U.S. patent number 5,885,614 [Application Number 08/606,544] was granted by the patent office on 1999-03-23 for use of odorants to treat male impotence, and article of manufacture therefor.
Invention is credited to Alan R. Hirsch.
United States Patent |
5,885,614 |
Hirsch |
March 23, 1999 |
**Please see images for:
( Certificate of Correction ) ** |
Use of odorants to treat male impotence, and article of manufacture
therefor
Abstract
A method is provided for inducing or enhancing penile erection
through the delivery of odorants for inhalation. The administration
of odorants provides an increase in blood flow to the penis, and a
therapeutic aid to stimulate sexual activity and alleviate male
vasculogenic impotence.
Inventors: |
Hirsch; Alan R. (Chicago,
IL) |
Family
ID: |
24428390 |
Appl.
No.: |
08/606,544 |
Filed: |
February 23, 1996 |
Current U.S.
Class: |
424/451; 424/45;
424/434; 424/489 |
Current CPC
Class: |
A61K
36/54 (20130101); A61K 36/185 (20130101); A61K
36/896 (20130101); A61K 36/73 (20130101); A61K
36/53 (20130101); A61K 36/738 (20130101); A61K
36/898 (20130101); A61K 36/45 (20130101); A61K
36/534 (20130101); A61K 36/899 (20130101); A61K
36/752 (20130101); A61K 36/42 (20130101); A61K
36/484 (20130101); A61K 36/23 (20130101); A61K
36/185 (20130101); A61K 2300/00 (20130101); A61K
36/23 (20130101); A61K 2300/00 (20130101); A61K
36/42 (20130101); A61K 2300/00 (20130101); A61K
36/45 (20130101); A61K 2300/00 (20130101); A61K
36/484 (20130101); A61K 2300/00 (20130101); A61K
36/53 (20130101); A61K 2300/00 (20130101); A61K
36/534 (20130101); A61K 2300/00 (20130101); A61K
36/54 (20130101); A61K 2300/00 (20130101); A61K
36/73 (20130101); A61K 2300/00 (20130101); A61K
36/738 (20130101); A61K 2300/00 (20130101); A61K
36/752 (20130101); A61K 2300/00 (20130101); A61K
36/896 (20130101); A61K 2300/00 (20130101); A61K
36/898 (20130101); A61K 2300/00 (20130101); A61K
36/899 (20130101); A61K 2300/00 (20130101) |
Current International
Class: |
A61K
9/48 (20060101); A61K 009/48 () |
Field of
Search: |
;424/451,489,58,45,46,434 |
Other References
PD. MacLean, "Cerebral evolution of emotion," in Lewis and Haviland
(eds.), Handbook of Emotions, p. 77, The Guilford Press, New York,
NY (1993). .
H. Sugano, JASTS 12:8 (Abstract)(1988). .
J. Borden, "This story stinks, but it might be quite lucrative,"
Chicago Business Crain's, Metro Chicago's Business Authority (Dec.
2-8, 1991). .
A. R. Hirsch, Advances in Consumer Research 19: 390-395 (1992).
.
J. R. King, "Anxiety Reduction Using Fragrances," in Perfumery, The
Psychology and Biology of Fragrance, pp. 147-165, Van Toller &
Dodd (eds.), Chapman and Hall, Ltd., London (1988)). .
Erlichman, H. and Bastone, L., "Olfaction and Emotion", Science of
Olfaction, pp. 410-417, Serby and Choboro (Eds.), Springer-Verlag,
New York, NY (1992). .
Erlichman, H. and Bastone, L., Perfumer & Flavorist 16:11-12
(1991). .
Ludvigson & Rottman, Chemical Senses 14:525-536 (1989). .
Ehrlichman, H. and Bastone, L., Perfumer & Flavorist 16:11-12
(1991). .
Baron, R.A., Journal Applied Social Psychology 20:368-384 (1990).
.
Hirsch, A. R. and L.H. Johnston, Chemical Senses 19: 46 (Abstr. No.
121)(1994). .
Hirsch, A. R. and L.H. Johnston, ACHEMS-XVI: Abstract No. 142
(1994). .
Hirsch, A. R. and L.H. Johnston, Chemical Senses 20(1): 77-78
(1995). .
Amoore et al., Rhinology 21:49-54 (1983). .
R. L. Doty et al., Ann. Neurol. 25: 166-171 (1989). .
Doty et al., Chemical Senses 10:297-300 (1985). .
R. Doty, The Smell Identification Test: Administration Manual 1983:
13-14, Philadelhia: Sensonics, Inc. (1983). .
J.F. Gent, in Clinical Measurement of Taste and Smell, pp. 107-116,
H.L. Meisolman (eds.), 602pp., MacMillan, Ny (1986). .
Hirsch, A.R. and Cain D.R., Chemical Senses 17:642-643 (1992).
.
E. Koss et al., Neurology 38: 1228-1232 (1988). .
A.R. Hirsch, The Nose Knows, Chicago Medicine, pp. 28-31, (Jul. 21,
1990). .
A.R. Hirsch and J.J. Kim, Phychosomatic Medicine, 57:83
(1995)..
|
Primary Examiner: Page; Thurman K.
Assistant Examiner: Benston, Jr.; William E.
Attorney, Agent or Firm: Godfrey & Kahn, S.C.
Claims
What is claimed is:
1. A method of increasing penile blood flow in a male individual,
comprising:
administering to the male by inhalation of an odorant in an amount
effective to increase penile blood flow;
the odorant selected from the group consisting of orange, a mixture
of lavender and pumpkin pie a mixture of doughnut and black
licorice, a mixture of pumpkin pie and doughnut lily of the valley,
black licorice, a mixture of doughnut and cola, a mixture of black
licorice and cola, a mixture of lavender and doughnut, chocolate,
strawberry, rose, green, apple, parsley, peppermint, musk lavender,
vanilla, cranberry, pink grapefruit, floral, baby powder, oriental
spice, cinnamon buns, roasting meat, cheese pizza, doughnut, cola,
pumpkin pie, and buttered popcorn.
2. A method of increasing penile blood flow in a male individual,
comprising:
administering to the male by inhalation of an odorant in an amount
effective to increase penile blood flow;
the odorant selected from the group consisting of a mixture of
lavender and pumpkin pie, a mixture of doughnut and black licorice,
and a mixture of pumpkin pie and doughnut.
3. A method of increasing penile blood flow in a mile individual,
comprising:
administering to the male by inhalation of an odorant in an amount
effective to increase penile blood flow;
wherein the odorant is selected from the group consisting of a
doughnut odorant, a cinnamon buns odorant, a pumpkin pie odorant, a
cola odorant, and an odorant mixture comprising one or more of
those odorants.
4. An article of manufacture, comprising:
(a) an odorant as recited in claim 1 packaged within a container,
wherein the odorant when inhaled by a male individual is effective
to increase penile blood flow; and
(b) instructions for use of the odorant according to the method of
claim 1.
5. An article of manufacture, comprising:
(a) an odorant as recited in claim 2 packaged within a container,
wherein the odorant when inhaled by a male individual is effective
to increase penile blood flow in the male; and
(b) instructions for use of the odorant according to the method of
claim 2.
6. An article of manufacture, comprising:
(a) an odorant as recited in claim 3 packaged within a container,
wherein the odorant when inhaled by a male individual is effective
to increase penile blood flow; and
(b) instructions for use of the odorant according to the method of
claim 3.
7. The method of claim 1, wherein the odorant is administered in a
form selected from the group consisting of a scented cloth, a
liquid or solid form contained in a vessel having a cap, an aerosol
spray, a pump-type spray, a nasal spray, a liquid or solid form
contained in a blister pack, and microcapsules contained in a
scratch-and-sniff odor patch.
8. The method of claim 1, wherein the odorant is administered in a
form selected from the group consisting of a lotion, cream,
perfume, and cologne.
9. The method of claim 1, wherein the odorant is administered by
means of a pen-like dispenser containing the odorant in a liquid
form.
10. The method of claim 2, wherein the odorant is administered in
the form selected from the group consisting of a scented cloth, a
liquid or solid form contained in a vessel having a cap, an aerosol
spray, a pump-type spray, a nasal spray, a liquid or solid form
contained in a blister pack, and microcapsules contained in a
scratch-and-sniff odor patch.
11. The method of claim 2, wherein the odorant is administered in a
form selected from the group consisting of a lotion, cream,
perfume, and cologne.
12. The method of claim 2, wherein the odorant is administered by
means of a pen-like dispenser containing the odorant in a liquid
form.
13. The method of claim 3, wherein the odorant is administered in
the form selected from the group consisting of a scented cloth, a
liquid or solid form contained in a vessel having a cap, an aerosol
spray, a pump-type spray, a nasal spray, a liquid or solid form
contained in a blister pack, and microcapsules contained in a
scratch-and-sniff odor patch.
14. The method of claim 3, wherein the odorant is administered in a
form selected from the group consisting of a lotion, cream,
perfume, and cologne.
15. The method of claim 3, wherein the odorant is administered by
means of a pen-like dispenser containing the odorant in a liquid
form.
16. A method of increasing penile blood flow in a male individual,
comprising:
administering to the male by inhalation of an odorant in an amount
effective to increase penile blood flow;
the odorant administered in a form selected from the group
consisting of a scented cloth, a liquid or solid form contained in
a vessel having a cap, an aerosol spray, a pump-type spray, a nasal
spray, a liquid or solid form contained in a blister pack, and
microcapsules contained in a scratch-and-sniff odor patch; and
the odorant selected from the group consisting of orange, a mixture
of lavender and pumpkin pie, a mixture of doughnut and black
licorice, a mixture of pumpkin pie and doughnut, lily of the
valley, black licorice, a mixture of doughnut and cola, a mixture
of black licorice and cola, a mixture of lavender and doughnut,
chocolate, strawberry, rose, green apple, parsley, peppermint,
musk, lavender, vanilla, cranberry, pink grapefruit, floral, baby
powder, oriental spice, cinnamon buns, roasting meat, cheese pizza,
doughnut, cola, pumpkin pie, and buttered popcorn.
17. The method of claim 16, wherein the odorant is administered in
a form selected from the group consisting of a lotion, cream,
perfume, and cologne.
18. The method of claim 16, wherein the odorant is administered by
means of a pen-like dispenser containing the odorant in a liquid
form.
19. A method of increasing penile blood flow in a male individual,
comprising:
administering to the male by inhalation of an odorant in an amount
effective to increase penile blood flow;
the odorant administered in a form selected from the group
consisting of a scented cloth, a liquid or solid form contained in
a vessel having a cap, an aerosol spray, a pump-type spray, a nasal
spray, a liquid or solid form contained in a blister pack, and
microcapsules contained in a scratch-and-sniff odor patch;
the odorant selected from the group consisting of orange, a mixture
of lavender and pumpkin pie, a mixture of doughnut and black
licorice, a mixture of pumpkin pie and doughnut, lily of the
valley, black licorice, a mixture of doughnut and cola, a mixture
of black licorice and cola, and a mixture of lavender and
doughnut.
20. The method of claim 19, wherein the odorant is administered in
a form selected from the group consisting of a lotion, cream,
perfume, and cologne.
21. The method of claim 19, wherein the odorant is administered by
means of a pen-like dispenser containing the odorant in a liquid
form.
22. An article of manufacture, comprising:
(a) an odorant as recited in claim 16 and packaged in a recited
form, wherein the odorant when inhaled by a male individual is
effective to increase penile blood flow; and
(b) instructions for use of the odorant according to the method of
claim 16.
23. An article of manufacture, comprising:
(a) an odorant as recited in claim 19 and packaged in a recited
form, wherein the odorant when inhaled by a male individual is
effective to increase penile blood flow; and
(b) instructions for use of the odorant according to the method of
claim 19 .
Description
BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION
In men, the genital component of the excitement phase of the sexual
response cycle is manifested by penile erection and scrotal
elevation (Kolodny, Masters and Johnson, Textbook of Sexual
Medicine, pages 507-508, Little, Brown and Company, Boston, Mass.
(1979)). Erection is basically a cardiovascular event that is
controlled by the nervous system. The first physical sign of sexual
excitation is a change in penile blood flow. Blood flow increases
to the penis with sexual excitement and is reduced with sexual
inhibition.
Male erectile dysfunction, or impotence, is the inability to
achieve or sustain an erection of sufficient rigidity to have
sexual intercourse. The causes of impotence are psychological
and/or organic (i.e., endocrinologic, neurogenic and vasculogenic).
Ten to fifteen percent of male impotence is organic in nature.
Organic causes can be from local lesions of the genitalia,
endocrine diseases, organic lesions of the nervous system, and/or
vasculogenic impotence from reduced blood flow is the most common
organic cause usually seen in diabetes. Impotence may be a side
effect of a therapeutic drug or associated with a disease such as
multiple sclerosis, diabetes and sickle cell anemia, and can be
exacerbated by smoking, inadequate diet among other factors.
Emotional disturbances, including stress, fatigue or distraction,
can also cause impotence.
In the sexual response, neuromuscular events simultaneously
increase the amount of blood entering the organ and decrease the
rate at which blood is allowed to leave it. Three vascular changes
have been indicated in causing erection: shunting of blood into the
cavernous spaces, contraction of muscular polsters on deep efferent
veins, and vasoconstriction-induced reduction in superficial penile
blood flow (G. Conti, Octa. Anat. 14:17 (1952)). As a function of
the autonomic nervous system, penile engorgement is controlled by
arterial flow through the pudendal artery and the smaller arteries
to the penis. The increased arterial flow is accomplished by active
dilatation of the arterioles. The process is reversed by the sudden
constriction of the arterioles that accompanies ejaculation.
Alteration of blood flow to and from the penis is considered to be
the most frequent organic cause of impotence. Vasculogenic
impotence results from either arterial occlusion, i.e., the
obstruction of adequate blood flow to the penile arteries, or
excess venal outflow (cavernovenous leaking).
Treatment of impotence can include counseling directed toward
dealing with the male's insecurities and feelings to reduce fears
of sexual performance. Treatments for male impotence include
surgery, penile prostheses implants including flexible rods and
inflatable balloons, drugs such as vasodilators given to induce an
erection as an ointment for topical application or a solution for
transurethral injection, and external aids such as penile splints
to support the penis or constricting rings to alter the blood flow
through the penis. A drawback of those systems is their
invasiveness, unwanted side effects, cost, inconvenience, and
complexity.
Accordingly, an object of the invention is to provide a method of
stimulating the male sexual response and inducing penile erection,
that is non-invasive and easy to perform. Another object is to
induce normal male sexual arousal.
SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION
These and other objects are achieved by the present invention which
is directed to a method for stimulating the male sexual response
through the delivery of an odorant substance for inhalation. The
use of the odorants is particularly useful as adjuvants for
inducing or enhancing an erection, and as aids for a non-invasive
treatment of male vasculogenic impotence.
It was found that the administration of odorants for inhalation by
a male individual having a normal olfactory ability effectively
increased penile blood flow from about 2-40%, and enhanced sexual
arousal. Preferred odorants are those that provided a 20-40%
increase in blood flow to the penis, which includes lavender,
oriental spice, cola and orange, and odorant mixtures of lavender
and pumpkin pie, doughnut and black licorice, and pumpkin pie and
doughnut. The odorants are useful as adjuvants to augment penile
blood flow and as aids in the treatment of male impotence, and to
enhance sexual arousal in normal males, i.e., those without sexual
dysfunction.
DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION
The present invention provides a non-invasive method of increasing
blood flow to the penis to augment penile erection, and of treating
vasculogenic impotence through the use of odorants. The method is
particularly useful for males who have a normal olfactory ability.
Administration of the odorant to a male subject will increase
penile blood flow such that in a normosmic person for which the
odor is hedonically positive, the blood flow will increase by about
2-40% compared to blood flow without being given the odorant.
Preferably, the odorant induces or enhances an erection sufficient
for vaginal penetration.
Preferably, an odorant is administered that will increase penile
blood flow by about 2-60%, preferably about 15-50%. Preferred
odorants are those that increase blood flow by about 20-40%, which
include, for example, lavender, oriental spice, cola and orange
odorants, and odorant mixtures such as lavender and pumpkin pie,
doughnut and black licorice, pumpkin pie and doughnut, and lavender
and doughnut. Odorants useful in the present method are
commercially available, for example, from International Flavors and
Fragrances, Inc. (IFF), New York, N.Y.
The precise magnitude of a loss of smell may be determined by means
of an odor threshold test. According to that test, an odorant
substance such as butyl alcohol, phenyl ethyl alcohol or pyridine,
is combined in an odorless liquid medium to provide a series of
dilutions, or binary steps, of the odorant. For each successive
binary step up the dilution scale, the odorant is present, for
example, at one half the concentration of the preceding step. The
highest concentration of the odorant usually provides the substance
at an irritant level. The patient is presented with the series of
dilutions in ascending order, and is asked to compare each dilution
step to at least one control stimulus, such as odorless propylene
glycol.
A "normosmic" individual is able to detect the odor of an odorant
substance without irritant sensations when the substance is
presented at a concentration within a range of the average normal
threshold for the substance. A "hyposmic" individual is one who has
a reduced capacity of the olfactory nerve being able to detect an
odorant substance by its odor at a concentration, or decismel
level, above that of a normosmic individual yet below its irritant
concentration level. An "anosmic" individual is one who has
essentially no olfactory nerve capacity being unable to detect the
odor of the odorant substance, but has trigeminal nerve function,
being able to detect an odorant substance by means of irritant,
tingling sensations when it is present at an irritant
concentration. A patient who is able to detect pyridine vapor by
means of irritant, tingling sensations caused by stimulation of the
trigeminal nerve, but who cannot distinguish a pyridine odor at a
lower concentration without such sensation, is considered to be
anosmic having no olfactory nerve sensitivity. The term "microsmic"
is synonymous with hyposmic.
The only limitation on the character of the odorant that is used is
that it must be suprathreshold in intensity and not trigeminal in
nature. According to the method of the invention, an odorant and/or
odorant mixture is administered to a male subject/patient for
sniffing and inhalation into the nasal passageway, to deliver an
amount of the odorant effective to increase penile blood flow which
is a suprathreshold level but not irritative in nature.
An odorant is presented at a suprathreshold level when the decismel
level or concentration of the odorant is high enough to be detected
by a normosmic individual. At its irritative level, the odorant
level or concentration is so high that the odorant stimulates
predominantly the trigeminal nerve rather than the olfactory nerve
and, hence, is perceived as noxious. The irritation threshold of
the patient is the lowest concentration of the substance that
causes immediate stinging or burning sensations in the nose, or
stinging or lacrimation of the eye. (See, J. F. Gent, in Clinical
Measurement of Taste and Smell, pages 107-166, H. L. Meiselman et
al. (eds), 602 pp., MacMillan, NY (1986); R. L. Doty et al., Ann.
Neurol. 25: 166-171 (1989); E. Koss et al., Neurology 38: 1228-1232
(1988); R. Doty, The Smell Identification Test: Administration
Manual 1983: 13-14, Philadelphia: Sensonics, Inc. (1983)).
The effect of the odorant and/or odorant mixture can be assessed
objectively by administering a test to the subject to measure
initial penile blood flow, and then re-testing the blood flow after
being given the odorant. The effectiveness of the odorant on the
subject can be observed by comparing the amount of penile blood
flow before and after inhaling the odorant.
The use of the odorant or odorant/mixture is useful for increasing
penile blood flow in a male individual who does or does not suffer
from vasculogenic impotence to improve penile erection. Male
vasculogenic impotence is the result of primary small vessel
disease or is a secondary symptom of a disease such as diabetes,
atherosclerosis or amyloidosis, for example.
The odorant can be delivered to the subject in the form of a liquid
solution, aerosol spray, solid, microcapsules, or other suitable
form to deliver an amount of the odorant for sniffing by the person
to increase blood flow to the penis and effectuate and/or enhance
penile erection and sexual arousal. A preferred amount of the
odorant that is delivered is a suprathreshold but not irritative
level.
The odorant substance can be administered in combination with an
odorless liquid carrier such as mineral oil or water, and can be
formulated with a viscosity effective to allow for aerosolization.
The odorant can be dispensed, for example, by means of a cloth
material that is coated with the odorant, as a solid or liquid form
contained in a capped vessel, as a spray from an aerosol or
pump-type spray device, as a nasal spray, by opening a blister pack
or scratch-and-sniff odor patch containing the odorant in the form
of microspheres, a vaporous emission from a pen-like dispenser
containing a liquid form of the odorant adsorbed to a wicking
material, a vapor from a solid or liquid air freshener, a lotion or
cream, perfume or cologne, potpourri, incense, a lightbulb ring or
candle, and the like. The odorant can be provided in a portable
dispenser for ready individual and personal use, for example, by
means of a pen-like delivery device, a blister pack, a small vial
of lotion, a booklet of scratch-and-sniff odor patches, and the
like, that include an effective amount of the desired odorant
substance.
The odorant substance or odorant mixture can be packaged as a part
of an article of manufacture, or kit, for use in increasing penile
blood flow and/or enhancing penile erection. The kit can include in
association, for example, an effective amount of an odorant and/or
odorant mixture in a non-reactive, biocompatible carrier and/or
optional additives as desired such as an antioxidant, preservative,
and the like; and means for containing the odorant such as a vial,
jar, pouch, can, bottle, cloth, aerosol can, blister pack,
scratch-and-sniff odor patch, pen-like device, and the like. The
containing means can include means for spraying by aerosolization
or pumping. The kit can further include means for instructing the
user about the use of the odorant and/or mixture to stimulate
penile blood flow, in the form of a label or tag attached to the
packaging and/or a printed package insert. The parts of the kit can
be contained or separately packaged within a packaging material,
such as a box or bag.
The invention will be further described by reference to the
following detailed examples, wherein the methodologies are as
described below. These examples are not meant to limit the scope of
the invention that has been set forth in the foregoing description.
Variation within the concepts of the invention are apparent to
those skilled in the art. The disclosures of the cited references
are incorporated by reference herein.
EXAMPLE
A randomized double-blind study was conducted to assess the effect
of odorants on penile blood flow, a measure of the level of male
excitation. Thirty-one men underwent penile blood flow measurements
with a bi-directional doppler ultrasound while wearing masks with a
total of 46 different odors and 2 control masks. All subjects
underwent standardized smell tests. The brachial/penile index (BPI)
with blank masks (as baseline) was compared with each odorized mask
for each individual as well as for the group as a whole. Data was
analyzed using the Wilcoxan Rank Sum Test and Spearman's Rank
Correlation Coefficients.
The odors with the greatest increase in BPI were a mixture of
lavender and pumpkin pie, doughnut and black licorice, and pumpkin
pie and doughnut. In subjects with normal olfactory ability and
whose partners wear cologne, lavender had the greatest impact on
BPI (p=0.03). The ability for oriental spice (p=0.01), cola
(p=0.02) and lavender (p=0.02) to increase BPI positively
correlated with the number of times the subject had intercourse in
the last month. The results showed that, in those men with a normal
olfactory ability, a variety of odors can increase penile blood
flow.
Testing Procedure. Thirty-one male volunteers from 18-64 years of
age (mean 30.2) underwent olfactory testing with the University of
Pennsylvania Smell Identification Test (UPSIT), a 40-question
forced-choice, scratch-and-sniff identification test and the
Chicago Smell Test, a 3-item detection and identification test
(Doty et al., Chemical Senses 10:297-300 (1985); Hirsch et al.,
Chemical Senses 17:642-643 (1992); Hirsch et al., Chemical Senses
18 (5):570-571 (1993); Hirsch et al., Chemical Senses 18 (5):571
(1993)).
Each male subject was also queried as to sexual preferences, sexual
practices, and odor hedonics. Questions asked were as follows: age;
marital status (s; m; w; d); height and weight; whether an odor
made him recall his childhood and, if yes, what odor; if he wears a
cologne and, if yes, what cologne; if he has diabetes; if he had
any difficulty with obtaining an erection in the last 30 days and,
if yes, the approximate number of times; if he smokes and, if yes,
the number of cigarettes daily; favorite food (specific); least
favorite food (specific); approximate number of times he had sexual
intercourse in the last 30 days; approximate number of sexual
partners in the last 30 days; sexual preference (male; female); how
satisfied with his current sexual activity on a rating scale of
1-2-3-4-5, where 1=very unsatisfied and 5=satisfied; number of
times he had an erection upon awakening within the last 30 days on
a scale of 1-2-3-4-5, where 1=never, 3=sometimes, 5=always; and if
there was a particular odor to cause him to have an erection within
the last 30 days (yes, no) and, if yes, what odor.
Subjects underwent assessment of level of sexual arousal as
determined by the brachial penile index (Laws et al., "The Penile
Plethysmograph," in A Practioner's Guide to Treating the
Incarcerated Male Sex Offender, pages 85-93, B. K. Schwartz and H.
R. Cellini (eds.), U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute
of Corrections, Washington D.C. (1988)). The test was performed
with the FLOSCOPE ULTRA Pneumoplethysmograph following
manufacturer's protocol (LifeSigns Corporation, "The PC Compatible
FLOSCOPE ULTRA Vascular Lab", Minneapolis, Minn. (1994)). With this
instrument, both penile and brachial blood pressures were measured
and their ratio calculated, thus controlling for systemic effects.
This allowed specific non-invasive assessment of penile blood
flow.
All subjects underwent assessments as follows. After being attached
to the plethysmograph, 3 minutes were allowed for acclamation to
the experimental environment. Following this, a blank control mask
was applied for 1 minute and then brachial penile index was
recorded. The masks were made of 3-M paper surgical masks, and were
designed to cover the nose and mouth. The mask was removed and then
the 46 odorized masks were randomly presented in a double-blinded
fashion. The odorized masks were prepared by applying about 1 drop
of odorant to provide a non-irritant but suprathreshold level of
the scent (i.e., a level wherein the subject could detect the odor
was present, but was not so high as to be noxious or primarily
trigeminal in nature. The odorants are shown in Table 1.
Each mask was worn for 1 minute, and brachial penile index was then
recorded. There was then a 3-minute "wash-out" period between masks
which involved breathing filtered air in a relative odor-free
environment. At the end of the testing, an additional blank mask
was worn for 1 minute, and a brachial penile index recorded. The
effects of the odors were assessed by comparing brachial penile
index with each individual odor as compared to the average of the
control masks.
Statistical Analysis. The statistical analysis was provided by
Sally Friels, Ph.D. of the University of Illinois School of Public
Health, Chicago, Ill. Statistical significance was defined if a p
value was less than or equal to 0.05. Data analysis included the
following nonparametric tests: Signed Rank test, Wilcoxan Rank Sum
Test, and Spearman's Rank Correlation Coefficient (T. Colton,
Statistics in Medicine, Little Brown & Co., Boston, Mass.
(1974)); E. L. Lehmann, Nonparametrics: Statistical Methods Based
on Ranks, Holden-Day, New York, N.Y. (1975)).
Demographics. GENERAL: 77.4% (n=24) of the male subjects were
single, 16.1% (n=5) were married, and 6% (n=2) were divorced. All
subjects lived in Chicago and surrounding suburbs. Subjects were
recruited through radio solicitation. All subjects were literate in
English.
OLFACTION: In response to the questionnaire, 55% (n=17) of the
subjects admitted to olfactory evoked nostalgic experience (A. R.
Hirsch, Advances in Consumer Research 19:390-395 (1992)). 61%
(n=19) did not smoke, 29% (n=9) smoked one ore less than one pack
per day, and 10% (n=3) smoked between 1.1 to 2 packs per day. Given
age and sex, UPSIT scores were graded based on published normal
values (Doty et al., Chemical Sense 10:297-300 (1985)). Given
these, 51% (n=16) had normal olfactory ability, whereas 48% (n=15)
were microsmic or anosmic. 71% (n=22) customarily wore cologne. Of
those who currently had regular sexual partners (n=23), 83% (n=19)
of their partners customarily wore perfume or cologne.
SEXUAL: 74% (n=23) of the subjects had at least one regular sexual
partner. None admitted to erection difficulties in the last 30
days. The frequency of intercourse over the last 30 days varied
from zero in 19% (n=6) to 25 in 6% (n=2) described as having more
than one sexual partner in the last 30 days. 87% (n=27) described
heterosexual preference, whereas 13% (n=4) had homosexual
preference. In describing level of sexual satisfaction on a scale
of one to five, with five being most satisfied, 23% (n=7) described
a maximum level of sexual satisfaction whereas 6.5% (n=2) described
the lowest level of satisfaction with a median of three. As a means
of assessing physiologic erectile function, frequency of morning
erections was obtained. These were rated on a scale of one to five,
one being absent and five being every morning. While 6% (n=2)
described erections every morning, 3% (n=1) described the absence
of morning erections, with a median of three. Most stated that
odors never induced an erection (84%, or n=26), while 16% (n=5)
admitted to odor-induced erection.
Results. The results are shown in Table 1 below. Sources of the
odorants were Energy Essentials, IFF, AromaTech and essential
oils.
The mixture of lavender and pumpkin pie odorants produced the
greatest increase in median penile blood flow (40%). This was
followed by the combination of black licorice and doughnut (31.5%),
followed by pumpkin pie and doughnut (20%). The odor with the least
effect on the median penile brachial index was cranberry which
increased blood flow by 2%. Despite our hypothesis, no odor was
found that reduced penile blood flow.
TABLE 1 ______________________________________ Odorant/Odorant
Mixture Median* ______________________________________ Lavender and
pumpkin pie 0.4000 Doughnut and black licorice 0.3150 Pumpkin pie
and doughnut 0.2000 Orange 0.1950 Lavender and doughnut 0.1800
Black licorice and cola 0.1300 Black licorice 0.1300 Doughnut and
cola 0.1250 Lily of the valley 0.1100 Buttered popcorn 0.0900
Vanilla 0.0900 Pumpkin pie 0.0850 Lavender 0.0800 Musk 0.0750 Cola
0.0700 Doughnut 0.0700 Peppermint 0.0600 Cheese pizza 0.0500
Roasting meat 0.0500 Parsley 0.0450 Cinnamon buns 0.0400 Green
apple 0.0375 Rose 0.0350 Strawberry 0.0350 Oriental spice 0.0350
Baby powder 0.0325 Floral 0.0300 Chocolate 0.0275 Pink grapefruit
0.0250 Cranberry 0.0200 ______________________________________
*Median penile blood flow
In those with normal olfactory ability, significant increase in
brachial penile index correlated with (1) age and response to
vanilla (p=0.05), (2) self assessed level of sexual satisfaction
and response to strawberry (p=0.05), and (3) frequency of sexual
intercourse and response to lavender (p=0.03), oriental spice
(p=0.02) and cola (p=0.03).
Discussion. Although it was hypothesized that an odorant would be
found that would reduce penile blood flow, no such odorant was
identified. Such an odorant could be utilized to help decondition
sex offenders. The results show that a hedonically positive odorant
increased penile blood flow.
The present odors are not considered human pheromones which are
believed to act upon the brain to cause an endocrinologic effect.
Unlike pheromones, the present odorants that affected penile blood
flow act immediately on the brain rather than in the slow manner of
pheromones, or have an immediate psychological effect upon the
brain.
There are several mechanisms by which the odorants may have
affected penile blood flow. The odorants may have induced a
Pavlovian conditioned response that reminded the subject of their
sexual partners or their cooking and the associated mood states.
Alternatively, odors may have induced a state of olfactory evoked
recall. In a study of 989 people from 45 states and 39 countries,
it was found that the odor that most induced olfactory evoked
nostalgia response in those raised in the United States was that of
baked goods (A. R. Hirsch, Advances in Consumer Research 19:390-395
(1992)). Although not wished to be held to any theory, odors that
induced a nostalgic response and the associated positive mood state
may have impacted upon penile blood flow. Or, the odors may have
induced relaxation. Green apple has been suggested to reduce
anxiety, and lavender, which increases alpha waves posteriorly, has
been associated with a relaxed state (H. Sugano, JASTS XXII:8
(Abstract) (1988); J. R. King, "Anxiety reduction using
fragrances," in The Psychology and Biology of Fragrance, pages
147-165, Van Toller and Dodd (eds.), Chapman and Hall, Ltd., London
(1988)). Under a condition of reduced anxiety, inhibitions may have
been removed and penile blood flow increased.
Alternatively, odors may have awakened the reticular activating
system. Studies have indicated that jasmine increases beta waves
frontally, and this is associated with a more alert state (Sugano
(1988), supra). By making an individual more awake and alert, the
odors may have caused subjects to be more aware of their entire
environment, including any sexual cues around them, thus increasing
penile blood flow.
Another possible mechanism is that the odorants may have acted
neurophysically. It has been demonstrated that stimulation of the
septal nucleus in the squirrel monkey induces erection (P. D.
MacLean, "Cerebral evolution of emotion," in Lewis and Haviland
(eds.), Handbook of Emotions, page 77, The Guilford Press, New
York, N.Y. (1993)). A direct pathway connects the olfactory bulb to
the septal nucleus (P. D. MacLean, A Triune Concept of the Brain
and Behavior, page 14, University of Toronto Press, Toronto
(1973)). Thus, it appears anatomically correct that odor may impact
upon the septal nucleus and induce erection with associated
increase in penile blood flow.
A direct physiologic mechanism may also play a role in the present
method. One subject slept through the entire testing period, yet
still showed the greatest increase in penile blood flow with the
odors of the combination of lavender and pumpkin pie.
Alternatively, increased aggression through septal nucleus
stimulation may be the primary effect. The increased penile blood
flow may act not as a measure of direct sexual excitation, but may
be the result of a "neighborhood effect" of induced aggression
(Donatucci and Lue, "Physiology of Penile Tumescence," in The
Penis, page 19, Hashmat and Das (eds.), Lea and Febiger,
Philadelphia, Pa. (1993)).
In addition, a generalized parasympathetic effect, rather than
specific sexual excitation, may act to increase penile blood flow.
Primitive humans congregated around food kills, and there they had
the greatest chance to procreate (J. Diamond, The Third Chimpanzee:
the evolution and future of the human animal, page 68, Harper
Collins Publisher, New York, N.Y. (1992). Thus, an increase in
penile blood flow in response to food odors may have held a
selective advantage for survival, and such a trait would be
selected for through evolution.
Neuromechanisms for sexual excitation and penile erection. All
natural functions are controlled by the nervous system, and the
sexual response cycle is ultimately dependent on an intact
neurophysiologic substrate. The sexual action can be viewed in the
framework of Sherrington's reflex arc as a complicated knee jerk
(W. Pryse-Phillips, Companion to Clinical Neurology, pages 785-786,
Little, Brown and Company, Boston, Mass. (1995)).
There are several components that are involved. There is an
afferent component of the sexual reflex arc which is activity by a
diverse variety of exogenous stimuli: the primary stimulus consists
of erotic visual, auditory, olfactory and tactile sensations. In
addition, internal imagery, as well as REM periods of sleep, can
serve as a primary stimulus of the sexual reflex. Each of these
modes of activation act through different locations in the nervous
system throughout the body. These stimuli are processed through
specialized areas of the neocortex, limbic system and spinal cord,
and then input into a final common pathway of sexual behavior. The
efferent limb of the reflex arc involves a synchronized response of
the voluntary and autonomic nervous system. Sexual stimulating
odors rapidly traverse the afferent arc entering the limbic system
and its neocortical connections.
There is also evidence that indicates that there is a direct
connection between the olfactory bulb and the vomeronasal organ of
the brain. In subhuman primates, the vomeronasal is where
pheromones act (E. B. Keverne, "Pheromones and sexual behavior," in
Handbook of Sexology, Money and Musaph (eds.),
Elsevier/Horth-Holland Biomedical Press (1977)).
Thus, there are several pathways through which odors may impact
upon sexual function. These pathways include: inducing memory
through hippocampi connections, inducing direct penile effects
through olfactory bulb septal nuclei connections, and/or affecting
potential pheromonal action on the hypothalamus via the vomeronasal
organ.
* * * * *