U.S. patent number 5,411,876 [Application Number 07/890,300] was granted by the patent office on 1995-05-02 for use of grease or wax in the polymerase chain reaction.
This patent grant is currently assigned to Hoffmann-La Roche Inc.. Invention is credited to Will Bloch, Jonathan Raymond, Alan R. Read.
United States Patent |
5,411,876 |
Bloch , et al. |
May 2, 1995 |
Use of grease or wax in the polymerase chain reaction
Abstract
Improvements to the polymerase chain reaction (PCR), a process
for in vitro enzymatic amplification of specific nucleic acid
sequences, can be achieved by changing the way that PCR reagents
are mixed and the enzymatic reaction is started and by the
replacement of mineral oil, commonly used as a vapor barrier to
minimize solvent evaporation, by a grease or wax. The use of such
mixtures allows for the delay of reagent mixing until the first
heating step of a PCR amplification, thereby reducing the enzymatic
generation of nonspecific products which occurs when a complete
mixture of PCR reagents, with or without test sample, stands at
room temperature or below. These mixtures increase the shelf-life
of PCR reagents and increase protection of the laboratory
environment against contamination by PCR product.
Inventors: |
Bloch; Will (El Cerrito,
CA), Raymond; Jonathan (Oakland, CA), Read; Alan R.
(Alameda, CA) |
Assignee: |
Hoffmann-La Roche Inc. (Nutley,
NJ)
|
Family
ID: |
23912174 |
Appl.
No.: |
07/890,300 |
Filed: |
May 27, 1992 |
Related U.S. Patent Documents
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Application
Number |
Filing Date |
Patent Number |
Issue Date |
|
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481501 |
Feb 16, 1990 |
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Current U.S.
Class: |
435/91.2;
435/6.13; 435/173.9; 206/219; 206/568; 206/569; 422/913 |
Current CPC
Class: |
B29C
59/103 (20130101); C08J 7/0427 (20200101); B01L
3/5082 (20130101); C08J 7/046 (20200101); C12Q
1/6848 (20130101); G01N 2035/00277 (20130101); C08J
2471/00 (20130101); G01N 2035/00267 (20130101) |
Current International
Class: |
B29C
59/10 (20060101); B29C 59/00 (20060101); B01L
3/14 (20060101); C12Q 1/68 (20060101); C08J
7/04 (20060101); C08J 7/00 (20060101); G01N
35/00 (20060101); C12P 019/34 () |
Field of
Search: |
;435/6,91,91.2
;208/20,21 ;206/219,568,569 ;935/16,17,18 ;215/233 ;436/94 |
References Cited
[Referenced By]
U.S. Patent Documents
Foreign Patent Documents
Other References
Kirk-Othmer, Concise Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, pp.
1259-1260. .
Tomer et al., Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 53(1), 305-308 (1989). .
Shibata et al., 1988, J. Exp. Med. 167:225-230. .
Kiyabu et al., 1989, Am. J. Surg. Pathol. 13(3):221-224. .
Ward et al., 1989, Nature 341:544-546. .
Newton et al., 1988, Nuc. Acids Res. 16(17):8233-8243. .
Newton et al., 1989, Nuc. Acids Res. 17(7):2503-2516..
|
Primary Examiner: Parr; Margaret
Assistant Examiner: Horlick; Kenneth
Attorney, Agent or Firm: Gould; Geroge M. Tramaloni; Dennis
P. Sias; Stacey R.
Parent Case Text
This is a Continuation of application Ser. No. 07/481,501 filed
Feb. 16, 1990, now abandoned.
Claims
We claim:
1. A PCR reaction tube comprising a container, an aqueous mixture
of PCR reagents, said mixture having contact with the atmosphere,
and an amount of grease or wax sufficient in mass to separate
completely the aqueous mixture from the atmosphere above it, when
said grease or wax is liquified.
2. The reaction tube of claim 1, wherein said container is plastic
and wherein the inner surface of said container is hydrophilic.
3. The reaction tube of claim 1, wherein the grease or wax
comprises an emulsion with an aqueous solution or suspension of a
subset of PCR reagents, and wherein the aqueous mixture comprises a
different subset of PCR reagents.
4. The reaction tube of claim 1, wherein said grease or wax
comprises a solution in wax or grease of a salt containing
magnesium and the conjugate base of a fatty acid and wherein the
aqueous mixture comprises a subset of PCR reagents different from
magnesium.
5. The reaction tube of claim 1, wherein said grease or wax
comprises a solution in grease or wax of a tertiary alkyl ammonium
salt of a nucleoside triphosphate and wherein the aqueous mixture
comprises a subset of PCR reagents different from any nucleoside
triphosphate incorporated in the grease or wax.
6. The reaction tube of claim 1, wherein said grease or wax
comprises a solution in grease or wax of a tertiary alkyl ammonium
salt of an oligonucleotide and wherein the aqueous mixture
comprises a subset of PCR reagents different from any
oligonucleotide incorporated in the grease or wax.
7. The reaction tube of claim 1, wherein said grease or wax further
comprises a non-ionic surfactant.
8. The reaction tube of claim 1, wherein said aqueous mixture also
comprises a nucleic acid targeted by the PCR reagents for
amplification.
9. The reaction tube of claim 2, wherein said inner surface has
been coated with a non-ionic surfactant.
10. The reaction tube of claim 2, wherein said surface has been
rendered hydrophilic by plasma etching.
11. The reaction tube of claim 2, wherein said plastic consists of
polypropylene.
12. The reaction tube of claim 4, wherein said fatty acid contains
four to twelve carbon atoms.
13. The reaction tube of claim 7, wherein said surfactant is
selected from the group consisting of polyoxyethyl sorbitan
tristearate and polyoxyethyl sorbitan trioleate.
14. The reaction tube of claim 9, wherein said surfactant is
selected from the group consisting of polyoxyethyl sorbitan
tristearate and polyoxyethyl sorbitan trioleate.
15. The reaction tube of claim 9, wherein said coating was
performed by contacting said surface with a solution of said
surfactant at a concentration between about 0.1% and 10% by mass in
a solvent substantially free of water, comprising methanol,
ethanol, 1-propanol, 2-propanol, 1-butanol, or 2-butanol.
16. A composition comprising a plastic container containing an
aqueous mixture of PCR reagents for amplifying nucleic acid using
repeated heating and cooling cycles, said mixture having contact
with the atmosphere, wherein the inner surface of said container is
hydrophilic and wherein said mixture contains a grease or wax
sufficient in mass to separate completely the mixture from any
atmosphere above it when said grease or wax is liquified.
17. A composition of claim 16 consisting of a mass of grease or wax
in the range of about 5 mg to about 50 mg contained within a PCR
reaction tube holding between about 10 and about 200 .mu.l total
aqueous volume.
18. A kit comprising one or more containers containing an aqueous
mixture of PCR reagents comprising at least two reagents suitable
for conducting PCR said mixture having an exposed surface in
contact with the atmosphere and a mass of grease or wax sufficient
to cover the exposed surface of PCR reactions when said grease or
wax is liquified.
19. A method for sealing a PCR reaction tube containing between
about 20 .mu.l and 200 .mu.l of an aqueous solution, wherein the
volume of said tube is less than about 600 .mu.l, comprising:
(a) adding between 5 mg and 30 mg of a wax that comprises a
non-ionic surfactant dissolved in said wax to a concentration
between about 0.1% and about 1% by weight and that melts in the
range of about 40.degree. C. to about 90.degree. C. to said aqueous
solution,
(b) heating said wax to a temperature higher than the melting point
of said wax and maintaining said temperature until said wax forms a
liquid layer on top of said aqueous solution, and
(c) cooling said liquid layer to form a solid layer completely
covering said aqueous solution.
20. The method of claim 19, wherein during step (c), said PCR
reaction tube is tilted 10 to 30 degrees off vertical such that if
said reaction tube is returned to vertical after step (c), said
solid layer formed during step (c) is at a slant 10 to 30 degrees
off horizontal.
21. A PCR reaction tube sealed by the method of claim 19, wherein
said aqueous solution contains a mixture of PCR reagents wherein
said mixture comprises at least two reagents suitable for
conducting PCR.
22. A kit comprising the PCR reaction tube of claim 21.
23. A method for producing a vapor barrier over an aqueous mixture
of PCR reagents in a tube, said mixture having an upper surface
exposed to the atmosphere and said method comprising the steps
of:
(a) adding an amount of wax to the aqueous mixture sufficient when
liquified to form a vapor barrier on the upper surface of the
mixture;
(b) heating the aqueous mixture to initiate the amplification
reaction said heat sufficient to liquify the wax; and
(c) permitting the liquified wax to flow upon the upper surface of
the mixture forming a vapor barrier.
24. A method of claim 23 wherein the wax contains at least one of
the PCR reagents with the proviso that said wax does not comprise a
solution containing polymerase.
25. A method of claim 24 wherein the wax comprises magnesium
ions.
26. A method claim 23 wherein the wax contains a non-ionic
surfactant.
27. A method of claim 23 wherein the aqueous mixture is cooled and
the wax solidified upon the upper surface of the aqueous mixture.
Description
FIELD OF THE INVENTION
The present invention describes novel compositions and methods for
simplifying and improving the specificity of the polymerase chain
reaction, a procedure for amplifying specific nucleic acid
sequences which finds broad use in the fields of genetics,
molecular biology, cellular biology, analytical biochemistry,
clinical chemistry, and forensic science.
BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION
The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is a chemical method of
increasing by many orders of magnitude the concentration of a
specific nucleic acid sequence in a test sample. The PCR process is
disclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,683,195 and 4,683,202, incorporated
herein by reference. In addition, U.S. Pat. No. 4,965,188, filed
Jun. 17, 1987, incorporated herein by reference, describes PCR
processes in which amplification is driven by a thermostable DNA
polymerase.
In PCR, a test sample believed to contain one or more targeted
nucleic acid sequences is combined in a total volume of usually
about 20-200 .mu.l with the following reagents: an aqueous buffer,
pH 8-9 at room temperature, usually also containing approximately
0.05M KCl; all four common nucleoside triphosphates (e.g., for DNA
polymerase, the four common dNTPs: dATP, dTTP, dCTP, and dGTP) at
concentrations of approximately 10.sup.-5 M-10.sup.-3 M; a
magnesium compound, usually MgCl.sub.2, usually at a concentration
of about 1 to 5 mM; a polynucleotide polymerase, preferably a
thermostable DNA polymerase, most preferably the DNA polymerase I
from Thermus aquaticus (Taq polymerase, subject of U.S. Pat. No.
4,889,818, incorporated herein by reference), usually at a
concentration of 10.sup.-10 to 10.sup.-8 M; and single-stranded
oligonucleotide primers, usually 15 to 30 nucleotides long and
usually composed of deoxyribonucleotides, containing base sequences
which are Watson-Crick complementary to sequences on both strands
of the target nucleic acid sequence(s). Each primer usually is
present at a concentration of 10.sup.-7 to 10.sup.-5 M; primers are
synthesized by solid-phase methods well known in the art of nucleic
acid chemistry.
In the simplest form, PCR requires two primers for each target
sequence. These primers, when annealed to the opposing target
strands, have their 3' ends directed toward one another's
hybridization sites and separated by about 100 to 1,000 nucleotides
(occasionally up to about 10,000 nucleotides). The polymerase
catalyzes magnesium-dependent, template-directed extension of each
primer from the 3' end of the primer, incorporating nucleoside
monophosphates into the growing nucleic acid and releasing
pyrophosphate.
This extension reaction continues until the polymerase reaches the
5' end of the template strand to which the extended primer was
annealed, at which point the polymerase is free to bind to another
primer-template duplex and catalyze extension of that primer
molecule; the extension reaction also stops if the reaction mixture
is heated to temperatures sufficient to separate the template from
the extended primer before the enzyme has reached the 5' end of the
template. After the enzyme has worked long enough to transform a
large fraction of the primer-template duplexes into double-stranded
nucleic acid, the latter can be denatured at high temperature,
usually 90.degree. to 100.degree. C., to create two single-stranded
polynucleotides, which, after cooling to a temperature where they
can be annealed to new primer molecules, serve as templates for
another round of enzyme-catalyzed primer extension. Because both
DNA strands serve as template, each round of nucleic acid
replication approximately doubles the concentration of the specific
nucleic acid sequence defined at its ends by the two primer
sequences. Therefore, the total concentration increase in the
target nucleic acid sequence in a PCR amplification is by a factor
of approximately 2.sup.n, where n is the number of completed
thermal cycles between a high temperature where double-stranded DNA
is denatured and a lower temperature or set of temperatures
(40.degree. to 75.degree. C.) where primer-template annealing and
primer extension occur.
Although one can move PCR reaction tubes manually back and forth
between thermostated baths in the two temperature ranges, PCR most
commonly is performed in an automated temperature-controlled
machine, known as a "thermal cycler," in which a microprocessor is
programmed to change the temperature of a heat-exchange block or
bath containing reaction tubes back and forth among several
specified temperatures for a specified number of cycles, holding at
each temperature for a specified time, usually on the order of
one-half to two minutes. Such a thermal cycler is commercially
available from Perkin Elmer Cetus Instruments and described in U.S.
patent application Ser. No. 899,061, filed Aug. 22, 1986, which is
a continuation-in-part of Ser. No. 833,368, filed Feb. 25, 1986.
Both applications are now abandoned and are incorporated herein by
reference. The total cycle time is usually less than 10 minutes,
and the total number of cycles is usually less than 40, so that a
single, multi-cycle amplification, amplifying the targeted nucleic
acid sequence 10.sup.5 to 10.sup.10 times, normally takes less than
seven hours and often less than four hours.
The practical benefits of PCR nucleic acid amplification have been
rapidly appreciated in the fields of genetics, molecular biology,
cellular biology, clinical chemistry, forensic science, and
analytical biochemistry, as described in the following review
volumes and articles: Erlich (ed.), 1989, PCR Technology, Stockton
Press (New York); Erlich et al. (eds.), 1989, Polymerase Chain
Reaction, Cold Spring Harbor Press (Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y.);
Innis et al., 1990, PCR Protocols, Academic Press (New York); and
White et al., 1989, Trends in Genetics 5/6:185-189. PCR can replace
a large fraction of molecular cloning and mutagenesis operations
commonly performed in bacteria, having advantages of speed,
simplicity, lower cost, and sometime increased safety. Furthermore,
PCR permits the rapid and highly sensitive qualitative and even
quantitative analysis of nucleic acid sequences, often with greatly
increased safety because so much PCR product is made that
nonisotopic detection modes suffice.
Despite rapid and broad adoption of PCR by a range of biological
and chemical disciplines, PCR still possesses several practical
limitations that must be overcome for full realization of the
analytical and synthetic potentials of the process. Some of these
limitations are discussed in turn, below.
Many amplifications yield nonspecific side products differing in
size and sequence from the sequence targeted by the primers used.
Sometimes nonspecificity is caused by mis-priming, where primers
have been annealed to non-target sequences, also present in the
nucleic acid of the test sample similar to the target sequence.
Although the genomic DNA commonly contained in PCR test samples has
customarily been thought to be completely double-stranded,
procedures used to prepare DNA for amplification appear to render
that DNA, to a large extent, single-stranded. Single-stranded DNA
is especially susceptible to mis-priming if mixed with a complete
set of PCR reagents at ambient or sub-ambient temperatures. Many
PCR reactions also yield primer dimers or oligomers,
double-stranded side products containing the sequences of several
primer molecules joined end-to-end, the yield of which correlates
negatively with the yield of amplified target sequence.
The high amplification factor and resulting high sensitivity of PCR
renders the process especially vulnerable to back contamination,
where amplified target from one reaction is accidentally
transferred into a subsequent reaction using the same primers and
gives a false-positive result in the later reaction.
In principle, PCR could be performed several times faster than
current practice allows, being rate limited in part by the speed of
temperature change during thermal cycling. Clinical diagnostic
applications of PCR would especially benefit from total
amplification times of 30 to 60 minutes instead of several
hours.
Lower PCR costs and increased speed and precision could be obtained
if the reagents could be mixed in large batches, aliquoted into the
small reaction tubes (usually one-half ml total capacity containing
20 to 200 .mu.l), and stored for long periods between preparation
and use without loss of amplification efficiency.
The heretofore standard PCR art has called for covering the aqueous
reaction mixture with 50 to 100 .mu.l of mineral oil to prevent
solvent evaporation during the several hours of heating. The
mineral oil overlay introduces several practical problems: (a)
mineral oil contamination of reaction mixture samples withdrawn for
post-PCR analysis, often requiring extraction with hazardous
water-immiscible organic solvents to avoid interference with
post-PCR processing; (b) a retardation of thermal equilibration
during thermal cycling (because of the significant heat capacity of
the oil layer), increasing the total cycle time; and (c) occasional
introduction from some batches of mineral oil of impurities which
appear to inhibit PCR, necessitating rigorous quality control of
mineral oil.
The present invention significantly mitigates the limitations of
PCR discussed above, by several surprisingly simple modifications
of PCR practice and materials. Because primer dimer and oligomer
formation can occur whenever all of the PCR reagents are mixed,
even at ambient and sub-ambient temperatures in the absence of
thermal cycling and in the absence of target DNA, segregation of at
least one reagent from the others in a way such that all reagents
do not come together before the first amplification cycle can
reduce primer oligomerization and, in doing so, can greatly extend
the shelf-life of the incomplete reagent mixture without greatly
complicating final reaction set-up. Such segregation also can
minimize mis-priming during the poorly controlled interval over
which PCR reagents and test sample customarily are mixed and stored
at ambient or subambient temperatures before the start of thermal
cycling, especially if segregated reagents and test sample are
introduced into the PCR reaction tube with minimal mixing.
Several chemical properties of magnesium confer special advantage
to segregating the magnesium compound from the other PCR reagents
(as opposed to segregating enzyme, primers, or dNTPs) when setting
up a PCR amplification. Fatty acid salts of magnesium are
potentially soluble in oil, grease, or wax, yet also potentially
water extractable when the organic layer is contacted with the hot
aqueous reagents during PCR. That way reagent segregation and
reaction tube preparation can be simplified by incorporation of the
magnesium into the organic layer rather than preparation of a
separate aqueous reagent which must be added. Being inorganic,
magnesium salts need not be prepared and stored with special
precautions against microbial contamination, a common problem with
mixtures containing nucleoside triphosphates, enzyme, or primers.
The phosphatases and phosphodiesterases which degrade nucleoside
triphosphates and primers often are magnesium-requiring, so that
storage of the biological reagents without magnesium (possibly also
with a trace of chelator to bind any small amount of magnesium
present) improves shelf life and resistance to contamination by
enzymes or by microbes which secrete the enzymes. Segregation of
any potassium salt with the magnesium compound and away from the
protein and nucleic acid also improves resistance to microbial
consumption of reagents, because potassium ion also is needed for
cell growth.
The present invention provides an especially effective mode of
reagent segregation by providing means to replace the mineral oil
overlay with a layer of grease or wax, the solidity of which at
room temperature or below creates a barrier against mixing of
aqueous reagents segregated above and below the grease or wax
layer. Thermal cycling tans the solid barrier into a
lighter-than-water liquid, which is displaced by an aqueous layer
above; the upper aqueous layer contains all PCR reagents not
present in the lower aqueous layer. Consequently, reagents
previously segregated mix to create a complete reaction with the
help of the considerable thermal convection which accompanies
heating of the reaction tube. The melted grease or wax creates a
vapor barrier to minimize solvent evaporation during thermal
cycling and, upon cooling after amplification is complete, re-forms
a solid barrier which, among other things, reduces the ease of PCR
product dispersal into the environment when reaction tubes are
opened, thereby reducing the likelihood of back-contaminating later
reactions.
U.S. patent application Ser. No. 428,494, filed Oct. 26, 1989, now
U.S. Pat. No. 5,221,608, incorporated herein by reference,
describes the irradiation of psoralen and isopsoralen derivatives
to photo-sterilize PCR product in a way which permits post-PCR
analysis but prevents use of that product as a template in
subsequent amplifications. Such photo-sterilization prevents
back-contamination. However, the psoralen and isopsoralen
photoreagents, commonly added before amplification, appear
occasionally to inhibit PCR. Furthermore, the magnesium ion
required for PCR is likely to reduce the affinity of photoreagent
for double-stranded nucleic acid, thereby reducing photoreagent
efficiency or increasing greatly the photoreactant concentration
required for practical photo-sterilization. The replacement of
mineral oil with grease or wax, as provided by the present
invention, permits a practical modification of the
photo-sterilization procedure that prevents interference of the
reagent with amplification of new target nucleic acid and should
increase photoreaction efficiency. After amplification in the
absence of photoreagent and after re-solidification of the grease
or wax, the reaction tube can be opened without fear of
contaminating the environment with PCR product. An aqueous solution
of photoreagent and a chelating reagent which binds magnesium can
be placed on top of the grease or wax. Closure of the tube and a
simple brief heating step to melt the grease or wax allows mixing
of photoreagent and chelator with PCR product; this mixture is now
ready for optimal photo-sterilization, as the chelation of
magnesium ion allows tight binding of photoreagent to nucleic
acid.
After PCR amplification, common practice is to detect amplified
nucleic acid by reacting the amplified nucleic acid with a reagent
that carries an analytical signal generator or a reagent that
facilitates separation of amplified nucleic acid from other
components of the PCR reaction mixture. Such reagents are designed
to bind very tightly to amplified nucleic acid, either because they
include oligonucleotides with sequences complementary to part of
the target sequence (nucleic acid probes) or because they bind to
molecules, such as fluorescein and biotin, which are conveniently
attached to primers or the nucleoside triphosphates incorporated
into PCR product. Signal-generating substances that might be
included in such detection reagents comprise radioisotopes,
fluorophores, chemiluminescent moieties, electrochemiluminescent
catalysts, and catalysts in general, such as enzymes.
Separation-promoting substances comprise antibodies, avidin,
streptavidin, biotin, high-affinity haptens like fluorescein,
magnetic particles, denser-than-water particles, lattices capable
of agglutination, and adsorbents capable of binding to either
single-stranded or double-stranded DNA or to specific nucleic acid
sequences.
Such detection reagents often are incompatible with PCR
amplification, either because, like most proteins, they are
inactivated by the prolonged heating in PCR or because, like most
separation-promoting substances, they might inhibit PCR by removing
reagents from solution. Therefore, it is generally beneficial to
add PCR product detection reagents after amplification has been
completed or almost completed. As in the case of
photosterilization, the present invention allows such late addition
to the PCR reaction tube to occur with minimal risk of
contaminating the laboratory with amplified nucleic acid, because
PCR product can be sealed beneath a layer of grease or wax.
Still another situation in which late addition to a PCR reaction is
desirable concerns "nested primers," wherein PCR specificity is
enhanced by following an initial amplification with an
amplification using primers complementary to sequences not present
in the original primers or primer-complementary regions but
amplified by extension of the original primers. The present
invention allows late addition of the internal primer pair of a
nested primer system with much reduced concern about contaminating
the laboratory environment with amplified nucleic acid. After such
addition, only one or a few amplification cycles are needed to
generate enough of the shorter PCR product to detect.
Many other situations exist in which late addition of a substance
to a PCR amplification has beneficial effects on PCR sensitivity,
specificity, convenience, and product analysis. In every case, the
present invention advances the art by allowing that addition to
occur: (a) under conditions where amplified nucleic acid is
sequestered; and/or (b) at elevated temperature.
SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION
In a first aspect, the invention is a method of increasing the
specificity of PCR amplification and of increasing the shelf life
of pre-mixed PCR reagents, wherein PCR reagents (excluding the test
sample containing the target DNA) are formulated as at least two
non-overlapping subsets which can be stored for long periods of
time (many months) without reaction or degradation, being brought
together in a PCR reaction tube with minimal mixing shortly before
(within a half hour of) thermal cycling. As described more fully
below, this segregation can be achieved by (1) placing all but one
(or more) essential PCR component in one container and the other
essential component in another container; (2) by placing all
essential PCR reagents in a single container but having one or more
essential reagents sequestered from the other essential reagents.
This latter sequestration can be achieved by merely placing a
barrier, such as a wax layer, between the reagent mixtures or by
embedding one or more essential reagents in a matrix or gel, such
as an agarose or acrylamide gel, or even a liposome.
In a preferred embodiment, all reagents except a magnesium compound
are mixed in advance of amplification, and the complete reaction
mixture is prepared in a way which minimizes mixing of the
magnesium compound with the remaining reagents until the first
amplification cycle is begun. Specifically, this embodiment
comprises the layering of liquid solutions or suspensions of the
magnesium compound, the magnesium-free reagents, and the test
sample in the reaction tube, preferably in a way such that the test
sample or a layer of solvent lies between the two reagent
formulations. Preferably any potassium salt included in the PCR
reaction mixture is formulated with the magnesium compound, not
with the other reagents.
In a second aspect, the invention comprises compositions and
methods which simplify the segregation of any subset of PCR
reagents from the complementary subset, wherein each subset is
formulated in an aqueous suspension or solution and a layer of
grease or wax is placed between the two subsets before
amplification. The grease or wax melts into a lighter-than-water
liquid during the first amplification cycle, whereupon mutual
displacement of the melted grease or wax and the aqueous layer
above it and convective mixing of the now united aqueous reagents
permits amplification.
In a third aspect, the invention comprises compositions and methods
which simplify the segregation of any subset of PCR reagents from
the complementary subset, wherein one subset is incorporated into a
lighter-than-water oil, grease, or wax which is layered on top of
any aqueous suspension or solution of another subset. Heating
during the first amplification cycle melts any grease or wax into a
liquid, and heating of the aqueous layer results in extraction of
the missing reagent subset from the lighter-than-water overlayer
into the aqueous layer, convective mixing of the now united
reagents permits amplification. One specific embodiment of this
aspect of the invention consists of an emulsion of an aqueous
solution or suspension of a subset of PCR reagents in the oil,
grease, or wax. Another embodiment is a solution of the subset of
PCR reagents in the oil, grease, or wax. Specifically preferred PCR
reagent formulations for dissolution in the oil, grease, or wax are
magnesium fatty acid salts, and tetra-alkylammonium salts of the
nucleoside triphosphates and of the primers.
In a fourth aspect, the invention comprises compositions which
improve the function of the second aspect of the invention by
changing the physical properties of the grease or wax. Specific
embodiments comprise: (1) a solution of surfactant in the grease or
wax; (2) a solution of surfactant in the aqueous layer below the
grease or wax; (3) an amplification container, the inner surface of
which is hydrophilic; (4) a suspension of plastic particles in the
grease or wax; and (5) a layer of plastic mesh suspended in the
grease or wax. Preferred amplification containers with hydrophilic
surfaces are plastic tubes which have been (a) coated with a
surfactant, (b) plasma etched in an oxidizing environment, (c)
treated with a strongly oxidizing liquid, or (d) cast from a resin
melt to which surfactant has been added.
In a fifth aspect, the invention comprises any container for
performing an aqueous chemical reaction which consists of a vessel
and an amount of a wax sufficient to cover completely the exposed
surface of the aqueous contents of the vessel, wherein the inner
surface of the vessel is hydrophilic or the wax has been mixed with
a nonionic surfactant.
In a sixth aspect, the invention comprises kits for PCR
amplification of nucleic acids. These kits comprise the novel
formulations of the PCR mixtures of the present invention and can
also comprise instructions for carrying out PCR with the mixtures
of the invention.
DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION
The first four aspects of the invention improve the specificity of
PCR amplification by preventing any catalytic reaction of nucleic
acid polymerase with other reagents until the fast amplification
cycle. In particular, the formation of PCR side products known as
primer oligomers, a reaction which occurs even at room temperature
and below in the absence of nucleic acid template, is greatly
reduced. Also disfavored is the mis-primed amplification of
nonspecific targets when the test sample contains single-stranded
DNA. Amplification of target PCR products often is increased when
side products are suppressed.
The first four aspects of the invention also simplify the bulk
manufacture of ready-to-use PCR reagent formulations with shelf
lives on the time scale of a week or more. Premixture of all
reagents generally results in a shelf life of no more than a few
days, apparently because of side reactions such as primer oligomer
formulation, which occur at room temperature or below in the
absence of template nucleic acid. As soon as at least one reagent
is segregated from the others until the first amplification cycle,
these side reactions cannot occur. Bulk manufacture of ready-to-use
reagent formulations increases the speed, convenience, and
reliability of PCR by relieving the user of the need to make
careful mixtures of reagents at time of use. Often, time-of-use
formulation entails mixing of small volumes and the preparation of
just a few reaction mixtures at a time, reducing the intra-day and
inter-day amplification precision.
The magnesium segregation (preferably also comprising potassium
segregation) of the first aspect of the invention is an improvement
over the segregation of other PCR reagents, such as enzyme,
primers, or nucleoside triphosphates for several reasons. As the
only non-biological, non-biodegradable, PCR reagent, the magnesium
compound requires the least stringent (e.g., sterile) formulation
and storage. Preferably, the other reagents are formulated together
and stored in a manner which respects their biodegradability and
greater chemical lability. Exclusion of an essential microbial
nutrient, such as magnesium or potassium, from the biodegradable
PCR reagents improves their resistance to biodegradation during
storage. Storage of nucleoside triphosphates and single-stranded
nucleic acid (e.g., primers) without magnesium is generally
observed to improve shelf life, probably because many of the
enzymes which might degrade them and which often are present as
trace contaminants in reagents and on surfaces require magnesium
for activity. The concentration dependence of magnesium activation
of nucleic acid polymerases is such that low levels of magnesium
leakage into a mixture of the other PCR reagents should result in
negligible side reaction, whereas side reaction dependence on
nucleoside triphosphate, primer, and enzyme concentrations is
approximately proportional to reagent concentration.
The wax embodiment of the second aspect of the invention is a great
improvement over the mineral oil currently used to minimize solvent
evaporation during PCR, because wax, unlike oil, does not cling to
the piper used to withdraw PCR product after amplification and,
therefore, does not contaminate post-PCR detection reactions.
According to the current art of PCR, mineral oil often is removed
by time-consuming extraction with toxic or otherwise hazardous
organic solvents. Replacement of mineral oil with wax has another
advantage quite apart from the function of wax as a vapor barrier
and as a means of minimizing side reactions; the solid seal formed
over the reaction mixture after amplification reduces the
likelihood of contaminating the working environment with PCR
product, thereby reducing the chance of back-contaminating
subsequent reactions.
The second and third aspects of the invention are improvements over
the simple layering embodiment of the fast aspect in that they
eliminate the need for manual dexterity and close attention in
setting up a complete reaction mixture. They also greatly extend
the shelf life of complete reagent formulations, so that those
formulations can be bulk manufactured and stored. If the heating of
the first amplification cycle is needed to combine all of the PCR
reagents into an active mixture, one can manufacture a ready-to-use
reaction tube which contains all reagents and requires only the
addition of test sample and heating.
The compositions of the fourth aspect of the invention improve wax
function in several ways. Surfactants in the wax or grease or
underlying aqueous layer reduce the depth of the water-wax
meniscus, thereby reducing the mass of wax or grease needed to
cover completely the aqueous layer. A hydrophilic composition or
coating for the inner surface of the reaction tube and the
inclusion of surfactant in the wax or grease reduce the depth of
the wax-air meniscus, thereby reducing the minimal required mass of
wax or grease. A plastic mesh in the wax or grease reduces the
depth of both menisci, and thereby the minimal required mass of wax
or grease. This mesh also reduces the likelihood that a micropipet
used to withdraw PCR product after amplification will be clogged
with wax or grease and tends to prevent the spurting of PCR product
when the wax or grease layer is penetrated. Plastic particles
suspended in the wax or grease also reduce the overlayer mass, but
their major benefit lies in imparting a slightly crumbly texture to
the wax or grease, also reducing the clogging of pipet tips and the
spurting of PCR product.
There are several advantages to minimizing the mass of an oil,
grease, or wax layer over the aqueous layer in which PCR
amplification occurs. The speed with which the contents of an
amplification tube approach targeted temperatures in a thermal
cycler varies inversely with the total mass of the tube and
contents. Absent the present invention, the hydrophobic overlayer
often has a mass approaching that of the aqueous layer. Maximum
cycling speed is highly desirable in many PCR applications,
especially for clinical diagnostics, and is promoted by minimizing
the overlayer mass. Thicker layers of wax often resist penetration
of piper tips to withdraw PCR product, providing a tight seal
around the tip which increases the likelihood that PCR product will
spun from the amplification tube. Thicker layers increase the
likelihood of plugging a piper tip with grease or wax.
Ease of pipet penetration of a wax or grease layer, such that
spurting of PCR product is avoided, is highly beneficial because
such spurting can generate product-containing aerosols which can
contaminate the laboratory environment, equipment, and reagents
with PCR product. Because of the extreme sensitivity of PCR, even
trace contamination can cause false-positive results in later
amplifications.
Still another, major advantage of the invention is that the
invention facilitates any manner of modification of PCR wherein
reagents are added late in or at the end of the amplification to
change the nature of the PCR process, facilitate the detection of
amplified nucleic acid, or help to prevent back-contamination of
subsequent amplifications. Such modifications include the
following: PCR product cleavage, asymmetric PCR, nested priming,
multiplex PCR, PCR product photosterilization, PCR product
labeling, and the analysis of PCR product. Such reagents include
the following: modified primers, internal primers, primers directed
at new targets, metal ions, chelators, new enzymes, additional
nucleic acid polymerase, modified or unusual nucleoside
triphosphates, photoreagents, agents which bind specifically to
amplified nucleic acid, nucleic acid probes, agents which capture,
precipitate, or agglutinate amplified or single-stranded nucleic
acid, and agents which help to generate analytical signals
reporting on the presence of amplified nucleic acid. In every case,
the present invention permits such late addition to occur with
reduced concern that opening the PCR reaction tube might introduce
amplified nucleic acid into the laboratory environment.
To promote understanding of the invention, definition for the
following terms are provided.
"Magnesium compound" refers to a substance containing magnesium in
a form such that divalent magnesium (Mg.sup.+2) is released into
any aqueous solvent of pH 6-9 heated in contact with the substance
to a temperature between about 50.degree. C. and 100.degree. C. for
an interval of approximately 0.5 to 5 minutes.
"PCR reaction tube" refers to any container suitable for holding
PCR reagents and test sample during a PCR amplification. In some
contexts, the term also comprises the contents of the container.
The defining features of a container suitable for holding PCR
reagents and test sample during a PCR amplification are that the
container is made of a material which does not inhibit PCR, that
can withstand temperatures in the range of about 20.degree. C. to
100.degree. C. while retaining substantially the same size and
shape, and that can, together with any liquid contents, be capable
of completing 40.degree. C. temperature changes in the
50.degree.-100.degree. C. range in an interval of not more than
about four minutes. Preferably, the container also will have a
tightly fitting lid, which blocks water vapor or liquid escape from
the container as well as contamination of the reaction with
potentially nucleic acid-containing aerosols and dust from the
laboratory environment. PCR reaction tubes commonly are molded from
polypropylene, have sizes appropriate to contain 20-200 .mu.l
reaction mixtures, and have a tightly fitting cap. PCR reaction
tubes also commonly have shapes which fit tightly in the wells
machined in the metal heating blocks used to control reaction
temperature in most commercially available thermal cyclers. PCR
reaction tubes most commonly have the size and shape of
microcentrifuge tubes with 500-600 .mu.l capacity; the bottom half
is conical while the top half is cylindrical.
"Thermal cycler" refers to an automated device for controlling the
PCR reaction temperature within the limits required for primer
annealing, primer extension, and product denaturation; these limits
normally are about 40.degree. C. and about 100.degree. C. The
cycler changes the reaction temperature in a repeating manner,
spending intervals of about 0.2 to 10 minutes at each temperature
and requiring up to several minutes to move from one temperature to
the next. Commonly thermal cycler temperature is under programmable
microprocessor control, so that the user specifies in advance the
number of cycles, the number of different incubation temperatures
in each cycle, the value of each temperature, the incubation
interval at each temperature, and often the transit time between
temperatures. Thermal cyclers transfer heat into and out of PCR
reaction tubes by contacting tubes with circulating thermostated
air, circulating thermostated liquid, a thermostated metal block,
or radiation from an infrared or microwave source.
"Plastic" refers to a polymer containing carbon and some
combination of hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, fluorine, or much more
rarely, other elements (such as sulfur), wherein the polymer is
fabricated into a form (e.g., pellet, thread, sheet, rod, mesh,
bead, or tube), which is water-insoluble and substantially
water-impermeable. For the purpose of the present invention, useful
plastics include polyethylene, polypropylene, polymethylpentene,
polyester, nylon, fluorocarbons, fluorinated hydrocarbons,
polymethylmethacrylate, and polystyrene.
"Plasma etching, and corona discharge are processes for modifying
surfaces, especially plastic surfaces, by subjecting them, in a
closed container usually at sub-atmospheric pressure, to a highly
corrosive atmosphere of electrons and atomic or molecular ions,
produced by electrical excitation of the gas. Depending on the
gases present in the atmosphere, different chemical modifications
of the surface may result. For the purpose of the present
invention, the atmosphere will include oxygen or water vapor, so
that an exposed plastic surface becomes substantially oxidized.
"Liquid handling system" refers to an automated device for rapidly
and precisely delivering liquid volumes in the approximate range of
1-100 .mu.l, comprising some combination of liquid reservoirs,
pumps, tubing, delivery tips or nozzles, heaters, movable heads or
carriages for positioning the delivery tips in three dimensions,
and control of time, volume, temperature, and position of
delivery.
"Oil" refers to a water-immiscible organic substance, liquid at
temperatures below about 40.degree. C., which has a lower density
than water. "Mineral oil," also known as liquid petrolatum and
paraffin oil, is a colorless, optically clear, mixture of
high-molecular weight hydrocarbons with a density near 0.84 g/mL,
widely available commercially and commonly used as a vapor barrier
over PCR reactions.
"Grease" refers to an organic substance, solid or semi-solid but
very soft at temperatures below about 40.degree. C., which melts in
the 40.degree.-80.degree. C. range to form a liquid which has a
lower density than water. A typical grease is white petrolatum
(e.g., Vaseline.RTM. Petroleum Jelly), a mixture of
high-molecular-weight hydrocarbons.
"Wax" refers to an organic substance, solid but much harder than
greases at temperatures below about 40.degree. C., which melts at
somewhat higher temperatures to form a liquid which has a lower
density than water. Waxes tend to adhere to solid (e.g., plastic)
surfaces more weakly than greases and oils do. Typical pure
compounds which are useful waxes include eicosane (C.sub.20
H.sub.42), octacosane (C.sub.28 H.sub.58), cetyl palmitate
(C.sub.32 H.sub.64 O.sub.2), and pentaerythritol tetrabehenate
(C.sub.93 H.sub.180 O.sub.8). Typical useful wax mixtures include
paraffin, Paraplast (tradename of Sherwood Medical), Ultraflex
(tradename of Petrolite Corporation), and BeSquare 175 (tradename
of Petrolite Corporation). Waxes can be prepared by mixing pure or
mixed waxes with one another or with greases or oils in any ratios
which preserve the relative hardness and reduced stickiness
characteristic of a wax.
"PCR reagent" refers to any of the following materials which is
necessary for PCR amplification: nucleoside triphosphate (at least
four are needed; for example, dATP, dTTP, dCTP, and dGTP if a DNA
polymerase is used), oligonucleotide primer (normally at least two
are needed, defining by sequence complementarity the two ends of
the target sequence to be amplified), a magnesium compound
(normally MgCl.sub.2), and a DNA polymerase (normally Thermus
aquaticus [Taq] polymerase I). PCR reagents may include nucleoside
triphosphate analogues, such as dITP and 7-deaza-dGTP.
"Test sample" is any liquid preparation (solution or suspension)
which might contain nucleic acid targeted by primers included among
the PCR reagents, wherein that nucleic acid is in a chemical and
physical state suitable for PCR amplification.
A "subset" of PCR reagents is any combination of the above reagents
which lacks at least one essential reagent and therefore will not
sustain PCR amplification.
"Complementary subsets" of PCR reagents are subsets which, when
combined, complete the above list and therefore in combination
sustain PCR amplification in the presence of the target nucleic
acid sequence. Complementary reagent subsets are said to
"complement" one another.
"Activity" in PCR refers to the ability of a subset of PCR reagents
to sustain amplification of a specific target when combined in a
PCR reaction tube with a buffer, the complementary reagent subsets,
and a test sample containing that target and subjected to thermal
cycling under conditions known to give amplification when all PCR
reagents, buffer, and test sample are mixed immediately before
cycling. "Full activity" implies that the quantity of specific PCR
product approximates the maximum amount ever seen under the
particular amplification conditions.
"Specificity" in PCR amplification refers to the generation of a
single, "specific," PCR product with the size and sequence
predicted from the sequences of the primers and the genomic or
transcribed region of nucleic acid to which the primers were
designed to anneal in a base-complementary manner. "Nonspecific"
PCR product has a size or sequence different from such prediction.
PCR "target" is that genomic or transcribed region of nucleic acid,
the ends of which are base-complementary (with proper orientation)
to a pair of primers included in a complete set of PCR reagents.
"Proper orientation" is for the two primers to anneal to opposite
strands of double-stranded target with their 3' ends pointing
toward one another, normally with an intervening region in the
approximate size range of 50-10,000 nucleotides. Such primers are
said to "target" the genomic or transcribed sequence to the ends of
which they are base-complementary.
"Layering" of PCR reagents or test sample or solvent refers to the
process of delivering liquid formulations of different reagent
subsets or test sample or solvent to a PCR reaction tube in a way
which minimizes their mixing without interposition of an
impermeable barrier (e.g, of wax or grease) between them.
"Vapor barrier" refers to a layer of oil, grease, or wax on top of
the aqueous compartment of a PCR reaction which covers a large
enough fraction of the exposed aqueous compartment surface to
reduce substantially evaporation of water from that compartment
during thermal cycling. Vapor barrier coverage is "complete" if,
for an aqueous compartment of approximately 20-200 .mu.l, 30 cycles
of PCR amplification distill no more than about 2 .mu.l of water to
the walls and cap of a PCR reaction tube above the level of the
vapor barrier.
"Liquid barrier" refers to a layer of grease or wax, which, at
temperatures up to at least about 40.degree. C. and not more than
about 90.degree. C., suffices to block mixing of aqueous
compartments on either side of the layer for an interval of at
least approximately 15 minutes. Liquid barrier coverage is
"complete" if this 15 minute criterion is met.
"Thermal cycling" in PCR refers to the process of systematically
and repetitively changing the temperature of a PCR reaction mixture
in the approximate temperature range of 40.degree.-100.degree. C.
to effect alternating denaturation of double-stranded DNA and
primer annealing to single-stranded DNA followed by primer
extension.
"Surfactant" is a substance which reduces the interfacial tension
between water or aqueous solutions and hydrophobic solids or
liquids like polyolefin plastics, oils, greases, and waxes.
Surfactants are composed structurally of covalently joined
hydrophilic and hydrophobic moieties. "Nonionic surfactants"
contain no positively or negatively charged moieties. Typical
nonionic surfactants include the following families of structural
homologues: "Span" (trademark of Arias Chemical Industries: fatty
acid mono-, di-, or triesters of sorbitan); "Tween" (trademark of
Atlas Chemical Industries: polyoxyethylene ethers of fatty acid
esters of sorbitan); "Brij" (trademark of Atlas Chemical
Industries: polyoxyethylene ethers of fatty alcohols); "Myrj"
(trademark of Arias Chemical Industries: polyoxyethylene esters of
fatty acids); and "Triton" (trademark of Rohm and Haas Company:
alkylaryl polyoxyethyl ethers). Specific nonionic surfactants which
are preferred for the present invention include Tween 85
(polyoxyethyl sorbitan trioleate) and Tween 65 (polyoxyethyl
sorbitan tristearate).
For the purpose of the present invention, a "hydrophilic" surface
is one which, when on the inner wall of a tube, shows a
concave-upward meniscus when water partly fills the tube.
"Magnesium fatty acylate salt" refers to a compositions containing
a 1:2 molar ratio of Mg.sup.+2 to the conjugate base of a fatty
acid. Representative fatty acids include butyric (C.sub.4 H.sub.8
O.sub.2), caproic (C.sub.6 H.sub.12 O.sub.2), caprylic (C.sub.8
H.sub.16 O.sub.2), capric (C.sub.10 H.sub.20 O.sub.2), and lauric
(C.sub.12 H.sub.24 O.sub.2) acids.
Choosing PCR primer sequences; preparing DNA-containing test
samples, PCR reagents, and PCR reaction mixtures; designing and
running PCR thermal cycles; and analyzing PCR product
quantitatively or qualitatively are well known procedures in PCR
art. A preferred mode for carrying out the first aspect of the
invention is to combine in the PCR reaction tube a buffer,
polymerase, dNTPs, and primers in an aqueous solution approximately
twice as concentrated as is desired in the final reaction mixture
and to layer on top of this "pre-mix," in any order, a stock
solution of MgCl.sub.2, a test sample believed to contain target
DNA sequence, and sufficient mineral oil to form an effective vapor
barrier, such that the combined volume of MgCl.sub.2 and test
sample approximates that of pre-mix, and the final MgCl.sub.2
concentration is approximately optimal for amplification of the
specific target sequence defined by the primers. Although the
pre-mix is substantially magnesium-free, the pre-mix may contain
magnesium at a concentration less than about 10.sup.-4 M without
sustaining PCR amplification in advance of adding the much larger
amount of magnesium initially segregated from the pre-mix. A
preferred order of layering is to interpose the test sample between
the pre-mix and the MgCl.sub.2, adding the mineral oil last, as
this order maximizes the segregation of the complementary reagent
subsets. Layering preferably is performed with all components at
room temperature, delivering the components to the walls of the
reaction tube slowly, so that minimal mixing of the different
components occurs during addition. Preferably, reaction tubes are
made up in this way within about 30 minutes of starting
amplification (the shorter the time the better). Also preferably,
the first step in thermal cycling will be the fastest possible
heating of the PCR reaction tube from room temperature to
90.degree.-100.degree. C., to ensure rapid and complete convective
mixing. The stability of reagent layers before heating can be
increased by incorporating in the lowest layer a chemically inert,
nonionic, densifier such as sucrose at a concentration between
about 1% and 20% by weight.
The replacement in the PCR reaction tube of mineral oil by grease
or preferably wax leads to the second aspect of the invention,which
is a preferred mode of effecting the first aspect of the invention.
Once a layer of wax or grease seals the top of an aqueous solution
of a subset of PCR reagents ("pre-mix"), an aqueous solution of the
complementary reagent subset (preferably including a magnesium
salt) can be added on top of the wax or grease without any concern
that poor manual control will result in reagent mixing before
thermal cycling begins. Test sample can be added before or after
the wax or grease barrier is formed. Adding test sample afterward
usually is more convenient, if only because large batches of
reaction tubes containing wax- or grease-covered pre-mix can be
made up efficiently in advance and stored for periods of days to
months, preferably at 0.degree.-5.degree. C., so that test samples
are added only as PCR reactions are needed. In this manufacturing
mode, one preferably adds on top of the wax or grease barrier the
reagent(s) missing from the aqueous layer beneath the barrier after
the barrier has been formed and before storage, so that the user
needs only to add test sample immediately before thermal cycling.
If the manufactured tubes contain everything except test sample,
the wax or grease barrier must be durable enough to prevent reagent
transfer across the barrier on the storage time scale, as some wax
or grease layers may be strong enough to leak negligibly on the
time scale of an hour or less but show significant leakage on the
time scale of a day or more. One way to test leakage across the
barrier is to include in the upper aqueous layer a water soluble,
wax-insoluble dye such as bromphenol blue at a concentration of
0.01% to 0.1%, checking visually for signs of dye movement into the
lower aqueous layer.
A preferred mode of creating the wax or grease barrier is to add to
the reaction tube a solution of the reagent subset which is to lie
beneath the barrier and a mass of wax or grease sufficient to form
a vapor barrier and then to incubate the tube, preferably closed,
for sufficient time at a sufficient temperature for the wax or
grease to melt and form a homogeneous liquid layer above the
aqueous reagent solution. The tube is then returned to room
temperature for at least enough time for the wax or grease to
solidify. The incubation temperature must be above the wax or
grease melting point but preferably will not be more than
10.degree. C. above the melting point and in no case above about
90.degree. C., so that the possibility of thermal inactivation of
polynucleotide polymerase, if present in the pre-mix solution, is
minimized. Normally a melting time between about 30 seconds and
about five minutes should suffice, and a cooling time of at least
about five minutes is preferred for the barrier to harden
completely. Rapid cooling, for example, in an ice bath, appears to
be undesirable because the wax or grease is less likely to cover
the underlying aqueous compartment.
The mass of wax or grease preferably is minimized, using just
enough to ensure complete coverage of the aqueous contents of the
reaction tube after melting of wax or grease during thermal cycling
has resulted in mixing of the aqueous layers above and below the
barrier layer. Such coverage can be assessed by measuring how much
water is distilled onto the walls and into the cap of the reaction
tube during a PCR amplification. For example, after amplification,
the tube can be weighed (preferably on an analytical balance
accurate to 0.1 mg or less), the water deposited above the vapor
barrier can be removed by gentle swabbing with a cotton-tipped
stick, and the tube is then reweighed to determine the water
removed. For standard PCR reaction volumes (20-200 .mu.l), complete
coverage results in distillation of less than about 2 .mu.l of
water to the tube surfaces above the vapor barrier. In general, the
minimal mass of wax or grease required for complete coverage
(maximal vapor barrier effectiveness) will vary directly with the
total aqueous volume because the conical cross-section of typical
PCR reaction tubes causes the surface area at the air-water
interface to increase as the aqueous volume increases. There are at
least two reasons to minimize the mass of wax or grease: (1) the
time required for thermal equilibration during cycling varies
directly with total mass of the reaction tube and its contents, and
(2) wax or grease in excess of the minimum mass needed to serve as
an effective vapor barrier complicates the recovery of PCR product
after thermal cycling, tending to clog the tip of the micropipet
used to withdraw PCR product from the tube or (in the case of wax)
creating a mechanically tough barrier requiting considerable
pressure to effect micropipet tip penetration.
Wax is preferred over grease because wax is much less likely to
clog or coat micropipet tips. Being tougher than grease, wax can
effectively segregate PCR reagent subsets in a thinner layer, and,
therefore, with less mass. Many wax compositions are effective for
the purpose of the present invention, including the following:
paraffin (55.degree.-61.degree. C. melting range), eicosane,
Paraplast, Ultraflex, octacosane, cetyl palmitate, pentaerythritol
tetrabehenate, and "BeSquare 175" Wax. Mixtures of these waxes in
various proportions, mixtures of these waxes with grease such as
white petrolatum, and mixtures of these waxes with mineral oil also
may be advantageous. Although individual wax preparations may prove
unsuitable, either because they contain substances inhibitory to
PCR or because, coming from biological sources, they may contain
contaminating DNA capable of giving false positive PCR responses,
in general almost any wax melting between about 40.degree. C. and
about 80.degree. C. might serve as both a barrier layer for
segregating PCR reactants before thermal cycling and as a vapor
barrier for minimizing water evaporation during thermal cycling.
Waxes, greases, or oils prepared from petroleum are preferred over
materials derived directly from animals or plants to minimize the
chance of contamination with nucleic acid, phosphatases, nucleases,
or proteases. They must have densities less than that of the
aqueous solutions used in PCR if they are to serve as a vapor
barrier during amplification. Heavier-than-water waxes and greases
(e.g., containing silicon, phosphorus, sulfur, or halogen atoms)
also would serve the function of separating PCR reagent subsets
until the first amplification cycle. Although unlikely to work as a
vapor barrier after heating, they might beneficially sink to the
bottom of a reaction tube when a vapor barrier is not needed, and
in doing so might promote mixing of previously separated aqueous
reagents. However, layering a heavier-than-water molten grease or
wax over an aqueous compartment requires considerable
expertise.
The simplest way to test the suitability of a wax for the present
invention is to (1) combine in a 500 .mu.l polypropylene
microcentrifuge tube approximately 15 mg of the wax and
approximately 50 .mu.l of an aqueous solution containing all PCR
reagents except a magnesium compound; (2) cap the tube and immerse
the tube in a water bath at a temperature exceeding the wax melting
point for a sufficient interval (approximately one minute) for the
wax to melt completely; (3) remove the tube from the water bath to
cool to room temperature; (4) add on top of the wax approximately
50 .mu.l of a mixture of MgCl.sub.2 and a test sample containing
DNA targeted by the primers included in the PCR reagents; (5)
perform a PCR amplification using thermal cycle conditions
appropriate for the particular combination of primers and target
DNA; and (6) analyze the post-PCR reaction mixture for the presence
of PCR product of the predicted length containing a predicted
intervening (non-primer) sequence by methods well known in the
field of molecular biology. The concentrations of all PCR reagents
and of target DNA should be within ranges already understood to
give effective amplification when mineral oil, usually in the mass
range to 40 to 80 mg, is used instead of wax.
During this testing procedure, several adjunct analytical
procedures help to optimize the results. Visual examination of the
wax layer before adding MgCl.sub.2 and DNA and after thermal
cycling helps to verify that the mass of wax is large enough to
serve the liquid- and vapor-barrier functions. If the mass of wax
used is insufficient to cover the aqueous layer completely, the
mass should be increased until coverage of the aqueous layer is
complete. Gravimetric measurement of the water distilled past the
wax into the upper regions of the reaction tube (by weighing the
tube before and after using an absorbent swab to remove the water)
also helps to evaluate vapor barrier effectiveness. Distillation of
more than about 2 .mu.l of water indicates that increasing the mass
of wax may help. Probing the hardness and toughness of wax layer
with a micropipet tip may also indicate whether the wax preparation
is useful for PCR; preferably the sampler tip will penetrate the
wax without clogging or causing wax to stick to its sides, and
penetration will require little force and be easy to control.
Certain anionic dyes, such as bromphenol blue in the concentration
range of about 01% to 1% can be included in the aqueous layer above
the wax or grease without interfering with PCR. Visual inspection
of how well the dye has mixed in the aqueous layer below the wax or
grease after the first cycle is effective for testing that the wax
or grease does not impede mixing.
These tests enable one skilled in the arts of PCR and molecular
biology to choose waxes, wax mixtures, and mixtures of waxes with
oils and greases which serve optimally for segregating PCR reagents
and for blocking solvent evaporation, and to find the optimal mass
of wax for a particular combination of aqueous volumes above and
below the wax barrier. If, in addition, a wax formulation and mass
are needed to confer long-term storage stability to a wax-covered
PCR reagent subset, with or without the long-term presence of the
complementary subset above the wax layer, one need only perform
these tests after different storage intervals between preparation
and thermal cycling, preferably adding any missing reaction
components (including target DNA) on top of the wax layer just
before thermal cycling.
Especially preferred for the second aspect of the present invention
is a solution in the wax of a surfactant, preferably nonionic, in
the concentration range of approximately 0.1% to 1% by weight,
prepared by melting the wax, adding the surfactant, stirring the
mixture for a period of at least about one minute and then allowing
the matter mixture to stand undisturbed for at least about 10
minutes before observing whether any surfactant has formed a
separate liquid phase, usually denser than the wax. Phase
separation shows that the nominal surfactant concentration exceeded
the solubility of surfactant in the wax, suggesting that a lower
nominal concentration should be used. Addition of surfactant
generally lowers the mass of wax needed to form a complete liquid
barrier mid a complete vapor barrier, shown by titrating the
minimum mass of wax needed to obtain complete coverage of an
underlying aqueous layer, as described above. Preferred surfactants
are ones which are not very water soluble, containing relatively
small hydrophilic moieties and relatively large hydrophobic groups.
Specifically preferred surfactants are Tween 85 and Tween 65. Use
of the second aspect of the invention may be improved by
incorporation into the wax or grease of an oil-soluble dye, such as
Oil Red O in the concentration range of about 10.sup.-3 % to
10.sup.-1 %. Such dyes do not interfere with PCR.
Inclusion in the bottom aqueous layer of 0.1-10% of a surfactant,
also preferably nonionic, may serve to improve the second aspect of
the invention, again by reducing the mass of wax needed for
complete coverage of the aqueous layer. Preferred surfactants are
relatively water soluble ones, such as Tween 20 and Triton X-100,
many of which do not appear to interfere with PCR.
Also especially preferred for the second aspect of the invention is
the use of plastic PCR reaction tubes which have been manufactured
or treated in such a way as to have a hydrophilic internal surface.
This embodiment serves to reduce the mass of wax or grease needed
for liquid barrier and vapor barrier function. Specific processes
for making such tubes include (a) plasma etching: corona discharge
in a vacuum chamber where the open tubes are exposed to an
oxidizing atmosphere, (b) incubation of the plastic in a liquid
oxidizing formulation such as Fenton's reagent, (c) inclusion of a
surfactant in the molten resin from which the tubes are cast, and
(d) coating the tubes with a surfactant. Surfactant coating of
normally hydrophobic reaction tubes may be accomplished by the
following steps: (1) dissolution of 0.1-10% (by weight) of the
surfactant in a nonaqueous solvent such as 1-propanol, 2-propanol,
or 1-butanol, (2) filling of the open tubes with the surfactant
solution at 20.degree.-30.degree. C., (3) incubation of the filled
tubes at 20.degree.-30.degree. C. for an interval of between about
1 and 30 minutes, (4) drainage of the incubated tubes to remove all
bulk surfactant solution, and (5) air drying of the drained tubes
at atmospheric or reduced pressure, at approximately
20.degree.-60.degree. C.
Not all surfactants are soluble in useful nonaqueous solvents to
concentrations as high as 10%; some care should be used to assure
that coating surfactant is completely dissolved. This coating
procedure may be repeated at least about 10 times with the same
surfactant solution, as it appears not to consume a significant
faction of surfactant of each coating. Preferred nonaqueous
solvents have boiling points between about 60.degree. C. and
110.degree. C. and dissolve surfactant to a concentration of at
least about 1%. Preferred surfactants are Tween 65 and Tween 85.
Corona discharge methods for treating plastics are reviewed in the
following articles and books: Hoffman, 1988, Journal of Applied
Polymer Science: Applied Polymer Symposium 42:251-265; Gombotz and
Hoffman, 1987, C.R.C. Reviews in Biocompatibility 4:1-42; Boenig,
1982, Plasma Science and Technology, Cornell University Press,
Ithaca; Oskam, 1984, Plasma Processing of Materials, Noyes
Publications, Park Ridge, N.J. Fenton's reagent is described in the
following articles: Walling, 1975, Accounts of Chemical Research
8:125-131; Graf et al., 1984, Journal of Biological Chemistry
259:3620.varies.3624; and Imlay and Linn, 1988, Science
240:1302-1309. When the second aspect of the invention is performed
with hydrophilic reaction tubes, a preferred mode of supplying such
tubes ready for use is to deliver to each tube a pellet of wax
sufficient in mass to cover completely a specified aqueous reaction
volume. Then the user needs only add an aqueous solution of a
subset of PCR reagents, heat the tube several minutes at a
temperature 5.degree.-10.degree. C. above the wax melting point,
allow the tube to cool to room temperature or below, add on top of
the newly formed wax layer a mixture containing the complementary
PCR reagent subset and test sample, and start PCR amplification,
respecting the need to keep the total aqueous volume below the
rating for the mass of wax supplied.
The second aspect of the invention is most effective if, during the
first cycle of thermal cycling, the reaction tube is heated as
rapidly as possible from an initial temperature of about
0.degree.-25.degree. C. to a DNA denaturation temperature above
95.degree. C. and below 100.degree. C., preferably about 98.degree.
C., and is held at that high temperature for an interval between
about 1 and 2 minutes. This process serves not only to melt the wax
or grease and to denature the DNA in the test sample, but also to
promote vigorous thermal convection currents in the newly combined
upper and lower aqueous solutions so that all PCR reagents and the
test sample DNA are completely mixed; incomplete mixture can reduce
amplification efficiency. Other embodiments which help to ensure
complete mixture are to include inorganic salts such as KCl in the
upper PCR reagent subset and to exclude them from the lower,
complementary subset, and to include a 1-20% concentration of a low
molecular weight densifying agent such as sucrose in the upper
aqueous layer. In general, it is useful to render the upper aqueous
layer denser than the lower one, preferably excluding from both
layers organic polymers or inert proteins such as gelatin, which
tend to increase viscosity and thereby reduce convective
turbulence. Still another way to promote convective mixing of top
and bottom aqueous layers after the wax or grease has melted is to
tilt the reaction tube at an angle of between about 10 and 30
degrees from the vertical after the wax or grease has been melted,
allowing the barrier layer to solidify at this angle. After
cooling, the top of the wax should be examined visually to assure
that the bottom aqueous layer is completely covered, as tilting
tends to thin the barrier layer.
The wax or grease layer of the second aspect of the invention can
be thinned further by incorporation into it of polymeric particles
or of relatively fine plastic mesh, two additives which also can
reduce clogging of sampler tips. The mesh must be cut, conveniently
with a punch, into disks with a diameter approximately equal to the
inner diameter of the reaction tube at the top of the lower aqueous
layer. As the bottom half of the customary tube is conical, this
diameter, on the order of several millimeters, will depend on the
volume of the lower aqueous layer. The composition and pore size of
the mesh tolerate wide variance. Acceptable plastics include
polyethylene, polypropylene, polymethylpentene, polyester, nylon,
and various fluorocarbons; the pore size may vary from about 0.001
to about 1 min. Nylon is somewhat less preferred, because nylon can
bind nucleic acids, and fluorocarbons are somewhat less preferred
because of greater density and cost. Polypropylene is most
preferred, because it has the lowest density (most compatible with
wax, grease, or oil), is highly hydrophobic, has a thermal
tolerance matching that of the most commonly used PCR reaction tube
material (also polypropylene), and is likely to be the cheapest.
Polymethypentene is also especially preferred because of low
density, high hydrophobicity, and high thermal tolerance, but
pre-manufactured mesh may not be readily available
commercially.
A wide variety of mesh compositions and opening sizes is available
from Spectrum Medical Industries, Los Angeles. The shape,
composition, diameter, and porosity of the polymeric particles also
admit wide variance. Shapes may be irregular or spherical (the
latter usually described as beads). Compositions can include any of
the polymers listed above for meshes plus two polymers commonly
used to make beads: polymethylmethacrylate and polystyrene.
Diameter can range from about 10.sup.-3 nun to about 1 mm. Larger
diameters (above 0.1 mm) are preferred because they are less likely
to enter micropipet tips. Nonporous particles are preferred because
they offer a much lower surface area to entrap PCR reagents which
come in contact with the wax or grease layer. Preferably the
particles have a density less than or very close to water, so that
they are unlikely to drop from the wax or grease layer through the
aqueous layer when the former melts into an oil. Examples of
commercially available polymeric particles suitable for the present
invention include polypropylene granule, 0.5 mm maximum size, from
Goodfellow (Malvern, Pa.); chromatographic grade polypropylene and
polyethylene spherical particles of diameter between about 0.01 mm
and 0.15 mm from Polysciences, Inc. (Warrington, Pa.); Bio-Beads SM
polystyrene-divinylbenzene and acrylic ester adsorbents, 20-50
mesh, from Bio-Rad (Richmond, Calif.); Amberlite XAD polystyrene
and acrylic ester adsorbents, 20-60 mesh, from Rohm and Haas
(Philadelphia, Pa.); plastic or glass-coated plastic BioSpheres,
0.1 to 0.2 mm diameter, from Whatman BioSystems, Inc. (Clifton,
N.J.); Rapid Cell P plastic or glass-coated plastic beads,
0.15-0.21 mm diameter, from ICN Biomedicals, Inc. (Cleveland,
Ohio); and Polybead polystyrene microspheres and
polymethylmethacrylate beads from Polysciences, Inc.
Some of these polymeric particles, especially those made of
polystyrene or polymethylmethacrylate, will swell when contacted
with low-molecular weight solvents such as water and alcohols.
Preferably, they are swollen at room temperature in a relatively
water-insoluble organic solvent such as a liquid aliphatic
hydrocarbon (pure or a mixture, such as petroleum ether or ligroin)
so that they will not tend to absorb water at the interfaces
between the aqueous layers and the grease or wax. Some of them may
be supplied as aqueous slurries, already swollen in water, in which
case preferably they are dehydrated by stirring at room temperature
in successively less polar solvents like ethanol, acetone, and a
liquid aliphatic hydrocarbon.
The concentration (in mass percent) of polymeric particles in the
grease or wax permits considerable variability and can be optimized
for any of several functional properties of the particle-wax/grease
mixture. For example, various mass ratios of particle to wax or
grease can be tested to find the one which provides complete vapor
barrier protection to a fixed volume of the underlying aqueous
layer with the least mass of overlayer. On the other hand, various
mass ratios can be tested to find the range which imparts maximum
or minimum resistance to penetration by a micropipet tip or maximum
stability during long-term storage (for example, maximum resistance
to magnesium penetration from an upper aqueous layer into a lower
aqueous layer separated by a solidified mixture of polymeric
particles and wax or grease).
Wax or grease barriers containing polymeric particles and
especially disks of plastic mesh may benefit from solidification
with the PCR reaction tubes tilted 10-30 degrees from the vertical,
to promote mutual displacement of the barrier and an aqueous layer
above it when the wax or grease in the former melts.
There are two major embodiments of the third aspect of the
invention: (a) aqueous emulsion of a subset of PCR reagents in a
wax or grease barrier covering an aqueous solution of a different
reagent subset and (b) solution in the barrier of a PCR reagent
subset. The melting of the barrier which accompanies thermal
cycling breaks the emulsion, releasing the aqueous phase containing
PCR reagents into the underlying aqueous layer, where thermal
convection mixes all PCR reagents together with the test sample,
preferably added as an aqueous solution above the barrier layer
before cycling is started. Alternatively, dissolved PCR reagents in
the barrier layer are extracted and mixed into the underlying
aqueous layer, as the barrier layer melts and becomes less viscous
and as thermal convection currents are established in both the
underlying aqueous layer and the barrier layer. For these
embodiments, it is especially preferred to minimize the mass of the
barrier layer by any of the modes described above, singly or in
combination: polymeric particles or mesh or surfactant in the
barrier, hydrophilic inner surface of the reaction tube, or
surfactant in the aqueous layer. Minimizing the barrier mass, and,
therefore, thickness, accelerates the equilibration of the aqueous
and barrier layers and favors partitioning of any barrier-dissolved
PCR reagents into the aqueous layer.
Water-in-grease or water-in-wax emulsions are made by methods well
known in the field of material science, basically by high-speed
mixing of appropriate volumes of an aqueous phase (in this case
containing a subset of PCR reagents) and a melted grease or wax at
a temperature above the grease or wax melting point, followed by
rapid cooling of the homogeneous emulsion before it has a chance to
phase-separate. Incorporation of a surfactant into either phase or
both helps to stabilize the emulsion. Any of a large array of
surfactants, preferably nonionic, are effective to this end,
provided that they do not inhibit PCR and are used to
concentrations stabilizing water-in-oil rather than oil-in-water
emulsions. The art of forming emulsions is reviewed in the
following volumes: Becker, 1966, Emulsions: Theory and Practice,
2nd Edition, Reinhold, New York; Sherman, 1968, Emulsion Science,
Academic Press, New York: and Lissant, 1974 (Parts I and II) and
1984 (Part III), Emulsions and Emulsion Technology, Marcel Dekker,
New York.
Although practically any combination of PCR reagents is suitable
for incorporation into a water-wax or water-grease emulsion, one
reagent, a magnesium compound, is most preferred for dissolution in
the wax or grease in the absence of emulsification. That is because
salts of magnesium ion and the conjugate bases of relatively
short-chain fatty acids, such as butyrate, caproate, caprylate,
caprate, and laurate, have the dual properties of being acceptably
soluble in oils to the level of 1-50 mM and of being much more
soluble in hot water than in cold. In this manner, the magnesium
fatty acid salt can be dissolved in a molten wax or grease, layered
on top of an aqueous phase and fairly rapidly cooled (in an
interval of about one minute ) so that it is trapped in the
hardened wax or grease before it is extracted into the warm water,
and yet will be efficiently extracted when the multi-layered
mixture is heated to 95.degree.-98.degree. C. for a period of one
to two minutes at the start of thermal cycling. To minimize
extraction into the aqueous layer during casting of the barrier, it
is preferred to use a wax or grease with the lowest practical
melting point, preferably in the range of about
40.degree.-50.degree. C. Examples of such waxes include eicosane
(m.p. 36.degree.-38.degree. C.), low-melting paraffin (m.p.
56.degree.-61.degree. C.), and mixtures of these two waxes or of
eicosane with other, higher-melting, waxes. Oligonucleotide primers
and dNTP's also can be rendered wax-soluble if transformed into
their tetraalkylammonium (e.g., tetraethylammonium) salts. This
reaction can be performed by passing the nucleotide, commonly
available as its sodium salt, down a chromatographic column
containing a cation exchange resin, such as Dowex 50, which has
been equilibrated with a tetraalkylammonium hydroxide.
As the magnesium-fatty acylate salts in the C.sub.4 -C.sub.12 size
range are not generally available commercially, they must be
synthesized, preferably by heating the fatty acid to a temperature
in the approximate range of 60.degree.-80.degree. C. and adding one
mole of magnesium oxide for every two moles of fatty acid, stirring
for a sufficient period to assure complete dissolution (reaction)
of the magnesium oxide. After cooling to room temperature, the
magnesium fatty acylate salt can be stored over a desiccant such as
MgSO.sub.4 or P.sub.2 O.sub.5 to remove all of the water produced
in the reaction which is not evaporated during heating.
In one mode of realizing the third aspect of the invention, the PCR
reagent subsets in the grease or wax and in the underlying aqueous
phase are complementary, so that an additional aqueous PCR reagent
formulation need not be prepared for placement above the grease or
wax. In another mode, three PCR reagent subsets are required for
complementation: one in the grease or wax and two aqueous
formulations, one above and one below the grease or wax. The latter
mode is especially effective in preventing all PCR reagents from
coming together in a single aqueous phase prior to the first cycle
of a PCR amplification.
There are many ways to aliquot the wax or grease of the present
invention into the PCR reaction tubes, whether or not the wax or
grease contains surfactant, polymeric particles, a magnesium fatty
acylate salt, or an emulsified aqueous solution of a subset of PCR
reagents. The solid wax or grease can be weighed into separate
tubes; the small masses involved, generally below 30 mg, require
use of a balance with a precision of 1 mg or better, preferably 0.1
mg. However, a much faster and sufficiently precise method is to
melt the wax or grease and deliver it volumetrically with a
positive-displacement micropipet adjusted to deliver the minimum
mass giving an effective vapor barrier. Preferably, the micropipet
will have a glass tip, as plastic tips tend to capture wax or
grease in a way which reduces precision. An example of a suitable
variable-volume glass-tipped positive-displacement micropipet is
the Micro/Pettor.RTM. manufactured by SMI. If the wax or grease is
delivered to a polyethylene surface at room temperature or below,
it will solidify as a bead which is easily separated from the
plastic and delivered to a PCR reaction tube (e.g., with forceps).
The colder the polyethylene surface, the easier it is to separate
the wax or grease bead from it. A convenient polyethylene
receptacle is a disposable weighing boat, available from many
science supply companies. Once the wax or grease pellet and the
appropriate volume of an aqueous solution of a subset of PCR
reagents has been delivered to a PCR tube, the tube should be
capped, heated to a temperature sufficient to melt the wax or
grease for a period of about one minute, and cooled at room
temperature to seal the wax or grease barrier over the aqueous
layer.
Plastic micropipet tips can be rendered more suitable for
aliquoting wax if they have been rendered hydrophilic as described
above for PCR reaction tubes, e.g., by corona discharge or
surfactant coating. Then plastic-tipped air-displacement samplers
are adequately precise for wax delivery. The precision of wax
delivery by plastic-tipped air-displacement samplers also is
improved by heating the wax at least 30.degree. C. above its
melting range. Preferred for the automated aliquoting of wax is a
microprocessor-controlled multi-tipped air-displacement sampler
like the ProPette.RTM. laboratory robot, supplied by Perkin Elmer
Cetus Instruments.
Although the previous description has emphasized the creation of
wax or grease barriers to enable the segregation of complementary
PCR reagent subsets prior to thermal cycling, it must be realized
that wax is such an improvement over the mineral oil vapor barrier
commonly used in PCR that the modes of preparing and optimizing a
wax barrier described above may serve well in PCR reactions where
there is no desire to segregate reactants before thermal cycling.
Then the wax, all PCR reagents, and the test sample may simply be
mixed together in a reaction tube, preferably within several
minutes of starting thermal cycling. As soon as the wax melts
during the first cycle, the wax will form a vapor barrier to block
solvent evaporation. When the reaction mixture cools at the end of
thermal cycling, it will form a solid barrier to reduce the chance
of unwanted PCR product dispersal, a barrier which can easily be
penetrated by a micropipet for PCR product withdrawal. Furthermore,
the art of forming and using wax or grease vapor barriers in
containers with hydrophilic inner surfaces, or with inclusion of
nonionic surfactant in the wax or grease, is disclosed herein in a
manner enabling adaptation to non-PCR contexts, which benefit from
any of the advantages listed herein. The major adjustment is of the
mass of wax or grease to cover completely the exposed surface of
the aqueous compartment in the preferred container.
Many of the advantages of the present invention can be achieved
simply by packaging subsets of PCR reagents in different
containers. In a preferred embodiment, this aspect of the invention
is a kit that comprises (a) one tube that contains a pair of
primers, a nucleic acid polymerase (preferably Taq polymerase), and
one or more deoxyribonucleoside triphosphates (preferably dATP,
dGTP, dCTP, and dTTP) in a suitable buffer, and (b) a tube that
contains MgCl.sub.2 (preferably in solution). The kit can also
comprise instructions for carrying out the PCR process with the kit
components. In particular, the instructions will describe how to
mix the contents of tubes (a) and (b) with a test sample. In the
most preferred embodiment, such a kit comprises (a) one tube that
contains 50 .mu.l of solution composed of 1.15 micromoles of
Tris-HCl, pH 8.3; 5 micromoles of KCl; 17.25 picomoles of each
primer; 21.6 nanomoles of each of the four deoxyribonucleoside
triphosphates; and 2.875 units of Taq polymerase (PECI); and (b)
one tube of 8.05 mM MgCl.sub.2. Typical instructions for this kit
would tell the user first to layer 50 .mu.l of the MgCl.sub.2
solution onto the top of the solution in tube (a), then to add two
drops of mineral oil, then to add the sample DNA in a volume of 2
to 40 .mu.l on top of the MgCl.sub.2 layer, and to place the sample
in a PECI Thermal Cycler as soon as possible (under 30
minutes).
In yet another embodiment of the invention, a gel or other matrix
containing one essential PCR reagent, i.e., Taq polymerase, is
layered onto the other components of the PCR mixture (except
sample), and the gel or matrix is composed such that, upon sample
addition and heating, the gel or matrix melts and so reconstitutes
a complete PCR mixture. In one embodiment, the gel is agarose
containing Taq polymerase.
From the above description and the following examples, one of
ordinary skill in the an can appreciate the many diverse aspects of
the present invention as encompassed by the following claims.
EXAMPLE 1
Effect of MgCl.sub.2 Segregation on PCR Reagent Storage
Stability
Two mixtures ("pre-mixes") of PCR reagents were prepared in
deionized water and stored frozen at -20.degree. C. in 50 .mu.l
aliquots in 500 .mu.l Eppendorf microfuge tubes. Premix A contained
0.055 enzyme unit/.mu.l of Thermus aquaticus (Taq) DNA polymerase I
cloned and expressed in E. Coli (AmpliTaq.RTM. from Perkin Elmer
Cetus Instruments); 0.11 mM of each of the four common dNTPs
(sodium salts from Pharmacia); 0.33 .mu.M of each of two PCR
primers designed to amplify a 239 or 242 nucleotide sequence of the
HLA DQ.alpha..alpha.gene (Saiki et al., 1989, Proc. Natl. Acad.
Sci. USA 86:6230-6234); 22 mM Tris Cl, pH 8.3; and 110 mM KCl.
Premix B contained the same components as Premix A but also
contained 8.05 mM MgCl.sub.2.
At various times over a five-day interval, four tubes containing
each of the premixes were thawed and placed in an airtight
screw-capped plastic container at room temperature. At the end of
this interval, the tubes were treated in the following manner: (a)
50 .mu.l of deionized water were added to each tube containing
Premix B; (b) 50 .mu.l of 8.05 mM MgCl.sub.2 were added to each
tube containing Premix A; (c) two drops of mineral oil (Sigma
Chemical Co.) were added to each tube; and (d) 0.3 or 1.0 ng of
purified human genomic DNA from the human cell line WT51 in 10
.mu.l of deionized water was added to each tube.
The tubes were capped and immediately placed in a Perkin Elmer
Cetus Instruments Thermal Cycler programmed to run 32 cycles of the
following sequence: 94.degree. C. for 1 minute, 60.degree. C. for
30 seconds, and 72.degree. C. for 30 seconds with the fastest
possible thermal stepping and a 7 minute extension of the
last-cycle 72.degree. C. incubation.
After this PCR amplification, the amplified DNA was analyzed by
agarose gel electrophoresis at room temperature in a gel containing
3.0 g NuSieve.RTM. agarose and 1.0 g of SeaKem.RTM. agarose (FMC
Corporation), and 100 ml of TBE buffer. TBE buffer contains 0.089M
Tris borate, pH 8.3, and 0.025M Na.sub.2 EDTA. The electrophoresis
running buffer was TBE. The separation was run at 150 V,
approximately 50 milliamperes, for 2 hours. Each gel sample slot
contained 10 .mu.l of PCR reaction mixture plus 2 .mu.l of 25%
Ficoll 400, 0.25% bromphenol blue, and 0.25% xylene cyanol. After
electrophoresis, the gel was stained in 0.5 .mu.g/ml ethidium
bromide in TBE buffer for 15 minutes and destained in H.sub.2 O for
15 minutes.
The ethidium-stained electrophoretic bands of DNA were visualized
on a 300 nm ultraviolet transilluminator. The tubes containing
Premixes A and B had been subjected to four different incubation
intervals at room temperature before running PCR: 1.5 hours, 6
hours, 1 day, and 5 days. All of the Premix A samples, except those
incubated 1.5 hours at room temperature before adding 0.3 ng of
human genomic DNA, showed the expected 240 base-pair PCR product
band and only trace amounts of primer dimer. Only one of the Premix
B samples, incubated 1.5 hours at room temperature before adding 1
ng of DNA, showed the 240 base-pair product. The Premix B samples
showed increasing amounts of primer dimer and primer oligomers,
directly related to the time the samples were incubated at room
temperature before PCR. The data showed that even relatively short
incubations of complete mixtures of PCR reagents at room
temperature before running PCR inactivate them. This inactivation
may be related to primer dimer accumulation. On the other hand, the
PCR reagent subset lacking magnesium retained full activity after
even five days at room temperature. The present example also shows
the practicality of performing PCR when complementary reagent
subsets are mixed just before amplification is started.
In other experiments designed and executed substantially as
described above, Premix A (lacking magnesium) showed efficient and
reproducible amplification of the 240 base-pair HLA DQ.alpha.
target from 0.3 ng and 1 ng of human genomic DNA and produced no or
barely detectable primer dimer after 12 days storage at -20.degree.
C., 4.degree. C., 25.degree. C., and 37.degree. C. whereas Premix B
amplified the same amounts of target erratically and produced
considerable amounts of primer dimer after 21 or 27 days storage at
-20.degree. C. These same experiments showed that vigorous mixing
of Premix A with MgCl.sub.2 shortly before amplification, rather
than layering of reagent subsets, increased primer dimer yield and
reduced specific product yield. In still other similar experiments,
Premix A showed complete storage stability for 2 months at
45.degree. C. Premix B failed to produce detectable amplified
specific PCR product after several days at room temperature.
EXAMPLE 2
Effect of Completeness of MgCl.sub.2 Segregation on PCR
Specificity
All PCR reactions used Premix A as defined in Example 1, and the
reaction mixtures were adjusted to 8.05 mM MgCl.sub.2 shortly
before amplification. The tubes containing pre-mix were stored
frozen until shortly before use. The test sample consisted of 0.1
ng/.mu.l purified DNA from the RS-2 cell line; 10 .mu.l of test
sample and 50 .mu.l of MgCl.sub.2 were added to each reaction tube
before carefully layering 50 .mu.l of mineral oil on top. Six
reaction tubes were set up under each of three conditions: (a) the
pre-mix was cooled to 0.degree. C. in an ice bucket; 50 .mu.l of
MgCl.sub.2 was carefully layered on top; 10 .mu.l of DNA was
carefully layered on top of the MgCl.sub.2 ; (b) layering was done
as in (a), but the pre-mix was at 30.degree. C.; and (c) the DNA
was layered on top of the pre-mix at 30.degree. C., followed by the
MgCl.sub.2.
Immediately after set-up, all tubes were transferred to a Perkin
Elmer Cetus Instruments Thermal Cycler and subjected to the
following program: 1 minute at 98.degree. C., 30 seconds at
60.degree. C., and 30 seconds at 72.degree. C. for 2 cycles; 1
minute at 94.degree. C., 30 seconds at 60.degree. C., and 30
seconds at 72.degree. C. for 35 cycles; and a final 10 minutes at
72.degree. C. Agarose gel electrophoresis and ethidium staining
were essentially as described in Example 1.
All reaction tubes showed the expected 240 base-pair HLA DQ.alpha.
product band, but layering condition (a) gave less product than
condition (b) which gave less product than condition (c). Layering
condition (a) gave more primer dimer than condition (b), which gave
more primer dimer than condition (c). Most significantly, layering
conditions (a) and (b) gave a second nonspecific product closer to
primer dimer than to specific product in molecular weight, which
was completely absent with layering condition (c). Similar
experiments in which no DNA was added showed none of the second
nonspecific product, suggesting that it results from mispriming of
human genomic DNA rather than from primer oligomerization. As this
mispriming reaction must occur before DNA denaturation during the
first PCR cycle, its existence implies that the human genomic DNA
of the test sample must be significantly single-stranded. When the
electrophoretic mobility of this nonspecific product was compared
to those of fragments from a HaeIII digest of .phi.X174 RF DNA
(size standards from Bethesda Research Laboratories), the
nonspecific product was seen to be approximately 91 base pairs in
size. Primer dimer was approximately 68 base pairs in size.
This experiment conformed the value of segregating magnesium from
the complementary PCR reagent subset until the actual start of PCR
thermal cycling. Interposition of even just a 10 .mu.l layer of
PCR-reagent-free test sample between the two reagent subsets served
to reduce primer dimer formation and prevent a mispriming-dependent
amplification of nonspecific product. Surprisingly, layering at
0.degree. C. gave more primer dimer than layering at room
temperature. Taq DNA polymerase I appears to catalyze primer dimer
formation even at 0.degree. C.
EXAMPLE 3
Effect of a Grease or Wax Vapor Barrier
PCR reagent Premix A and stock 8.05 mM MgCl.sub.2 were prepared as
described in Example 1. The human genomic DNA used as a test sample
was purified from the cell line HL-60 and formulated in water at a
concentration of 0.3 ng/.mu.l. To PCR reaction tubes containing 50
.mu.l of Premix A were added 40 mg masses of the following waxes or
grease: Paraplast (Monoject Industries), 58.degree.-60.degree. C.
melting paraffin (Aldrich Chemical Co.), octacosane (Aldrich
Chemical Co.), Vaseline.RTM. Petroleum Jelly (Cheeseborough Ponds),
Pentaerythritol tetrabehenate (Lipo Chemicals), and BeSquare 175
(Calwax Corporation). Several other reaction tubes containing 50
.mu.l Premix A received 75 .mu.l of light mineral oil (Sigma
Chemical Co.). All tubes were capped and incubated in an 85.degree.
C. water bath for 90-120 seconds (until the wax melted into a layer
over the premix), then cooled to room temperature.
On top of each wax, grease, or oil layer was added a mixture
containing 50 .mu.l of 8.05 mM MgCl.sub.2 and 10 .mu.l of 0.3
ng/.mu.l purified human genomic DNA. The mixture added on top of
oil instantly penetrated the oil to join the premix. All tubes were
transferred to a Perkin Elmer Cetus Instruments Thermal Cycler
already heated to 90.degree. C. After 90 seconds at 90.degree. C.,
35 cycles were executed according to the following program: 30
seconds at 95.degree. C., 30 seconds at 55.degree. C., 30 seconds
at 72.degree. C., with a final 7 minute extension at 72.degree. C.
Thermal ramps between temperatures proceeded as rapidly as
possible.
PCR product was analyzed by ethidium-stained agarose gel
electrophoresis essentially as described in Example 1. All of the
reactions with the wax and oil vapor barriers listed above gave the
specific 240-base pair PCR product. Paraplast, octacosane, and
pentaerythritol tetrabehenate gave specific PCR product in
comparable yield to mineral oil. Various waxes gave primer dimer in
yields ranging from none to heavy, whereas mineral oil gave a small
amount of primer dimer. Preliminary experiments of the same design
with certain other waxes, such as eicosane (Aldrich Chemical Co.),
tricosane (Aldrich Chemical Co.), tetracosane (Aldrich Chemical
Co.), and carnauba wax (Calwax Corporation) gave no PCR product.
However, later experiments showed that performance of wax layers in
the mass range of 40-50 mg was erratic; sometimes the MgCl.sub.2
and DNA mixture would easily fall through the melted wax and mix
well with the premix but sometimes would not. Therefore, single
successful or unsuccessful reactions with such large wax masses
predicted neither reliable amplification nor uniform unsuitability.
For example, later experiments showed that eicosane worked as well
as Paraplast and paraffin, which gave yields of both specific
product and primer dimer comparable to those with a mineral oil
vapor barrier. Cetyl palmitate (Serva Biochemicals) and Ultraflex
(Calwax Corporation) also served as liquid barriers yielding useful
amounts of specific product and only low amounts of primer dimer.
Mineral oil was mixed with paraffin and with Paraplast at
concentrations up to 25% (by mass) to give liquid barriers which
gave specific amplification as good as mineral oil alone with lower
yields of primer dimer. These mixtures gave no higher PCR
specificity or yield than the waxes alone, but they were somewhat
softer and easier to penetrate with sampler tips used to withdraw
the PCR product for electrophoretic analysis.
EXAMPLE 4
Minimizing the Mass of a Wax Vapor Barrier
In Example 3 and related experiments, a 40 mg mass of wax was
layered over 50 .mu.l of Premix A; and a 60 .mu.l mixture of
MgCl.sub.2 and DNA was placed above the wax was so that the final
aqueous volume under the wax was 110 .mu.l. Although these
quantities led to complete coverage by the wax liquid barrier
before thermal cycling and complete coverage by the wax vapor
barrier during and after thermal cycling, the resulting wax layer
was so thick that post-PCR penetration by a micropipet tip was
inconvenient and required close control. The pressure on the
micropipet needed to break through the wax often led to sudden
penetration and spurting of PCR reaction mixture (including
amplified nucleic acid) past the micropipet tip, potentially
contaminating the laboratory environment with PCR product which
could back-contaminate later amplifications.
Experiments to test the minimum mass of paraffin covering
completely 100 .mu.l of water showed that between 30 and 35 mg of
wax were needed for complete coverage as a liquid barrier, although
vapor barrier effectiveness (reduction of water evaporation)
appeared to be complete between 25 and 30 mg. The PCR reaction tube
was a standard uncoated 500 .mu.l microcentrifuge tube manufactured
by CoStar. These experiments did not require thermal cycling, but
only visual examination of wax layers under low magnification to
detect holes, followed by heating of the closed tubes to 99.degree.
C. for 10 minutes before measuring the mass of water condensed on
the walls and in the cap of the tube. The structural requirement
for so much wax derived from the fact that the wax, like mineral
oil, formed a concave-downward meniscus with the aqueous
compartment below it and a concave-upward meniscus with the air
above it at the time that the layer was formed. Therefore, to get
complete coverage at the center of the tube, a much thicker layer
was needed at the wall of the tube. The focus of efforts to render
the wax layer thin enough to be practical rested on compositions
which reduced the depth of the menisci, creating a more uniform
distribution of wax across the top of the aqueous compartment, in
the thinnest layer giving complete coverage. Paraffin was the wax
used in all of these efforts. Although other waxes must show the
same semiquantitative behavior as paraffin, their quantitative
requirements might differ somewhat.
Inclusion in the paraffin of 1% Brij 52 (diethyleneglycol monocetyl
ether; Serva Fine Biochemicals), Brij 30 (triethyleneglycol
monolauryl ether; Serva Fine Biochemicals), or
polyoxyethylene-9-lauryl ether (Sigma Chemical Co.) reduced the
minimal wax mass for complete coverage from between 30 and 35 mg to
between 20 and 25 mg, but micropipet tip penetration was still
difficult. Inclusion in the wax of 200-400 mesh
polystyrene-divinylbenzene beads (BioBeads SM-X8, BioRad
Laboratories) at mass percent of 10 or 20 reduced the minimum
effective mass of wax to between 25 and 30 mg. More beneficially,
micropipet tip penetration was effortless, and the wax broke away
without clogging the sampler tip. Bead concentrations of 5%, 30%,
and 40% did not give complete coverage at 30 mg of wax. Although
10%, 20%, or 40% (by mass) of Vaseline.RTM. Petroleum Jelly in
paraffin was not tested for effect on the minimal mass of wax
needed for complete coverage, at 40 mg of these mixtures (somewhat
above the probable minimum), micropipet tip penetration was easy
because the wax was somewhat softened. However, the wax tended to
clog some sampler tips. Inclusion in a mere 10 mg of paraffin of a
3 mm diameter circle of polypropylene monofilament mesh
(Propyltex.TM. silk screening fabric; Tetko Corporation) weighing
approximately 0.5 mg gave complete coverage of 50 .mu.l of water in
an uncoated polypropylene microcentrifuge tube. Repeat of this
experiment with 7 mg of wax did not quite give complete coverage.
Although a somewhat larger mass of wax would be needed to cover the
100 .mu.l of water used in the previous tests, that amount would
not nearly approach the 30-35 mg needed in the absence of mesh or
surfactant.
To test the effect of coating PCR reaction tubes with surfactant,
500 .mu.l microcentrifuge tubes were incubated for 30 minutes at
room temperature containing 5% solutions in 1 -propanol of each one
of six surfactants: polyoxyethylene-9-lauryl ether, Span 40
(sorbitan monopalmitate; Sigma Chemical Co.), Brij 30, Tween 85
(polyoxyethylene sorbitan trioleate; Sigma Chemical Co.), Span 80
(sorbitan monooleate; Sigma Chemical Co.), and Brij 52. After
drainage of the surfactant solutions from the tubes, the tubes were
air-dried. Various masses of paraffin (7.5, 11.3, 15, and 18.8 mg)
were layered on top of 50 .mu.l of 0.06M KCl in H.sub.2 O in each
tube. After the wax layers had hardened and were examined visually
for holes under low magnification, they were covered with 50 .mu.l
of a 0.1% solution of methylene blue in H.sub.2 O. After the tubes
were capped and stored for 3.5 days at room temperature, they were
examined visually for signs of dye leakage from the upper aqueous
layer into the lower one. Then they were immersed for two minutes
in a 95.degree.-97.degree. C. water bath, allowed to air-cool to
room temperature, and rechecked visually for signs of holes in wax
covering the 100 .mu.l of combined aqueous layers. During heating,
they were observed for the timing and completeness of dye
penetration of the melted wax and mixing with the lower aqueous
layer.
Although two surfactants (Tween 85 and Span 80) gave greatly
improved performance over a control tube which was uncoated,
particularly in providing complete coverage of 50 .mu.l of aqueous
solution with only 15 mg of wax (no holes and no dye leakage after
3.5 days), only Tween 85 gave complete coverage of 100 .mu.l. Two
other surfactants (polyoxyethylene-9-lauryl ether and Brij 30) gave
partial improvement over uncoated tubes; no holes were seen in wax
covering 50 .mu.l, and dye penetration before heating did not occur
immediately, but required several days of incubation. In this test,
Span 80 was judged questionable on a different ground; it was the
only coating which appeared to impede penetration and mixing of the
upper aqueous layer upon heating to 95.degree.-97.degree. C.
Therefore, Tween 85 provided special benefit in comparison to the
other surfactants tested or to no coating, greatly reducing the
mass of paraffin needed for complete coverage of 100 .mu.l of water
from between 30 and 35 mg to approximately 15 mg. Furthermore, the
15 mg layer of wax covering an 100 .mu.l aqueous compartment was
very easily penetrated by a micropipet tip. However, it is expected
that other surfactants not yet tested will meet or surpass this
performance, as those tested represent only a small fraction of the
hundreds available commercially.
In a further test of Tween 85-coated reaction tubes, 7.5 mg, 11.3
mg, and 15 mg paraffin layers containing 0%, 0.34%, and 1.2% of
Tween 85 were used in an experiment just like the surfactant
coating screen just described. This time the mass of water
distilled onto the upper walls and cap of the tubes during 10
minutes at 99.degree. C. was measured. This last criterion showed a
marked benefit from either Tween 85 concentration in the wax (Tween
85 also coating the tubes). Surfactant also helped to achieve
complete coverage of 50 .mu.l of aqueous solution with only 7.5 mg
of wax, but did not allow complete coverage of 100 .mu.l with
either 11.3 mg or 7.5 mg.
Still further tests of Tween 85, using a similar experimental
design, showed that 1% Tween 85 in 56.degree.-61.degree. C. melting
paraffin worked approximately equally well in Tween 85-coated and
uncoated tubes. However, this test did not include storage for
several days or actual PCR amplification.
Both conditions gave better coverage than the use of
Tween-85-coated tubes without Tween 85 in the wax, and much better
coverage than the use of untreated tubes without Tween 85 in the
wax. According to the dual criteria of easy micropipet penetration
and complete coverage (no holes in the wax and minimal evaporation
of water from reaction mixture during thermal cycling), the
following wax masses were found to be preferred for the associated
underlying water volumes when paraffin contained 1% Tween 85:8 mg
with 25 .mu.l water, 12 mg with 50 .mu.l, 16 mg with 75 .mu.l, 18
mg with 100 .mu.l, 22 mg with 150 .mu.l, and 26 mg with 200 .mu.l.
These masses are several mg higher than the minimum effective
masses, but help to assure that all tubes will perform well, as
there is certain to be some randomness in both the mass of wax
delivered and the resulting performance.
EXAMPLE 5
Effect of Improved Wax on PCR Amplification
Tween 85 was dissolved in 1-propanol to a concentration of 1% by
mass. Approximately 0.5 ml aliquots of this Tween 85-propanol
solution were added to 500 .mu.l microcentrifuge tubes and
incubated at room temperature for about 30 minutes before draining
the tubes with a glass Pasteur pipet. The tubes were dried under
vacuum (22 inches Hg) at room temperature for 30 minutes. Tween 85
was dissolved at 70.degree.-90.degree. C. in 56.degree.-61.degree.
C. melting paraffin (Aldrich Chemical Co.) to a concentration of
1%. Fourteen mg aliquots of 1% Tween 85 in paraffin were delivered
with an SMI Micro/Pettor from 70.degree.-90.degree. C. melted wax
onto a polyethylene weighing boat sitting on ice. The individual 14
mg pellets of hardened wax were delivered individually to separate
Tween 85 coated reaction tubes. Fifty .mu.l aliquots of Premix A
(Example 1 ) were added to the wax-containing tubes, which were
incubated approximately 2 minutes at 70.degree.-80.degree. C. and
allowed to air-cool to room temperature. All wax layers were free
of holes. On top of them were added 60 .mu.l of mixture of 6.71 mM
MgCl.sub.2 and enough purified human genomic DNA to contain 30
genomic copies (0.1 mg).
These completed reaction tubes were subjected to the following
amplification program in a Perkin Elmer Cetus Instruments Thermal
Cycler: two cycles of 1 minute at 98.degree. C., 30 seconds at
60.degree. C., and 30 seconds at 72.degree. C.; 35 cycles of 1
minute at 94.degree. C., 30 seconds at 60.degree. C. and 30 seconds
at 72.degree. C., followed by a 10 minute incubation at 72.degree.
C. All thermal ramps between temperatures were performed as rapidly
as possible. Ethidium-stained gel electrophoresis was performed
essentially as in Example 1. Sixteen replicate reactions were run
as just described. Another six tubes contained mineral oil instead
of wax; in them the 60 .mu.l of DNA and MgCl.sub.2 mixed
immediately with the 50 .mu.l of Premix A upon addition to the
tubes. One more control tube used wax with no added DNA and one
used oil with no added DNA. Gel electrophoresis showed that fifteen
of the sixteen wax-covered amplifications generated the expected
240 base-pair specific PCR product and significant amounts of
primer dimer. Three of the fifteen showed significantly less of the
specific product than did the others. All six oil controls showed
somewhat but not greatly higher yields of specific product than did
the successful wax-covered amplifications, but they also showed the
91 base-pair mix-primed nonspecific product described in Example 2,
completely absent when wax was used. Omission of test sample DNA
resulted in a normal yield of primer dimer and no detectable 240
base-pair or 91 base-pair product. Wax gave somewhat larger primer
dimer than did oil, and somewhat higher yields of primer dimer than
did oil.
This experiment showed acceptably reproducible PCR amplification
when 14 mg of paraffin containing 1% Tween 85 replaces 100 .mu.l
(approximately 80 mg) of mineral oil and serves to segregate
MgCl.sub.2 and test sample from the remaining PCR reagents until
the first amplification cycle. This amplification was significantly
more sensitive than those in Examples 1-3, which started with at
least 100 genomic copies of HLA DQ.alpha. DNA.
Similar experiments in which the mass of wax was doubled from 14 to
28 mg showed much reduced yields of specific product and almost
normal yields of primer dimer. Similar experiments (with 14 mg of
wax) in which test sample was added to premix before wax layering
and only MgCl.sub.2 was placed above the wax seemed to give
somewhat higher and more reproducible yields of specific product
and lower yields of primer dimer probably because the test sample
spent more time at high temperature during the first one or two
cycles. Similar experiments in which the 60 .mu.l of test sample
and MgCl.sub.2 were placed below the wax and the 50 .mu.l of premix
were placed above also appeared to give higher and more
reproducible specific product yields and reduced primer dimer
yields. These last reactions also gave a more complicated and
variable primer dimer pattern, more like that seen with oil vapor
barriers. These variations on the normal way of using Tween
85-containing wax to segregate MgCl.sub.2 and test sample from the
other PCR reagents in Tween 80 coated tubes suggest that additional
improvements may result from further reduction in the wax mass and
by lowering the wax melting point so that the reactants mix more
rapidly after the first thermal cycle is started. These changes and
other simple ones, such as prolonging the duration of the
first-cycle denaturation segment (currently 1 minute at 98.degree.
C.) can be used to improve first-cycle DNA denaturation and thereby
increase yield.
* * * * *