U.S. patent application number 10/261101 was filed with the patent office on 2003-07-03 for tumor cells with increased immunogenicity and uses therefor.
Invention is credited to Baskar, Sivasubramanian, Freeman, Gordon J., Glimcher, Laurie H., Nadler, Lee M., Ostrand-Rosenberg, Suzanne.
Application Number | 20030124103 10/261101 |
Document ID | / |
Family ID | 22522844 |
Filed Date | 2003-07-03 |
United States Patent
Application |
20030124103 |
Kind Code |
A1 |
Ostrand-Rosenberg, Suzanne ;
et al. |
July 3, 2003 |
Tumor cells with increased immunogenicity and uses therefor
Abstract
Tumor cells modified to express a T cell costimulatory molecule
are disclosed. In one embodiment, the costimulatory molecule is a
CD28/CTLA4 ligand, preferably a B lymphocyte antigen B7. The tumor
cells of the invention can be modified by transfection with nucleic
acid encoding a T cell costimulatory molecule, by using an agent
which induces or increases expression of a T cell costimulatory
molecule on the tumor cell surface or by coupling a T cell
costimulatory molecule to the tumor cell surface. Tumor cells
further modified to express MHC class I and/or class II molecules
or in which expression of an MHC associated protein, the invariant
chain, is inhibited are also disclosed. The modified tumor cells of
the invention can be used in methods for treating a patient with a
tumor, preventing or inhibiting metastatic spread of a tumor or
preventing or inhibiting recurrence of a tumor. A method for
specifically inducing a CD4+ T cell response against a tumor and a
method for treating a tumor by modification of tumor cells in vivo
are disclosed.
Inventors: |
Ostrand-Rosenberg, Suzanne;
(Columbia, MD) ; Baskar, Sivasubramanian;
(Willcott City, MD) ; Glimcher, Laurie H.; (West
Newton, MA) ; Freeman, Gordon J.; (Brookline, MA)
; Nadler, Lee M.; (Newton, MA) |
Correspondence
Address: |
LAHIVE & COCKFIELD
28 STATE STREET
BOSTON
MA
02109
US
|
Family ID: |
22522844 |
Appl. No.: |
10/261101 |
Filed: |
September 30, 2002 |
Related U.S. Patent Documents
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Application
Number |
Filing Date |
Patent Number |
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10261101 |
Sep 30, 2002 |
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09966148 |
Sep 27, 2001 |
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09966148 |
Sep 27, 2001 |
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09450798 |
Nov 29, 1999 |
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6319709 |
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09450798 |
Nov 29, 1999 |
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09159135 |
Sep 23, 1998 |
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6149905 |
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09159135 |
Sep 23, 1998 |
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08147772 |
Nov 3, 1993 |
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5858776 |
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Current U.S.
Class: |
424/93.21 ;
435/366; 435/455 |
Current CPC
Class: |
A61K 39/00 20130101;
A61K 2039/5156 20130101; A61K 2039/5158 20130101; A61K 48/00
20130101; C07K 14/70532 20130101; A61K 2039/5152 20130101; C07K
14/70539 20130101; A61K 39/001102 20180801 |
Class at
Publication: |
424/93.21 ;
435/366; 435/455 |
International
Class: |
A61K 048/00; C12N
005/08; C12N 015/85 |
Goverment Interests
[0001] Work described herein was supported under grant awarded by
the National Institutes of Health. The U.S. government therefore
may have certain rights to this invention.
Claims
1. A tumor cell which is modified to express a T cell costimulatory
molecule.
2. The tumor cell of claim 1 which is transfected with a nucleic
acid encoding a T cell costimulatory molecule in a form suitable
for expression of the costimulatory molecule.
3. The tumor cell of claim 2 wherein the T cell costimulatory
molecule is a CD28 and/or CTLA4 ligand.
4. The tumor cell of claim 3 wherein the CD28 and/or CTLA4 ligand
is a B lymphocyte antigen, B7.
5. The tumor cell of claim 1 which is stimulated to express a T
cell costimulatory molecule.
6. The tumor cell of claim 5 wherein the T cell costimulatory
molecule is a CD28 and/or CTLA4 ligand.
7. The tumor cell of claim 6 wherein the CD28 and/or CTLA4 ligand
is a B lymphocyte antigen, B7.
8. The tumor cell of claim 1 which has a T cell costimulatory
molecule coupled to the tumor cell.
9. The tumor cell of claim 8 wherein the T cell costimulatory
molecule is a CD28 and/or CTLA4 ligand.
10. The tumor cell of claim 9 wherein the CD28 and/or CTLA4 ligand
is a B lymphocyte antigen, B7.
11. The tumor cell of claim 1 which expresses an MHC class II
molecule.
12. The tumor cell of claim 1 which expresses an MHC class I
molecule.
13. The tumor cell of claim 1 which normally expresses an MHC class
II associated protein, the invariant chain, and wherein expression
of the invariant chain is inhibited.
14. A tumor cell transfected with a nucleic acid encoding a B
lymphocyte antigen, B7, in a form suitable for expression of
B7.
15. The tumor cell of claim 14 wherein the nucleic acid is a cDNA
in a recombinant expression vector.
16. The tumor cell of claim 15 further transfected with at least
one nucleic acid comprising DNA encoding: (a) at least one MHC
class II .alpha. chain protein; and (b) at least one MHC class II
.beta. chain protein, wherein the nucleic acid is in a form
suitable for expression of the MHC class II .alpha. chain
protein(s) and the MHC class II .beta. chain protein(s).
17. The tumor cell of claim 16 which does not express MHC class II
molecules prior to transfection of the tumor cell.
18. The tumor cell of claim 14 further transfected with at least
one nucleic acid encoding at least one MHC class I .alpha. chain
protein in a form suitable for expression of the MHC class I
protein(s).
19. The tumor cell of claim 18 further transfected with a nucleic
acid encoding a .beta.-2 microglobulin protein in a form suitable
for expression of the .beta.-2 microglobulin protein.
20. The tumor cell of claim 14 which normally expresses an MHC
class II associated protein, the invariant chain, and wherein
expression of the invariant chain is inhibited.
21. The tumor cell of claim 20 wherein expression of the invariant
chain is inhibited by transfection of the tumor cell with a nucleic
acid which is antisense to a regulatory or a coding region of the
invariant chain gene.
22. The tumor cell of claim 14 which is a sarcoma.
23. The tumor cell of claim 14 which is a lymphoma.
24. The tumor cell of claim 14 which is selected from a group
consisting of a melanoma, a neuroblastoma, a leukemia and a
carcinoma.
25. A sarcoma cell which is modified to express a T cell
costimulatory molecule.
26. The sarcoma cell of claim 25 which is transfected with a
nucleic acid encoding a T cell costimulatory molecule in a form
suitable for expression of the costimulatory molecule.
27. The sarcoma cell of claim 26 wherein the T cell costimulatory
molecule is a CD28 and/or CTLA4 ligand.
28. The sarcoma cell of claim 27 wherein the CD28 and/or CTLA4
ligand is a B lymphocyte antigen, B7.
29. The sarcoma cell of claim 25 which expresses an MHC class II
molecule.
30. The sarcoma cell of claim 25 which expresses an MHC class I
molecule.
31. A lymphoma cell transfected with a nucleic acid encoding a B
lymphocyte antigen, B7, in a form suitable for expression of
B7.
32. The lymphoma cell of claim 31 wherein the nucleic acid is a
cDNA in a recombinant expression vector.
33. A composition suitable for pharmaceutical administration
comprising an amount of the tumor cells of claim 1 and a
physiologically acceptable carrier.
34. A composition suitable for pharmaceutical administration
comprising an amount of the tumor cells of claim 14 and a
physiologically acceptable carrier.
35. A composition suitable for inducing an anti-tumor response by
CD4+ T helper lymphocytes in a subject with a tumor comprising an
amount of tumor cells of claim 16 and a physiologically acceptable
carrier.
36. A composition suitable for pharmaceutical administration
comprising an amount of the sarcoma cells of claim 25 and a
physiologically acceptable carrier.
37. A composition suitable for pharmaceutical administration
comprising an amount of the lymphoma cells of claim 31 and a
physiologically acceptable carrier.
38. A method for treating a subject with a tumor, comprising: (a)
obtaining tumor cells from the subject; (b) modifying the tumor
cells to express a T cell costimulatory molecule; and (c)
administering the tumor cells to the subject.
39. The method of claim 38 wherein tumor cells are modified by
transfection with a nucleic acid encoding a T cell costimulatory
molecule in a form suitable for expression of the T cell
costimulatory molecule.
40. The method of claim 38 wherein tumor cells are modified by
treatment with an agent which stimulates expression of a T cell
costimulatory molecule.
41. The method of claim 38 wherein tumor cells are modified by
coupling a T cell costimulatory molecule to the tumor cell.
42. A method of treating a subject with a tumor, comprising: (a)
obtaining tumor cells from the subject; (b) transfecting the tumor
cells with a nucleic acid encoding a CD28 and/or CTLA-4 ligand in a
form suitable for expression of the CD28 and/or CTLA4 ligand; and
(c) administering the tumor cells to the subject.
43. The method of claim 42 wherein the CD28 and/or CTLA-4 ligand is
a B lymphocyte antigen, B7.
44. The method of claim 42 wherein the tumor cells are further
transfected with at least one nucleic acid encoding at least one
MHC class II .alpha. chain protein and at least one MHC class II
.beta. chain protein in a form suitable for expression of the MHC
class II .alpha. chain protein(s) and the MHC class II .beta. chain
protein(s).
45. The method of claim 42 wherein the tumor cells are further
transfected with at least one nucleic acid encoding at least one
MHC class I .alpha. chain protein in a form suitable for expression
of the MHC class I protein(s).
46. The method of claim 45 wherein the tumor cells are further
transfected with a nucleic acid encoding a .beta.-2 microglobulin
protein in a form suitable for expression of the .beta.-2
microglobulin protein.
47. The method of claim 42 wherein expression of an MHC class II
associated protein, the invariant chain, is inhibited in the tumor
cells.
48. The method of claim 47 wherein expression of the invariant
chain is inhibited in the tumor cells by transfection of the tumor
cell with a nucleic acid which is antisense to a regulatory or a
coding region of the invariant chain gene.
49. The method of claim 47 wherein the tumor is a sarcoma.
50. The method of claim 47 wherein the tumor is a lymphoma.
51. The method of claim 47 wherein the tumor is selected from a
group consisting of a melanoma, a neuroblastoma, a leukemia and a
carcinoma.
52. The method of claim 47 wherein the tumor cells are administered
by intravenous injection.
53. The method of claim 47 wherein the tumor cells are administered
by a route selected from a group consisting of intramuscular
injection, intraperitoneal injection and subcutaneous
injection.
54. A method for preventing or treating metastatic spread of a
tumor or preventing or treating recurrence of a tumor in a subject,
comprising: (a) obtaining tumor cells from the subject; (b)
transfecting the tumor cells with a nucleic acid encoding a CD28
and/or CTLA-4 ligand in a form suitable for expression of the CD28
and/or CTLA-4 ligand; and (c) administering the tumor cells to the
subject.
55. The method of claim 54 wherein the CD28 and/or CTLA-4 ligand is
a B lymphocyte antigen, B7.
56. The method of claim 54 wherein the tumor is a sarcoma.
57. The method of claim 54 wherein the tumor is a lymphoma.
58. The method of claim 54 wherein the tumor is selected from a
group consisting of a melanoma, a neuroblastoma, a leukemia and a
carcinoma.
59. The method of claim 54 wherein the tumor cells are administered
by intravenous injection.
60. The method of claim 54 wherein the tumor cells are administered
by a route selected from a group consisting of intramuscular
injection, intraperitoneal injection and subcutaneous
injection.
61. A method of inducing an anti-tumor response by CD4+ T
lymphocytes in a subject with a tumor, comprising: (a) obtaining
tumor cells from the subject; (b) transfecting the tumor cells with
at least one nucleic acid comprising DNA encoding a B lymphocyte
antigen, B7, an MHC class II .alpha. chain protein and an MHC class
II .beta. chain protein, wherein the nucleic acid is in a form
suitable for expression of B7, the MHC class II .alpha. chain
protein and the MHC class II .beta. chain protein; and (c)
administering the tumor cells to the subject.
62. The method of claim 61 wherein the tumor is a sarcoma.
63. The method of claim 61 wherein the tumor is a lymphoma.
64. The method of claim 61 wherein the tumor is selected from a
group consisting of a melanoma, a neuroblastoma, a leukemia and a
carcinoma.
65. The method of claim 61 wherein the tumor cells are administered
by intravenous injection.
66. The method of claim 61 wherein the tumor cells are administered
by a route selected from a group consisting of intramuscular
injection, intraperitoneal injection and subcutaneous
injection.
67. A method for treating a subject with a tumor comprising
modifying tumor cells in vivo to express a T cell costimulatory
molecule.
68. The method of claim 67 wherein the T cell costimulatory
molecule is a CD28 and/or CTLA4 ligand.
69. The method of claim 68 wherein the CD28 and/or CTLA4 ligand is
a B lymphocyte antigen, B7.
70. The method of claim 67 wherein tumor cells are modified in vivo
by delivering to the subject in vivo a nucleic acid encoding a T
cell costimulatory molecule in a form suitable for expression of
the T cell costimulatory molecule.
71. The method of claim 70 wherein the nucleic acid is delivered to
the subject in vivo by injection of the nucleic acid in an
appropriate vehicle into the tumor.
72. A method for treating a subject with a tumor, comprising: (a)
obtaining tumor cells and T lymphocytes from the subject; (b)
culturing the T lymphocytes from the subject in vitro with the
tumor cells from the subject and with a stimulatory form of a T
cell costimulatory molecule; and (c) administering the T
lymphocytes to the subject.
Description
BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION
[0002] Induction of a T lymphocyte response is a critical initial
step in a host's immune response. Activation of T cells results in
T cell proliferation, cytokine production by T cells and generation
of T cell-mediated effector functions. T cell activation requires
an antigen-specific signal, often called a primary activation
signal, which results from stimulation of a clonally-distributed T
cell receptor (hereafter TcR) present on the surface of the T cell.
This antigen-specific signal is usually in the form of an antigenic
peptide bound either to a major histocompatibility complex
(hereafter MHC) class I protein or an MHC class II protein present
on the surface of an antigen presenting cell (hereafter APC). CD4+
T cells recognize peptides associated with class II molecules.
Class II molecules are found on a limited number of cell types,
primarily B cells, monocytes/macrophages and dendritic cells, and,
in most cases, present peptides derived from proteins taken up from
the extracellular environment. In contrast, CD8+ T cells recognize
peptides associated with class I molecules. Class I molecules are
found on almost all cell types and, in most cases, present peptides
derived from endogenously synthesized proteins. For a review see
Germain, R., Nature 322, 687-691 (1986).
[0003] It has now been established that, in addition to an
antigen-specific primary activation signal, T cells also require a
second, non-antigen specific, signal to induce full T cell
proliferation and/or cytokine production. This phenomenon has been
termed costimulation. Mueller, D. L., et al., Annu. Rev. Immunol.
7, 445-480 (1989). Like the antigen-specific signal, the
costimulatory signal is triggered by a molecule on the surface of
the antigen presenting cell. A costimulatory molecule, the B
lymphocyte antigen B7, has been identified on activated B cells and
other APCs. Freeman, G. J., et al., J. Immunol. 139, 3260-3267
(1987); Freeman, G. J., et al., J. Immunol. 143, 2714-2722 (1989).
Binding of B7 to a ligand on the surface of T cells provides
costimulation to the T cell. Two structurally similar T
cell-surface receptors for B7 have been identified, CD28 and
CTLA-4. Aruffo, A. and Seed, B., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 84,
8573-8577 (1987); Linsley, P. S., et al., J. Exp. Med. 173,
721-730, (1991); Brunet, J. F., et al., Nature 328, 267-270 (1987);
Brunet, J. F., et al., Immunol Rev. 103, 21-36 (1988). CD28 is
expressed constitutively on T cells and its expression is
upregulated by activation of the T cell, such as by interaction of
the TcR with an antigen-MHC complex. In contrast, CTLA4 is
undetectable on resting T cells and its expression is induced by
activation.
[0004] A series of experiments have shown a functional role for a T
cell activation pathway stimulated through the CD28 receptor.
Studies using blocking antibodies to B7 and CD28 have demonstrated
that these antibodies can inhibit T cell activation, thereby
demonstrating the need for stimulation via this pathway for T cell
activation. Furthermore, suboptimal polyclonal stimulation of T
cells by phorbol ester or anti-CD3 antibodies can be potentiated by
crosslinking of CD28 with anti-CD28 antibodies. Engagement of the
TcR by an MHC molecule/peptide complex in the absence of the
costimulatory B7 signal can lead to T cell anergy rather than
activation. Damle, N. K., et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 78,
5096-5100 (1981); Lesslauer, W., et al., Eur. J. Immunol. 16,
1289-1295 (1986); Gimmi, C. D., et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA
88, 6575-6579 (1991); Linsley, P. S., et al., J. Exp. Med. 173,
721-730 (1991); Koulova, L., et al., J. Exp. Med. 173, 759-762
(1991); Razi-Wolf, Z., et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 89,
4210-4214 (1992).
[0005] Malignant transformation of a cell is commonly associated
with phenotypic changes in the cell. Such changes can include loss
or gain of expression of some proteins or alterations in the level
of expression of certain proteins. It has been hypothesized that in
some situations the immune system may be capable of recognizing a
tumor as foreign and, as such, could mount an immune response
against the tumor. Kripke, M., Adv. Cancer Res. 34, 69-75 (1981).
This hypothesis is based in part on the existence of phenotypic
differences between a tumor cell and a normal cell, which is
supported by the identification of tumor associated antigens
(hereafter TAAs). Schreiber, H., et al. Ann. Rev. Immunol. 6,
465-483 (1988). TAAs are thought to distinguish a transformed cell
from its normal counterpart. Three genes encoding TAAs expressed in
melanoma cells, MAGE-1, MAGE-2 and MAGE-3, have recently been
cloned. van der Bruggen, P., et al. Science 254, 1643-1647 (1991).
That tumor cells under certain circumstances can be recognized as
foreign is also supported by the existence of T cells which can
recognize and respond to tumor associated antigens presented by MHC
molecules. Such TAA-specific T lymphocytes have been demonstrated
to be present in the immune repertoire and are capable of
recognizing and stimulating an immune response against tumor cells
when properly stimulated in vitro. Rosenberg, S. A., et al. Science
233, 1318-1321 (1986); Rosenberg, S. A. and Lotze, M. T. Ann. Rev.
Immunol. 4, 681-709 (1986).
[0006] However, in practice, tumors in vivo have generally not been
found to be very immunogenic and appear to be capable of evading
immune response. This may result from an inability of tumor cells
to induce T cell-mediated immune responses. Ostrand-Rosenberg, S.,
et al.. J. Immunol. 144, 4068-4071 (1990); Fearon, E. R., et al.,
Cell 60, 397-403 (1990). A method for increasing the immunogenicity
of a tumor cell in vivo would be therapeutically beneficial.
SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION
[0007] Although most tumor cells are thought to express TAAs which
distinguish tumor cells from normal cells and T cells which
recognize TAA peptides have been identified in the immune
repertoire, an anti-tumor T cell response may not be induced by a
tumor cell due to a lack of costimulation necessary to activate the
T cells. It is known that many tumors are derived from cells which
do not normally function as antigen-presenting cells, and, thus,
may not trigger necessary signals for T cell activation. In
particular, tumor cells may be incapable of triggering a
costimulatory signal in a T cell which is required for activation
of the T cell. This invention is based, at least in part, on the
discovery that tumor cells modified to express a costimulatory
molecule, and therefore capable of triggering a costimulatory
signal, can induce an anti-tumor T cell-mediated immune response in
vivo. This T cell-mediated immune response is effective not only
against the modified tumor cells but, more importantly, against the
unmodified tumor cells from which they were derived. Thus, the
effector phase of the anti-tumor response induced by the modified
tumor cells of the invention is not dependent upon expression of a
costimulatory molecule on the tumor cells.
[0008] Accordingly, the invention pertains to methods of inducing
or enhancing T lymphocyte-mediated anti-tumor immunity in a subject
by use of a modified tumor cell having increased immunogenicity. In
one aspect of the invention, a tumor cell is modified to express a
T cell costimulatory molecule on its surface. Prior to
modification, the tumor cell may lack the ability to express a T
cell costimulatory molecule, may be capable of expressing a T cell
costimulatory molecule but fail to do so, or may express
insufficient amounts of a T cell costimulatory molecule to activate
T cells. Therefore, a tumor cell can be modified by providing a
costimulatory molecule to the tumor cell surface, by inducing the
expression of a costimulatory molecule on the tumor cell surface or
by increasing the level of expression of a costimulatory molecule
on the tumor cell surface. In one embodiment, the tumor cell is
modified by transfecting the cell with a nucleic acid encoding a T
cell costimulatory molecule in a form suitable for expression of
the molecule on the cell surface. Alternatively, the tumor cell is
contacted with an agent which induces or increases expression of a
T cell costimulatory molecule on the cell surface. In yet another
embodiment, the tumor cell is modified by chemically coupling a T
cell costimulatory molecule to the tumor cell surface.
[0009] In a preferred embodiment of the invention, tumor cells are
modified to express a molecule which binds CD28 and/or CTLA4 on T
lymphocytes. Tumor cells so modified can trigger a signal in T
lymphocytes through CD28 and/or CTLA4 to induce T lymphocyte
proliferation and/or cytokine production. A preferred molecule
which binds CD28 and/or CTLA4 is the B lymphocyte antigen B7. Thus,
in one preferred embodiment, a tumor cell is transfected with an
expression vector containing a gene encoding B7 in a form suitable
for expression of B7 on the cell surface.
[0010] Even when provided with the ability to trigger a
costimulatory signal in T cells, modified tumor cells may still be
incapable of inducing anti-tumor T cell-mediated immune responses
due to a failure to sufficiently trigger an antigen-specific
primary activation signal. This can result from insufficient
expression of MHC class I or class II molecules on the tumor cell
surface. Accordingly, this invention encompasses modified tumor
cells which provide both a T cell costimulatory signal and an
antigen-specific primary activation signal, via an antigen-MHC
complex, to T cells. Prior to modification, a tumor cell may lack
the ability to express one or more MHC molecules, may be capable of
expressing one or more MHC molecules but fail to do so, may express
only certain types of MHC molecules (e.g., class I but not class
II), or may express insufficient amounts of MHC molecules to
activate T cells. Thus, in one embodiment, a tumor cell is modified
by providing one or more MHC molecules to the tumor cell surface,
by inducing the expression of one or more MHC molecules on the
tumor cell surface or by increasing the level of expression of one
or more MHC molecules on the tumor cell surface. Tumor cells
expressing a T cell costimulatory molecule are further modified,
for example, by transfection with a nucleic acid encoding one or
more MHC molecules in a form suitable for expression of the MHC
molecule(s) on the tumor cell surface. Alternatively, such tumor
cells are modified by contact with an agent which induces or
increases expression of one or more MHC molecules on the cell.
[0011] In a particularly preferred embodiment, tumor cells modified
to express a T cell costimulatory molecule are further modified to
express one or more MHC class II molecules. To provide an MHC class
II molecule, at least one nucleic acid encoding an MHC class II
.alpha. chain protein and an MHC class II .beta. chain protein are
introduced into the tumor cell such that expression of these
proteins is directed to the surface of the cell. In yet another
embodiment, tumor cells modified to express a costimulatory
molecule are further modified to express one or more MHC class I
molecules. To provide an MHC class I molecule, at least one nucleic
acid encoding an MHC class I .alpha. chain protein and a .beta.-2
microglobulin protein are introduced such that expression of these
proteins is directed to the surface of the tumor cell.
Alternatively, a tumor cell modified to express a costimulatory
molecule can be further modified by contact with an agent which
induces or increases the expression of MHC molecules (class I
and/or class II) on the cell surface.
[0012] In certain situations, modified tumor cells of the invention
may fail to activate T cells because of insufficient association of
TAA-derived peptides with MHC molecules, resulting in a lack of an
antigen-specific primary activation signal in T cells. Accordingly,
the invention further pertains to a tumor cell modified to trigger
a costimulatory signal in T cells and in which association of TAA
peptides with MHC class II molecules is promoted in order to induce
an antigen-specific signal in T cells. This aspect of the invention
is based, at least in part, on the ability of an MHC class II
associated protein, the invariant chain, to prevent association of
endogenously derived peptides (which would include a number of TAA
peptides) with MHC class II molecules intracellularly. Thus, in one
embodiment, a tumor cell modified to express a costimulatory
molecule is further modified to promote association of TAA peptides
with MHC class II molecules by inhibiting the expression of the
invariant chain in the tumor cell. The tumor cell selected to be so
modified can be one which naturally expresses both MHC class II
molecules and the invariant chain or can be one which expresses the
invariant chain and which has been modified to express MHC class II
molecules. Preferably, expression of the invariant chain is
inhibited in a tumor cell by introducing into the tumor cell a
nucleic acid which is antisense to a coding or regulatory region of
the invariant chain gene. Alternatively, expression of the
invariant chain in a tumor cell is prevented by an agent which
inhibits expression of the invariant chain gene or which inhibits
expression or activity of the invariant chain protein.
[0013] The modified tumor cells of the invention can be used in
methods for inducing an anti-tumor T lymphocyte response in a
subject effective against both modified and unmodified tumor cells.
For example, tumor cells can be obtained, modified as described
herein to trigger a costimulatory signal in T lymphocytes, and
administered to the subject to elicit a T cell-mediated immune
response. The modified tumor cells of the invention can also be
administered to prevent or inhibit metastatic spread of a tumor or
to prevent or inhibit recurrence of a tumor following therapeutic
treatment.
[0014] This invention also provides methods for treating a subject
with a tumor by modifying tumor cells in vivo to be capable of
triggering a costimulatory signal in T cells, and, if necessary,
also an antigen-specific signal.
[0015] The tumor cells of the current invention modified to express
both a costimulatory molecule and one or more MHC class II
molecules can be used in a method for specifically inducing an
anti-tumor response by CD4+ T lymphocytes in a subject with a tumor
by administering the modified tumor cells to the subject.
Alternatively, a CD4+ T cell response can be induced by modifying
tumor cells in vivo to express a costimulatory molecule and one or
more MHC class II molecules.
[0016] The invention also pertains to a composition of modified
tumor cells suitable for pharmaceutical administration. This
composition comprises an amount of tumor cells and a
physiologically acceptable carrier.
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS
[0017] FIG. 1 shows graphs depicting the cell surface expression of
B7 and the MHC class II molecule I-A.sup.k on wild-type and
transfected tumor cells as determined by immunofluourescent
staining of the cells.
DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION
[0018] The induction of a T cell response requires that at least
two signals be delivered by ligands on a stimulator cell to the T
cell through cell surface receptors on the T cell. A primary
activation signal is delivered to the T cell through the
antigen-specific TcR. Physiologically, this signal is triggered by
an antigen-MHC molecule complex on the stimulator cell, although it
can also be triggered by other means such as phorbol ester
treatment or crosslinking of the TcR complex with antibodies, e.g.
with anti-CD3. To induce T cell activation, a second signal, called
a costimulatory signal, is required by stimulation of the T cell
through another cell surface molecule, such as CD28 or CTLA4. Thus,
the minimal molecules on a stimulator cell required for T cell
activation are an MHC molecule associated with a peptide antigen,
to trigger a primary activation signal in a T cell, and a
costimulatory molecule to trigger a costimulatory signal in the T
cell. Engagement of the antigen-specific TcR in the absence of
triggering of a costimulatory signal can prevent activation of the
T cell and, in addition, can induce a state of unresponsiveness or
anergy in the T cells.
[0019] The ability of a tumor cell to evade an immune response and
fail to stimulate a T lymphocyte response against the cell may
result from the inability of the cell to properly activate T cells.
This invention provides modified tumor cells which trigger a
costimulatory signal in T cells and, thus, activate an anti-tumor T
lymphocyte response. Additionally, in certain embodiments, tumor
cells are modified to trigger both a primary, antigen-specific
activation signal and a costimulatory signal in T cells. The
modified tumor cells of the invention display increased
immunogenicity and can be used to induce or enhance a T
cell-mediated immune response against a tumor. Since the effector
phase of the T cell-mediated immune response is not dependent upon
expression of a costimulatory molecule by tumor cells, the T
cell-mediated immune response generated by administration of a
modified tumor cell of the invention is effective against not only
the modified tumor cells but also the unmodified tumor cells from
which they were derived.
[0020] I. Ex Vivo Modification of a Tumor Cell to Express a
Costimulatory Molecule
[0021] The inability of a tumor cell to trigger a costimulatory
signal in T cells may be due to a lack of expression of a
costimulatory molecule, failure to express a costimulatory molecule
even though the tumor cell is capable of expressing such a
molecule, or insufficient expression of a costimulatory molecule on
the tumor cell surface. Thus, according to one aspect of the
invention, a tumor cell is modified to express a costimulatory
molecule by transfection of the tumor cell with a nucleic acid
encoding a costimulatory molecule in a form suitable for expression
of the costimulatory molecule on the tumor cell surface.
Alternatively, the tumor cell is modified by contact with an agent
which induces or increases expression of a costimulatory molecule
on the tumor cell surface. In yet another embodiment, a
costimulatory molecule is coupled to the surface of the tumor cell
to produce a modified tumor cell. The term "costimulatory molecule"
is defined herein as a molecule which interacts with a T cell which
has received a primary activation signal to result in T cell
proliferation and/or cytokine production. Preferred costimulatory
molecules include antigens on the surface of B lymphocytes,
professional antigen presenting cells (e.g., monocytes, dendritic
cells, Langerhans cells) and other cells which present antigen to
immune cells (e.g., keratinocytes, endothelial cells, astrocytes,
fibroblasts, oligodendrocytes) and which bind either CD28, CTLA4,
both CD28 and CTLA4, or other known or as yet undefined receptors
on immune cells. A particularly preferred costimulatory molecule
which binds CD28 and/or CTLA4 is the B lymphocyte antigen B7.
[0022] The ability of a molecule to provide a costimulatory signal
to T cells can be determined, for example, by contacting T cells
which have received a primary activation signal with the molecule
to be tested and determining the presence of T cell proliferation
and/or cytokine secretion. T cell can be suboptimally stimulated
with a primary activation signal, for instance by contact with
immobilized anti-CD3 antibodies or a phorbol ester. Following this
stimulation, the T cells are exposed to cells expressing a
costimulatory molecule on their surface and the proliferation of
the T cells and/or secretion of cytokines, such as IL-2, by the T
cells is determined. Proliferation and/or cytokine secretion will
be increased by triggering of a costimulatory signal in the T
cells. T cell proliferation can be measured, for example, by a
standard .sup.3H-thymidine uptake assay. Cytokine secretion can be
measured, for example, by a standard IL-2 assay. In the case of a
costimulatory molecule which is a CD28 ligand, the involvement of
CD28 in T cell activation can be demonstrated by the use of
blocking antibodies to CD28 which can inhibit T cell proliferation
and/or cytokine secretion mediated by this pathway. Linsley, P. S.,
et al., J. Exp. Med 173, 721-730 (1991), Gimmi, C. D., et al.,
Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 88:, 6575-6579 (1991), Freeman, G. J.,
et al., J. Exp. Med. 174, 625-631, (1991).
[0023] Fragments, mutants or variants of costimulatory molecules,
e.g. CD28 and/or CTLA4 ligands such as B7, that retain the ability
to interact with T cells, trigger a costimulatory signal and
activate T cell responses, as evidenced by proliferation and/or
cytokine production by T cells that have received a primary
activation signal, are considered within the scope of the
invention. A "fragment" of a costimulatory molecule is defined as a
portion of a costimulatory molecule which retains costimulatory
activity. For example, a fragment of a costimulatory molecule may
have fewer amino acid residues than the entire protein. A "mutant"
is defined as a costimulatory molecule having a structural change
which may enhance, diminish, not affect, but not eliminate the
costimulatory activity of the molecule. For example, a mutant of a
costimulatory molecule may have a change in one or more amino acid
residues of the protein. A "variant" is defined as a costimulatory
molecule having a modification which does not affect the
costimulatory activity of the molecule. For example, a variant of a
costimulatory molecule may have altered glycosylation or may be a
chimeric protein of the costimulatory molecule and another
protein.
[0024] A. Transfection of a Tumor Cell with a Nucleic Acid Encoding
a Costimulatory Molecule
[0025] Tumor cells can be modified ex vivo to express a T cell
costimulatory molecule by transfection of isolated tumor cells with
a nucleic acid encoding a costimulatory molecule in a form suitable
for expression of the molecule on the surface of the tumor cell.
The terms "transfection" or "transfected with" refers to the
introduction of exogenous nucleic acid into a mammalian cell and
encompass a variety of techniques useful for introduction of
nucleic acids into mammalian cells including electroporation,
calcium-phosphate precipitation, DEAE-dextran treatment,
lipofection, microinjection and infection with viral vectors.
Suitable methods for transfecting mammalian cells can be found in
Sambrook et al. (Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual. 2nd
Edition, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory press (1989)) and other
laboratory textbooks. The nucleic acid to be introduced can be, for
example, DNA encompassing the gene encoding the costimulatory
molecule, sense strand RNA encoding the costimulatory molecule or a
recombinant expression vector containing a cDNA encoding the
costimulatory molecule. Preferred cDNAs to use are those for human
and mouse B7 (Freeman, G. J., et al., J. Exp. Med. 174, 625-631
(1991); Freeman, G. J., et al., J. Immunol. 143, 2714-2722 (1989)).
The nucleotide sequence of the human B7 cDNA is shown in SEQ ID NO:
1 and the corresponding amino acid sequence of the human B7 protein
is shown in SEQ ID NO: 2. The nucleotide sequence of the mouse B7
cDNA is shown in SEQ ID NO: 3 and the corresponding amino acid
sequence of the mouse B7 protein is shown in SEQ ID NO: 4.
[0026] The nucleic acid is "in a form suitable for expression of
the costimulatory molecule" in which the nucleic acid contains all
of the coding and regulatory sequences required for transcription
and translation of a gene, which may include promoters, enhancers
and polyadenylation signals, and sequences necessary for transport
of the molecule to the surface of the tumor cell, including
N-terminal signal sequences. When the nucleic acid is a cDNA in a
recombinant expression vector, the regulatory functions responsible
for transcription and/or translation of the cDNA are often provided
by viral sequences. Examples of commonly used viral promoters
include those derived from polyoma, Adenovirus 2, cytomegalovirus
and Simian Virus 40, and retroviral LTRs. Regulatory sequences
linked to the cDNA can be selected to provide constitutive or
inducible transcription, by, for example, use of an inducible
promoter, such as the metallothienin promoter or a
glucocorticoid-responsive promoter. Expression of the costimulatory
molecule on the surface of the tumor cell can be accomplished, for
example, by including a native transmembrane coding sequence of the
molecule, such as B7, in the nucleic acid sequence, or by including
signals which lead to modification of the protein, such as a
C-terminal inositol-phosphate linkage, that allows for association
of the molecule with the outer surface of the cell membrane.
[0027] A preferred approach for introducing nucleic acid encoding a
costimulatory molecule into tumor cells is by use of a viral vector
containing nucleic acid, e.g. a cDNA, encoding the costimulatory
molecule. Examples of viral vectors which can be used include
retroviral vectors (Eglitis, M. A., et al., Science 230, 1395-1398
(1985); Danos, O. and Mulligan, R., Proc. Natl. Acad Sci. USA 85,
6460-6464 (1988); Markowitz, D., et al., J. Virol. 62, 1120-1124
(1988)), adenoviral vectors (Rosenfeld, M. A., et al., Cell 68,
143-155 (1992)) and adeno-associated viral vectors (Tratschin, J.
D., et al., Mol. Cell. Biol. 5, 3251-3260 (1985)). Infection of
tumor cells with a viral vector has the advantage that a large
proportion of cells will receive nucleic acid, thereby obviating a
need for selection of cells which have received nucleic acid, and
molecules encoded within the viral vector, e.g. by a cDNA contained
in the viral vector, are expressed efficiently in cells which have
taken up viral vector nucleic acid.
[0028] Alternatively, a costimulatory molecule can be expressed on
a tumor cell using a plasmid expression vector which contains
nucleic acid, e.g. a cDNA, encoding the costimulatory molecule.
Suitable plasmid expression vectors include CDM8 (Seed, B., Nature
329, 840(1987)) and pMT2PC (Kaufman, et al., EMBO J. 6, 187-195
(1987)). Since only a small fraction of cells (about 1 out of
10.sup.5) typically integrate transfected plasmid DNA into their
genomes, it is advantageous to transfect a nucleic acid encoding a
selectable marker into the tumor cell along with the nucleic
acid(s) of interest. Preferred selectable markers include those
which confer resistance to drugs such as G418, hygromycin and
methotrexate. Selectable markers may be introduced on the same
plasmid as the gene(s) of interest or may be introduced on a
separate plasmid. Following selection of transfected tumor cells
using the appropriate selectable marker(s), expression of the
costimulatory molecule on the surface of the tumor cell can be
confirmed by immunofluorescent staining of the cells. For example,
cells may be stained with a fluorescently labeled monoclonal
antibody reactive against the costimulatory molecule or with a
fluorescently labeled soluble receptor which binds the
costimulatory molecule. Expression of the B7 costimulatory molecule
can be determined using a monoclonal antibody, 133, which
recognizes B7. Freedman, A. S., et al. J. Immunol. 139, 3260-3267
(1987). Alternatively, a labeled soluble CD28 or CTLA4 protein or
fusion protein which binds to B7 can be used to detect expression
of B7.
[0029] When transfection of tumor cells leads to modification of a
large proportion of the tumor cells and efficient expression of a
costimulatory molecule on the surface of tumor cells, e.g. when
using a viral expression vector, tumor cells may be used without
further isolation or subcloning. Alternatively, a homogenous
population of transfected tumor cells can be prepared by isolating
a single transfected tumor cell by limiting dilution cloning
followed by expansion of the single tumor cell into a clonal
population of cells by standard techniques.
[0030] B. Induction or Increased Expression of a Costimulatory
Molecule on a Tumor Cell Surface
[0031] A tumor cell can be modified to trigger a costimulatory
signal in T cells by inducing or increasing the level of expression
of a costimulatory molecule on a tumor cell which is capable of
expressing a costimulatory molecule but fails to do so or which
expresses insufficient amounts of the costimulatory molecule to
activate T cells. An agent which stimulates expression of a
costimulatory molecule can be used in order to induce or increase
expression of a costimulatory molecule on the tumor cell surface.
For example, tumor cells can be contacted with the agent in vitro
in a culture medium. The agent which stimulates expression of a
costimulatory molecule may act, for instance, by increasing
transcription of a costimulatory molecule gene, by increasing
translation of a costimulatory molecule mRNA or by increasing
stability or transport of a costimulatory molecule to the cell
surface. For example, expression of B7 can be upregulated in a cell
by a second messenger pathway involving cAMP. Nabavi, N., et al.
Nature 360, 266-268 (1992). Thus, a tumor cell can be contacted
with an agent, which increases intracellular cAMP levels or which
mimics cAMP, such as a cAMP analogue, e.g. dibutyryl cAMP, to
stimulate expression of B7 on the tumor cell surface. Expression of
B7 can also be induced on normal resting B cells by crosslinking
cell-surface MHC class II molecules on the B cells with an antibody
against the MHC class II molecules. Kuolova, L., et al., J. Exp.
Med. 173, 759-762 (1991). Similarly, a tumor cell which expresses
MHC class II molecules on its surface can be treated with anti-MHC
class II antibodies to induce or increase B7 expression on the
tumor cell surface.
[0032] Another agent which can be used to induce or increase
expression of a costimulatory molecule on a tumor cell surface is a
nucleic acid encoding a transcription factor which upregulates
transcription of the gene encoding the costimulatory molecule. This
nucleic acid can be transfected into the tumor cell to cause
increased transcription of the costimulatory molecule gene,
resulting in increased cell-surface levels of the costimulatory
molecule.
[0033] C. Coupling of a Costimulatory Molecule to the Surface of a
Tumor Cell
[0034] In another embodiment, a tumor cell is modified to be
capable of triggering a costimulatory signal in T cells by coupling
a costimulatory molecule to the surface of the tumor cell. For
example, a costimulatory molecule, such as B7, can be obtained
using standard recombinant DNA technology and expression systems
which allows for production and isolation of the costimulatory
molecule. Alternatively, a costimulatory molecule can be isolated
from cells which express the costimulatory molecule using standard
protein purification techniques. For example, B7 protein can be
isolated from activated B cells by immunoprecipitation with an
anti-B7 antibody such as the 133 monoclonal antibody. The isolated
costimulatory molecule is then coupled to the tumor cell. The terms
"coupled" or "coupling" refer to a chemical, enzymatic or other
means (e.g. antibody) by which a costimulatory molecule is linked
to a tumor cell such that the costimulatory molecule is present on
the surface of the tumor cell and is capable of triggering a
costimulatory signal in T cells. For example, the costimulatory
molecule can be chemically crosslinked to the tumor cell surface
using commercially available crosslinking reagents (Pierce,
Rockford Ill.). Another approach to coupling a costimulatory
molecule to a tumor cell is to use a bispecific antibody which
binds both the costimulatory molecule and a cell-surface molecule
on the tumor cell. Fragments, mutants or variants of costimulatory
molecules which retain the ability to trigger a costimulatory
signal in T cells when coupled to the surface of a tumor cell can
also be used.
[0035] II. Additional Modification of a Tumor Cell to Express MHC
Molecules
[0036] Another aspect of this invention features modified tumor
cells which express a costimulatory molecule and which express one
or more MHC molecules on their surface to trigger both a
costimulatory signal and a primary, antigen-specific, signal in T
cells. Before modification, tumor cells may be unable to express
MHC molecules, may fail to express MHC molecules although they are
capable of expressing such molecules, or may express insufficient
amounts of MHC molecules on the tumor cell surface to cause T cell
activation. Tumor cells can be modified to express either MHC class
I or MHC class II molecules, or both. One approach to modifying
tumor cells to express MHC molecules is to transfect the tumor cell
with one or more nucleic acids encoding one or more MHC molecules.
Alternatively, an agent which induces or increases expression of
one or more MHC molecules on tumor cells can be used to modify
tumor cells. Inducing or increasing expression of MHC class II
molecules on a tumor cell can be particularly beneficial for
activating CD4.sup.+ T cells against the tumor since the ability of
MHC class II.sup.+ tumor cells to directly present tumor peptides
to CD4.sup.+ T cells bypasses the need for professional MHC class
II.sup.+ APCs. This can improve tumor immunogenicity because
soluble tumor antigen (in the form of tumor cell debris or secreted
protein) may not be available for uptake by professional MHC class
II.sup.+ APCs.
[0037] One embodiment of the invention is a modified tumor cell
which expresses a costimulatory molecule and one or more MHC class
II molecules on their cell surface. MHC class II molecules are
cell-surface .alpha./.beta. heterodimers which structurally contain
a cleft into which antigenic peptides bind and which function to
present bound peptides to the antigen-specific TcR. Multiple,
different MHC class II proteins are expressed on professional APCs
and different MHC class II proteins bind different antigenic
peptides. Expression of multiple MHC class II molecules, therefore,
increases the spectrum of antigenic peptides that can be presented
by an APC or by a modified tumor cell. The .alpha. and .beta.
chains of MHC class II molecules are encoded by different genes.
For instance, the human MHC class II protein HLA-DR is encoded by
the HLA-DR.alpha. and HLA-DR.beta. genes. Additionally, many
polymorphic alleles of MHC class II genes exist in human and other
species. T cells of a particular individual respond to stimulation
by antigenic peptides in conjunction with self MHC molecules, a
phenomenon termed MHC restriction. In addition, certain T cells can
also respond to stimulation by polymorphic alleles of MHC molecules
found on the cells of other individuals, a phenomenon termed
allogenicity. For a review of MHC class II structure and function,
see Germain and Margulies, Ann. Rev. Immunol. 11: 403-450,
1993.
[0038] Another embodiment of the invention is a modified tumor cell
which expresses a costimulatory molecule and one or more MHC class
I molecules on the cell surface. Similar to MHC class II genes,
there are multiple MHC class I genes and many polymorphic alleles
of these genes are found in human and other species. Like MHC class
II proteins, class I proteins bind peptide fragments of antigens
for presentation to T cells. A functional cell-surface class I
molecule is composed of an MHC class I .alpha. chain protein
associated with a .beta.2-microglobulin protein.
[0039] A. Transfection of a Tumor Cell with Nucleic Acid Encoding
MHC Molecules
[0040] Tumor cells can be modified ex vivo to express one or more
MHC class II molecules by transfection of isolated tumor cells with
one or more nucleic acids encoding one or more MHC class II .alpha.
chains and one or more MHC class II .beta. chains in a form
suitable for expression of the MHC class II molecules(s) on the
surface of the tumor cell. Both an .alpha. and a .beta. chain
protein must be present in the tumor cell to form a surface
heterodimer and neither chain will be expressed on the cell surface
alone. The nucleic acid sequences of many murine and human class II
genes are known. For examples see Hood, L., et al. Ann. Rev.
Immunol. 1, 529-568 (1983) and Auffray, C. and Strominger, J. L.,
Advances in Human Genetics 15, 197-247 (1987). Preferably, the
introduced MHC class II molecule is a self MHC class II molecule.
Alternatively, the MHC class II molecule could be a foreign,
allogeneic, MHC class II molecule. A particular foreign MHC class
II molecule to be introduced into tumor cells can be selected by
its ability to induce T cells from a tumor-bearing subject to
proliferate and/or secrete cytokines when stimulated by cells
expressing the foreign MHC class II molecule (i.e. by its ability
to induce an allogeneic response). The tumor cells to be
transfected may not express MHC class II molecules on their surface
prior to transfection or may express amounts insufficient to
stimulate a T cell response. Alternatively, tumor cells which
express MHC class II molecules prior to transfection can be further
transfected with additional, different MHC class II genes or with
other polymorphic alleles of MHC class II genes to increase the
spectrum of antigenic fragments that the tumor cells can present to
T cells.
[0041] Fragments, mutants or variants of MHC class II molecules
that retain the ability to bind peptide antigens and activate T
cell responses, as evidenced by proliferation and/or lymphokine
production by T cells, are considered within the scope of the
invention. A preferred variant is an MHC class II molecule in which
the cytoplasmic domain of either one or both of the .alpha. and
.beta. chains is truncated. Truncation of the cytoplasmic domains
allows peptide binding by and cell surface expression of MHC class
II molecules but prevents the induction of endogenous B7
expression, which is triggered by an intracellular signal generated
by the cytoplasmic domains of the MHC class II protein chains upon
crosslinking of cell surface MHC class II molecules. Kuolova. L.,
et al., J. Exp. Med. 173, 759-762 (1991); Nabavi, N., et al. Nature
360, 266-268 (1992). In tumor cells transfected to constitutively
express B7 or other costimulatory molecule, it may be desirable to
inhibit the expression of endogenous B7, for instance to restrain
potential downregulatory feedback mechanisms. Transfection of a
tumor cell with a nucleic acid(s) encoding a cytoplasmic
domain-truncated form of MHC class II .alpha. and .beta. chain
proteins would inhibit endogenous B7 expression. Such variants can
be produced by, for example, introducing a stop codon in the MHC
class II chain gene(s) after the nucleotides encoding the
transmembrane spanning region. The cytoplasmic domain of either the
.alpha. chain or the .beta. chain protein can be truncated, or, for
more complete inhibition of B7 induction, both the .alpha. and
.beta. chains can be truncated. See e.g. Griffith et al., Proc.
Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 85: 4847-4852, (1988), Nabavi et al., J.
Immunol. 142: 1444-1447, (1989).
[0042] Tumor cells can be modified to express an MHC class I
molecule by transfection with a nucleic acid encoding an MHC class
I .alpha. chain protein. For examples of nucleic acids see Hood,
L., et al. Ann. Rev. Immunol. 1, 529-568 (1983) and Auffray, C. and
Strominger, J. L., Advances in Human Genetics 15, 197-247 (1987).
Optionally, if the tumor cell does not express .beta.-2
microglobulin, it can also be transfected with a nucleic acid
encoding the .beta.-2 microglobulin protein. For examples of
nucleic acids see Gussow, D., et al., J. Immunol. 139, 3132-3138
(1987) and Parnes, J. R., et al., Proc. Natl. Acad Sci. USA 78,
2253-2257 (1981). As for MHC class II molecules, increasing the
number of different MHC class I genes or polymorphic alleles of MHC
class I genes expressed in a tumor cell can increase the spectrum
of antigenic fragments that the tumor cells can present to T
cells.
[0043] When a tumor cell is transfected with nucleic acid which
encodes more than one molecule, for example a B7 molecule, an MHC
class II .alpha. chain protein and an MHC class II .beta. chain
protein, the transfections can be performed simultaneously or
sequentially. If the transfections are performed simultaneously,
the molecules can be introduced on the same nucleic acid, so long
as the encoded sequences do not exceed a carrying capacity for a
particular vector used. Alternatively, the molecules can be encoded
by separate nucleic acids. If the transfections are conducted
sequentially and tumor cells are selected using a selectable
marker, one selectable marker can be used in conjunction with the
first introduced nucleic acid while a different selectable marker
can be used in conjunction with the next introduced nucleic
acid.
[0044] The expression of MHC molecules (class I or class II) on the
cell surface of a tumor cell can be determined, for example, by
immunoflourescence of tumor cells using fluorescently labeled
monoclonal antibodies directed against different MHC molecules.
Monoclonal antibodies which recognize either non-polymorphic
regions of a particular MHC molecule (non-allele specific) or
polymorphic regions of a particular MHC molecule (allele-specific)
can be used are known to those skilled in the art.
[0045] B. Induction or Increased Expression of MHC Molecules on a
Tumor Cell
[0046] Another approach to modifying a tumor cell ex vivo to
express MHC molecules on the surface of a tumor cell is to use an
agent which stimulates expression of MHC molecules in order to
induce or increase expression of MHC molecules on the tumor cell
surface. For example, tumor cells can be contacted with the agent
in vitro in a culture medium. An agent which stimulates expression
of MHC molecules may act, for instance, by increasing transcription
of MHC class I and/or class II genes, by increasing translation of
MHC class I and/or class II mRNAs or by increasing stability or
transport of MHC class I and/or class II proteins to the cell
surface. A number of agents have been shown to increase the level
of cell-surface expression of MHC class II molecules. See for
example Cockfield, S. M. et al., J. Immunol. 144, 2967-2974 (1990);
Noelle, R. J. et al. J. Immunol. 137, 1718-1723 (1986); Mond, J.
J., et al., J. Immunol. 127, 881-888 (1981); Willman, C. L., et al.
J. Exp. Med., 170, 1559-1567 (1989); Celada, A. and Maki, R. J.
Immunol. 146, 114-120 (1991) and Glimcher, L. H. and Kara, C. J.
Ann. Rev. Immunol. 10, 13-49 (1992) and references therein. These
agents include cytokines, antibodies to other cell surface
molecules and phorbol esters. One agent which upregulates MHC class
I and class II molecules on a wide variety of cell types is the
cytokine interferon-.gamma.. Thus, for example, tumor cells
modified to express a costimulatory molecule can be further
modified to increase expression of MHC molecules by contact with
interferon-.gamma..
[0047] Another agent which can be used to induce or increase
expression of an MHC molecule on a tumor cell surface is a nucleic
acid encoding a transcription factor which upregulates
transcription of MHC class I or class II genes. Such a nucleic acid
can be transfected into the tumor cell to cause increased
transcription of MHC genes, resulting in increased cell-surface
levels of MHC proteins. MHC class I and class II genes are
regulated by different transcription factors. However, the multiple
MHC class I genes are regulated coordinately, as are the multiple
MHC class II genes. Therefore, transfection of a tumor cell with a
nucleic acid encoding a transcription factor which regulates MHC
gene expression may increase expression of several different MHC
molecules on the tumor cell surface. Several transcription factors
which regulate the expression of MHC genes have been identified,
cloned and characterized. For example, see Reith, W. et al., Genes
Dev. 4, 1528-1540, (1990); Liou, H. -C., et al., Science 247,
1581-1584 (1988); Didier, D. K., et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA
85, 7322-7326 (1988).
[0048] III. Inhibition of Invariant Chain Expression in Tumor
Cells
[0049] Another embodiment of the invention provides a tumor cell
modified to express a T cell costimulatory molecule and in which
expression of an MHC class II-associated protein, the invariant
chain, is inhibited. Invariant chain expression is inhibited to
promote association of endogenously-derived TAA peptides with MHC
class II molecules to create an antigen-MHC complex. This complex
can trigger an antigen-specific signal in T cells to induce
activation of T cells in conjunction with a costimulatory signal.
MHC class II molecules have been shown to be capable of presenting
endogenously-derived peptides. Nuchtern, J. G., et al. Nature 343,
74-76 (1990); Weiss, S. and Bogen, B. Cell 767-776 (1991). However,
in cells which naturally express MHC class II molecules, the
.alpha. and .beta. chain proteins are associated with the invariant
chain (hereafter Ii) during intracellular transport of the proteins
from the endoplasmic reticulum. It is believed that Ii functions in
part by preventing the association of endogenously-derived peptides
with MHC class II molecules. Elliott, W., et al. J. Immunol. 138,
2949-2952 (1987); Stockinger, B., et al. Cell 56, 683-689 (1989);
Guagliardi, L., et al. Nature (London) 343, 133-139 (1990); Bakke,
O., et al. Cell 63, 707-716 (1990); Lottreau, V., et al. Nature
348,600-605 (1990); Peters, J., et al. Nature 349, 669-676 (1991);
Roche, P., et al. Nature 345, 615-618 (1990); Teyton, L., et al.
Nature 348, 39-44 (1990). Since TAAs are synthesized endogenously
in tumor cells, peptides derived from them are likely to be
available intracellularly. Accordingly, inhibiting the expression
of Ii in tumor cells which express Ii may increase the likelihood
that TAA peptides will associate with MHC class II molecules.
Consistent with this mechanism, it was shown that supertransfection
of an MHC class II.sup.+, Ii.sup.- tumor cell with the Ii gene
prevented stimulation of tumor-specific immunity by the tumor cell.
Clements, V. K., et al. J. Immunol. 149, 2391-2396 (1992).
[0050] Prior to modification, the expression of Ii in a tumor cell
can be assessed by detecting the presence or absence of Ii mRNA by
Northern blotting or by detecting the presence or absence of Ii
protein by immunoprecipitation. A preferred approach for inhibiting
expression of Ii is by introducing into the tumor cells a nucleic
acid which is antisense to a coding or regulatory region of the Ii
gene, which have been previously described. Koch, N., et al., EMBO
J. 6, 1677-1683, (1987). For example, an oligonucleotide
complementary to nucleotides near the translation initiation site
of the Ii mRNA can be synthesized. One or more antisense
oligonucleotides can be added to media containing tumor cells,
typically at a concentration of oligonucleotides of 200 .mu.g/ml.
The antisense oligonucleotide is taken up by tumor cells and
hybridizes to Ii mRNA to prevent translation. In another
embodiment, a recombinant expression vector is used in which a
nucleic acid encoding sequences of the Ii gene in an orientation
such that mRNA which is antisense to a coding or regulatory region
of the Ii gene is produced. Tumor cells transfected with this
recombinant expression vector thus contain a continuous source of
Ii antisense nucleic acid to prevent production of Ii protein.
Alternatively, Ii expression in a tumor cell can be inhibited by
treating the tumor cell with an agent which interferes with Ii
expression. For example, a pharmaceutical agent which inhibits Ii
gene expression, Ii mRNA translation or Ii protein stability or
intracellular transport can be used.
[0051] IV. Types of Tumor Cells to be Modified
[0052] The tumor cells to be modified as described herein include
tumor cells which can be transfected or treated by one or more of
the approaches encompassed by the present invention to express a
costimulatory molecule. If necessary, the tumor cell can be further
modified to express MHC molecules or an inhibitor of Ii expression.
A tumor from which tumor cells are obtained can be one that has
arisen spontaneously, e.g in a human subject, or may be
experimentally derived or induced, e.g. in an animal subject. The
tumor cells can be obtained, for example, from a solid tumor of an
organ, such as a tumor of the lung, liver, breast, colon, bone etc.
Malignancies of solid organs include carcinomas, sarcomas,
melanomas and neuroblastomas. The tumor cells can also be obtained
from a blood-borne (ie. dispersed) malignancy such as a lymphoma, a
myeloma or a leukemia.
[0053] The tumor cells to be modified include those that express
MHC molecules on their cell surface prior to transfection and those
that express no or low levels of MHC class I and/or class II
molecules. A minority of normal cell types express MHC class II
molecules. It is therefore expected that many tumor cells will not
express MHC class II molecules naturally. These tumors can be
modified to express a costimulatory molecule and MHC class II
molecules. Several types of tumors have been found to naturally
express surface MHC class II molecules, such as melanomas (van
Duinen et al., Cancer Res. 48, 1019-1025, 1988), diffuse large cell
lymphomas (O'Keane et al., Cancer 66, 1147-1153, 1990), squamous
cell carcinomas of the head and neck (Mattijssen et al., Int. J.
Cancer 6, 95-100, 1991) and colorectal carcinomas (Moller et al.,
Int. J. Cancer 6, 155-162, 1991). Tumor cells which naturally
express class II molecules can be modified to express a
costimulatory molecule, and, in addition, other class II molecules
which can increase the spectrum of TAA peptides which can be
presented by the tumor cell. Most non-malignant cell types express
MHC class I molecules. However, malignant transformation is often
accompanied by downregulation of expression of MHC class I
molecules on the surface of tumor cells. Csiba, A., et al., Brit.
J. Cancer 50, 699-709 (1984). Importantly, loss of expression of
MHC class I antigens by tumor cells is associated with a greater
aggressiveness and/or metastatic potential of the tumor cells.
Schrier, P. I., et al. Nature 305, 771-775 (1983); Holden, C. A.,
et al. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 9., 867-871 (1983); Baniyash, M., et
al. J. Immunol. 129, 1318-1323 (1982). Types of tumors in which MHC
class I expression has been shown to be inhibited include
melanomas, colorectal carcinomas and squamous cell carcinomas. van
Duinen et al., Cancer Res. 48, 1019-1025, (1988); Moller et al.,
Int. J. Cancer 6, 155-162, (1991); Csiba, A., et al., Brit. J.
Cancer 50, 699-709 (1984); Holden, C. A., et al. J. Am. Acad.
Dermatol. 9., 867-871 (1983). A tumor cell which fails to express
class I molecules or which expresses only low levels of MHC class I
molecules can be modified by one or more of the techniques
described herein to induce or increase expression of MHC class I
molecules on the tumor cell surface to enhance tumor cell
immunogenicity.
[0054] V. Modification of Tumor Cells In Vivo
[0055] Another aspect of the invention provides methods for
increasing the immunogenicity of a tumor cell by modification of
the tumor cell in vivo to express a costimulatory molecule to
trigger a costimulatory signal in T cells. In addition, tumor cells
can be further modified in vivo to express MHC molecules to trigger
a primary, antigen-specific, signal in T cells. Tumor cells can be
modified in vivo by introducing a nucleic acid encoding a T cell
costimulatory molecule into the tumor cells in a form suitable for
expression of the costimulatory molecule on the surface of the
tumor cells. Likewise, nucleic acids encoding MHC class I or class
II molecules or an antisense sequence of the Ii gene can be
introduced into tumor cells in vivo. In one embodiment, a
recombinant expression vector is used to deliver nucleic acid
encoding B7 to tumor cells in vivo as a form of gene therapy.
Vectors useful for in vivo gene therapy have been previously
described and include retroviral vectors, adenoviral vectors and
adeno-associated viral vectors. See e.g. Rosenfeld, M. A., Cell 68,
143-155 (1992); Anderson, W. F., Science 226, 401-409 (1984);
Friedman, T., Science 244, 1275-1281 (1989). Alternatively, nucleic
acid can be delivered to tumor cells in vivo by direct injection of
naked nucleic acid into tumor cells. See e.g. Acsadi, G., et al.,
Nature 332, 815-818 (1991). A delivery apparatus is commercially
available (BioRad). Optionally, to be suitable for injection, the
nucleic acid can be complexed with a carrier such as a liposome.
Nucleic acid encoding an MHC class I molecule complexed with a
liposome has been directly injected into tumors of melanoma
patients. Hoffman, M., Science 256, 305-309 (1992).
[0056] Tumor cells can also be modified in vivo by use of an agent
which induces or increases expression of a costimulatory molecule
(and, if necessary, MHC molecules as described herein). The agent
may be administered systemically, e.g. by intravenous injection,
or, preferably, locally to the tumor cells.
[0057] VI. The Effector Phase of the Anti-Tumor T Cell-Mediated
Immune Response
[0058] The modified tumor cells of the invention are useful for
stimulating an anti-tumor T cell-mediated immune response by
triggering an antigen-specific signal and a costimulatory signal in
tumor-specific T cells. Following this inductive, or afferent,
phase of an immune response, effector populations of T cells are
generated. These effector T cell populations can include both CD4+
T cells and CD8+ T cells. The effector populations are responsible
for elimination of tumors cell, by, for example, cytolysis of the
tumor cell. Once T cells are activated, expression of a
costimulatory molecule is not required on a target cell for
recognition of the target cell by effector T cells or for the
effector functions of the T cells. Harding, F. A. and Allison, J.
P. J. Exp. Med 177, 1791-1796 (1993). Therefore, the anti-tumor T
cell-mediated immune response induced by the modified tumor cells
of the invention is effective against both the modified tumor cells
and unmodified tumor cells which do not express a costimulatory
molecule.
[0059] Additionally, the density and/or type of MHC molecules on
the cell surface required for the afferent and efferent phases of a
T cell-mediated immune response can differ. Fewer MHC molecules, or
only certain types of MHC molecules (e.g. MHC class I but not MHC
class II) may be needed on a tumor cell for recognition by effector
T cells than is needed for the initial activation of T cells.
Therefore, tumor cells which naturally express low amounts of MHC
molecules but are modified to express increased amounts of MHC
molecules can induce a T cell-mediated immune response which is
effective against the unmodified tumor cells. Alternatively, tumor
cells which naturally express MHC class I molecules but not MHC
class II molecules which are then modified to express MHC class II
molecules can induce a T cell-mediated immune response which
includes effector T cell populations which can eliminate the
parental MHC class I+, class II- tumor cells.
[0060] VII. Therapeutic Compositions of Tumor Cells
[0061] Another aspect of the invention is a composition of modified
tumor cells in a biologically compatible form suitable for
pharmaceutical administration to a subject in vivo. This
composition comprises an amount of modified tumor cells and a
physiologically acceptable carrier. The amount of modified tumor
cells is selected to be therapeutically effective. The term
"biologically compatible form suitable for pharmaceutical
administration . . . in vivo" means that any toxic effects of the
tumor cells are outweighed by the therapeutic effects of the tumor
cells. A "physiologically acceptable carrier" is one which is
biologically compatible with the subject. Examples of acceptable
carriers include saline and aqueous buffer solutions. In all cases,
the compositions must be sterile and must be fluid to the extent
that easy syringability exists. The term "subject" is intended to
include living organisms in which tumors can arise or be
experimentally induced. Examples of subjects include humans, dogs,
cats, mice, rats, and transgenic species thereof.
[0062] Administration of the therapeutic compositions of the
present invention can be carried out using known procedures, at
dosages and for periods of time effective to achieve the desired
result. For example, a therapeutically effective dose of modified
tumor cells may vary according to such factors as age, sex and
weight of the individual, the type of tumor cell and degree of
tumor burden, and the immunological competency of the subject.
Dosage regimens may be adjusted to provide optimum therapeutic
responses. For instance, a single dose of modified tumor cells may
be administered or several doses may be administered over time.
Administration may be by injection, including intravenous,
intramuscular, intraperitoneal and subcutaneous injections.
[0063] VIII. Activation of Tumor-specific T Lymphocytes In
Vitro
[0064] Another approach to inducing or enhancing an anti-tumor T
cell-mediated immune response by triggering a costimulatory signal
in T cells is to obtain T lymphocytes from a tumor-bearing subject
and activate the cells in vitro by contact with a tumor cell and a
stimulatory form of a costimulatory molecule. T cells can be
obtained from a subject, for example, from peripheral blood.
Peripheral blood can be further fractionated to remove red blood
cells and enrich for or isolate T lymophocytes or T lymphocyte
subpopulations. T cells can be activated in vitro by culturing the
T cells with tumor cells obtained from the subject (e.g. from a
biopsy or from peripheral blood in the case of blood-borne
malignancies) together with a stimulatory form of a costimulatory
molecule or, alternatively, by exposure to a modified tumor cell as
described herein. The term "stimulatory form" means that the
costimulatory molecule is capable of crosslinking its receptor on a
T cell and triggering a costimulatory signal in T cells. The
stimulatory form of the costimulatory molecule can be, for example,
a soluble multivalent molecule or an immobilized form of the
costimulatory molecule, for instance coupled to a solid support.
Fragments, mutants or variants (e.g. fusion proteins) of
costimulatory molecules which retain the ability to trigger a
costimulatory signal in T cells can also be used. In a preferred
embodiment, a soluble extracellular portion of B7 is used to
provide costimulation to the T cells. Following culturing of the T
cells in vitro with tumor cells and a costimulatory molecule, or a
modified tumor cell, to activate tumor-specific T cells, the T
cells can be administered to the subject, for example by
intravenous injection.
[0065] IX. Therapeutic Uses of Modified Tumor Cells
[0066] The modified tumor cells of the present invention can be
used to increase tumor immunogenicity, and therefore can be used
therapeutically for inducing or enhancing T lymphocyte-mediated
anti-tumor immunity in a subject with a tumor or at risk of
developing a tumor. A method for treating a subject with a tumor
involves obtaining tumor cells from the subject, modifying the
tumor cells ex vivo to express a T cell costimulatory molecule, for
example by transfecting them with an appropriate nucleic acid, and
administering a therapeutically effective dose of the modified
tumor cells to the subject. Appropriate nucleic acids to be
introduced into a tumor cell include a nucleic acid encoding a T
cell costimulatory molecule, for example a CD28 and/or CTLA4 ligand
such as B7, alone or together with nucleic acids encoding MHC
molecules (class I or class II) or Ii antisense sequences as
described herein. Alternatively, after tumor cells are obtained
from a subject, they can be modified ex vivo using an agent which
induces or increases expression of a costimulatory molecule (and
possibly also using agent(s) which induce or increase MHC
molecules).
[0067] Tumor cells can be obtained from a subject by, for example,
surgical removal of tumor cells, e.g. a biopsy of the tumor, or
from a blood sample from the subject in cases of blood-borne
malignancies. In the case of an experimentally induced tumor, the
cells used to induce the tumor can be used, e.g. cells of a tumor
cell line. Samples of solid tumors may be treated prior to
modification to produce a single-cell suspension of tumor cells for
maximal efficiency of transfection. Possible treatments include
manual dispersion of cells or enzymatic digestion of connective
tissue fibers, e.g. by collagenase.
[0068] Tumor cells can be transfected immediately after being
obtained from the subject or can be cultured in vitro prior to
transfection to allow for further characterization of the tumor
cells (e.g. determination of the expression of cell surface
molecules). The nucleic acids chosen for transfection can be
determined following characterization of the proteins expressed by
the tumor cell. For instance, expression of MHC proteins on the
cell surface of the tumor cells and/or expression of the Ii protein
in the tumor cell can be assessed. Tumors which express no, or
limited amounts of or types of MHC molecules (class I or class II)
can be transfected with nucleic acids encoding MHC proteins; tumors
which express Ii protein can be transfected with Ii antisense
sequences. If necessary, following transfection, tumor cells can be
screened for introduction of the nucleic acid by using a selectable
marker (e.g. drug resistance) which is introduced into the tumor
cells together with the nucleic acid of interest.
[0069] Prior to administration to the subject, the modified tumor
cells can be treated to render them incapable of further
proliferation in the subject, thereby preventing any possible
outgrowth of the modified tumor cells. Possible treatments include
irradiation or mitomycin C treatment, which abrogate the
proliferative capacity of the tumor cells while maintaining the
ability of the tumor cells to trigger antigen-specific and
costimulatory signals in T cells and thus to stimulate an immune
response.
[0070] The modified tumor cells can be administered to the subject
by injection of the tumor cells into the subject. The route of
injection can be, for example, intravenous, intramuscular,
intraperitoneal or subcutaneous. Administration of the modified
tumor cells at the site of the original tumor may be beneficial for
inducing local T cell-mediated immune responses against the
original tumor. Administration of the modified tumor cells in a
disseminated manner, e.g. by intravenous injection, may provide
systemic anti-tumor immunity and, furthermore, may protect against
metastatic spread of tumor cells from the original site. The
modified tumor cells can be administered to a subject prior to or
in conjunction with other forms of therapy or can be administered
after other treatments such as chemotherapy or surgical
intervention.
[0071] Another method for treating a subject with a tumor is to
modify tumor cells in vivo to express a costimulatory molecule,
alone or in conjunction with MHC molecules and/or an inhibitor of
Ii expression. This method can involve modifying tumor cells in
vivo by providing nucleic acid encoding the protein(s) to be
expressed using vectors and delivery methods effective for in vivo
gene therapy as described in a previous section. Alternatively, one
or more agents which induce or increase expression of a
costimulatory molecule, and possibly MHC molecules, can be
administered to a subject with a tumor.
[0072] The modified tumor cells of the current invention may also
be used in a method for preventing or treating metastatic spread of
a tumor or preventing or treating recurrence of a tumor. As
demonstrated in detail in one of the following examples, anti-tumor
immunity induced by B7-expressing tumor cells is effective against
subsequent challenge by tumor cells, regardless of whether the
tumor cells of the re-exposure express B7 or not. Thus,
administration of modified tumor cells or modification of tumor
cells in vivo as described herein can provide tumor immunity
against cells of the original, unmodified tumor as well as
metastases of the original tumor or possible regrowth of the
original tumor.
[0073] The current invention also provides a composition and a
method for specifically inducing an anti-tumor response in
CD4.sup.+ T cells. CD4.sup.+ T cells are activated by antigen in
conjunction with MHC class II molecules. Association of peptidic
fragments of TAAs with MHC class II molecules results in
recognition of these antigenic peptides by CD4.sup.+ T cells.
Providing a subject with tumor cells which have been modified to
express MHC class II molecules along with a costimulatory molecule,
or modified in vivo to express MHC class II molecules along with a
costimulatory molecule, can be useful for directing tumor antigen
presentation to the MHC class II pathway and thereby result in
antigen recognition by and activation of CD4.sup.+ T cells specific
for the tumor cells. As explained in detail in an example to
follow, depletion of either CD4.sup.+ or CD8.sup.+ T cells in vivo,
by administration of anti-CD4 or anti-CD8 antibodies, can be used
to demonstrate that specific anti-tumor immunity is mediated by a
particular (e.g. CD4.sup.+) T cell subpopulation.
[0074] As demonstrated in Example 2, subjects initially exposed to
modified tumor cells develop an anti-tumor specific T cell response
which is effective against subsequent exposure to unmodified tumor
cells. Thus the subject develops anti-tumor specific immunity. The
generalized use of modified tumor cells of the invention from one
human subject as an immunogen to induce anti-tumor immunity in
another human subject is prohibited by histocompatibility
differences between unrelated humans. However, use of modified
tumor cells from one individual to induce anti-tumor immunity in
another individual to protect against possible future occurrence of
a tumor may be useful in cases of familial malignancies. In this
situation, the tumor-bearing donor of tumor cells to be modified is
closely related to the (non-tumor bearing) recipient of the
modified tumor cells and therefore the donor and recipient share
MHC antigens. A strong hereditary component has been identified for
certain types of malignancies, for example certain breast and colon
cancers. In families with a known susceptibility to a particular
malignancy and in which one individual presently has a tumor, tumor
cells from that individual could be modified to express a
costimulatory molecule and administered to susceptible,
histocompatible family members to induce an anti-tumor response in
the recipient against the type of tumor to which the family is
susceptible. This anti-tumor response could provide protective
immunity to subsequent development of a tumor in the immunized
recipient.
[0075] X. Tumor-Specific T Cell Tolerance
[0076] In the case of an experimentally induced tumor, such as
described in Examples 1 to 3, a subject (e.g. a mouse) can be
exposed to the modified tumor cells of the invention before being
challenged with unmodified tumor cells. Thus, the subject is
initially exposed to TAA peptides on tumor cells together with a
costimulatory molecule, which activates TAA-specific T cells. The
activated T cells are then effective against subsequent challenge
with unmodified tumor cells. In the case of a spontaneously arising
tumor, as is the case with human subjects, the subject's immune
system will be exposed to unmodified tumor cells before exposure to
the modified tumor cells of the invention. Thus, the subject is
initially exposed to TAA peptides on tumor cells in the absence of
a costimulatory signal. This situation is likely to induce
TAA-specific T cell tolerance in those T cells which are exposed to
and are in contact with the unmodified tumor cells. Secondary
exposure of the subject to modified tumor cells which can trigger a
costimulatory signal may not be sufficient to overcome tolerance in
TAA-specific T cells which were anergized by primary exposure to
the tumor. Use of modified tumor cells to induce anti-tumor
immunity in a subject already exposed to unmodified tumor cells may
therefore be most effective in early diagnosed patients with small
tumor burdens, for instance a small localized tumor which has not
metastasized. In this situation, the tumor cells are confined to a
limited area of the body and thus only a portion of the T cell
repertoire may be exposed to tumor antigens and become anergized.
Administration of modified tumor cells in a systemic manner, for
instance after surgical removal of the localized tumor and
modification of isolated tumor cells, may expose non-anergized T
cells to tumor antigens together with a costimulatory molecule,
thereby inducing an anti-tumor response in the non-anergized T
cells. The anti-tumor response may be effective against possible
regrowth of the tumor or against micrometastases of the original
tumor which may not have been detected. To overcome widespread
peripheral T cell tolerance to tumor cells in a subject, additional
signals, such as a cytokine, may need to be provided to the subject
together with the modified tumor cells. A cytokine which functions
as a T cell growth factor, such as IL-2, could be provided to the
subject together with the modified tumor cells. IL-2 has been shown
to be capable of restoring the alloantigen-specific responses of
previously anergized T cells in an in vitro system when exogenous
IL-2 is added at the time of secondary alloantigenic stimulation.
Tan, P., et al. J. Exp. Med. 177, 165-173 (1993).
[0077] Another approach to generating an anti-tumor T cell response
in a subject despite tolerance of the subject's T cells to the
tumor is to stimulate an anti-tumor response in T cells from
another subject who has not been exposed to the tumor (referred to
as a naive donor) and transfer the stimulated T cells from the
naive donor back into the tumor-bearing subject so that the
transferred T cells can mount an immune response against the tumor
cells. An anti-tumor response is induced in the T cells from the
naive donor by stimulating the T cells in vitro with the modified
tumor cells of the invention. Such an adoptive transfer approach is
generally prohibited in outbred populations because of
histocompatibity differences between the transferred T cells and
the tumor-bearing recipient. However, advances in allogeneic bone
marrow transplantation can be applied to this situation to allow
for acceptance by the recipient of the adoptively transferred cells
and prevention of graft versus host disease. First, a tumor-bearing
subject (referred to as the host) is prepared for and receives an
allogeneic bone marrow transplant from a naive donor by a known
procedure. Preparation of the host involves whole body irradiation,
which destroys the host's immune system, including T cells
tolerized to the tumor, as well as the tumor cells themselves. Bone
marrow transplantation is accompanied by treatment(s) to prevent
graft versus host disease such as depletion of mature T cells from
the bone marrow graft, treatment of the host with immunosuppressive
drugs or treatment of the host with an agent, such as CTLA4Ig, to
induce donor T cell tolerance to host tissues. Next, to provide
anti-tumor specific T cells to the host which can respond against
residual tumor cells in the host or regrowth or metastases of the
original tumor in the host, T cells from the naive donor are
stimulated in vitro with tumor cells from the host which have been
modified, as described herein, to express a costimulatory molecule.
Thus, the donor T cells are initially exposed to tumor cells
together with a costimulatory signal and therefore are activated to
respond to the tumor cells. These activated anti-tumor specific T
cells are then transferred to the host where they are reactive
against unmodified tumor cells. Since the host has been
reconstituted with the donor's immune system, the host will not
reject the transferred T cells and, additionally, the treatment of
the host to prevent graft versus host disease will prevent
reactivity of the transferred T cells with normal host tissues.
[0078] This invention is further illustrated by the following
examples which should not be construed as limiting. The contents of
all references and published patents and patent applications cited
throughout the application are hereby incorporated by
reference.
[0079] In Examples 1-3, mouse sarcoma cells were modified to
express the T cell costimulatory molecule B7. The following
methodology was used in Examples 1 to 3.
[0080] Methods and Materials
[0081] A. Cells
[0082] SaI tumor cells were maintained as described
(Ostrand-Rosenberg, S., et al., J. Immunol. 144, 4068-4071
(1990)).
[0083] B. Antibodies
[0084] The monoclonal antibody (mAb) 10-3.6, specific for I-A.sup.k
(Oi, V., et al. Curr. Top. Microbiol. Immunol. 81, 115-120 (1978)),
was prepared and used as described. Ostrand-Rosenberg, S., et al.,
J. Immunol. 144: 4068-4071 (1990). The B7-specific mAb 1G10 is a
rat IgG2a mAb and was used as described (Nabavi, N., et al. Nature
360, 266-268 (1992)). mAbs specific for CD4.sup.+ [GK1.5 (Wilde, D.
B., et al. J. Immunol. 131, 2178-2183 (1983))] and CD8.sup.+ [2.43
(Sarmiento, M., et al. J. Immunol. 125, 2665-2672 (1980))] were
used as ascites fluid.
[0085] C. Transfections
[0086] Mouse SaI sarcoma cells were transfected as described in
Ostrand-Rosenberg, S., et al., J. Immunol. 144, 4068-4071 (1990).
SaI cells (2.times.10.sup.6) were transfected by the calcium
phosphate method (Wigler et al., Proc. Natl. Acad Sci. USA, 76,
1373 (1979)). SaI cells were transfected with wild-type
A.alpha..sup.k and A.beta..sup.k MHC class II cDNAs
(Ostrand-Rosenberg, S., et al., J. Immunol. 144, 4068-4071 (1990)),
A.alpha..sup.k and A.beta..sup.k cDNAs truncated for their
C-terminal 12 and 10 amino acids, respectively (Nabavi, N., et al.
J. Immunol. 142, 1444-1447 (1989)), and/or B7 gene (Freeman, G. J.,
et al. J. Exp. Med. 174, 625-631 (1991)). For transfection, the
murine B7 cDNA was subcloned into the eukaryotic expression vector
dCDNAI (Invitrogen, San Diego, Calif.). Class II transfectants were
cotransfected with pSV2neo plasmid and selected for resistance to
G418 (400 .mu.g/ml). B7 transfectants were cotransfected with
pSV2hph plasmid and selected for hygromycin-resistance (400
.mu.g/ml). All transfectants were cloned twice by limiting
dilution, except SaI/B7 transfectants, which were uncloned, and
maintained in drug. Double transfectants were maintained in G418
plus hygromycin. The numbers after each transfectant are the clone
designation.
[0087] D. Immunofluorescence
[0088] Indirect immunofluorescence was performed as described
(Ostrand-Rosenberg. S., et al., J. Immunol. 144, 4068-4071 (1990)
), and samples were analyzed on an Epics C flow cytometer.
[0089] E. Tumor Challenges
[0090] For primary tumor challenges, autologous A/J mice were
challenged intraperitoneally (i.p.) with the indicated number of
tumor cells. Inoculated mice were checked three times per week for
tumor growth. Mean survival times of mice dying from their tumor
ranged from 13 to 28 days after inoculation. Mice were considered
to have died from their tumor if they contained a large volume of
ascites fluid and tumor cells (.gtoreq.5 ml) at the time of death.
Mice were considered tumor-resistant if they were tumor-free for at
least 60 days after tumor challenge (range, 60-120 days). Tumor
cells were monitored by indirect immunofluorescence for I-A.sup.k
and B7 expression prior to tumor-cell inoculation. For the
experiments of Table 2, autologous A/J mice were immunized i.p.
with a single inoculum of the indicated number of live tumor cells
and challenged i.p. with the indicated number of wild-type SaI
cells 42 days after immunization. Mice were evaluated for tumor
resistance or susceptibility using the same criteria as for primary
tumor challenge.
[0091] F. In vivo T cell Depletions
[0092] A/J mice were depleted of CD4.sup.+ or CD8.sup.+ T cells by
i.p. inoculation with 100 .mu.l of ascites fluid of mAb GK1.5
(CD4.sup.+ specific; Wilde, D. B., et al., J. Immunol. 131,
2178-2183 (1983)) or mAb 2.43 (CD8.sup.+ specific; Sarmiento, M.,
et al., J. Immunol. 125, 2665-2672 (1980)) on days -6, -3, and -1
prior to tumor challenge, and every third day after tumor challenge
as described (Ghobrial, M., et al. Clin. Immunol. Immunopathol 52,
486-506 (1989)) until the mice died or day 28, whichever came
first. Presence or absence of tumor was assessed up to day 28.
Previous studies have established that A/J mice with large tumors
at day 28 after injection will progress to death. This time point
was, therefore, chosen to assess tumor susceptibility for the in
vivo depletion experiments. One mouse per group was sacrificed on
day 28, and its spleen was assayed by immunofluorescence to
ascertain depletion of the relevant T cell population.
EXAMPLE 1
[0093] Coexpression of B7 Restores Tumor Immunogenicity
[0094] A mouse sarcoma cell line SaI was used in each of the
examples. The mouse SaI sarcoma is an ascites-adapted class I.sup.+
class II.sup.- tumor of A/J (H-2K.sup.kA.sup.kD.sup.d) mice. The
wild-type tumor is lethal in autologous A/J mice when administered
i.p. It has previously been shown that SaI cells transfected with,
and expressing, syngeneic MHC class II genes (A.alpha..sup.k and
A.beta..sup.k genes; SaI/A.sup.k cells) are immunologically
rejected by the autologous host, and immunization with live
SaI/A.sup.k cells protects mice against subsequent challenges with
wild-type class II.sup.- SaI cells (Ostrand-Rosenberg, S., et al.,
J. Immunol. 144, 4068-4071 (1990)). Adoptive transfer (Cole, G., et
al. Cell. Immunol. 134, 480-490 (1991)) and lymphocyte depletion
studies (E. Lamousse-Smith and S. O. -R., unpublished data)
demonstrate that SaI and SaI/A.sup.k rejection is dependent on
CD4.sup.+ lymphocytes. SaI cells expressing class II molecules with
truncated cytoplasmic domains (SaI/A.sup.ktr cells), however, are
as lethal as wild-type class II.sup.- SaI cells, suggesting that
the cytoplasmic region of the class II heterodimer is required to
induce protective immunity (Ostrand-Rosenberg, S., et al. J.
Immunol. 147, 2419-2422 (1991)).
[0095] Up-regulation of the B7 activation molecule on APCs is
triggered by intracellular signals transmitted by the cytoplasmic
domain of the class II heterodimer, after presentation of antigen
to CD4.sup.+ T helper cells (Nabavi, N., et al., Nature 360,
266-268 (1992)). In as much as B7 expression is normally
up-regulated in vivo on SaI cells expressing full-length class II
molecules (S. B. and S. O. -R., unpublished data), it may be that
SaI/A.sup.ktr cells do not stimulate protective immunity because
they do not transmit a costimulatory signal.
[0096] To test whether B7 expression can compensate for the absence
of the class II cytoplasmic domain, SaI/A.sup.ktr cells were
supertransfected with a plasmid containing a cDNA encoding murine
B7 under the control of the cytomegalovirus promoter and screened
for I-A.sup.k and B7 expression by indirect immunofluorescrence.
Wild-type SaI cells do not express either I-A.sup.k or B7 (FIG. Ia
and b), whereas SaI cells transfected with A.alpha..sup.k and
A.beta..sup.k genes (SaI/A.sup.k cells) express I-A.sup.k (FIG. Id
and f) and do not express B7 (FIG. 1c and e). SaI cells transfected
with truncated class II genes plus the B7 gene (SaI/A.sup.ktr/B7
cells) express I-A.sup.k and B7 molecules (FIG. 1g and h). All
cells express uniform levels of MHC class I molecules (K.sup.k and
D.sup.d) comparable to the level of I-A.sup.k in FIG. 1h.
[0097] Antigen-presenting activity of the transfectants was tested
by determining their immunogenicity and lethality in autologous A/J
mice. As shown in Table 1, wild-type SaI cells administered i.p. at
doses as low as 10.sup.4 cells are lethal in 88-100% of mice
inoculated within 13-28 days after challenge, whereas 100 times as
many SaI/A.sup.k cells are uniformly rejected. Challenges with
similar quantities of SaI/A.sup.ktr cells are also lethal; however,
SaI/A.sup.ktr cells that coexpress B7 (SaI/A.sup.ktr/B7 clones -1
and -3) are uniformly rejected. A/J mice challenged with
SaI/A.sup.ktr cells transfected with the B7 construct, but not
expressing detectable amounts of B7 antigen (SaI/A.sup.ktr/hph
cells), are as lethal as SaI/A.sup.ktr cells, demonstrating that
reversal of the malignant phenotype in SaI/A.sup.ktr/B7 cells is
due to expression of B7. SaI cells transfected with the B7 gene and
not coexpressing truncated class II molecules (SaI/B7 cells,
uncloned) are also as lethal as wild-type SaI cells, indicating the
B7 expression without truncated class II molecules does not
stimulate immunity. To ascertain that rejection of SaI/A.sup.k and
SaI/A.sup.ktr/B7 cells is immunologically mediated, sublethally
irradiated (900 rads; 1 rad=0.01 Gy) A/J mice were challenged i.p.
with these cells. In all cases, irradiated mice died from the
tumor. Thus, immunogenicity and host rejection of the MHC class
II.sup.+ tumor cells are dependent on an intact class II molecule
and that coexpression of B7 can bypass the requirement of the class
II intracellular domain.
1TABLE 1 Tumorigenicity of B7 and MHC class II- transfected SaI
tumor cells Tumor Expression dose, Mice dead/mice Challenge tumor
I-A.sup.k B7 no. of cells tested. no./no. SaI -- -- 1 .times.
10.sup.6 9/10 -- -- 1 .times. 10.sup.5 8/10 -- -- 1 .times.
10.sup.4 7/8 SaI/A.sup.k 19.6.4 A.sup.k -- 1 .times. 10.sup.6 0/12
A.sup.k -- 5 .times. 10.sup.5 0/5 A.sup.k -- 1 .times. 10.sup.5 0/5
SaI/A.sup.ktr 6.11.8 A.sup.ktr -- 1 .times. 10.sup.6 12/12
A.sup.ktr -- 5 .times. 10.sup.5 5/5 A.sup.ktr -- 1 .times. 10.sup.5
5/10 SaI/A.sup.ktr/B7-1 A.sup.ktr B7 1 .times. 10.sup.6 0/4
SaI/A.sup.ktr/B7-3 A.sup.ktr B7 1 .times. 10.sup.6 0/5 A.sup.ktr B7
4 .times. 10.sup.5 0/5 A.sup.ktr B7 1 .times. 10.sup.5 0/5
SaI/A.sup.ktr/hph A.sup.ktr -- 1 .times. 10.sup.6 5/5 SaI/B7 -- B7
1 .times. 10.sup.6 5/5
EXAMPLE 2
[0098] Immunization with B7-Transfected Sarcoma Cells Protects
Against Later Challenges of Wild-Type B7-Sarcoma
[0099] Activation of at least some T cells is thought to be
dependent on coexpression of B7. However, once the T cells are
activated, B7 expression is not required on the target T cell for
recognition by effector T cells. The ability of three
SaI/A.sup.ktr/B7 clones (B7-3, B7-1, and B7-2B5.F2) to immunize A/J
mice against subsequent challenges of wild-type class II.sup.-
B7.sup.- SaI cells (Table 2) was determined. A/J mice were
immunized with live SaI/A.sup.ktr/B7 transfectants and 42 days
later challenged with wild-type SaI tumor cells. Ninety-seven
percent of mice immunized with SaI/A.sup.ktr/B7 transfectants were
immune to .gtoreq.10.sup.6 wild-type B7.sup.- class II.sup.- SaI
cells, an immunity that is comparable to that induced by
immunization with SaI cells expressing full-length class II
molecules. SaI/A.sup.ktr/B7 cells, therefore, stimulate a potent
response with long-term immunological memory against high-dose
challenges of malignant tumor cells. B7 expression is, therefore,
critical for the stimulation of SaI-specific effector cells;
however, its expression is not needed on the tumor targets once the
appropriate effector T cell populations have been generated.
2TABLE 2 Autologous A/J mice immunized with SaI/A.sup.ktr/B7 cells
are immune to challenges of wild-type SaI tumor SaI challenge dose
Mice dead/ No. of no. of mice tested Immunization immunizing cells
cells no./no. None -- 1 .times. 10.sup.6 5/5 SaI/A.sup.k 19.6,4 1
.times. 10.sup.5 1 .times. 10.sup.6 0/5 or 10.sup.6 1 .times.
10.sup.6 6 .times. 10.sup.6 0/5 SaI/A.sup.ktr/B7-3 1 .times.
10.sup.6 6 .times. 10.sup.6 0/5 1 .times. 10.sup.6 1 .times.
10.sup.6 0/5 4 .times. 10.sup.5 1 .times. 10.sup.6 0/5 1 .times.
10.sup.5 5 .times. 10.sup.6 0/5 SaI/A.sup.ktr/B7-1 5 .times.
10.sup.5 3 .times. 10.sup.6 0/3 2 .times. 10.sup.5 1 .times.
10.sup.6 0/2 5 .times. 10.sup.4 5 .times. 10.sup.6 0/3
SaI/A.sup.ktr/B7-2B5.E2 1 .times. 10.sup.5 2 .times. 10.sup.6 0/2 5
.times. 10.sup.4 2 .times. 10.sup.6 1/7
EXAMPLE 3
[0100] Immunization with B7-Transfected Tumor Cells Stimulates
Tumor-Specific CD4.sup..+-. Lymphocytes
[0101] To ascertain that B7 is functioning through a T cell pathway
in tumor rejection, we have in vivo-depleted A/J mice for CD4.sup.+
or CD8.sup.+ T cells and challenged them i.p with SaI/A.sup.k or
SaIA.sup.ktr/B7 cells. As shown in Table 3, in vivo depletion of
CD4.sup.+ T cells results in host susceptibility to both
SaI/A.sup.k and SaI/A.sup.ktr/B7 tumors, indicating that CD4.sup.+
T cells are critical for tumor rejection, whereas depletion of
CD8.sup.+ T cells does not affect SaI/A.sup.ktr/B7 tumor rejection.
Although immunofluorescence analysis of splenocytes of
CD8.sup.+-depleted mice demonstrates the absence of CD8.sup.+ T
cells, it is possible that the depleted mice contain small
quantitites of CD8.sup.+ cells that are below our level of
detection. These data therefore demonstrate that CD4.sup.+ T cells
are required for tumor rejection but do not eliminate a possible
corequirement for CD8.sup.+ T cells.
3TABLE 3 Tumor susceptibility of A/J mice in vivo-depleted for
CD4.sup.+ or CD8.sup.+ T cells No. mice with tumor/ Tumor challenge
Host T cell depletion total no. mice challenged SaI/A.sup.k
CD4.sup.+ 3/5 SaI/A.sup.ktr/B7-3 CD4.sup.+ 5/5 CD8.sup.+ 0/5
[0102] Previous adoptive transfer experiments (Cole, G., et al.
Cell. Immunol. 134, 480-490 (1991)) have demonstrated that both
CD4.sup.+and CD8.sup.+ T cells are required for rejection of class
II wild-type SaI cells. Inasmuch as rejection of SaI/A.sup.k and
SaI/A.sup.ktr/B7 cells appears to require only CD4.sup.+ T cells,
it is likely that immunization with class II.sup.+ transfectants
stimulates both CD4.sup.+ and CD8.sup.+ effector T cells; however,
only the CD8.sup.+ effectors are required for rejection of class
I.sup.+ II.sup.- tumor targets. Costimulation by B7, therefore,
enhances immunity by stimulating tumor-specific CD4.sup.+ helper
and cytotoxic lymphocytes.
EXAMPLE 4
[0103] Determination of the Effect of Modified Tumor Cells in
Subjects Previously Exposed to Unmodified Tumor Cells
[0104] In the previous examples, mice were immunized with modified
tumor cells to which they had not been previously exposed. In the
case of treating a subject with a pre-existing tumor, the subject
will be exposed to unmodified tumor cells for a period of time
before exposure to modified tumor cells, and therefore the subject
may become tolerized to the unmodified tumor cells.
[0105] To determine whether the modified tumor cells of the
invention are effective in overcoming tolerance and inducing an
anti-tumor T cell response in a subject, mice are inoculated with
increasing amounts of wild-type SaI tumor cells which have been
irradiated with 10,000 rads. Doses of tumor cells in the range of
1.times.10.sup.4 to 1.times.10.sup.6 cells can be inoculated. Tumor
cells irradiated in this way survive for up to two months in the
recipient mice, sufficient time for tolerance to the tumor cells to
be induced in the mice. After two months exposure to the wild-type
tumor cells, mice are injected simultaneously with wild-type tumor
cells into the flank of one hind leg and with tumor cells modified
to express B7 (eg. SaI/A.sup.Ktr/B7-1) into the flank of the
opposite hind leg. As a control, mice are injected with wild-type
tumor cells into both flanks. Tumor cell doses in the range of
1.times.10.sup.4 to 1.times.10.sup.6 cells are used for challenges.
Tumor growth is assessed by measuring the size of a tumor which
grows at the site of injection. The ability of B7-modified tumor
cells to induce anti-tumor immunity, and therefore overcome any
possible tolerance to the tumor cells in the mice, is determined by
the ability of B7-modified tumor cells injected into one flank to
prevent growth of wild-type tumor cells in the opposite flank, as
compared to when wild-type tumor cells are injected into both
flanks.
[0106] Alternatively, the ability of B7-modified tumor cells to
overcome potential tolerance to unmodified tumor cells is assessed
by an adoptive transfer experiment. A mouse is injected
intraperitoneally with a low dose, e.g. 1.times.10.sup.4 cells, of
wild-type SaI cells and the tumor cells are allowed to grow for
three weeks, at which time the mouse is sacrificed and spleen cells
from the mouse are harvested. These spleen cells are injected
intraperitoneally into a recipient, syngeneic mouse which has been
lethally irradiated to destroy its endogenous immune system. The
adoptively transferred spleen cells reconstitute the recipient
mouse with an immune system which has been previously exposed to
wild-type tumor cells. Following spleen cell transfer, the
recipient mouse is then challenged with wild-type tumor cells
injected into the flank of one hind leg and with B7-modified tumor
cells injected into the flank of the opposite hind leg. Tumor cell
doses in the range of 1.times.10.sup.4 to 1.times.10.sup.6 cells
are used for challenges. The ability of B7-modified tumor cells to
induce anti-tumor immunity is determined by the ability of
B7-modified tumor cells injected into one flank to prevent the
growth of wild-type tumor cells injected into the opposite
flank.
EQUIVALENTS
[0107] Those skilled in the art will recognize, or be able to
ascertain using no more than routine experimentation, many
equivalents to the specific embodiments of the invention described
herein. Such equivalents are intended to be encompassed by the
following claims.
Sequence CWU 0
0
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