U.S. patent number 6,720,594 [Application Number 10/041,544] was granted by the patent office on 2004-04-13 for image sensor array with reduced pixel crosstalk.
This patent grant is currently assigned to Xerox Corporation. Invention is credited to Jeng Ping Lu, Jeffrey T. Rahn, Koenraad F. Van Schuylenbergh.
United States Patent |
6,720,594 |
Rahn , et al. |
April 13, 2004 |
**Please see images for:
( Certificate of Correction ) ** |
Image sensor array with reduced pixel crosstalk
Abstract
Improved pixel circuits are disclosed for high fill-factor large
area imager systems using continuous (e.g., amorphous silicon)
sensor layers. A first approach prevents crosstalk by ensuring that
each pixel is not able to go into saturation. A second approach
employs a cascode transistor to maintain the bias of the sensor
contact at a constant potential regardless of illumination
condition. These two approaches may be combined. A resistive film
connecting the pixel contacts may be used in conjunction with the
second approach to prevent aliasing of signal and noise.
Inventors: |
Rahn; Jeffrey T. (Mountain
View, CA), Van Schuylenbergh; Koenraad F. (Mountain View,
CA), Lu; Jeng Ping (San Jose, CA) |
Assignee: |
Xerox Corporation (Stamford,
CT)
|
Family
ID: |
21917068 |
Appl.
No.: |
10/041,544 |
Filed: |
January 7, 2002 |
Current U.S.
Class: |
257/291;
250/208.1; 257/292; 257/293; 257/E27.132; 257/E27.14; 257/E31.062;
348/302 |
Current CPC
Class: |
H01L
27/14609 (20130101); H01L 27/14658 (20130101); H01L
31/1055 (20130101) |
Current International
Class: |
H01L
29/66 (20060101); H01L 27/108 (20060101); H01L
29/76 (20060101); H01L 31/06 (20060101); H01L
27/00 (20060101); H01L 31/101 (20060101); H01L
31/062 (20060101); H01L 29/94 (20060101); H01L
31/113 (20060101); H01L 027/00 () |
Field of
Search: |
;257/291-293,443,444
;250/208.1,214R,214.1,370.01-370.5
;348/302-308,158,187,246,296,298,311,312 |
References Cited
[Referenced By]
U.S. Patent Documents
Other References
D L. Lee et al., "A New Digital Detector for Projection
Radiography," SPIE, 2432, pp. 237-249, 1995.* .
Article entitled: "High Resolution X-ray Imaging Using Amorphous
Silicon Flat-Panel Arrays", Rahn et al., IEEE Transactions On
Nuclear Science, vol. 46, No. 3, Jun. 1999. pp. 457-461. .
Article entitled: "High Resolution, High Fill Factor a-Si:H Sensor
Arrays For Medical Imaging", Rahn et al, SPIE Conference on Physics
of Medical Imaging, SPIE vol. 3659, Feb. 1999, pp. 510-517. .
R. A. Street et al., "Large Area Image Sensor Arrays", in
Technology and Applications of Amorphous Silicon, Editor R. A.
Street, Springer Series in Materials Science 37, Springer-Verlag,
Berlin, 2000, chapter 4, p. 147..
|
Primary Examiner: Dickey; Thomas L
Attorney, Agent or Firm: Bever, Hoffman & Harms, LLP
Bever; Patrick T.
Claims
What is claimed is:
1. An imager system comprising a scanning control circuit for
generating gate voltage signals on a plurality of gate lines; a
continuous sensor layer; a bias voltage source; and a plurality of
pixels arranged in an array, each pixel including: a sensor
including an associated portion of the continuous sensor layer and
having a first terminal connected to the bias voltage source, the
sensor also having a second terminal; a storage capacitor having a
first terminal coupled to the second terminal of the sensor, and a
second terminal connected to a system voltage source; and an access
transistor having a first terminal connected to the first terminal
of the storage capacitor, a second terminal connected to an
associated data line, and a gate terminal coupled to an associated
gate line of the plurality of gate lines controlled by the scanning
control circuit; wherein the imager system further comprises means
connected to at least one of the sensor and the access transistor
of each of said plurality of pixels for controlling a voltage
across the sensor of each of the plurality of pixels such that the
sensor of each of the plurality of pixels is prevented from
reaching saturation.
2. The imager system according to claim 1, wherein the second
terminal of said each sensor comprises a first metal plate
contacting a first region of the associated portion of the
continuous sensor layer, and the first terminal of said each sensor
comprises a transparent biasing layer formed on a second region of
the associated portion of the continuous censor layer, wherein the
storage capacitor comprises a second metal plate connected to the
first metal plate, and a third metal plate located below the second
metal plate, wherein the transparent biasing layer is connected to
the bias voltage source, and wherein the third metal plate is
connected to the system voltage source.
3. The imager system according to claim 1, wherein said scanning
control circuit generates a first voltage signal on a selected gate
line to turn on the access transistor of a selected pixel during a
first operating period, and generates a second voltage signal on
the selected gate line to turn off the access transistor of the
selected pixel during a second operating period, wherein the bias
voltage source generates the bias voltage at a voltage level that
differs from the second voltage signal generated by the gate line
control circuit by at least one threshold voltage of the access
transistor.
4. The imager system according to claim 1, wherein said scanning
control circuit generates a first gate signal on a first gate line
connected to a first pixel and a second gate signal on a second
gate line connected to a second pixel, both the first and second
pixels being connected to an associated data line, wherein the
first gate signal includes a first voltage pulse in which the first
gate line is changed from a first voltage level to a second voltage
level at a first operating times, wherein the second gate signal
includes a second voltage pulse in which the second gate line is
changed from the first voltage level to the second voltage level at
a second operating time, and wherein both the first and second gate
signals include a third voltage pulse at a third operating time
that is between the first operating time and the second operating
time, and changes the first and second gate lines from the first
voltage level to a third voltage level that is between the first
voltage level and the second voltage level.
5. The imager system according to claim 1, wherein said means
comprises a clamp transistor connected between the system voltage
source and the second terminal of the sensor.
6. The imager system according to claim 5, wherein said scanning
control circuit generates a first voltage signal on a selected gate
line to turn on the access transistor of a selected pixel during a
first operating period, and generates a second voltage signal on
the selected gate line to turn off the access transistor of the
selected pixel during a second operating period, and wherein the
imager system further comprises means connected to a gate terminal
of the clamp transistor for generating a clamp voltage having a
voltage level that differs from the bias voltage signal generated
by the bias voltage source by at least one threshold voltage of the
clamp transistor.
7. The imager system according to claim 1, wherein said means
comprises a cascode transistor connected between the first terminal
of the storage capacitor and the second terminal of the sensor.
8. The imager system according to claim 7, wherein said scanning
control circuit generates a first voltage signal on a selected gate
line to turn on the access transistor of a selected pixel during a
first operating period, and generates a second voltage signal on
the selected gate line to turn off the access transistor of the
selected pixel during a second operating period, and wherein the
imager system further comprises means connected to a gate terminal
of the cascade transistor for generating a clamp voltage having a
voltage level that differs from the bias voltage by at least one
threshold voltage of the cascade transistor.
9. The imager system according to claim 7, wherein said sensor
comprises a first metal plate, a sensor layer formed on the first
metal plate, and a transparent biasing layer formed on the sensor
layer, wherein the storage capacitor comprises the second metal
plate and a third metal plate located below the second metal plate,
wherein the cascode transistor is connected between the first metal
plate and the second metal plate, and wherein the access transistor
is formed between the second metal plate and the associated data
line.
10. The imager system according to claim 9, wherein the first metal
plate is formed from a first metal layer, wherein the second metal
plate is formed from a second metal layer located below the first
metal layer, wherein the third metal plate is formed from a third
metal layer located below the second metal layer, wherein the
cascode transistor comprises a first metal portion formed from the
second metal layer, the first metal portion being connected to the
first metal plate by a metal via structure, the cascode transistor
also including a first gate portion located under a channel
separating the first metal portion and the second metal plate, the
first gate portion being formed from the third metal layer, and
wherein the access transistor comprises a second gate portion
located under a channel separating the second metal portion and the
associated data line, the second gate portion being formed from the
third metal layer.
11. The imager system according to claim 9, wherein the sensor
layer comprises an amorphous silicon layer including a plurality of
spaced-apart lower doped regions, each lower doped region being
formed over the first metal plate of an associated pixel, a
continuous undoped layer extending over the plurality of pixels,
and an upper Continuous doped region abutting the transparent
biasing layer.
12. The imager system according to claim 11, wherein the plurality
of spaced-apart lower doped regions comprise relatively high doping
concentrations, and wherein the sensor layer further comprises a
resistor region connecting the plurality of lower doped regions,
the resistor region comprising a relatively low doping
concentration.
13. The imager system according to claim 9, wherein the sensor
comprises a photoresistive material selected from the group
consisting of Se, PbI.sub.2, and HgI.
14. The imager system according to claim 7, further comprising a
clamp transistor connected between the system voltage source and
the second terminal of the sensor.
15. An imager system comprising; a scanning control circuit for
generating gate voltage signals on a plurality of gate lines; a
continuous sensor layer; a bias voltage source; and a plurality of
pixels arranged in an array, each pixel including: a sensor
including an associated portion of the continuous sensor layer and
having a first terminal connected to the bias voltage source, the
sensor also having a second terminal; a storage capacitor having a
first terminal coupled to the second terminal of the sensor, and a
second terminal connected to a system voltage Source; an access
transistor having a first terminal connected to the first terminal
of the storage capacitor, a second terminal connected to an
associated data line, and a gate terminal coupled to an associated
gate line of the plurality of gate lines controlled by the scanning
control circuit; and a clamp transistor connected across the
storage capacitor between the system voltage source and the second
terminal of the sensor.
16. The imager system according to claim 15, wherein the second
terminal of said each sensor comprises a first metal plate
contacting a first region of the associated portion of the
continuous sensor layer, and the first terminal of said each sensor
comprises a transparent biasing layer formed on a second region of
the associated portion of the continuous sensor layer, wherein the
storage capacitor comprises a second metal plate connected to the
first metal plate, and a third metal plate located below the second
metal plate, wherein the transparent biasing layer is connected to
the bias voltage source, and wherein the third metal plate is
connected to the system voltage source.
17. The imager system according to claim 15, wherein said scanning
control circuit generates a first voltage signal on a selected gate
line to turn on the access transistor of a selected pixel during a
first operating period, and generates a second voltage signal on
the selected gate line to turn off the access transistor of the
selected pixel during a second operating period, and wherein the
imager system further comprises means connected to a gate terminal
of the clamp transistor for generating a clamp voltage having a
voltage level that is at least one threshold voltage above the bias
voltage signal generated by the bias voltage source.
18. The imager system according to claim 15, further comprising a
cascode transistor connected between the storage capacitor and the
second terminal of the sensor.
19. An imager System comprising: a scanning control circuit for
generating gate voltage signals on a plurality of gate lines; a
continuous sensor layer; a bias voltage source; and a plurality of
pixels arranged in an array, each pixel including: a sensor having
an first terminal connected to a bias voltage source, the sensor
also having a second terminal; a storage capacitor including an
associated portion of the continuous sensor layer and having a
first terminal coupled to the second terminal of the sensor and a
second terminal connected to a system voltage source; an access
transistor having a first terminal connected to the first terminal
of the storage capacitor, a second terminal connected to an
associated data line, and a gate terminal coupled to an associated
gate line of the plurality of gate lines controlled by the scanning
control circuit; and a cascode transistor connected between the
first terminal of the storage capacitor and the second terminal of
the sensor.
20. The imager system according to claim 19, wherein said scanning
control circuit generates a first voltage signal on a selected gate
line to turn on the access transistor of a selected pixel during a
first operating period, and generates a second voltage signal on
the selected gate line to turn off the access transistor of the
selected pixel during a second operating period, and wherein the
imager system further comprises means connected to a gate terminal
of the cascode transistor for generating a clamp voltage having a
voltage level that differs from the bias voltage by at least one
threshold voltage of the cascode transistor.
21. The imager system according to claim 19, wherein said sensor
comprises a first metal plate, wherein said continuous sensor layer
is formed on the first metal plate, wherein a transparent biasing
layer is formed on the continuous sensor layer, wherein the storage
capacitor comprises the second metal plate and a third metal plate
located below the second metal plate, wherein the cascode
transistor is connected between the first metal plate and the
second metal plate, and wherein the access transistor is formed
between the second metal plate and the associated data line.
22. The imager system according to claim 19, wherein the first
metal plate is formed from a first metal layer, wherein the second
metal plate is formed from a second metal layer located below the
first metal layer, wherein the third metal plate is formed from a
third metal layer located below the second metal layer, wherein the
cascode transistor comprises a first metal portion formed from the
second metal layer, the first metal portion being connected to the
first metal plate by a metal via structure, the cascode transistor
also including a first gate portion located under a channel
separating the first metal portion and the second metal plate, the
first gate portion being formed from the third metal layer, and
wherein the access transistor comprises a second gate portion
located under a channel separating the second metal portion and the
associated data line, the second gate portion being formed from the
third metal layer.
23. The imager system according to claim 19, wherein the continuous
sensor layer comprises an amorphous silicon layer including a
plurality of spaced-apart lower doped regions, each lower doped
region being formed over the first metal plate of an associated
pixel, a continuous undoped layer extending over the plurality of
pixels, and an upper continuous doped region abutting the
transparent biasing layer.
24. The imager system according to claim 23, wherein the plurality
of spaced-apart lower doped regions comprise relatively high doping
concentrations, and wherein the continuous sensor layer further
comprises a resistor region connecting the plurality of lower doped
regions, the resistor region comprising a relatively low doping
concentration.
25. The imager system according to claim 19, wherein the sensor
comprises a photoresistive material selected from the group
consisting of Se, PbI.sub.2, and HgI.
26. An imager system comprising: a scanning control circuit for
generating gate voltage signals on a plurality of gate lines; a
continuous layer of sensor material including a plurality of
spaced-apart, relatively highly doped regions, a continuous undoped
layer formed over the plurality of relatively highly doped regions,
and a continuous doped layer formed over the undoped layer; a bias
voltage source; and a plurality of pixels arranged in an array,
each pixel including: a sensor including an associated portion of
the continuous layer of sensor material sensor and having a first
terminal connected to a bias voltage source, the sensor also having
a pixel contact abutting an associated highly doped region of the
plurality of spaced apart highly doped regions; a storage capacitor
having a first terminal and a second terminal, the second terminal
being connected to a system voltage source; an access transistor
having a first terminal connected to the first terminal of the
storage capacitor, a second terminal connected to an associated
data line, and a gate terminal coupled to an associated gate line
of the plurality of gate lines controlled by the scanning control
circuit; and a cascode transistor connected between the first
terminal of the storage capacitor and the second terminal of the
sensor, wherein the continuous layer further comprises a resistor
region formed below the continuous undoped layer and contacting the
plurality of spaced-apart, relatively highly doped regions, and
wherein the resistor region has a doping level greater than the
continuous undoped layer and less than the plurality of
spaced-apart, relatively highly doped regions.
Description
FIELD OF THE INVENTION
This invention relates to imager systems, and in particular imager
systems utilizing high fill-factor image sensor arrays.
BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION
Recent developments in the field of image sensing technology have
focused on the switch from relatively low fill-factor image sensor
arrays, which utilize an array of isolated sensors to detect light,
to relatively high fill-factor image sensor arrays that utilize a
continuous layer of sensor material formed over an array of pixel
circuits. Each pixel circuit of these high fill-factor image sensor
arrays includes an access transistor and a contact (i.e., a metal
pad) that is connected to the lower surface of the sensor material
layer. A continuous transparent bias layer (e.g., indium tin oxide
(ITO)) is typically formed on an upper surface of the continuous
sensor material layer. Each sensor operates on the principal of
integrating a charge representative of the quantities of radiation
incident on the sensor. When an image is to be captured by the
image sensor array, radiation (e.g., light or X-rays) conveying the
image strikes the sensor material layer, which responds by freeing
electrons and holes that generate a local current in the sensor
material layer between the pixel contacts and the continuous bias
layer. These local currents change the potentials on the underlying
pixel contacts according to the amount of light incident thereon.
The potential on each pixel contact is periodically "read" by
sequentially turning on the access transistors to couple the pixel
contacts to a series of charge-sensing amplifiers. The differences
between the various potentials read from the pixel contacts are
then used to reconstruct the captured image.
One well-known type of high fill-factor image sensor array utilizes
hydrogenated amorphous silicon (a-Si H) sensor material for real
time imaging (see R. A. Street et al., "Large Area Image Sensor
Arrays", in Technology and Applications of Amorphous Silicon,
Editor R. A. Street, Springer Series in Materials Science 37,
Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 2000, chapter 4, p 147, for a general
description of the structure of the arrays). Such a-Si H sensor
arrays are particularly advantageous for X-ray imaging because they
present a relatively large size image sensor array. In the direct
detection approach, incident high-energy radiation (e.g., X-ray
photons) is directly converted to a charge by the sensor. In the
indirect detection approach, a phosphor converter absorbs
high-energy radiation (e.g., X-ray photons) and generates a
proportional amount of visible light that is then converted to a
charge by the sensor.
An obvious problem associated with the use of continuous sensor
material layers is crosstalk between adjacent pixels, which occurs
when the continuous sensor layer allows conduction between pixel
contacts. This form of crosstalk directly reduces the resolution of
the image sensor array because a sharp feature will be blurred into
neighboring pixels. As mentioned above, as the sensor material
located over one pixel is illuminated, the charge from the
illumination builds up on that pixel's contact. This shifts the
voltage on that contact towards the bias voltage level applied to
the continuous bias layer. If the sensor layer allows lateral
conduction, then the potential difference between adjacent pixels
will result in conduction from one pixel to the next.
Experimentally, in image sensor arrays utilizing continuous a-Si H
sensor material layers, this form of crosstalk has been observed
with varying magnitude, but primarily is a problem as the pixel
reaches saturation (i.e., approaches forward bias). See Rahn J. T.
et al. "High-Resolution High Fill Factor a-Si H Sensor Arrays for
Medical Imaging," Proc. of SPIE, Vol. 3659, pp. 510-517, 1999.
Another problem associated with high fill-factor image sensor
arrays, which is also a problem with all pixilated structures, is
the rejection of high spatial frequency signals. Because the
pixilation of an image sensor array acts as a sampling function,
high spatial frequency signals are aliased into lower frequencies.
High fill-factor image sensor arrays (described above) reduce the
impact of aliasing, but do not eliminate it. In many imaging
systems, the image source can be designed to reject high spatial
frequencies, for example, by designing the focus of the optical
system to blur the image and reject high spatial frequencies. In
addition, indirect x-ray detection typically does not have much of
a problem with aliasing, since the phosphor screen rejects high
spatial frequencies. However, in direct detection imagers that do
not include optical blurring, the effects of aliasing can be
clearly seen. Even if the imager can be designed so that high
spatial frequencies are filtered on the imager, the noise will also
be aliased and the total noise power increased, which reduces the
Detector Quantum Efficiency (DQE) of the imager.
Accordingly, what is needed is a high fill-factor image sensor
array that significantly reduces crosstalk between adjacent pixels.
What is also needed is a high fill-factor image sensor array that
filters high spatial frequency signals prior to imaging.
SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION
The present invention is directed to a high fill-factor image
sensor arrays in which the image resolution is improved by reducing
crosstalk between adjacent pixels. This crosstalk reduction is
achieved by the various embodiments of the present invention by
clamping the sensor voltage (e.g., the voltage across the
photodiode of each pixel) to prevent saturation, and/or by
maintaining the pixel contact at a fixed voltage.
In accordance with a first embodiment, a high fill-factor imager
system includes a scanning control circuit for generating gate
voltage signals on a plurality of gate lines, a bias voltage
source, and an imager including a plurality of pixels arranged in
an array. Each pixel of the array includes a sensor (e.g., a
photodiode) for generating a charge, a storage capacitor for
storing the charge, and an access transistor connected between the
storage capacitor and an associated data line of the array. The
sensor includes a first terminal (e.g., an anode) that is
maintained at a predetermined bias voltage by the bias voltage
source, and a second terminal (e.g., a cathode) connected to a
first terminal of the storage capacitor. A second terminal of the
storage capacitor is connected to a system voltage source. At the
beginning of an imaging cycle, the second terminal (cathode) of the
sensor is reset such that a predetermined voltage exists across the
sensor. Light (or other radiation) striking the sensor generates a
proportional charge therein. This charge is stored by the storage
capacitor, and is passed to the associated data line during a
subsequent readout operation.
Pixel clamping in the first embodiment is achieved either by
maintaining the bias voltage well below the gate off voltage of the
access transistors, or by periodically pulsing the gate voltage to
drain excess charge during exposure and between readout cycles.
Note that the description of this invention assumes n-type
transistors and a sensor biased negative with respect to the data
line. This invention is not limited, however, to this polarity.
According to the first approach, the scanning control circuit
generates either a gate on voltage, which turns on the access
transistors of a column of pixels during readout/reset, or a gate
off voltage that turns off the access transistors. By maintaining
the bias voltage at least one threshold voltage of the access
transistors below the gate off voltage, excess charge is drained
from the storage capacitor onto the data line through the
turned-off access transistor when the cathode voltage gets too
close to the bias voltage, thereby preventing the photodiode
(sensor) from reaching saturation. A potential problem with this
approach is that draining charge onto the data line during the
readout cycle of another pixel connected to that data line can
result in unwanted crosstalk. Therefore, according to the second
approach, in addition to the gate on and gate off voltages, the
scanning control circuit generates additional voltage pulses during
exposure at times between the readout operations of the pixels
connected to the data line. These additional voltage pulses, which
have a voltage level that is less than that of that used for
readout operations, allow charge from one pixel to drain onto a
data line without disrupting readout operations from other pixels
connected to the same data line.
In accordance with a second disclosed embodiment, a high
fill-factor image sensor array includes circuitry similar to that
of the first embodiment, but each pixel also includes a clamp
transistor connected in parallel with the storage capacitor between
the system voltage source and the sensor. The clamp transistor is
controlled by a global clamp voltage that is at least one threshold
voltage above (or below, if polarities are reversed) the bias
voltage, thereby causing the clamp transistor to drain excess
charge from the storage capacitor before the photodiode
saturates.
In accordance with a third disclosed embodiment, a high fill-factor
image sensor array includes circuitry similar to that of the first
embodiment, but each pixel also includes a cascode transistor
connected in series between the storage capacitor and the sensor.
The cascode transistor is controlled by a global control voltage
that is at least one threshold voltage of the cascode transistor
above the bias voltage, thereby causing the cascode transistor to
maintain the second terminal of the sensor (e.g., the cathode of
the photodiode), which is connected to the pixel contact, at a
fixed voltage level. When the sensors of the pixel array are formed
using a continuous film of a-Si H, maintaining all of the pixel
contacts at the fixed voltage level prevents crosstalk by
minimizing potential differences between adjacent pixel
contacts.
In accordance with a fourth embodiment, both the clamp transistor
of the second embodiment and the cascode transistor of the third
embodiment are combined to enhance crosstalk reduction.
In accordance with a variation of the third and fourth disclosed
embodiments, a resistive film is provided between the sensors
(e.g., photodiodes) of the various pixels that acts as a filter for
high spatial frequencies. Typically, the continuous a-Si:H sensor
layer includes relatively heavily doped (n+) regions formed over
each pixel contact that are separated from adjacent pixels by
undoped (intrinsic) a-Si:H. In contrast, the resistive film is
formed by a continuous, relatively lightly doped (n) layer that
connects all of the relatively heavily doped regions. This
resistive film allows localized areas of high illumination to
diffuse into adjacent pixels before imaging (readout), thereby
filtering high spatial frequencies and avoiding image aliasing.
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS
These and other features, aspects and advantages of the present
invention will become better understood with regard to the
following description, appended claims, and accompanying drawings,
where:
FIG. 1 is a simplified circuit diagram showing a simplified imager
system;
FIG. 2 is a simplified diagram showing a single pixel circuit of an
imager system according to an embodiment of the present
invention;
FIG. 3 is a front perspective view depicting a portion of the pixel
circuit shown in FIG. 2;
FIG. 4 is a timing diagram illustrating the operation of the imager
system of FIG. 2 according to an aspect of the present
invention;
FIGS. 5(A) and 5(B) are a timing diagrams illustrating the
operation of the imager system of FIG. 2 according to another
aspect of the present invention;
FIG. 6 is a simplified diagram showing a single pixel circuit of an
imager system according to another embodiment of the present
invention;
FIG. 7 is a timing diagram illustrating the operation of the imager
system of FIG. 6 according to another aspect of the present
invention;
FIG. 8 is a simplified diagram showing a single pixel circuit of an
imager system according to another embodiment of the present
invention;
FIG. 9 is a simplified cross-sectional elevation view depicting the
pixel circuit of FIG. 8 according to another embodiment of the
present invention;
FIG. 10 is a timing diagram illustrating the operation of the
imager system of FIG. 8 according to another aspect of the present
invention;
FIG. 11 is a simplified cross-sectional elevation view depicting
the pixel circuit of FIG. 8 according to yet another embodiment of
the present invention; and
FIG. 12 is a simplified diagram showing a single pixel circuit of
an imager system according to yet another embodiment of the present
invention.
DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS
The present invention is described below with reference to high
fill-factor, large area amorphous silicon (a-Si:H) imager systems,
and is particularly directed to structures and methods for
optimizing the resolution of these imaging arrays by reducing
crosstalk between adjacent pixels of an imaging system, and/or
improving sensor performance by filtering high spatial frequency
signals prior to imaging. FIG. 1 illustrates a general imager
system 100 incorporating the various structures and methods of the
present invention. FIGS. 2-7 illustrate a first approach to
reducing crosstalk between adjacent pixels by clamping pixel
voltages to prevent saturation of each pixel's photodiode (sensor).
FIGS. 8-11 illustrate a second approach in which a cascode
transistor is used to maintain the pixel contact at a fixed
voltage, thereby reducing crosstalk by minimizing potentials
between adjacent pixels. FIG. 12 illustrates another embodiment in
which the two approaches are combined. Although many the imager
systems described below are described as using a-Si:H sensor
layers, some or all of the various aspects of the present invention
may also be used in imager systems utilizing other sensor materials
(e.g., Se, PbI.sub.2, and HgI sensors) and structures. Also, the
following description and accompanying drawings assume n-type
transistors and a sensor biased below the data line. The invention,
however, is not limited to this combination only.
FIG. 1 is a circuit diagram showing a simplified imager system 100
including an imager 101 including an array of pixels 110, each
pixel 110 including a sensor circuit 112 and an access thin film
transistor (TFT) 116 that may be covered by an optional light
shield 118. A scanning control circuit 120 generates gate voltages
that turn on and turn off access TFTs 116 one row at a time via a
series of parallel gate lines 125. As each row of access TFTs 116
is turned on, an image charge is transferred from the corresponding
light sensors 112 to a series of parallel data lines 130, which are
respectively connected to readout (charge sensitive) amplifiers
135. By drawing the charge from the pixels during readout, readout
amplifiers 135 reset the potential at each sensor circuit 112. The
resulting amplified signal for each row is multiplexed by a
parallel-to-serial converter or multiplexer 140, and then
transmitted to an analog-to-digital converter or digitizer 150.
FIG. 2 is a simplified circuit diagram showing a representative
pixel 110A and associated circuitry of an imager system 100A, which
represents an embodiment of imager system 100 (shown in FIG. 1). A
pixel 110A of imager system 100A includes a sensor circuit 112A
made up of a photodiode 210 and a storage capacitor 220, and an
access TFT 116. Scanning control circuit 120 generates gate
voltages V.sub.G-ON, V.sub.G-OFF, and optional voltage V.sub.P that
turn on and turn off access TFT 116 via gate line 125-1 according
to the description provided below. The anode of photodiode 210 is
connected to a constant bias voltage source (V.sub.B SOURCE) 160,
which generates a bias voltage V.sub.B according to the description
provided below. Storage capacitor 220 includes a first terminal
connected to a system voltage source (V.sub.DD), and a second
terminal connected to the cathode of photodiode 210 and to one
terminal of access TFT 116.
FIG. 3 is simplified perspective view showing pixel 110A in
additional detail. Pixel 110A is formed over a substrate (not
shown) using established large area thin film processes that are
adapted from fabricating flat panel displays. As mentioned above,
pixel 110A includes sensor circuit 112A, which is made up of a
photodiode 210, a storage capacitor 220, and an access TFT 116.
Access TFT 116 includes a first (doped) terminal 116-1 that is
connected to a first metal structure 316-1, a second (doped)
terminal 116-2 that is connected by a second metal structure 316-2
to associated data line 130-1, and a channel region 116-3 extending
between terminals 116-1 and 116-2. In one embodiment, access TFT
116 is formed using amorphous silicon, although other TFT
structures may also be used (e.g., polysilicon TFTs). Associated
gate line 125-1 extends under channel region 116-3.
Photodiode 210 is formed by a first metal plate (contact) 310, a
sensor layer 320 (e.g., amorphous silicon (a-Si:H)), and a
transparent upper biasing layer 330 (e.g., ITO) to which is applied
bias voltage V.sub.B. Sensor layer 320 includes a lower n+ doped
region 322, a central undoped region 325, and an upper p+ doped
region 327. Central undoped region 325 and upper p+ doped region
327 extend continuously over all pixels of the sensor array. In
contrast, each lower n+ doped region 322 is isolated on an
associated first metal plate 310 (i.e., formed only in the region
of an associated pixel 110A, and separated from neighboring n+
doped regions).
Capacitor 220 is formed by a second metal plate 340, which is
connected to first metal plate 310 by a metal via 311 that extends
through an insulation layer (not shown), and a third metal plate
350, which is disposed under second metal plate 340 and separated
by another suitable layer of insulation. In the disclosed
embodiment, second metal plate 340 includes a metal structure
316-1. As indicated in the left side of FIG. 3, third metal plate
350 receives system voltage V.sub.DD.
Referring again to FIG. 2, imager system 100A includes one or more
circuits that clamp the voltage across photodiode 210 such that
photodiode 210 is prevented from forward biasing. As mentioned
above, crosstalk between adjacent pixels is primarily a problem
when a pixel (i.e., the pixel's photodiode) reaches saturation. To
prevent saturation of photodiode 210, imager system 110A is
controlled by one of scanning control circuit 120 and bias voltage
source 160 such that the voltage across each photodiode 210 is
maintained below the photodiode saturation voltage. Note that the
convention utilized herein refers to a positive forward bias, and a
negative reverse bias. Those of ordinary skill in the art will
recognize that an equivalent structure can be constructed wherein
polarities are reversed. Therefore, the disclosed structure is
intended to be exemplary, and not limiting.
Referring to FIG. 4, according to a first aspect of the present
invention, clamping is achieved by providing bias voltage source
160 such that bias voltage V.sub.B is at a voltage level that is at
least one threshold voltage (V.sub.T) of access transistor 116
below the gate "off" voltage V.sub.G-OFF generated by scanning
(gate line) control circuit 120. In particular, scanning control
circuit 120 generates gate voltage V.sub.G on gate line 125-1 that
alternates between a gate on (first) voltage signal V.sub.G-ON
(e.g., 10V) to turn on access transistor 116 during read/reset
(first) operating periods, or the gate off (second) voltage signal
V.sub.G-OFF (e.g., 2V) to turn off access transistor 116 of the
selected pixel during idle (second) operating periods. In
accordance with the first aspect, bias voltage V.sub.B is set at a
voltage level that is at least one threshold voltage of access
transistor 116 below V.sub.G-OFF. It is noted that while clamping
is achieved using this arrangement, charge is drained from storage
capacitor 220 onto data line 130-1 through access transistor 116,
which will show up as crosstalk during the readout of all other
pixels connected to data line 130-1. Therefore, this arrangement
may be undesirable in some systems.
Referring to FIGS. 5(A) and 5(B), in another embodiment, crosstalk
to other pixels on the same data line is avoided by pulsing the
gate voltage to each pixel during non-readout/reset cycles of other
pixels connected to the data line. Referring briefly to FIG. 1,
pixels 110-1 and 110-2 include access transistors connected to the
same data line 130-1, but are controlled by gate voltages
transmitted on separate gate lines (i.e., gate lines 125-1 and
125-2, respectively). FIG. 5(A) shows gate signal V.sub.G1 that is
transmitted on gate line 125-1 to pixel 110-1, and FIG. 5(B) shows
gate signal V.sub.G2, which is transmitted on gate line 125-2 to
pixel 110-2. As shown in FIG. 5(A), pixel 110-1 is read out and
reset at time t.sub.1 by pulsing gate signal V.sub.G1 to voltage
level V.sub.G-ON (e.g., 10V). Similarly, as shown in FIG. 5(B),
pixel 110-2 is read out and reset at time t.sub.3 by pulsing gate
signal V.sub.G2 to voltage level V.sub.G-ON. In addition, at a time
t.sub.2 (i.e., a time during which none of the pixels connected to
data line 125-1 are turned on), all gate signals V.sub.G1, V.sub.G2
. . . of the entire array are pulsed at a voltage level that is
between gate on voltage V.sub.G-ON and gate off voltage
V.sub.G-OFF. This extra clamping pulse should occur during
exposure, but can occur, for example, while A/D converter 150 is
generating digital data values (see FIG. 2). Because sense
amplifier 135 of these front-end circuits is inactive at this
point, dumping a small quantity of charge onto data line 125-1
should be inconsequential. Note that typical scanning control
circuits 120 should allow addition of this extra clamping pulse to
the gate signals using existing electronics.
FIG. 6 is a simplified circuit diagram showing a representative
pixel 110B and associated circuitry of an imager system 100B, which
represents another embodiment of imager system 100 (shown in FIG.
1). Each pixel 110B includes a sensor circuit 112B and an access
TFT 116. Similar to sensor circuit 112A (see FIG. 2), sensor
circuit 112B includes a photodiode 210 and a storage capacitor 220,
but also includes a clamp transistor 610 connected across storage
capacitor 220 between system voltage source VDD and the cathode of
photodiode 210. The anode of photodiode 210 is connected to a bias
voltage V.sub.B (e.g., 5V). In addition, a clamp voltage generator
(V.sub.C1 GENERATOR) 620 generates a global clamp voltage V.sub.C1
that is applied to the gate terminals of each clamp transistor 610
of imager system 100B. Other structural elements of imager system
100B that are essentially identical to corresponding elements of
the embodiments described above are identified with like reference
numbers, and detailed description of these elements is omitted for
brevity.
As indicated in FIG. 7, clamp voltage V.sub.C1 is maintained at a
value greater than one V.sub.TC1 above bias voltage V.sub.B, where
V.sub.TC1 is the threshold voltage of clamp transistor 610, thereby
causing clamp transistor 610 to drain excess charge from storage
capacitor 220 before photodiode 210 saturates. During typical
operation of a high fill-factor image sensor array, the voltage
across photodiode 210 changed (e.g., increases) linearly at
moderate light levels until it saturates when the photodiode
reaches forward bias. Charge accumulated in the saturated pixel
spills over into adjacent pixels because the contact voltage of the
adjacent pixels is different, and because the continuous sensor
material provides a path for the crosstalk current. By maintaining
clamp voltage V.sub.C1 well above bias voltage V.sub.B (i.e., at
least one threshold voltage V.sub.TC1), clamp transistor 610 is
able to drain excess charge from storage capacitor 220 before
photodiode 210 saturates, thereby preventing crosstalk between
pixel 110-B and any adjacent pixels (not shown).
As discussed above, crosstalk is an issue in high fill-factor
arrays having a continuous sensor material layer because, as
illumination levels change from pixel to pixel, the potential on
each pixel contact is different. The crosstalk current between
adjacent pixels occurs due to these differences in pixel contact
voltages. Therefore, an ideal amplifier circuit to place on each
pixel would maintain the voltage level of the contact at a fixed,
predetermined level, thereby preventing crosstalk by eliminating
voltage potentials between the pixel contacts.
FIG. 8 is a simplified circuit diagram showing a representative
pixel 110C and associated circuitry of an imager system 100C, which
represents another embodiment of imager system 100 (shown in FIG.
1). Each pixel 110C includes a sensor circuit 112C and an access
TFT 116. Similar to sensor circuit 112 (see FIG. 2), sensor circuit
112C includes a photodiode 210C and a storage capacitor 220C, but
also includes a cascode transistor 810 connected between storage
capacitor 220C and the cathode of photodiode 210C. In particular,
cascode transistor 810 is connected between a pixel contact PC,
which is located at the cathode of photodiode 210C, and a first
terminal of storage capacitor 220C. In addition, imager system 100C
includes a cascode voltage generator (V.sub.C2 GENERATOR) 820 that
generates a global cascode control voltage V.sub.C2 that is applied
to the gate terminals of each cascode transistor 810. Other
structural elements of imager system 100C that are essentially
identical to corresponding elements of the embodiments described
above are identified with like reference numbers, and detailed
description of these elements is omitted for brevity.
FIG. 9 is a simplified cross-sectional side view showing a portion
of imager system 100C in additional detail. In particular, FIG. 9
shows a first pixel 110C-1 and portions of adjacent pixels
100C-2.
Similar to embodiments described above, each pixel (e.g., pixel
110C-1) includes a photodiode 210C formed by a (first) metal plate
910 that forms the pixel contact PC, a continuous a-Si:H layer 920,
and a transparent bias (e.g., ITO) layer 930. Continuous a-Si:H
layer 920 includes several relatively heavily n-type (n+) doped
regions 922 formed over each pixel contact 910, a continuous
central undoped (intrinsic, or "i") region 926, and a continuous
relatively heavily p-type (p+) doped regions 922 that abuts a lower
surface of bias layer 930. Note that each n+ doped region 922 is
separated by a region G of undoped (intrinsic) a-Si:H from the n+
doped regions of adjacent pixels 110C-2.
Unlike the embodiments described above, however, each pixel of
imager system 100C includes a storage capacitor 220C that is
separated from pixel contact 910 (i.e., neither plate of storage
capacitor 220C is formed by pixel contact 910, as in earlier
described embodiments). Instead, storage capacitor 220C includes a
second metal plate 940 located below pixel contact 910, and a third
metal plate 950 located below second metal plate 940. During
fabrication, third metal plate 950 is formed from a first metal
layer, and second metal plate 940 is formed from a subsequently
deposited second metal layer such that plates 940 and 950 are
separated by a suitable insulation layer.
Additional metal structures are utilized to form cascode transistor
810, which is connected between pixel contact 910 and second metal
plate 940, and access transistor 116, which is formed between
second metal plate 940 and the associated data line 130-1. In
particular, cascode transistor 810 includes a first metal portion
942, a gate portion 952, and a portion of second metal plate 940.
First metal portion 942 is connected to first metal plate 910 by a
metal via structure 915, and is formed from the same metal layer as
that used to form second metal plate 940. Gate portion 952 is
located under a channel C1 separating first metal portion 942 and
second metal plate 940, and is formed from the same metal layer as
that used to form third metal plate 950. Similarly, access
transistor 116 includes a second gate portion 956 located under a
channel C2 separating second metal portion 940 and a third metal
structure 956 that is connected to the associated data line 130-1.
Second gate portion 956 is also formed from the same metal layer as
that used to form third metal plate 950.
As indicated in FIG. 10, cascode control voltage V.sub.C2 is
maintained at a value greater than one V.sub.TC2 above bias voltage
V.sub.B, where V.sub.TC2 is the threshold voltage of cascode
transistor 810, thereby causing cascode transistor 810 to drain all
photo-generated charge from pixel contact 910/PC such that a
constant voltage is maintained across photodiode 210C (FIG. 8). The
photo-generated charge is released through cascode transistor 810
and stored on storage capacitor 220C, where it remains until
subsequent readout and reset through TFT 116 and charge amplifier
135.
While the present invention has been directed thus far to crosstalk
issues, the cascode approach described above may also be utilized
to improve resolution through the reduction of image aliasing.
Image detail is expressed by its spatial frequency. Analogous to
the temporal frequency that describes signal repetition in time,
the spatial frequency of an image describes signal repetition in
space. This space is two-dimensional for flat panel imagers, such
as those described herein. A low frequency describes an image in
which dark and light features that are far apart, and a high
frequency describes dark and light features that repeat over a
short distance. In mathematical terms, sampling a signal is
multiplying it in space with a two dimensional array of infinitely
short impulses, spaced T meters apart. This corresponds to
convoluting the signal spectrum in the frequency domain with an
array of impulses spaced 1/T m.sup.-1 from each other. Image
aliasing occurs when image details finer than half the pixel pitch
are captured. Even when the image does not contain such fine
details, the image noise, which stretches out uniformly over the
entire frequency band, will. In order to avoid aliasing, the
unwanted high-frequency image components must be filtered out
before they are sampled by the imager pixels. Once they're on the
pixel, there is no way to separate aliasing from the actual lower
frequency signals. Imager pixels, however, have a finite size. As a
result, the impulses in the frequency domain are not uniform over
the entire spectrum. They follow a sin(a)/a envelope. The higher
order spectra of the sampled signal are also weighed according to
this envelope. The aliasing effects are thus also weighed according
to this envelope. Widening the pixels reduces aliasing, but cannot
eliminate aliasing completely.
By providing a continuous sensor material layer, high fill-factor
image sensor arrays, such as those described herein, provide the
widest possible pixels and therefore reduce the impact of aliasing,
but do not completely eliminate it. In many imaging systems, the
image source can be designed to reject high spatial frequencies,
for example by designing the focus of the optical system to blur
the image and reject high spatial frequencies. Indirect x-ray
detection typically does not have much of a problem with aliasing,
since the phosphor rejects high spatial frequencies. However, in
direct detection imagers, the effects of aliasing can be clearly
seen. Even if the imager can be designed so that high spatial
frequencies are filtered on the imager, the noise will also be
aliased, reducing the Detector Quantum Efficiency (DQE) of the
imager. Ideally, however, there would be a way to filter high
spatial frequency signals prior to imaging.
FIG. 11 is a simplified cross-sectional side view showing a portion
of imager system 100D according to another embodiment of the
present invention that addresses the aliasing problem. Imager
system 100D is essentially identical to imager system 100C (FIGS. 8
and 9), but includes a resistive film (resistor region) 1120
connecting all of the n+ regions 922, thereby effectively forming
resistors R (depicted in dashed lines) between adjacent pixel
electrodes 910/PC. Other structural elements of imager system 100D
that are essentially identical to corresponding elements of the
embodiments described above are identified with like reference
numbers, and detailed description of these elements is omitted for
brevity.
As mentioned above, a continuous layer of sensor material 920 is
sandwiched between a continuous transparent biasing layer 930 and a
plurality of spaced apart pixel contacts 910/PC. Sensor material
layer 920 includes an intermediate continuous undoped (intrinsic)
layer 924 sandwiched between a plurality of spaced-apart,
relatively highly doped regions 922 and a continuous doped layer
926. In accordance with the present embodiment, resistive film 1120
is doped with the same dopant type (e.g., n-type) as that used in
relatively highly doped (n+) regions 922, but has a doping level
(concentration) that is between that of relatively highly doped
(n+) regions 922 and undoped region 924.
By placing resistive film 1120 between the pixels of imager system
110D, the charge that collects on each pixel contact 910/PC is
allowed to leak (blur) into neighboring pixels. As a result,
resistive film 1120 smoothes out the finer image details and
reduces the higher frequency content that causes aliasing. Note
that when connected to a standard pixel circuit (similar to those
shown in FIG. 2), the resistive layer would have a disadvantage,
because the resistive redistribution of the charge collected on the
pixels that are read first will be different that the
redistribution for pixels that are read later. Therefore, resistive
film 1120 is preferably utilized in combination with cascode
transistor 810, described above, to prevent redistribution of
charge once the charges have been successfully collected. The only
requirement will be that the resistance between pixels exceeds
1/g.sub.m of the cascode transistor, otherwise the generated charge
is blurred completely before it gets through cascode trasistor 810
and into storage capacitor 220C.
Another way of looking at image blurring to reduce aliasing is that
resistive sheet 1120, combined with the pixel capacitance
C.sub.PIX, which represents the effective capacitance per unit area
of photodiode 210C (shown in FIG. 11), can be seen as a low-pass
analog spatial filter sitting right before the digital sampling
pixel electrodes. The high spatial frequency part of the signal is
filtered out by resistive film 1120 in combination with the
distributed sensor capacitance C.sub.PIX before it gets into the
sampling stage and causes aliasing. Equation 1 describes this
low-pass spatial filter: ##EQU1##
Equation 1 is a typical continuity equation, where J is the 2D
current density vector on the resistive film plane, C.sub.PIX is
the sensor capacitance per unit area, Q is the charge per unit area
on the resistive film, V is the potential on the resistive film and
.rho. is the resistivity of resistive film 1120. Solving these two
equations provides: ##EQU2##
and the typical normal solution for this partial differential
equation is: ##EQU3##
where k is the spatial wave vector and .tau..sub.0 is the decaying
time constant for the specific spatial radial frequency k. It is
obvious from Equation 2 that signals with higher spatial frequency
(larger k) have smaller time constant (decay faster). Therefore, if
signal charge is collected a little after it was generated, high
spatial frequency components are filtered out.
However, this resistive-film low-pass spatial filter arrangement
provides little benefit in regular flat panel imager with a
conventional pixel circuit that has the storage capacitor connected
directly to the pixel (e.g., imager system 100A; see FIG. 2). The
usual frame times are in the order of hundreds of ms for
radioscopic imaging and tens of ms for fluoroscopic system. Both
are much longer than the photon absorption and blurring process
described above. If the low-pass spatial filter is implemented with
a conventional pixel circuit, the high and middle spatial frequency
part of the signal is thus damped out completely for photons that
arrive at the beginning of the frame cycle and damped too little
for photons received near the end of each frame cycle.
In contrast, imager system 100D includes cascode transistor 810
between storage capacitor 220C and pixel contact 910/PC. Cascode
transistor 810 drains the pixel charge much quicker than in
conventional pixel circuits (similar to those shown in FIG. 2), and
dumps the drained charge on storage capacitor 220C. The cascode
arrangement also drains all of the pixels at the same time.
Therefore, the desired low-pass cut-off frequency, or the
corresponding amount of image blur, is defined by matching the
source impedance of the cascode circuit to the resistance of
resistive film 1120 (which sets the amount image blurring). The
effective resistors R and the effective pixel capacitance C.sub.PIX
controls how fast pixel charge leaks into neighboring pixels. The
cascode source impedance 1/g.sub.m, in combination with effective
pixel capacitance C.sub.PIX sets how quickly the charge is
collected from the pixel and dumped on storage capacitor 220C.
As mentioned above, sensor layer 920 can be regarded as a
distributed capacitor with a single plate (i.e., bias layer 930) at
one side, and separate pixel contacts 910 connected by resistive
film 1120 at the other. A light pulse entering sensor layer 920
generates electron-hole pairs that are quickly pulled apart by the
applied electric field and collected on the pixel plates, thereby
pulling the voltage across photodiode 210C down. As this photodiode
potential is pulled down over a particular pixel 110D-1, a voltage
drop is created across resistors film 1120 causes the pixel charge
to bleed into neighboring pixels 110D-2, where it is collected on
the storage capacitors of these adjacent pixels. For this process
to happen as described, the cascode source impedance should be
selected smaller than the resistance of resistor film 1120.
Note that the low-pass filtering effect of resistive film 1120 is
not only effective for removing aliasing effect from the signal
generated by incoming photons. Resistive film 1120 can also filter
out the high spatial frequency part of the detector noise. This
effect would increase the Detector Quantum Efficiency (DQE),
especially for ultra high-resolution flat panel imagers such as in
direct detection X-ray imagers.
Further, because resistive film 1120 changes the electric field
between the pixels, it helps to collect the electron-hole pairs
generated between the imager pixels much quicker, actually just as
quick as the electron-hole pairs generated above the pixels. This
collection efficiency avoids the situation in conventional image
sensor arrangements where charge generated between pixels is
sometimes trapped in deep traps at the interface between the sensor
layer and the underlying layers. If any trapped charge appears, the
resistive film provides a fast draining path for these trapped
charges. In conventional full-fill factor arrays, trapped charges
release very slowly and lead to image lag over several frames. This
effect is particularly noticeable and problematic for direct
detection X-ray imagers such as the ones using a-Se as sensor
material.
FIG. 12 is a simplified circuit diagram showing a representative
pixel 110E and associated circuitry of an imager system 100E, which
represents another embodiment of imager system 100 (shown in FIG.
1). Each pixel 110E includes a sensor circuit 112E and an access
TFT 116. Similar to sensor circuit 112 (see FIG. 2), sensor circuit
112E includes a photodiode 210C and a storage capacitor 220C, but
also includes both a cascode transistor 810 (described above with
reference to FIGS. 8 and 9) and clamp transistor 610 (described
above with reference to FIG. 6). Other structural elements of
imager system 100E that are essentially identical to corresponding
elements of the embodiments described above are identified with
like reference numbers, and detailed description of these elements
is omitted for brevity. By including both clamp transistor 610 and
cascode transistor 810 in each pixel 110E, imager system 100E
provides the benefits described above that are associated with each
of these circuits.
Although the present invention has been described with respect to
certain specific embodiments, it will be clear to those skilled in
the art that the inventive features of the present invention are
applicable to other embodiments as well. For example, sensor arrays
incorporating the present invention may be modified for indirect
detection as well as direct detection methods according to known
practices. Those familiar with integrated circuit structures will
recognize such modifications can be utilized without departing from
the spirit and scope of the invention described herein (e.g., using
p-type instead of n-type transistors, reversing voltage and/or
photodiode polarities, and using a resistive sensor rather than a
photodiode).
* * * * *