U.S. patent number RE33,458 [Application Number 07/354,514] was granted by the patent office on 1990-11-27 for method for constructing vertical images of anomalies in geological formations.
This patent grant is currently assigned to Stolar, Inc.. Invention is credited to Larry G. Stolarczyk.
United States Patent |
RE33,458 |
Stolarczyk |
* November 27, 1990 |
Method for constructing vertical images of anomalies in geological
formations
Abstract
Apparatus and method for detecting geological anomalies occuring
in geological formations. The instrumentation comprises a medium
frequency continuous wave narrowband FM transmitter and receiver
pair. Two instrument configurations are downhole instruments for
insertion into boreholes. Survey procedures are provided to detect
anomalies through signal attenuation, path attenuation and signal
phase shift. Continuity measurements at different depths in the
drillholes provide data to determine the existence of anomalies.
Tomographic techniques are employed to provide a visual image of
the anomaly. Computer aided reconstruction techniques provide such
visual images from the generated data.
Inventors: |
Stolarczyk; Larry G. (Raton,
NM) |
Assignee: |
Stolar, Inc. (Raton,
NM)
|
[*] Notice: |
The portion of the term of this patent
subsequent to March 18, 2003 has been disclaimed. |
Family
ID: |
27502876 |
Appl.
No.: |
07/354,514 |
Filed: |
May 18, 1989 |
Related U.S. Patent Documents
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Application
Number |
Filing Date |
Patent Number |
Issue Date |
|
|
812625 |
Dec 23, 1985 |
4691166 |
|
|
|
731741 |
May 6, 1985 |
4577153 |
Mar 18, 1986 |
|
Reissue of: |
874593 |
Jun 16, 1986 |
04742305 |
May 3, 1988 |
|
|
Current U.S.
Class: |
324/334;
324/338 |
Current CPC
Class: |
G01N
33/24 (20130101); G01V 3/30 (20130101) |
Current International
Class: |
G01V
3/30 (20060101); G01N 33/24 (20060101); G01V
3/18 (20060101); G01V 003/12 (); G01V 003/30 ();
G01V 003/38 () |
Field of
Search: |
;324/334-338,341,372
;166/248,250 ;455/39-41 |
References Cited
[Referenced By]
U.S. Patent Documents
Foreign Patent Documents
Primary Examiner: Strecker; Gerard R.
Attorney, Agent or Firm: Law Offices of Thomas E.
Schatzel
Parent Case Text
BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION
This application is a continuation-in-part of patent application
Ser. No. 06/812,625, filed Dec. 23, 1985, now U.S. Pat. No.
4,691,166, which is a divisional of Ser. No. 06/731,741, filed May
6, 1985, now U.S. Pat. No. 4,577,153, issued Mar. 18, 1986.
Claims
I claim:
1. A method for imaging geologic anomalies in a vertical plane in
underground geological formations comprising:
drilling a plurality of downholes about said formation and at
locations remote from each other;
placing within a first of said downholes a transmitter having
continuous wave transmit capabilities in a medium frequency range
of approximately 100 KHz to approximately 800 KHz, the transmitter
including a short magnetic dipole antenna for propagation of waves
through said seam;
placing within a second of said downholes a receiver having
continuous wave receive capabilities in a medium frequency range of
approximately 100 KHz to approximately 800 KHz, the receiver
including a vertical tuned resonant loop antenna for receiving
waves propagated by said transmitter, said receiver further
including measuring and recording means for measuring and recording
a plurality of characteristics of said received propagated
waves;
successively changing the elevation of said transmitter in said
first hole to different transmitter stations;
at each transmitter station, transmitting a plurality of
transmissions of continuous wave medium frequency waves with
spherical spreading and an azimuthal magnetic field component
propagated toward and received by said receiver antenna;
measuring a plurality of signal transmission characteristics of the
received azimuthal magnetic field components;
calculating a plurality of expected signal transmission
characteristics of signals propagated through said formations;
and
comparing said calculated signal transmission characteristics with
said measured signal transmission characteristics and generating,
by tomography reconstruction, geographical representation of said
vertical formation therefrom.
2. The method of claim 1 including the further step of,
with said transmitter at each transmitter station, successively
changing the elevation of said receiver in said second hole to
different receiver stations.
3. The method of claim 1 including the further step of,
predetermining the distance between each transmitter station and
successively moving said transmitter to said predetermined
transmitter stations.
4. The method of claim 2 including the further step of,
predetermining the distance between each receiver station and
successively moving said receiver station to said predetermined
receiver stations.
5. The method of claim 2 wherein,
each successive change in elevation of the transmitter is
substantially equal to each successive change in elevation of the
receiver.
6. The method of claim 2 including the further steps of,
removing the transmitter from the first of said downholes;
placing the transmitter within a third of said downholes and
successively changing the elevation of said transmitter in said
third hole to different transmitter station;
at each transmitter station within said third hole, transmitting a
plurality of transmissions of continuous wave medium frequency
waves with an azimuthal magnetic field component propagated toward
and received by said receiver antenna;
measuring a plurality of signal transmission characteristics of the
received azimuthal magnetic field components;
calculating a plurality of expected signal transmission
characteristics of signals propagated through said formation;
and
comparing said calculated signal transmission characteristics with
said measured signal transmission characteristics and generating,
by tomography reconstruction, a geographical representation of said
vertical formation.
7. The method of claim 1 wherein, the short magnetic dipole antenna
is a vertical tuned resonant loop antenna.
Description
FIELD OF THE INVENTION
This invention relates generally to instrumentation and procedures
for detecting geological anomalies in geological formations and
more specifically to continuous-wave low and medium frequency radio
imaging techniques combined with computer aided reconstruction to
provide graphic radiogenic images of seam anomalies.
DESCRIPTION OF THE PRIOR ART
Coal seams or deposits occurring in layered formations have been
distorted by many different types of geological mechanisms.
Differential compaction occurring in surrounding layers causes
faults, twists and rolls to occur in the seam. Ancient streams have
washed coal from beds leaving sand and rock deposits. These
deposits, known as fluvial channel sand scours, can cause washouts
and weak roof. Such stream distortions and rock deposits are
physical barriers to mining equipment. Two types of underground
mining techniques are extensively used in the coal mining industry.
One type, referred to as room and pillar, or continuous mining, can
mine around many of these barriers. The continuous mining technique
is less expensive and requires less manpower. For example, set-up
generally requires three shifts of eight people. Continuous mining,
however, produces only approximately 300 tons per shift. Longwall
mining, the other widely used technique, is much more efficient in
uniform coal beds. This method yields production rates averaging
1500 tons per shift.
In the United States, the Mining Safety and Health Administration
requires that retreating, rather than advancing longwalls be used.
On the other, in Europe, advancing longwalls are extensively used.
Retreating longwalls are set up to mine in the direction of the
main entry, whereas advancing longwalls mine away from the main
entry. Continuous mining techniques are employed to set up the
retreating longwall. From the main entry, entry ways are mined at
right angles to the main entry and on either side of the longwall
panel. These entry ways, the head gate entry and tail gate entry
respectively, extend the length of the longwall panel. At the end
of the panel, a crosscut is made between the head gate and the tail
gate entries. The wall of the crosscut facing the main entry is the
longwall face. The longwall machine is set up along the face with a
heading toward the main entry. As the longwall moves forward, the
roof caves in over the mined out area. A barrier block of unmined
coal is left at the end of the run to support the roof over the
main entry.
The high yield of longwall mining makes it economically
advantageous to use where a long panel can be mined. A typical
longwall panel contains from 500,000 to 1,000,000 tons of coal. The
initial investment and set-up cost of longwall mining are high.
Equipment cost averages many millions of dollars. Longwall set-up
requires thirty days minimum, at three shifts per day, with twelve
to fourteen men per shift. Thus, set-up expenses are very large as
a result and to achieve the low cost production advantage of the
longwall method, a uniform coal seam is necessary to ensure a long
production run. Seam anomalies such as faults, washouts,
interbeddings and dikes can cause premature termination of the
longwall production run. In many instances, longwalls become
"ironbound" after encountering an anomaly. Removal of such
"ironbound" equipment requires blasting which can damage equipment
and exposes miners to extreme danger. Accordingly, if seam
anomalies could be detected and analyzed in advance of mining, the
mining techniques could be planned for minimum production cost.
Where the survey discloses a long continuous coal seam, the low
cost longwall technique can be employed. If barriers to longwall
mining are discovered, the mine engineering department can use
continuous mining to mine around the barriers.
Geological surveys for potentially productive coal formations use
many well known procedures. These procedures employ a wide variety
of technologies. Satellite imaging and photography provide global
data for use by mine geologists. However, because of the broad
overview of the data they are of no value in determining the
mineability of a coal seam. Macrosurvey (foot prospecting) of
surface strata and outcrop features enable geologists to forecast
formation characteristics based upon prior knowledge. Surface based
seismic and electromagnetic wave propagation procedures are
extensively used in geophysical surveys for valuable deposits
including oil and gas. The microsurvey techniques, however, are not
reliable in examining the detailed structure in a coal seam.
Various microsurveying in-seam seismic techniques are currently
employed to yield useful data concerning seam anomalies. A
technique under development in Europe comprises firing shots of
sixteen points into a block of 120 geophone groups, each consisting
of thirty-six geophones. Computerized processing of the seismic
data results in the detection of faults. To date, the procedure
requires placing charges at five foot intervals and requires the
installation of extensive cabling. Seismic techniques are primarily
intended for advancing, rather than retreating longwalls. Further,
this method has not proven to have the capability of resolving
channel sand anomalies, especially for partial washouts and
smaller, less significant anomalies, nor can they detect roof/floor
rock conditions. The emerging of the surface based spectral
magnetotelluric method with controlled sources may have the
capability of seeing into the earth's crust. This method appears to
be useful in detecting major faults in layered formations, but
cannot resolve detailed seam structure.
Downhole drilling has been used to probe longwall blocks. A
ten-twelve hole pattern drilled six-hundred feet into the panel
provides samples of the coal in the seam. This method, however, has
the disadvantage of covering only a small percentage of the block.
Because of this limited coverage, this technique is not useful to
detect and resolve seam anomalies that may exist in the seam
between the boreholes. Surface core drilling and logging remains
the most reliable source of seam information. Core sampling
provides useful data in mapping stratified mediums. Logging enables
probing of the formation in the vicinity of the drillhole. None of
the currently used logging methods can detect and resolve seam
anomalies that may exist in the seam between the bore holes over
distances greater than about fifty feet. In-seam horizontal
drilling can detect seam anomalies, but is subject to the same
coverage limitations of vertical drilling. Horizontal drilling,
additionally, is very expensive, averaging twenty cents per ton of
coal produced.
Electromagnetic technologies have been investigated in an attempt
to provide a geophysical method to see within the coal seams.
Conventional and synthetic radar techniques have been reported in
the literature. Because of the high frequency of the radar, it is
exceedingly useful in investigating the geological structure in
near proximity to the borehole. Deep seam penetration, however,
requires very high transmit power in order to maintain any sort of
useful resolution. This is because high frequency signals are
attentuated very rapidly with distance in the seam. Accordingly,
present radar methods cannot see deep into the seam.
Publications by R. J. Lytle, Cross Borehole Electromagnetic Probing
to Locate High-Contrast Anomalies, Geophysics, Vol. 44, No. 10,
October 1979; and Computerized Geophysical Tomography. Proceedings
of the IEEE, Vol. 67, No. 7, July 1979, have described a method of
imaging coal seams using continuous wave (CW) signals. His method
proposed only tomographic imaging between nearby boreholes. The
method of Lytle had limited range and resolution, because of the
limited spatial measurements that could be taken using downhole
probes. To satisfy the requirements for tomography, Lytle used a
higher frequency range, thus achieving less range. Further, the
conductivity of rock was found to be much greater than the
conductivity of coal. Where the difference conductivity (contrast)
is large, the tomography algorithm will diverge rather than
converge, resulting in no image.
A study conducted by Arthur D. Little, Inc. for the U.S. Bureau of
Mines investigated continuous-wave medium-frequency signal
propagation in coal. The results, published by Alfred G. Emslie and
Robert L. Lagace, Radio Science, Vol. II, No. 4, April 1976, dealt
with the use of electromagnetic waves for communication purposes
only. Additionally, errors may be present in the wave propagation
equations employed.
Other electromagnetic techniques suffer similar range and
resolution problems. None of the prior art recognized the existence
of a coal seam transmission window in the 100-800 kHz range.
Accordingly, none of the prior art achieved a long range, high
resolution imaging of geological anomalies.
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION
Accordingly, it is an object of the present invention to provide
instrumentation and procedures for in-seam and surface imaging of
geological formation anomalies with a range sufficient to image an
entire longwall panel.
It is a further object of the present invention to provide
instrumentation and procedures to image coal seam anomalies with
resolution sufficient to detect faults, full and partial washouts,
fluvial channel sand scours, dikes and interbeddings.
It is a further object of the present invention to minimize
production costs by surface mapping of fault directions, and
providing longwall headings where appropriate.
It is another object of the present invention to minimize
production costs by in-seam imaging of longwall panels, after the
panel headings have been developed.
An additional object of the present invention is to mitigate or
eliminate hazards to miners resulting from unexpected geological
anomalies.
Briefly, a preferred embodiment of the present invention includes a
continuous wave low and medium frequency transmitting with FM
capabilities and equipped with a directional loop antenna, a
continuous wave medium frequency receiver equipped with a
directional loop antenna (short magnetic dipole) and capable of
accurately measuring and recording the received signal amplitude
and phase shift of the transmitted signal, and data processing
means for producing a pictorial representation of the coal seam
from the raw data generated. Both the transmitter and the receiver
are portable and are designed in two configurations: a cylindrical
configuration, referred to as a sonde, for insertion down boreholes
adjacent to a coal seam, and a portable, or entry configuration
adaptable for in-seam use.
The invention further includes survey procedures for imaging
structures in coal seams. Two methods of seam imaging are provided
with procedure selection dependent on terrain and seam depth.
Surface based seam imaging with downhole continuity instruments is
expected to be used in moderately shallow beds with good surface
drilling conditions. In-seam imaging and tomographic techniques
will be used when a clear picture of the seam structure is
required.
The preferred embodiment utilizes continuous wave low and medium
frequency (MF) signals to achieve high resolution imaging of
geophysical anomalies in coal seams with relatively low output
power. Because the coal seam is bounded above and below by rock
with a differing conductivity, at certain signal frequencies
electromagnetic energy becomes trapped and will propagate over
great distances. This transmission window, or coal seam mode, is
excited by the turned loop (short magnetic dipole) antennas
employed in the preferred embodiment causing the MF signals to
travel several hundred meters in the coal seam. Seam anomalies
create regions with different electrical constitutive parameters
relative to the coal. This electrical contrast between the coal and
the anomalous structure gives rise to the imaging method. The
contrast will change the wave propagation constant in the region
whereby the wave received on the far side of the region can be
analyzed to determine structure between the transmitter and
receiver.
The low and MF in-seam continuity and tomography instruments
further employ MF signals with a narrow occupied spectrum
bandwidth. The receiving instruments detect and measure the signals
with phase-locked-loop (PLL) techniques. PLL receivers extend the
signal detection threshold well into the noise, thus enhancing
operating range. The continuity imaging procedure is used where
relatively large electrical contrast between the coal seam and
anomalous structure is present. Tomography is applicable when a
small electrical contrast exists. Tomography instrumentation can
improve resolution by making more spatial measurements, thus
overcoming the inherent radar range limitations.
The downhole procedure will require a drilling plan that will
enable the medium frequency signal to propagate in the seam between
boreholes. In this procedure, a plurality of holes are drilled on
either side of the seam. The transmitter and receiver probes are
inserted into the boreholes on opposite sides of the seam and
signal attenuation is measured across the seam. A series of data
points is generated by communicating with a receiver and a
transmitter at differing levels within downholes to establish
vertical profiles and varying the location of the transmitter and
receiver across the series of boreholes to establish a horizontal
profile. Signal attenuation, path attenuation, and phase shift are
measured and compared with calculated values to determine if seam
anomalies are present. Additionally, this data can be reconstructed
by computer assisted imaging techniques to provide a pictorial
representation of the seam. When a fault is detected additional
boreholes are drilled bisecting boreholes in the original drilling
plan and further readings are taken to localize the fault. The
in-seam imaging technique is carried out in a similar manner to the
surface based imaging technique, except the transmitter and
receiver instruments are located in the head and tail gate entries
adjacent to the seam.
Additionally, the instrumentation can be used to improve mining
safety by detecting coal seam fire headings. Fire in the seam
affects the coal seam's conductivity and will thus be detected in
the same manner as anomalies are detected. Where a fire is known to
exist, the in-seam detection methods are used to localize it so it
can be controlled. In another application, communications with
trapped miners can be established by equipping the miners with
small receivers or transceivers. By drilling in the suspected area
of the trapped miner, the downhole instrument can excite the coal
seam mode and be used to communicate with the trapped miner.
It is an advantage of the present invention that graphical
representation of geological formation anomalies are developed by
the imaging technique.
It is an advantage of the present invention that vertical scanning
can be accomplished to establish a vertical image of the geological
area under study.
It is another advantage of the present invention that production
costs can be minimized by selecting the appropriate mode of mining
the coal.
It is a further advantage of the present invention that the imaging
can be carried out using a minimum of equipment and a minimum of
boreholes.
It is a further advantage of the present invention that imaging can
be accomplished using a relatively low transmitter power.
It is a further advantage of the present invention that mining
safety can be improved through the detection of geological
anomalies in the working phase.
It is yet another advantage that partial washouts caused by fluvial
channel sand scour can be detected by the present invention.
It is a further advantage that roof/floor rock conditions can be
determined by the present invention.
It is yet another advantage of the present invention that the
instrumentation can be used to communicate with trapped miners,
thus increasing mining safety.
It is a further advantage that coal seam fire headings can be
determined with the present invention.
These and other objects and advantages of the present invention
will no doubt become obvious to those of oridinary skill in the art
after having read the following detailed description of the
preferred embodiments as illustrated in the various drawing
figures.
IN THE DRAWINGS
FIG. 1 is a front elevational view of an in-seam receiver for use
in the present invention;
FIG. 2 is a front elevational view of an in-seam transmitter for
use in the present invention;
FIG. 3 is a partial cut-away view of a downhole probe for use with
the present invention;
FIG. 3a is a front elevational view of a downhole probe fitted with
a borehole probe centralizer;
FIG. 4 is a schematic representation of the modular components of
the downhole receiver and transmitter probes of FIG. 3;
FIG. 5 is an idealized cut-away view of a coal seam showing the
location of the transmitter of FIG. 2 and receiver of FIG. 1 for
in-seam tomography;
FIG. 6 is an idealized cut-away view of a coal seam showing
boreholes adjacent to the coal seam with downhole probes and
surface equipment in position;
FIG. 7 is illustrates a tunnel study area of a geological formation
wherein the receiver communicates with transmitters from two
different locations;
FIG. 8 is a graphical reading of measured field signal strength
versus radial distance from radiating antenna;
FIG. 9 is a diagrammable illustration of vertical imaging for a
geological formation;
FIGS. 10A and 10B illustrate vertical RIM cross-hole survey results
with FIG. 10A illustrating the tomography .[.attentuation rate.].
.Iadd.phase constant .Iaddend.versus frequency and FIG. 10B and
attenuation rate isopach map;
FIG. 11 graphically illustrates electrical parameters of various
materials; and
FIG. 12 is a diagrammatical illustration of applying the present
invention for detection of petroleum products.
DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT
FIG. 1 illustrates a portable-continuous wave low and medium
frequency (CWLMF) receiver for in-seam tomographic imaging. As used
herein, tomography is a generic term to denote an electromagnetic
process of imaging structure in a coal seam using low and medium
frequency (LMF) signals. The imaging process may or may not use the
tomography algorithm. The receiver is designated by the general
reference character 10 and is of the single conversion,
superhetrodyne type with a frequency range of 100 to 800 kHz,
tunable in five kHz increments. Receiver 10 is designed to
automatically measure field strength of a transmitted signal, and
to covert this measured field strength into a digital signal for
subsequent data processing. Receiver 10 includes a tuned loop
antenna 11, a distance logging keyboard 12, a magnetic tape
recorder 13 and a field strength display 14.
FIG. 2 illustrates a continuous wave low and medium-frequency
transmitter referred to by the general reference character 20. The
transmitter 20 is a class B transmitter with a frequency range of
100 to 800 kHz, tunable in five kHz increments. The output power of
transmitter 20 is twenty watts. This is sufficient to provide a
range of at least 1550 feet at 520 kHz, depending on the medium.
Transmitter 20 is equipped with a tuned loop antenna 21. The
transmitter 20 and receiver 10 are constructed in a configuration
adaptable for in-seam use as later described herein and illustrated
in FIG. 4. In addition to the continuous wave signal capability of
receiver 10 and transmitter 20, the transmitter 20 is further
designed to generate and transmit narrowband frequency modulation
(FM) signals, and the receiver 10 is further designed to receive
narrowband FM signals and to demodulate those signals. This
capability allows for phase shift measurements which yields
additional useful data in detecting and imaging the geological
anomalies. For such measurements, a reference signal must be sent
from the transmitter 20 to the receiver 10. This signal is sent
through fiber optics cable 22 as shown in FIG. 5. Fiber optics
cable 22 is coupled to receiver 10 through reference cable
connector 24, and is coupled to transmitter 20 through connector
26.
In-seam imaging requires access immediately adjacent the coal seam.
In situations where the head and tail gate entries have not been
cut, as in the case of advancing longwall mining, or where the bed
is moderately shallow with good surface drilling characteristics,
surface based imaging employing downhole probes can be used. FIG. 3
illustrates the general configuration of a downhole probe, or sonde
and referred to by the general reference character 30. The probe 30
is of a cylindrical configuration for insertion down a standard
size borehole. Probe 30 includes an outer hollow structural
cylinder 37 of a diameter of about two and one-quarter inches.
Cylinder 37 may be constructed of a variety of materials, and in
the preferred embodiment is of a radiolucent material such as
fiberglass. Rotatably mounted within cylinder 37 is a support frame
40. Support frame 40 is a solid cylinder with a longitudinal trough
42 ending at a pair of opposing flat faces 43. Mounted on each of
the flat faces 43 is a modular circuit board including antenna
heading control 44, modem 45 and either a receiver 46 or a
transmitter 47, depending on whether receive or transmit capability
is desired of the probe. Located in longitudinal trough 42 are
conductors of a tuned loop antenna 48. Because of the directional
nature of the radio transmissions through tuned loop antenna 48,
means must be provided to mechanically orient the respective
antennas of the receiver and transmitter probes to a co-planar
alignment. This is accomplished by rotating the frame 40 within the
outer cylinder 37 by means of a drive motor 49. Drive motor 49 is
fixed to the proximal end of cylinder 37 and mechanically coupled
to frame 40 whereby frame 40 can be rotated through a full
360.degree. within the cylinder 37. In the preferred embodiment,
power to drive motor 49 is supplied by six nickel-cadmium batteries
50 fixed to the proximal end of support frame 40, just below drive
motor 49. AC power could also be supplied downhole and rectified at
the probe to create the required DC voltage from the probe
circuitry. Cylinder 37 is sealed at its distal end by an end cap 51
and at its proximal end by an end cap 52. End cap 52 contains a
standard four pin socket 53 into which is plugged a cable 54. Cable
54 is the means by which the probe 30 is connected to surface
equipment and through which data is sent for the imaging process.
Electronic surface equipment for downhole receiver 30 comprises a
signal strength display/recorder, a modem, and a radio
transmitter/receiver for sending a reference signal between probes
when the probes are operated in the FM mode.
To ensure that the probe is centrally located within the borehole,
a borehole probe centralizer is fitted to the probe as shown in
FIG. 3a. This centralizer includes a proximal end cap 55 which is
attached to the probe proximal end cap 52. End cap 55 has a central
aperture through which cable 54 may pass. Sleeve 56 fits snugly
around the distal end of outer cylinder 40 of probe 30. Attached to
both end cap 55 and sleeve 56 are three to four bands 57. These
bands 57 are of a strong flexible material such as thin stainless
steel. The bands 57 are prestressed to curve convexly outward to
contact the inside walls of the borehole. The bands 57 are
sufficiently flexible to urge the probe 30 into the borehole's
center, and to allow for easy passage of the probe down the
borehole.
The preferred embodiment contemplates modular design of the
components of both the downhole probes 30 and the in-seam
instruments 10 and 20. In this way, cost of production is reduced
and repair and servicing is simplified. FIG. 4 is a general block
diagram of the components, showing the modular design.
Table 1 is an equipment identification chart identifying the
modular components and Table 2 is a configuration matrix showing
the composition of each downhole probe 30 and in-seam instrument 10
and 20.
TABLE 1 ______________________________________ Module
Identification ______________________________________ A1 Receiver
A3 Transmitter A10 C.sup.3 Modem A13 Display/Recorder B6 NiCad
Battery Tuned Loop Antenna Enclosures C1 Downhole C2 Porthole
______________________________________
TABLE 2 ______________________________________ CONFIGURATION MATRIX
Instrument A1 A3 A10 A13 B6 C1 C2
______________________________________ Downhole 30 Transmitter 1 1
1 1 Receiver 1 1 1 1 Surface 1 1 In-seam (10 or 20) Transmitter 1 1
1 Receiver 10 1 1 1 1 ______________________________________
Examples of equipment specifications are shown in the following
Tables 3-7. Table 3 describes the general system operating
parameters. Tables 4 and 5 illustrate the transmitter and receiver
specifications, respectively. Table 6 describes the transmitter and
receiver antenna characteristics and Table 7 gives the
specifications for the modem.
TABLE 3 ______________________________________ SYSTEM
SPECIFICATIONS ______________________________________ Signal
Emissions: Type CW and Narrowband FM Frequency Range 100 to 800 kHz
Tuning 5 kHz Increments Peak Deviation 100 Hz Modulation: Frequency
Range 200 Hz Environmental: Operating Temperature -40 to 80 Degrees
C. Probe 500 PSI ______________________________________
TABLE 4 ______________________________________ TRANSMITTER
______________________________________ Type Complimentary Class B
Module Description A3 Frequency Range 100 to 800 kHz Tuning 5 kHz
Increments Output Power 20 Watts Flatness .+-.1/2 DB RF Load
Impedance 50 and 200 Ohms VSWR 3:1 Max Mixer Oscillator 10.7 MHz
Signal Oscillator 100 Hz Power Requirements Operating Voltage 9 to
15 Volts DC Demand Current 3.5 Amperes Connectors Type Molex Output
Power 2 VCC 1 Ground 1 Fiber Optics Cable 1 (Reference)
______________________________________
TABLE 5 ______________________________________ RECEIVER
______________________________________ Type Single Conversion
Superhetrodyne Module Description A1 Frequency Range 100 to 800 kHz
Tuning 5 kHz Increments IF Frequency 10.7 MHz Source Impedance 50
Ohms Sensitivity 0.1 Microvolts for 12 dB Sinad IF Frequency 10.7
MHz Selectivity 3 dB BW 200 Hz Min 70 dB BW 1 kHz Audio Squelched
50 dB Min Unsquelched 30 dB (100 UV) Load 8 Ohms Frequency Response
3 dB 10, 70, 100 Hz Voltmeter Type Sychronized with trans- mitter
local oscillator Range 0 to 360 degrees
______________________________________
TABLE 6 ______________________________________ ANTENNA
______________________________________ Type Tuned Loop Antenna
Frequency Range 100 to 800 kHz Number of Turns 11 Magnetic Moment
Downhole 8 ATM.sup.2 @ 20W Portable 8 ATM.sup.2 @ 20W Heading Type
Flux Gate Compass (Downhole)
______________________________________
TABLE 7 ______________________________________ C.sup.3 MODEM
______________________________________ Type Manchester Code Format
1b Bit Code Function Power On/Off Antenna Position .+-.30 of
Command ______________________________________
Where there is no immediate access to the coal seam, surface
imaging is performed using the downhole probes 30 inserted into a
series of boreholes around the seams perimeter. This procedure is
represented in FIG. 6.
Imaging of the seam is based upon the differential conductivity of
coal and the anomalous structure. The conductivity of rock is
several orders of magnitude greater than the conductivity of coal.
The vertical orientation of the transmitting tuned loop antenna
produces a horizontal magnetic field H.sub..phi. and a vertical
electrical field E.sub.Z. These fields are almost constant over the
height of the coal seam. At large radial distances from the
antenna, the fields decay exponentially at a rate determined by an
effective attenuation constant .alpha. which depends on losses both
in the coal and in the rock, and on the dielectric constant of the
coal. The attentuation rate is expected to increase as the coal
seam thickness decreases, coal seam conductivity increases, and the
relative dielectric constant increases. The attenuation rate
decreases as the rock conductivity increases. The rate also depends
upon frequency of the transmitted signals, and on water content of
the seam. Measured results by Emilie and Lagace indicate an
attentuation rate in coal of approximately four dB/100 feet. This
forms the basis for the coal seam continuity imaging method.
The tuned loop antennas excite the natural low loss coal seam mode
signal in accordance with the following equation (1):
where M is the magnetic moment of the transmit antenna, r is the
range from the transmitter to the receiver antennas, .alpha. is an
attenuation constant, h equals the seam height, .epsilon..sub.c and
.epsilon..sub.r are the seam and rock permitivities respectfully,
and .sigma..sub.c and .sigma..sub.r are the seam and rock
conductivities.
The magnetic moment M is itself dependent on transmit power
P.sub.o, and bandwidth BW as represented by equation (2): ##EQU1##
Together, these equations indicate that the tuned loop antennas
will excite the natural coal seam mode magnetic moment and thus
provide the highest magnetic moment resulting in the longest range.
Narrow system bandwidth also leads to improved receiver sensitivity
S.sub.dB.sup.10 for a 10 dB IF signal-to-noise ratio is given by
equation (3):
where BW.sub.IF is the IF bandwidth of the signals and NF is the
noise figure at the receiver.
Equation 3 thus shows that sensitivity increases as bandwidth
decreases. The results of equations (1), (2) and (3) indicate that
continuous wave LMF signals are optimum for the geophysical survey
instruments. This is because their narrow bandwidth results in
signal propagation in coal with the lowest attenuation rate
(Equation 3) and highest magnetic moment (Equations 1 and 2). The
net result is that the operating range of the instruments is
maximized at a specified output power.
The imaging method is dependent on a comparison of the calculated
signal strength with the measured signals strength as determined by
the CW, LMF instruments. An analysis of the calculated signal
strength is helpful to understanding of the method. To provide a
baseline reading for the imaging method, Equation (1), previously
referred to, is used to calculate the expected signal strength in a
particular coal seam. This is accomplished by measuring the various
parameters at the particular seam and applying these results to
Equation (1).
The propagated signal is received in the far side receiver. Because
of either an increase in the "effective" seam conductivity or a
decrease in height of the seam, wave propagation along a faulted
seam path will result in greater attenuation rate. Thus, by
comparing the level of a number of received signals, path anomalies
can be detected. Additionally, the refractive index of LMF signals
varies slowly in pure coal, thus the signals travel on a straight
line path. Propagation in coal takes the form of a parallel plane,
transverse electromagnetic (TEM) transmission-line type mode, with
the electric field vertical and the magnetic field horizontal
within a planar seam bounded above and below by more conductive
rock. Seam anomalies such as rock have a different refractive index
than coal, thereby deflecting the signal path to a greater degree.
The narrowband-FM signals allow for measurement of this path
attenuation, thus providing a second means of detecting anomalies.
Finally, phase shift of the FM signal along the path also indicates
the presence of anomalous formations within the seam.
When greater resolution is desired tomographic, rather than
continuity imaging techniques are employed. Tomography results in
high resolution by employing the lowest attenuation rate frequency
and making more frequent spatial measurements. The attenuation
rates are measured at each spatial orientation of transmitter and
receiver and the resulting data points are analyzed using computer
aided imaging techniques to yield a pictorial representation of the
anomaly.
To obtain good resolution, the distance between the transmitter and
receiver should be greater than .lambda..sub.c /2.pi. where
.lambda..sub.c is the signal wavelength in coal. Thus, for the 520
kHz transmission frequency of the preferred embodiment, the
wavelength in coal is 97.7 meters. This yields a minimum separation
distance of 15.56 meters.
The in-seam tomographic imaging method as illustrated in FIG. 5,
accordingly is carried out with portable entry receiver 10 and
transmitter 20 in a manner determined to maximize resolution. Tuned
loop (short magnetic dipole) antenna 21 of transmitter 20 is
designed to excite the natural coal seam mode azimuthal magnetic
field component (H.sub.100), at a preselected wavelength in the
100-800 kHz range, thus providing the highest field strength at a
given power output. Receiver tuned loop antenna 11 is placed in a
co-planar alignment with transmitter antenna 21 to ensure maximum
field strength. The instruments are separated by a distance of more
than 15.56 meters for maximum resolution. In the preferred
embodiment, a coal seam is 600 feet (200 meters) wide, thus
ensuring adequate separation. It can be seen that a coal seam 70
contains within it a rock/sand barrier 74. This rock/sand barrier
74 will act as a radiogenic mass and cause an attenuation in the
transmitted signal. Because tomography employs the lowest
attenuation rate signal frequency allowing for minimization of
transmitter output power, it is important that the head and tail
gate entries do not include continuous electrical conductors. Such
conductors create secondary magnetic fields that would interfere
with received signal level measurements. To obtain adequate
resolution in the tomographic in-seam survey a number of data must
be collected by taking spatial measurements. The procedure is thus
carried out by making a series of received signal level
measurements at specific locations (designated as X.sub.0, X.sub.1
. . . X.sub.n) in the tail gate entry 76 for each transmitter
location in the heat gate entry 78. Similarly, the transmitter 20
is placed at a series of specific locations (designate as Y.sub.0,
Y.sub.1 . . . Y.sub.n) within the head gate entry 78 and the
receiver 10 is placed at the corresponding locations in the tail
gate entry 76. At each receiver location in the entry way distance
logging keyboard 12 is used to enter coordinates representing the
receiver's position relative to the transmitter. These coordinates
are converted to digital signals and stored, along with the
measured receive signal values, on the magnetic tape. In
reconstructing the data, the signal strength measurements can be
thus corrected for positional changes of the transmitter and
receiver. The longitudinally spacing of transmitter and receiver
locations is determined by the required image resolution. The
resultant received signal data is converted to digital form and
stored on the cassette tape 13 of receiver 10 and can be analyzed
in a computer based tomography algorithm. Such computer aided
imaging algorithms will provide a detailed picture of the seam
structure. Computer generated data may also include a print-out of
seam parameters(conductivity, ash content, etc.) and a digital tape
for use by the mines' computer graphics terminal.
Surface based seam imaging equipment is deployed as shown in FIG.
6. The coal seam to be imaged is represented by general reference
character 80. It can be seen that a fault 82 is present within the
seam. In employing the surface base imaging procedure using a
perimeter exploration protocol a plurality of drill holes 84 are
drilled along the perimeter of the longwall panels. In the
preferred embodiment two adjacent longwall panels, of a combined
width of 1200 feed and a length of 6000 feet can be imaged with a
ten-hole drilling plan. Such a drilling plan will detect seam
anomalies within the panels. If a fault is detected in the panel a
convergent search strategy is required to determine its heading.
Such a search strategy is carried out by drilling bisecting
boreholes within the perimeter to localize the fault. Surface
imaging of the coal seam is accomplished in a manner similar to the
in-seam imaging procedure. After the series of drill holes have
been bored around the perimeter of the longwall panel, the surface
probes 30 are inserted down the boreholes 84 to the depth of the
coal seam which has been determined from the core samples. FIG. 6
illustrates a vertical displacement fault which results in one end
of the coal seam being deeper than the other. Because the signals
tend to propagate through the coal, the receiver probe 30 is placed
within the coal seam and not necessarily at the same depth as the
transmitter probe 30. Downhole probes 30, comprising a receiver
probe and a transmitter probe are inserted in opposite drill holes
84. Receiver and transmitter antenna segments 48 are aligned in a
co-planar manner by means of drive motors 49 located in the end of
downhole probes 30. Antenna headings are determined and controlled
through the use of surface control units including telemetry and
control equipment and a modem. These units, together with the probe
control equipment and cabling, are mounted in trucks 86. Continuous
wave of FM low and medium frequency transmissions are made in a
manner similar to those made in the in-seam imaging procedure and
attenuation rate and/or phase shift are measured. The process is
repeated with the receiver probe 30 and transmitter probe 30 in
each of the boreholes 84.
This surface procedure may also be carried out from an underground
surface. This situation occurs when a lower coal seam is being
explored from an existing mined seam. The existing seam floor then
becomes the surface into which boreholes are drilled for
exploration of the lower seam. The downhole probes 30 are inserted
into the boreholes and measurements taken in the normal surface
exploration manner.
The resultant continuity data is analyzed to determine if areas of
increased attenuation are present. Such areas indicate fault zones
or other geological anomalies. If sufficient boreholes are drilled,
the data can be analyzed using computer-aided tomographic imaging
techniques to yield a pictorial result as with the in-seam
procedure.
Additionally, floor/roof rock characteristics can be determined
using continuous wave medium frequency continuity measurements.
This procedure is analogous to the downhole seam continuity
measurements except the receiver and transmitter probes 30 are
positioned above the coal seam ceiling to measure roof conditions.
The signals are thus propagated through the surrounding rock, and
signal attenuation is measured. In this way, a determination
respecting the type of rock and resulting roof/floor conditions can
be made.
Vertical imaging wherein attenuation rates are measured in vertical
plane is also an important capability. Imaging is accomplished by
determining the complex propagation factor (attenuation rate) of an
electromagnetic wave along straight ray paths in the geologic study
zone. The attenuation rate depends on electrical properties
(permitivity, permeability, and conductivity) of the transmission
medium. The attenuation rate is theoretically known in a homogenous
medium and the attentuation rate is known to change in zones of
geologic disturbances. It is also known that the attentuation rate
increases in fault zones where chemical mineralization has resulted
in localized ore chutes of increased conductivity or it increases
in water filled tunnels. The attenuation rate decreases in zones
intersected by air filled tunnels, and in zones where geologic
disturbances caused by mine tunnel blasting fractures adjacent rock
structures.
The radio imaging method of the present invention allows for
evaluation of geological structure in the vertical plane.
Chemically mineralized ore zones and tunnels intersecting the
imaging plane, may be graphically reconstructed using the method of
this invention with available tomography algorithms. For example,
where there is a tunnel in the geological structure, a restructured
image shows that hallows of geologic disturbances can be detected
in the rock surrounding the tunnel. In such an environment a
plurality of drill holes may be positioned. Then a downhole radio
transmitter is placed in one drill hole and a downhole radio
receiver is placed in a second drill hole. Each hole shall have a
number of measuring stations, e.g. twenty-five, each at a different
vertical elevation. Using twenty-five measuring stations in each
drill hole, as an example, 625 receiver measurements may be taken
and used to determine average attenuation rate along paths between
the downhole transmitter and downhole receiver at each location.
The data may then be compiled and analyzed in a computerized
tomography algorithm which in turn determines the attentuation rate
in each of the 625 cells which cover the entire vertical image
plane.
The vertical evaluation of a geological structure will reveal the
image of anomalies, e.g. tunnels, voids and chemically mineralized
ore zones, etc. Experimentation has shown that a correct model of
the electromagnetic wave imaging signal propagating along a
straight ray path is predominantly a plane wave exhibiting
spherical spreading. The magnetic field component of the
electromagnetic (EM) quasi plane wave is mathmatically: ##EQU2##
where r is the radial distance from the source (feet);
.alpha. is the attenuation rate in rB per hundred feet; and
C is a constant
In conducting experimentation, receiver measurements were made
along the centerline of the tunnel shown in FIG. 7. When the
transmitter was located in a select borehole, the measured data is
shown in FIG. 8, the average attenuation rate in an underground
tunnel was 16.8 dB per 100 feet which is near the theoretical rate
of 18.6 dB per 100 feet. The "c" factor was found by the analytical
construction in FIG. 8 to have a value of 185. Experiments were
conducted with an image frequency of 300 kHz exhibiting a
wavelength of 305.7 feet in the schist medium. Since the wavelength
is much greater than the diameter of the drillhole and tunnel,
propagation disturbances from reflection mechanisms are minimized.
Also, the tunnel cut-off frequency is approximately 22 MHz thereby
negating tunnel wave propagation with potential resulting
measurements interference problems. After correcting the measured
data 20Log.sub.10 H.sub..theta., (see curve A of FIG. 8), for the
effects of spherical spreading, 20Log.sub.10 r, (see curve B of
FIG. 8), the resulting line C is of slope which is the attenuation
rate of the EM wave in the schist medium. Thus, the existence of
the tunnel was helpful in determining the nature of wave
propagation in the semi-homogenous medium.
FIGS. 7 and 9 diagrammatically illustrates a vertical imaging plane
set-up for a geological formation referred to by the general
reference character 100. Drill holes 101 and 102 are drilled at
different locations in the geological formation 100. These holes
establish the vertical edges of the reconstructed image. Within the
downhole 101 is positioned a plurality of downhole transmitter
location stations 106 and in the down hole 102 is positioned a
plurality of downhole receiver measuring stations 108. There are a
plurality of transmitter stations, e.g. FIG. 9 illustrates
twenty-five each thereby allowing for 625 readings. In collecting
the data the downhole transmitter 30 is first positioned at the
first station 106 within drillhole 101 and the downhole receiver at
the first receiver station 108 in drillhole 102. At these
locations, an imaging signal is sent from the transmitter location
106 to the receiver measuring station 108 where its level or phase
is measured. Then, downhole receiver station is moved to the second
receiver station 108 in drillhole 102 and the measurement is
repeated. The process is repeated for each other receiver station
3-25 in downhole 102. Then, the downhole transmitter is moved to
transmitter station 2 in drillhole 101 and data is accumulated for
each of receiver stations 1-25 in drillhole 102. Then, the downhole
transmitter is successively positioned at transmitter stations 3-25
within drillhole 101 and the process is repeated. For illustrative
purposes in FIG. 9, straight ray paths 110 of the EM signals are
illustrated as projecting from each of the transmitter location 106
to the multiple receiver stations 108. For example, each
transmitter location establishes an EM ray path pattern 110 to each
receiver station.
In conducting a survey, after all measurements are compiled between
a pair of drillholes, then the downhole transmitter 106 may be
moved to another drillhole. To illustrate, FIG. 7 illustrates a
tunnel study area within the geological study area 100, with
drillholes 101 and 102 illustrated. After the images are compiled
between drillholes 101 and 102, which may be separated by 100
meters, the downhole transmitter may be moved to a drillhole 112
and the image planes comprising ray paths 110 again established
between drillholes 112 and 102, which may be separated by 30 meters
or more. The vertical distance and positioning of the transmitter
stations and receiver stations within the drillholes 101, 102 and
112 should preferably be accurately known. This can be achieved by
using a wireline winch measuring equipment, so that the vertical
distance from the top flange of the cased drillholes 101, 102, 112,
etc. to each measuring station is accurately determined.
In carrying out the method, a receiver may be lowered to a
specified depth designated as the starting measuring station 108
near the top of the drillhole 102. A companion downhole transmitter
is lowered in a corresponding station 106 in downhole 102 or 112.
From each transmitter station 106, a radiating antenna is placed in
a vertical plane and excites electromagnetic (EM) wave propagation
on the ray paths 110 as illustrated in FIG. 9. The antenna is a
small magnetic dipole which forms a tuned resonant loop in a
vertical plane. Likewise, the receiver has a small magnetic dipole
antenna with a resonant loop in a vertical plane.
With the tuned resonant loop antenna the transmitter produces a
horizontal magnetic field component which is received by a
companion tuned loop antenna at the receiver station. The magnetic
field components of the ray paths 110 intersect a receiving tuned
resonant loop antenna inducing an electromotive force (EMF) voltage
that is measured by the receiver in the drillhole 102. This voltage
value is within the calibration factor of the actual magnetic field
component value. The voltage may be extremely small and measured
(recorded) with respect to decibels above one nanovolt. As the EM
wave travels along every radial ray path from the downhole
transmitter to the downhole receiver, it reacts with the medium
causing a measurable loss of energy. As a result, the strength of
the magnetic field component decays with distance along the path.
Along the path (farfield), the predominate magnetic field
(H.sub.100) component is mathematically given by: ##EQU3## The
decay in the magnetic field component is in part due to the
spherical spreading of the wave as it propagates away from the
electrically short magnetic dipole antenna in the denominator of
equation 4. The constant first power of radial distance (r) from
the radiating antenna in the denominator of equation 2. The
constant c depends upon the magnetic moment of the radiating
antenna and is given by: ##EQU4## where K is the area constant of
the loop antenna;
N is the number of turns in the loop antenna;
I is the peak current circulating in the loop antenna; and
A is the area of the antenna.
The right hand term in equation 5 expresses the dependence of
moment (M) on transmitter power (P.sub.o) and antenna bandwidth
(BW). A ten fold increase in transmitter power increases the
magnetic moment by 10 dB. The constant c in equation 4 is dependent
upon the conductivity (r) of the medium 100. The decay along the
path is also strongly dependent upon the attenuation rate (.alpha.)
of the EM signal in the medium 100. The attenuation rate of a plane
wave is mathematically represented by: ##EQU5## where .omega. is
the radian frequency of the RIM signal;
.mu..sub.o is the magnetic permeability of the medium 100 (e.g.
4.pi..times.10.sup.-7 for non-magnetic rock);
.epsilon.=.epsilon..sub.r .epsilon..sub.o is the dielectric
constant of the medium 100
.epsilon..sub.r =10 for schist rock); ##EQU6## and .sigma. is the
conductivity (mho/meter) of the medium 100.
For each downhole receiver location 108, the signal at each end of
the ray paths 110 from the radiating loop antenna is measured and
recorded in dB above one nanovolt. The measured data is then
compiled and anaylzed in a computerized tomography algorithm. As
illustrated in FIG. 10A, the .[.attenuation rate.]. .Iadd.phase
constant .Iaddend.depends upon the conductivity (mhos per meter) of
the media. Below 300 KHz the .[.attenuation rate.]. .Iadd.phase
constant .Iaddend.is very sensitive to the conductivity of the
media. The tomography algorithm determines the attenuation rate in
the vertical survey planes shown in FIG. 10B.
The attenuation rate data is used in a contouring program to draw
contours of constant attenuation in the plane of the image, in
increments of one db per 100 feet. The contour lines reconstruct
the image of the geologic structure as illustrated in the isopach
map of FIG. 10B. The image cells may be 5 ft..times.3.9 ft. and 5
ft..times.13 ft. in the 30 and 100 meters scans, respectively. FIG.
10B illustrates the contours of constant attentuation for the ore
zone on the left side of the image and three tunnels, one over the
other, are shown on the right.
It may be useful to briefly describe some aspects of the
electromagnetic wave propagation theory in a slightly conducting
medium. The EM radiating antenna is an electrically short magnetic
dipole. The magnetic dipole antenna produces a farfield toroidal
antenna pattern and the plane of the physical antenna lies in the
x-y plane. The magnetic moment vector (M) is normal to the plane of
the physical antenna coincident with the z axis. The antenna
produces a radial magnetic field component (H.sub.r), an azimuthal
magnetic field component (H.sub..phi.) and an electric field
component (E.sub..theta.). In free space the field equations are
given by: ##EQU7## where .[.B=2.pi./.lambda. (radians/meter)..].
.Iadd.k=B-j.alpha. (i.e. k=the complex wave number); B is the phase
constant in radians/meter; and .alpha. is the attenuation rate in
nepers/meter. .Iaddend.
As r becomes large, the terms involving r.sup.-1 become 20
predominate and the farfield magnetic field terms follows from
equation 5 as: ##EQU8##
The bracket term mathematically represents the constant term in
equation (4).
In the near vicinity of the borehole antenna, the predominate
magnetic field terms are magnetic. Therefore, the antenna near
field energy is stored in its magnetic fields. By way of contrast,
if the antenna structure was a short electric dipole, the dual of
equations 7 through 9 would mathematically define the near field
components E.sub.100, E.sub.r and .[.H.sub.100
.]..Iadd.H.sub..theta. .Iaddend., The electric field terms
E.sub..phi. and E.sub.r would dominate. These terms would cause a
current density .[.J=6E.]. .Iadd.J=.sigma.E .Iaddend.to flow in the
medium in close proximity to the antenna causing a substantial
dissipation loss of energy thereby resulting in a very short
unacceptable imaging system. We thereby see the advantage of using
the short magnetic dipole antenna in subterranean imaging.
FIG. 11 illustrates the range electrical property values of a
typical geological material expected with an imaging frequency of
300 KHz. For comparison purposes, the attenuation rate (.alpha.) of
a plane EM wave in the lake water, schist, and coal mediums were
calculated from Equation 6 and illustrated in Table A.
TABLE A ______________________________________ PLANE EM WAVE
ATTENUATION RATE IN A HOMOGENEOUS MEDIUM AT 300 KHz Conductivity in
mhos/meter dB/100 ft. ______________________________________
10.sup.-2 (lake water) 26.48 4 .times. 10.sup.-3 (schist) 18.6 4
.times. 10.sup.-4 (coal) 7.88
______________________________________
The table shows that the attenuation rate in schist should be near
18.6 dB/100 ft. The phase .[.rate.]. .Iadd.constant .Iaddend.may be
determined from: ##EQU9## The wavelength ##EQU10## and skin depth
##EQU11## of plane waves propagating in coal and schist mediums are
illustrated in Table B.
TABLE B ______________________________________ WAVELENGTH AND SKIN
DEPTH IN A HOMOGENEOUS MEDIUM Conductivity Wavelength (.lambda.)
Skin Depth (.delta.) (mhos/meter) (meter/feet) (meter/feet)
______________________________________ 4 .times. 10.sup.-3 (schist)
93.22/305.7 14.2/46.6 4 .times. 10.sup.-4 (coal) 395.2/1296
33.6/110.2 ______________________________________
Magnetic field strength (H.sub.100) measurements are made at
various location in the tunnel. The measurements are made when the
transmitting antenna is in drillhole 101. The measurements are made
with a tuned loop antenna and portable field strength meter. The
antenna output voltage is measured. For example, Table C
illustrates the antenna output voltage which is within a constant
of the field strength inside a tunnel.
TABLE C ______________________________________ MEASURED FIELD
STRENGTH INSIDE OF TUNNEL (dB re 1 nanovolt) Field Strength
Measuring Appoximate Center of Tunnel Station Distance (ft) (dB per
nanovolt) ______________________________________ 1 300 85.6 2 250
82 3 200 86 4 150 101 5 100 111 6 50 123 7 50 131
______________________________________
The measured data (20 log.sub.10 H.sub..phi.) was plotted in FIG. 8
(long dash-dot curve). Assuming farfield radiation conditions, the
measured data should correspond to the logarithmic form of equation
4 given by: ##EQU12##
Two additional curves are constructed in FIG. 8 to enable the
determination of c and .alpha. from the measured data. The upper
curve (plus-dash) was constructed by adding the spherical spreading
factor (20log.sub.10 r) to each measured data point. The
constructed curve should be linear for measurements made in excess
of: ##EQU13## from the radiating antenna.
The constructed line is approximately linear with a slope of 16.8
dB/100 ft. when r>100'. This seems to confirm strong spherical
spreading of the RIM image signal in the schist medium. The
measured attenuation rate is in agreement with the expected schist
attenuation rate given in Table A. The constant factor is seen to
have a value of 185.0 dB .[.per nanovolt.]. .Iadd.above one
nanovolt.Iaddend..
In the homogenous schist medium, the constant c may be analytically
determined by substituting equation 10 into the bracket term in
equation 8. The antenna coupling constant is mathematically
represented by: ##EQU14## where .sigma.is the conductivity of the
medium;
.mu..sub.o is the magnetic permeability;
.epsilon. is the permitivity; and
is the frequency of the imaging signal.
In non-magnetic rocks, the magnetic permeability remains constant
at the free space value of 4.pi..times.E-07. The imaging signal
frequency (f) and the antenna magnetic moment (M) are also
constants. The coupling constant is directly proportional to the
conductivity (.sigma.) of the schist medium. It can also be shown
that the constant depends upon the inverse square of the signal
wavelength in the mediums. The wavelength ratio relative to a coal
medium is given by k=395m/93m=4.24. This would produce a
20log.sub.10 k=25.12 dB increase relative to that found in a coal
seam. The measured c value in coal is 160; therefore, an
expectation of 185 is in close agreement with the measured schist
value.
Vertical imaging, i.e. measuring attenuation rates in a vertical
plane, as taught herein allows for the vertical reconstruction of
tomography images of faults. This is also an important discovery
for hard rock mining since chemical mineralization occurs in these
areas in a subterranean environment.
The vertical imaging method may also be applied to gas and oil
reservoir analysis. As illustrated in FIG. 13, since the
conductivity of a sand reservoir decreases when the communicating
pores are filled with oil or natural gas and increases when filled
with water, the conductivity contrasts between the petroleum
reservoir and water reservoir cause the attenuation and phase shift
rates to marketly change the ray paths intersecting different
mediums.
Although the present invention has been described in terms of the
presently preferred embodiments, it is to be understood that such
disclosure is not to be interpreted as limiting. Various
alterations and modifications will no doubt become apparent to
those skilled in the art after having read the disclosure.
Acordingly, it is intended that the appended claims be interpreted
as covering all alterations and modifications as fall within the
true spirit and scope of the invention.
* * * * *