the rest of the bottom surface of the
cup. In some embodiments, the insulated portion comprises a
plastic.
[0010] Also disclosed herein are cups for engaging wafers during
electroplating in a clamshell assembly and supplying electrical
current to the wafer during electroplating. The cup can comprise an
elastomeric seal disposed on the cup and configured to engage the
wafer during electroplating, where upon engagement the elastomeric
seal substantially excludes plating solution from a peripheral
region of the wafer, and where the elastomeric seal and the cup are
annular in shape. The cup also can comprise a plurality of contact
elements for supplying electrical current to the wafer during
electroplating, each of the contact elements attached to and
extending inwardly towards a center of the cup from a metal strip
disposed over the elastomeric seal. Each of the contact elements in
a notch area of the cup is longer than each of the contact elements
in a non-notch area of the cup, where the notch area corresponds to
an area of the cup where the distance from the center of the wafer
to the edge of the elastomeric seal is less than in non-notch areas
of the cup.
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS
[0011] FIG. 1 shows a graph of the thickness of an electroplated
layer at a notch area along a radial location of a wafer.
[0012] FIG. 2 shows a graph of the thickness of an electroplated
layer at a non-notch area along a radial location of a wafer.
[0013] FIG. 3A is a perspective view of a wafer holding and
positioning apparatus for electrochemically treating semiconductor
wafers.
[0014] FIG. 3B is a cross-sectional schematic of a clamshell
assembly having a lipseal assembly with one or more contact
elements.
[0015] FIG. 4A is a cross-sectional schematic a clamshell assembly
in a non-notch area having a lipseal assembly and one or more
contact elements supporting a substrate.
[0016] FIG. 4B is a cross-sectional schematic of a clamshell
assembly in a notch area having a lipseal assembly and one or more
contact elements supporting a substrate, and a bottom surface
having a protrusion.
[0017] FIG. 4C is a perspective view of a clamshell assembly with a
bottom surface having a protrusion.
[0018] FIG. 4D is a cross-sectional schematic of a clamshell
assembly in a notch area having a lipseal assembly and one or more
contact elements supporting a substrate, and a bottom surface
having an insulated portion.
[0019] FIG. 4E is a perspective view of a clamshell assembly with a
bottom surface having an insulated portion.
[0020] FIG. 5A is a cross-sectional schematic of a clamshell
assembly in a non-notch area having a lipseal assembly and one or
more contact elements supporting a substrate.
[0021] FIG. 5B is a cross-sectional schematic of a clamshell
assembly in a non-notch area having a lipseal assembly and one or
more contact elements supporting a substrate.
[0022] FIG. 6 is a flowchart illustrating a method of aligning and
sealing a semiconductor substrate in a clamshell assembly.
[0023] FIG. 7A shows a graph of three thickness profiles of
electroplated layers in the notch areas along radial locations of a
wafer.
[0024] FIG. 7B shows a graph of three 25-point contour measurement
profiles with a notch point corresponding to measurement site
10.
[0025] FIG. 7C shows a schematic diagram of 25 locations of
measuring sites on a wafer for the 25-point contour measurement
profiles in FIG. 7B.
DETAILED DESCRIPTION
[0026] In the following description, numerous specific details are
set forth in order to provide a thorough understanding of the
presented concepts. The presented concepts may be practiced without
some or all of these specific details. In other instances, well
known process operations have not been described in detail so as to
not unnecessarily obscure the described concepts. While some
concepts will be described in conjunction with the specific
embodiments, it will be understood that these embodiments are not
intended to be limiting.
Introduction
[0027] As the semiconductor industry is moving towards thinner seed
layers used for electroplating, the higher resistance of these
thinner layers may impact various aspects of electroplating and in
some situation cause defects in the plated layer. The resistance of
thinner seed layers often exceeds 5 Ohm/square and sometimes can be
as high as about 30 Ohm/square and even about 40 Ohm/square. The
higher resistance may cause uneven voltage distribution
particularly when contact points are positioned at different
distances from electroplating solution boundaries.
[0028] One electroplating issue associated with thinner seed layers
appears to be present in notch areas of substrates. Specifically,
wafers that are 200 millimeters in diameter and above use small
notches to convey wafers' orientation. These notches extend toward
the centers of their wafers and need to be sealed when the wafers
are electroplated. A clamshell that supports and seals such wafers
has a notch extension for this purpose, which is often referred to
as a "flat". Just like notches, this flat extends towards the
center of the wafer and prevents the plating solution from leaking
through the wafer.
[0029] Therefore, the distance between the center of the wafer and
solution excluding edge of the flat is slightly less than similar
distance in other areas. For example, a 300-millimeter wafer
generally has about a 1 millimeter wide exclusion area around its
perimeter. In all areas except the notch area, the edge seal is
positioned at about 149 millimeters from the center of the wafer.
In the notch area, the seal extends about 0.5 millimeters toward
the center and is positioned at about 148.5 millimeters from the
center.
[0030] However, electrical contacts with a seed layer are typically
established along the circular boundary that is evenly spaced from
the center. The electrical contacts are provided by contact fingers
of a contact ring that has a circular shape and generally does not
account for any notch areas. This creates a potential issue where
in the notch area the contact fingers are further away from the
solution than in other areas of the clamshell. This difference is
generally the same as the extension of the flat, e.g., 0.5
millimeters for a 300 millimeter wafer. In this situation, the
electrical current has to travel through a seed layer a longer
distance in the notch area than in the other areas. When a seed
layer is particularly thin and resistive, the longer distance may
result in a significant voltage drop and a lower voltage at the
interface with the electrolyte in the notch area. The lower voltage
may result in a slower deposition rate particularly during initial
deposition stages when the voltage gradient is still high. As
deposition continues, the voltage gradient may reduce due to
additional conduction through the deposited layer. Yet, lower
initial rates may greatly impact the thickness profile of plated
layers, particularly thin plated layers.
[0031] This problem can be easily understood from results of the
following experiment. A 300 millimeter wafer having a 39 Ohm/square
seed layer was electroplated in a conventional clamshell
electroplating apparatus with a target thickness of 175 Angstroms.
The thickness of the electroplated layer was then inspected in two
different areas near the edge of the wafer. One area corresponds to
the notch area and its thickness profile is shown in FIG. 1 with
line 10. The other area is shifted 90 degrees along the perimeter
from the notch area and is representative to any area that does not
have a notch. Its thickness profile is shown in FIG. 2 with line
20. The X axis in these graphs represents the distance of the
measured point from the center of the wafer, while the Y axis
represents the thickness of the deposited layer at this measured
location. The focus was mainly the portions near the edge of the
wafer, i.e., at distance between 120 millimeters to 150 millimeters
from the center where the notch defects tend to occur. Profiles 10
and 20 are comparable for measured points located between 120
millimeters and 135 millimeters from the center. In both areas, the
deposited layer was substantially uniform and had a thickness of
about 220 Angstroms over this distance from the center. Profile 20
corresponding to the non-notch area shows only slight variation
closer to the edge of the wafer, i.e., towards the 150 millimeter
position. At the same time, profile 10 corresponding to the notch
area indicates that a portion of the deposited layer near the edge
is much thinner in this area. Not only this portion near the edge
is much thinner than other portions further away from the edge, but
this phenomenon is specific only to the notch area and is not
present in the other graph.
[0032] Other experiments have been conducted to demonstrate that
this thickness variation in the notch area is heavily dependent on
conductivity of the seed layer. Specifically, more conductive seed
layers generally have much lower variability. However, as mentioned
above the trend in the semiconductor industry is toward thinner and
more resistive seed layers.
[0033] Provided are novel clamshells that include cup bottoms
having protrusion and/or insulated portions corresponding to notch
areas. These features are designed to change distribution of the
electrical current within the seed layer and/or within the
electrolyte resulting in more uniform electroplating of the entire
exposed area of the substrate. For example, a protrusion provided
on a bottom surface of the clamshell or, more specifically, on a
bottom surface of the cup bottom is used to narrow the gap between
the cup bottom and other parts of the plating apparatus and to
change the localized current distribution with the electroplating
solution. Furthermore, the protrusion results in less current being
flown to the dual cathode. The protrusion may extend in the
direction substantially perpendicular to the bottom surface. The
height of this protrusion depends on various factors, such as the
width of the gap between the cup bottom and other hardware
portions, conductivity of the seed layer, and the exclusion area
difference in the notch area relative to other areas. In certain
embodiments, the protrusion is at least about 500 micrometers high,
for example, about 1000 micrometers high. This height may be
sufficient for a seed layer having resistivity of about 39
Ohm/square and a gap of about 2 millimeters. Thus, the 1000
micrometer protrusion blocks about a half of this gap.
[0034] In the same or other embodiments, a portion of the bottom
surface of clamshell or, more specifically, of the cup bottom that
is adjacent to the notch area has a lower electronic conductivity
than the rest of the bottom surface. For example, this portion may
be made from a more insulating material, such as plastic, than the
rest of the surface of the cup bottom, which may be made from
metal. This less conductive portion may be formed by applying an
insulating tape strip, coating an insulating coating patch,
positioning plastic inserts onto the surface or a cavity formed
within the surface, and according to various other methods. This
conductivity difference is believed to modify distribution of the
electrical current in the plating solution such that the solution
adjacent to the insulated conductive portion experiences less
current drain to the cathode and, as a result, more material is
deposited in the notch area than otherwise.
[0035] Whether a clamshell employs a notch area protrusion, notch
area insulation, or both, the features are configured in such a way
that any increase in deposition rates attributable to these
features compensates for reduction in deposition rates due to
electrical losses in the seed layer as explained above. Therefore,
less conductive seed layers may need to have higher notch area
protrusions or a combination of notch area protrusion and notch
area insulation. Various factors for selecting and configuring
these features are presented above.
[0036] Furthermore, a larger exclusion area in the notch area
allows moving contact fingers in this area closer to the center of
the clamshell without interfering with sealing characteristics of
the clamshell. Specifically, a notch area may have longer contact
fingers than other areas around the perimeter of the clamshell.
While these longer contact fingers would have interfered with the
seal in the other areas, the seal extends towards the center in the
notch area. In a specific embodiment, these longer contact fingers
are configured in such a way that an electronic conductivity path,
which is the distance from the fingers to the electrolyte boundary,
in the notch area is substantially the same as in the other areas.
Therefore, the seed layer exposed to the electroplating solution at
the seal interface will have substantially the same potential
regardless whether the interface is in the notch area or elsewhere.
Longer contact fingers, notch area protrusion, and notch area
insulation features may be combined in the same clamshell to
achieve more desired effect. As explained above, a notch area
protrusion may be made from an insulating material. In the same
embodiments, contact fingers may be longer in the notch areas of
the clamshell.
[0037] A brief description of the electroplating apparatus is
presented below to provide some context to various embodiments of
cup bottoms and contact fingers. FIG. 3A presents a perspective
view of a wafer holding and positioning apparatus 100 for
electrochemically treating semiconductor wafers. The apparatus 100
includes wafer-engaging components, which are sometimes referred to
as "clamshell" components, a "clamshell" assembly, or a
"clamshell." The clamshell assembly comprises a cup 101 and a cone
103. As will be shown in subsequent figures, the cup 101 holds a
wafer and the cone 103 clamps the wafer securely in the cup. Other
cup and cone designs beyond those specifically depicted here can be
used. A common feature is a cup that has an interior region in
which the wafer resides and a cone that presses the wafer against
the cup to hold it in place.
[0038] In the depicted embodiment, the clamshell assembly (the cup
101 and the cone 103) is supported by struts 104, which are
connected to a top plate 105. This assembly (101, 103, 104, and
105) is driven by a motor 107 via a spindle 106 connected to the
top plate 105. The motor 107 is attached to a mounting bracket (not
shown). The spindle 106 transmits torque (from the motor 107) to
the clamshell assembly causing rotation of a wafer (not shown in
this figure) held therein during plating. An air cylinder (not
shown) within the spindle 106 also provides a vertical force for
engaging the cup 101 with the cone 103. When the clamshell is
disengaged (not shown), a robot with an end effector arm can insert
a wafer in between the cup 101 and the cone 103. After a wafer is
inserted, the cone 103 is engaged with the cup 101, which
immobilizes the wafer within apparatus 100 leaving only the wafer
front side (work surface) exposed to electrolyte.
[0039] In certain embodiments, the clamshell includes a spray skirt
109 that protects the cone 103 from splashing electrolyte. In the
depicted embodiment, the spray skirt 109 includes a vertical
circumferential sleeve and a circular cap portion. A spacing member
110 maintains separation between the spray skirt 109 and the cone
103.
[0040] For the purposes of this discussion, the assembly including
components 101-110 is collectively referred to as a "wafer holder"
111. Note however, that the concept of a "wafer holder" extends
generally to various combinations and sub-combinations of
components that engage a wafer and allow its movement and
positioning.
[0041] A tilting assembly (not shown) may be connected to the wafer
holder to permit angled immersion (as opposed to flat horizontal
immersion) of the wafer into a plating solution. A drive mechanism
and arrangement of plates and pivot joints are used in some
embodiments to move wafer the holder 111 along an arced path (not
shown) and, as a result, tilt the proximal end of wafer holder 111
(i.e., the cup and cone assembly).
[0042] Further, the entire wafer holder 111 is lifted vertically
either up or down to immerse the proximal end of the wafer holder
111 into a plating solution via an actuator (not shown). Thus, a
two-component positioning mechanism provides both vertical movement
along a trajectory perpendicular to an electrolyte surface and a
tilting movement allowing deviation from a horizontal orientation
(i.e., parallel to the electrolyte surface) for the wafer
(angled-wafer immersion capability).
[0043] Note that the wafer holder 111 is used with a plating cell
115 having a plating chamber 117 which houses an anode chamber 157
and a plating solution. The chamber 157 holds an anode 119 (e.g., a
copper anode) and may include membranes or other separators
designed to maintain different electrolyte chemistries in the anode
compartment and a cathode compartment. In the depicted embodiment,
a diffuser 153 is employed for directing electrolyte upward toward
the rotating wafer in a uniform front. In certain embodiments, the
flow diffuser is a high resistance virtual anode (HRVA) plate,
which is made of a solid piece of insulating material (e.g.
plastic), having a large number (e.g. 4,000-15,000) of one
dimensional small holes (0.01 to 0.050 inch in diameter) and
connected to the cathode chamber above the plate. The total
cross-section area of the holes is less than about 5 percent of the
total projected area, and, therefore, introduces substantial flow
resistance in the plating cell helping to improve the plating
uniformity of the system. Additional description of a high
resistance virtual anode plate and a corresponding apparatus for
electrochemically treating semiconductor wafers is provided in U.S.
application Ser. No. 12/291,356 filed on Nov. 7, 2008, incorporated
herein, in its entirety, by reference. The plating cell may also
include a separate membrane for controlling and creating separate
electrolyte flow patterns. In another embodiment, a membrane is
employed to define an anode chamber, which contains electrolyte
that is substantially free of suppressors, accelerators, or other
organic plating additives.
[0044] The plating cell may also include plumbing or plumbing
contacts for circulating electrolyte through the plating cell--and
against the work piece being plated. For example, the cell 115
includes an electrolyte inlet tube 131 that extends vertically into
the center of anode chamber 157 through a hole in the center of
anode 119. In other embodiments, the cell includes an electrolyte
inlet manifold that introduces fluid into the cathode chamber below
the diffuser/HRVA plate at the peripheral wall of the chamber (not
shown). In some cases, the inlet tube 131 includes outlet nozzles
on both sides (the anode side and the cathode side) of the membrane
153. This arrangement delivers electrolyte to both the anode
chamber and the cathode chamber. In other embodiments, the anode
and cathode chamber are separated by a flow resistant membrane 153,
and each chamber has a separate flow cycle of separated
electrolyte. As shown in the embodiment of FIG. 3A, an inlet nozzle
155 provides electrolyte to the anode-side of membrane 153.
[0045] In addition, plating cell 115 includes a rinse drain line
159 and a plating solution return line 161, each connected directly
to the plating chamber 117. Also a rinse nozzle 163 delivers
deionized rinse water to clean the wafer and/or cup during normal
operation. Plating solution normally fills much of the chamber 117.
To mitigate splashing and generation of bubbles, the chamber 117
includes an inner weir 165 for plating solution return and an outer
weir 167 for rinse water return. In the depicted embodiment, these
weirs are circumferential vertical slots in the wall of the plating
chamber 117.
[0046] As stated above, an electroplating clamshell typically
includes a lipseal and one or more contact elements to provide
sealing and electrical connection functions. A lipseal may be made
from an elastomeric material. The lipseal forms a seal with the
surface of the semiconductor substrate and excludes the electrolyte
from a peripheral region of the substrate, which houses the
contacts. No deposition occurs in this peripheral region and it is
not used for forming IC devices, i.e., the peripheral region is not
a part of the working surface. Sometimes, this region is also
referred to as an edge exclusion area because the electrolyte is
excluded from the area. The peripheral region is used for
supporting the substrate during processing as well as for
establishing the seal with and electrical connections to the
substrate. Since it is generally desirable to increase the working
surface, the peripheral region needs to be as small as possible
while maintaining the function described above. In certain
embodiments, the peripheral region is between about 0.5 millimeters
and 3 millimeters from the edge of the substrate or, more
specifically, about 1 millimeter.
[0047] The following description presents additional features and
examples of cup assemblies that may be employed in certain
embodiments. Certain aspects of the depicted cup designs provide
for greater edge plating uniformity and reduced edge defects due to
improved edge flow characteristics of residual electrolyte/rinsate,
controlled wafer entry wetting, and lipseal bubble removal. FIG. 3B
is an illustrative cut-out view of a cup assembly 200. The assembly
200 includes a lipseal 212 for protecting certain parts of the cup
from electrolyte. It also includes a contact element 208 for
establishing electrical connection with conductive elements of the
wafer. The cup and its components may have an annular shape and be
sized to engage wafer's periphery (e.g., a 200-mm wafer, a 300-mm
wafer, a 450-mm wafer).
[0048] The cup assembly includes a cup bottom 210, which is also
referred to as a "disk" or a "base plate" and which may be attached
to a shield structure 202 with a set of screws or other fastening
means. The cup bottom 210 may be removed (i.e., detached from the
shield structure 202) to allow replacing various components of the
cup assembly 200, such as a seal 212, a current distribution bus
214 (a curved electrical bus bar), an electrical contact member
strip 208, and/or the cup bottom 210 itself. A portion (generally,
the outermost portion) of the contact strip 208 may be in contact
with a continuous metal strip 204. The cup bottom 210 may have a
tapered edge 216 at its innermost periphery, which is shaped in
such ways as to improve flow characteristic of electrolyte/rinsate
around the edge and improve bubble rejection characteristics. The
cup bottom 210 may be made of a stiff, corrosive resistant
material, such as stainless steel, titanium, and tantalum. During
closing, the cup bottom 210 supports the lipseal 212 when the force
is exerted through the wafer to avoid clamshell leakage during
wafer immersion. In certain embodiments, the force exerted on the
lipseal 212 and the cup bottom 210 is at least about 200 pounds
force. The closing force, which is also referred to as closing
pressure, is exerted by the clamshell "cone" assembly, the portion
of which that makes contact to the wafer backside.
[0049] An electrical contact member 208 provides electrical contact
conductive materials deposited on the front side of the wafer.
Contact member 208 includes a large number of individual contact
fingers 220 attached to a continuous metal strip 218. In certain
embodiments, the contact member 208 is made out of Paliney 7 alloy.
However, other suitable materials can be used. In certain
embodiments corresponding to 300-mm wafer configurations, the
contact member 208 has at least about 300 individual contact
fingers 220 evenly spaced around the entire perimeter defined by
the wafer. The fingers 220 may be created by cutting (e.g., laser
cutting), machining, stamping, precision folding/bending, or any
other suitable methods. The contact member 208 may form a
continuous ring, wherein the metal strip 218 defines the outer
diameter of the ring, and the free tips of the finger 220 define
the inner diameter. It should be noted these diameters will vary
depending on the cross-sectional profile of the contact member 208.
Further, it should be noted that the fingers 220 are flexible and
may be pushed down (i.e., towards the tapered edge 216) when the
wafer is loaded. For example, the fingers 220 move from a free
position to a different intermediate position when a wafer is
placed into the clamshell to yet another different position when
the cone exerts pressure onto the wafer. During operation, the lip
212b of the elastic lipseal 212 resides near the tips of the
fingers 220. For example, in their free position the fingers 220
may extend higher than the lip 212b. In certain embodiments, the
fingers 220 extend higher than the lip 212b even in their
intermediate position when the wafer is places into the cup 200. In
other words, the wafer is supported by the tips of the fingers 220
and not the lip 212b. In other embodiments, the fingers 220 and/or
the lip 212b seal bend or compress when the wafer is introduced
into the cup 200 and both the tips 220 and the lip 212b are in the
contact with the wafer. For example, the lip 212b may initially
extend higher than the tips and then be compressed and the fingers
220 deflected and compressed to form contact with the wafer.
Therefore, to avoid ambiguity the dimensions described herein for
the contact member 208 are provided when a seal is established
between the wafer and the lipseal 212.
[0050] The seal 212 is shown to include a lipseal capture ridge
212a configured to engage with a groove in the cup bottom 210 and
thereby hold the seal 212 in a desired location. A combination of
the ridge and the groove may help positioning the seal 212 in a
correct location during installation and replacement of the seal
212 and may help to resist displacement of the seal 212 during
normal use and cleaning Other suitable keying (engagement) features
may be used.
[0051] The seal 212 further comprises a feature, such as a groove
formed in its upper surface that is configured to accommodate the
distribution bus bar 214. The distribution bus bar 214 is typically
composed of a corrosion resistant material (e.g., stainless steel
grade 316) and is seated within the groove. In some embodiments,
the seal 212 may be bonded (e.g., using an adhesive) to the
distribution bus 214 for additional robustness. In the same or
other embodiments, the contact member 208 is connected to the
distribution bus 214 around the continuous metal strip 218.
Generally, the distribution bus 214 is much thicker than the
continuous metal strip 218 and can therefore provide for more
uniform current distribution by enabling a minimal Ohmic voltage
drop between the location where the bus bar makes contact with the
power lead (not shown) and any azimuthal location where current
exits through the strip 218 and the fingers 220 into the wafer.
[0052] FIG. 4A is a schematic illustration of non-notch area of a
clamshell 400 with a bottom surface 401 and supporting a substrate
402 showing a non-notch area of this support, in accordance with
certain embodiments. Contact fingers 406 make an electrical
connection to seed layer 404 of substrate 402. Elastomeric seal 408
forms a seal around its inner edge 409 to prevent electrolyte from
reaching contact fingers 406. The deposition area on substrate 402
starts to the right of this inner edge 409. Therefore, an
electrical current has to travel through seed layer 404 at least D1
distance before reaching the electrolyte. In certain embodiments,
this distance is less than 0.5 millimeters, for example, between
about 0.2 millimeters and 0.3 millimeters.
[0053] FIG. 4B is a schematic illustration of a notch area of a
clamshell 410 supporting a substrate 412, in accordance with
certain embodiments. FIGS. 4A and 4B may represent two different
cross-sectional views of the same clamshell and substrate that are
positioned at different locations along the perimeter of the
substrate. Similar to FIG. 4A, contact fingers 416 of this example
make an electrical connection to seed layer 414 of substrate 412.
Elastomeric seal 418 also forms a seal around its inner edge 419 to
prevent electrolyte from reaching contact fingers 416. However,
FIG. 4B illustrates the notch area and inner edge 419 in this area
is shifted toward the center of substrate 412 and away from contact
fingers 416 in comparison to edge 409 in the non-notch area shown
in FIG. 4A. The electrical current in the notch area has to travel
through seed layer 414 at least D2 distance before reaching the
electrolyte, which is longer than the D1 distance. In certain
embodiments, the difference between the D2 distance and the D1
distance is between about 0.2 millimeters and 1.0 millimeter, for
example, about 0.5 millimeters.
[0054] As explained above, the longer conducting path may result in
a lower voltage in the seed layer 414 at the edge 419 in comparison
a voltage to the edge 409. To compensate for this voltage
difference, clamshell 410 may be equipped with a protrusion 417
attached and extending from the bottom surface 411 of clamshell
410. The height (H) of protrusion 417 may be at least about 600
micrometers, for example about 1000 micrometers. Protrusion 417 may
extend along the perimeter of edge 419, i.e., perpendicular to the
cross-sectional view illustrated in FIG. 4B, to the entire width of
the notch area. This dimension may be referred to as a length of
protrusion 417. The width (W) of protrusion 417 may be constant or
vary along the length, e.g., protrusion 417 may be the widest in
the middle of its length and then taper towards both ends. In the
initial plating step on substrates 412 with very thin seed layers
414, the dual cathode draws current from the edge of the substrate
412 through a channel formed between the bottom surface 411 and the
cell parts (the insert for example). The channel can be between
about 1.5 mm and about 2.5, such as about 2.0 mm. The addition of
protrusion 417, with a height of H, significantly reduces the
opening of the channel, and thus forms a more resistive path
locally at the edge 419 where the protrusion 417 is added. This
asymmetry in the electrical path for the dual cathode to pull
current will compensate for the voltage difference in the seed
layer 414 at the edge between substrate 412 in FIG. 4B and the
substrate 402 in FIG. 4A, due to the difference between D2 distance
in FIG. 4B and D1 distance in FIG. 4A. To be specific, D2 distance
in FIG. 4B caused lower voltage at the edge in seed layer 414 of
the substrate 412, resulting in less plating as compared to seed
layer 404 of the substrate 402. In the meantime, since the dual
cathode is pulling less current from the edge 419 in seed layer 414
of the substrate 412, it leads to more plating to the seed layer
414 of the substrate 412. The aforementioned effects caused by two
asymmetric features of the bottom surface 411 of the clamshell 410
cancel each other and leads to substantially symmetric plating all
around the substrate 412. With this mechanism, the width W, height
H, and length of the protrusion 417 can be varied accordingly to
achieve the same results. For example, increasing the width W of
the protrusion 417 and reducing the height H of the protrusion 417
at the same time can proportionally lead to an equivalent
electrical resistive path that is equivalent for the dual cathode
to draw current. Similarly, a taper-shaped protrusion as described
earlier herein, could be achieved by shaping the protrusion 417 the
widest in the middle of its length and then taper towards both
ends, or by shaping protrusion 417 the thickest in middle of its
length and then taper towards both ends. With a fixed width W for
the protrusion 417, the height H of the protrusion 417 can also be
changed but still achieve the same profile modulating effect by
changing the gap between the bottom surface 411 and the cell part
(the insert for example). For example, if the clamshell 410 is
moved closer to the cell parts during plating, the protrusion 417
height H can be reduced. In some embodiments, the height H of the
protrusion 417 can be between about 600 micrometers and about 1000
micrometers.
[0055] FIG. 4C is a perspective view of the clamshell 410 in FIG.
4B. The clamshell 410 includes the protrusion 417 attached and
extending from the bottom surface 411 of the clamshell 410. As
illustrated in FIG. 4C, the width W of the protrusion 417 may
partially extend along a width of the bottom surface 411.
[0056] FIG. 4D is a schematic illustration of another notch area of
a clamshell 420 supporting a substrate 422, in accordance with
certain embodiments. FIGS. 4A and 4D may represent two different
cross-sectional views of the same clamshell and substrate that are
positioned at different locations along the perimeter of the
substrate. Contact fingers 426 of this example also make an
electrical connection to the seed layer 424 of the substrate 422.
Elastomeric seal 428 also forms a seal around its inner edge 419 to
prevent electrolyte from reaching contact fingers 426 similar to
the examples described above with reference to FIG. 4B. The
electrical current in the notch area has to travel through the seed
layer 424 at least D2 distance before reaching the electrolyte,
and, as a result, this seed layer 424 may have a lower voltage at
the edge 429. To compensate for this voltage difference, clamshell
420 may be equipped with an insulated portion 427 in the bottom 421
of the clamshell 420. This design could be achieved in various
ways. A first approach builds the non-notch portion of the bottom
surface 421 with titanium, and the notch portion of cup bottom 421
with plastics. A second approach builds the whole bottom surface
421 with titanium, but with the bottom surface portion near the
notch coated with non-conductive coatings while the non-notch
region uncoated. The conductive titanium-exposed portion of the
bottom surface 421 provides an electrical short path for the dual
cathode to pull current, while the insulating notch portion totally
block the electrical path for dual cathode to pull current. As
described earlier herein with respect to FIG. 4B, this asymmetry in
the electrical path for the dual cathode to pull current will
compensate for the voltage difference in the seed layer 424 in the
substrate 422 at the edge 429 between the seed layer 424 of the
substrate 422 in FIG. 4D and the seed layer 404 of the substrate
402 in FIG. 4A, due to the difference between D2 distance in FIG.
4D and distance D1 in FIG. 4A.
[0057] FIG. 4E is a perspective view of the clamshell 420 in FIG.
4D. The clamshell 420 includes an insulated portion 427 on the
bottom surface 421 of the clamshell 420. As illustrated in FIG. 4E,
the width W of the insulated portion 427 may extend along an
entirety of the width of the bottom surface 421.
[0058] FIG. 5A is a schematic illustration of a non-notch area of a
clamshell 500 supporting a substrate 502, in accordance with
certain embodiments. This figures is generally similar to FIG. 4A
describes above. However, it also illustrates E1 exclusion area,
which extends between the edge of substrate 502 and edge 509 of
elastomeric seal. FIG. 5B is a schematic illustration of a notch
area of a clamshell 510 supporting a substrate 512, in accordance
with certain embodiments. FIG. 5A and 5B may represent two
different cross-sectional views of the same clamshell and substrate
that are positioned at different locations along the perimeter of
the substrate. The E2 exclusion area in the notch area is greater
than the E1 exclusion area in the non-notch area in order to
accommodate the notch and prevent electrolyte from leaking through
the notch and into the contact area. Contact fingers 516 in the
notch area are longer than contact fingers 506 in the non-notch
areas, which allows preserving the D1 distance the same, i.e., the
distance between the contact fingers and the edge of the lipseal,
in both notch and non-notch areas. In certain embodiments, this
distance is still greater in the notch area than in the non-notch
area. However, the increase in this distance going from the
non-notch area to the notch-area is smaller than the increase in
the exclusion area.
[0059] Provided also a method of aligning and sealing a
semiconductor substrate in a clamshell. The method involves
providing a substrate into the clamshell (block 604), lowering the
substrate through the upper portion and onto the sealing protrusion
(block 606), and compressing the top surface of the upper portion
(block 608). During operation 608, the inner side surface is
configured to come in contact and push on the semiconductor
substrate to align the semiconductor substrate in the clamshell.
After aligning the semiconductor substrate during operation 608,
the method proceeds with pressing on the semiconductor substrate to
form a seal between the sealing protrusion and the semiconductor
substrate (block 610). In certain embodiments, compressing the top
surface continues during pressing on the semiconductor substrate.
For example, compressing the top surface and pressing on the
semiconductor substrate are performed by two different surfaces of
a cone of the clamshell. In other embodiments, compressing the top
surface and pressing on the semiconductor substrate are performed
independently by two different components of the clamshell. In
these embodiments, compressing the top surface may be stopped when
pressing on the semiconductor substrate. Furthermore, a level of
compression on the top surface may be adjusted based on the
diameter of the semiconductor substrate. These operations may be
part of the larger electroplating process. Some other operations
are depicted in a flowchart presented in FIG. 6 and are briefly
described below.
[0060] Initially, the lipseal and contact area of the clamshell may
be clean and dry. The clamshell is opened (block 602) and the wafer
is loaded into the clamshell. In certain embodiments, the contact
tips sit slightly above the plane of the sealing lip and the wafer
is supported, in this case, by the array of contact tips around the
wafer periphery. The clamshell is then closed and sealed by moving
the cone downward. During this closure operation, the electrical
contacts and seals are established according to various embodiments
described above. Further, the bottom corners of the contacts may be
force down against the elastic lipseal base, which results in
additional force between the tips and the front side of the wafer.
The sealing lip may be slightly compressed to ensure the seal
around the entire perimeter. In some embodiments, when the wafer is
initially positioned into the cup only the sealing lip is contact
with the front surface. In this example, the electrical contact
between the tips and the front surface is established during
compression of the sealing lip.
[0061] Once the seal and the electrical contact are established,
the clamshell carrying the wafer is immersed into the plating bath
and is plated in the bath while being held in the clamshell (block
612). A typical composition of a copper plating solution used in
this operation includes copper ions at a concentration range of
about 0.5-80 g/L, more specifically at about 5-60 g/L, and even
more specifically at about 18-55 g/L and sulfuric acid at a
concentration of about 0.1-400 g/L. Low-acid copper plating
solutions typically contain about 5-10 g/L of sulfuric acid. Medium
and high-acid solutions contain about 50-90 g/L and 150-180 g/L
sulfuric acid respectively. The concentration of chloride ions may
be about 1-100 mg/L. A number of copper plating organic additives,
such as Enthone Viaform, Viaform NexT, Viaform Extreme (available
from Enthone Corporation in West Haven, Conn.), or other
accelerators, suppressors and levelers known to those of skill in
the art, can be used. Examples of plating operations are described
in more details in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/564,222
filed on Nov. 28, 2006, which is incorporated herein in its
entirety for the purpose of the describing plating operations. Once
the plating is completed and appropriate amount of material is
deposited on the front surface of the wafer, the wafer is then
removed from the plating bath. The wafer and clamshell are spun to
remove most of the residual electrolyte on the clamshell surfaces
remaining there due to the surface tensions. The clamshell is then
rinsed while continued to be spun to dilute and flush as much of
the entrained fluid as possible from clamshell and wafer surfaces.
The wafer is then spun with rinsing liquid turned off for some
time, usually at least about 2 seconds to remove some remaining
rinsate. The process may proceed with opening the clamshell (block
614) and removing the processed wafer (block 616). Operations 604
through 616 may be repeated multiple times for new wafers.
[0062] In certain embodiments, a system controller is used to
control process conditions during sealing the clamshell and/or
during processing of the substrate. The system controller will
typically include one or more memory devices and one or more
processors. The processor may include a CPU or computer, analog
and/or digital input/output connections, stepper motor controller
boards, etc. Instructions for implementing appropriate control
operations are executed on the processor. These instructions may be
stored on the memory devices associated with the controller or they
may be provided over a network.
[0063] In certain embodiments, the system controller controls all
of the activities of the processing system. The system controller
executes system control software including sets of instructions for
controlling the timing of the processing steps listed above and
other parameters of a particular process. Other computer programs,
scripts or routines stored on memory devices associated with the
controller may be employed in some embodiments.
[0064] Typically, there is a user interface associated with the
system controller. The user interface may include a display screen,
graphical software to display process conditions, and user input
devices such as pointing devices, keyboards, touch screens,
microphones, etc.
[0065] The computer program code for controlling the above
operations can be written in any conventional computer readable
programming language: for example, assembly language, C, C++,
Pascal, Fortran or others. Compiled object code or script is
executed by the processor to perform the tasks identified in the
program.
[0066] Signals for monitoring the process may be provided by analog
and/or digital input connections of the system controller. The
signals for controlling the process are output on the analog and
digital output connections of the processing system.
[0067] The apparatus/process described hereinabove may be used in
conjunction with lithographic patterning tools or processes, for
example, for the fabrication or manufacture of semiconductor
devices, displays, LEDs, photovoltaic panels and the like.
Typically, though not necessarily, such tools/processes will be
used or conducted together in a common fabrication facility.
Lithographic patterning of a film typically comprises some or all
of the following steps, each step enabled with a number of possible
tools: (1) application of photoresist on a workpiece, i.e.,
substrate, using a spin-on or spray-on tool; (2) curing of
photoresist using a hot plate or furnace or UV curing tool; (3)
exposing the photoresist to visible or UV or x-ray light with a
tool such as a wafer stepper; (4) developing the resist so as to
selectively remove resist and thereby pattern it using a tool such
as a wet bench; (5) transferring the resist pattern into an
underlying film or workpiece by using a dry or plasma-assisted
etching tool; and (6) removing the resist using a tool such as an
RF or microwave plasma resist stripper.
Experimental Results
[0068] Three different clamshells have been tested for depositing a
175 Angstrom thick layer over a 39 Ohm/square seed layer provided
in 300-micrometer wafer. One clamshell did not have any protrusions
on its bottom surface. Another clamshell had a 600 micron
protrusion, while yet another clamshell has a 1000 micron
protrusion. Wafers processed in these three clamshells were
measured to determine thickness profiles of the deposited layer.
The results of this experiment are presented in FIGS. 7A and 7B.
Specifically, FIG. 7A illustrates three thickness profiles in the
notch areas near the edges of the wafers. The focus was mainly the
portions near the edge of the wafer, i.e., at distance between 120
micrometers to 150 micrometers from the center where the notch
defects tend to occur as explained above. Line 700 represents a
thickness profile of a wafer processed with a clamshell that did
not have any protrusions. It shows a significant drop in thickness
near the edge. Line 702 represents a thickness profile of a wafer
processed with a clamshell that has a 600-micrometer protrusion. It
showed a slight improvement over the thickness profile
corresponding to line 700, but still a substantial drop in
thickness near the edge. This indicates that the 600-micrometer
protrusion for this type of wafers and processing conditions. Line
704 represents a thickness profile of a wafer processed with a
clamshell that has a 1000-micrometer protrusion. It showed a rather
consistent thickness through the entire radius range.
[0069] FIG. 7B illustrates a 25-point contour measurement profile,
where the measurement site 10 corresponding to the notch point.
Locations of other measurement sites are shown in FIG. 7C. Line 710
represents a thickness profile of a wafer processed with a
clamshell that did not have any protrusions. Line 712 represents a
thickness profile of a wafer processed with a clamshell that has a
600-micrometer protrusion, while line 714 represents a thickness
profile of a wafer processed with a clamshell that has a
1000-micrometer protrusion. Similar to results explained above,
these results clearly indicate that notch effect could be minimized
and even completely eliminated when an optimal protrusion was
used.
[0070] The impact of cup bottom size and thickness on near edge
profile were modeled with FlexPDE software. Current density
distributions on two clamshell configurations were modeled, i.e., a
standard clamshell and a clamshell that is 1000-micrometer thicker.
The modeling results were very consistent with the test results,
where a thicker cup bottom compensates the effect of smaller cup
bottom inner diameter.
[0071] Another test showed that the protrusion concept will also
work for seeds other than 39 ohm/sq. A range of thickness of the
protrusion could be used to achieve similar results.
Conclusion
[0072] Although the foregoing concepts have been described in some
detail for purposes of clarity of understanding, it will be
apparent that certain changes and modifications may be practiced
within the scope of the appended claims. It should be noted that
there are many alternative ways of implementing the processes,
systems, and apparatuses. Accordingly, the present embodiments are
to be considered as illustrative and not restrictive.
* * * * *