U.S. patent number 3,876,522 [Application Number 05/263,148] was granted by the patent office on 1975-04-08 for process for the preparation of lubricating oils.
Invention is credited to Ian D. Campbell, John B. Gilbert.
United States Patent |
3,876,522 |
Campbell , et al. |
April 8, 1975 |
Process for the preparation of lubricating oils
Abstract
A process for the preparation of lubricating oils of enhanced
stability comprising hydrocracking a hydrocarbon oil the
predominant portion of which exhibits an initial boiling point
above about 650.degree.F. over a hydrocracking catalyst,
fractionating the resulting hydrocrackate to form at least two
lubricating oil fractions, and hydrogenating each of said fractions
over a hydrogenation catalyst.
Inventors: |
Campbell; Ian D. (Sarnia,
Ontario, CA), Gilbert; John B. (Sarnia, Ontario,
CA) |
Family
ID: |
23000574 |
Appl.
No.: |
05/263,148 |
Filed: |
June 15, 1972 |
Current U.S.
Class: |
208/58; 208/95;
208/18; 208/96 |
Current CPC
Class: |
C10G
65/12 (20130101); C10G 2400/10 (20130101) |
Current International
Class: |
C10G
65/00 (20060101); C10G 65/12 (20060101); C10G
65/16 (20060101); C10g 037/04 (); C01b
033/28 () |
Field of
Search: |
;208/58,59,18 |
References Cited
[Referenced By]
U.S. Patent Documents
Primary Examiner: Gantz; Delbert E.
Assistant Examiner: Schmitkons; G. E.
Attorney, Agent or Firm: Miller; Reuben
Claims
What is claimed is:
1. A process for the preparation of lubricating oils of enhanced
stability comprising:
i. hydrocracking a liquid hydrocarbon oil feedstock, the
predominant portion of which exhibits an initial boiling point
above about 650.degree.F. over a hydrocracking catalyst under
hydrocracking conditions to produce a hydrocrackate;
ii. fractionating said resulting hydrocrackate to form at least two
lubricating oil fractions; and
iii. hydrogenating each of said fractions over a hydrogenation
catalyst consisting of Group VIII metals, said Group VIII metals
being supported on a carrier, said hydrogenating being carried out
under conditions so as to obtain a product having an aromatics
content of below about 1% by weight.
2. Process as defined in claim 1 wherein the hydrocrackate is
de-waxed prior to fractionation.
3. Process as defined in claim 1 wherein the lubricating oil
fractions are each de-waxed prior to hydrogenation.
4. Process as defined in claim 1 wherein the lubricating oil
fractions are de-waxed after hydrogenation.
5. Process as defined in claim 1 wherein the hydrocracking catalyst
comprises oxides and/or sulfides of molybdenum and/or tungsten on a
porous non-zeolitic support.
6. Process as defined in claim 1 wherein said Group VIII metal is
nickel.
7. Process as defined in claim 1 wherein the hydrocracking catalyst
comprises (1) from 10 to 70 wt. % of a crystalline aluminosilicate
having a silica/alumina mole ratio greater than about 2.5, upon
which is deposited or base exchanged, from about 0.05 to 50 wt. %
based on the aluminosilicate, of a transition metal hydrogenation
component; and (2) from 30 to 90 wt. % of a porous, substantially
inert, thermally stable inorganic adjuvant upon which is deposited
a minor proportion of a transition metal hydrogenation
component.
8. Process as defined in claim 1 wherein the hydrocracking catalyst
compress (1) from 10 to 30 wt. % of a crystalline aluminosilicate
having a silica/alumina ratio of from 3 to 6, upon which is
deposited or base exchanged from 0.1 to 25 wt. % based on the
aluminosilicate, of a transition metal hydrogenation component; and
(2 ) from 70 to 90 wt. % of a porous, substantially inert,
thermally stable inorganic adjuvant upon which is deposited a minor
proportion of a transition metal hydrogenation component.
9. Process as defined in claim 1 wherein hydrocracking is conducted
at temperatures varying from about 550.degree. to about
850.degree.F.; pressures varying from about 500 to about 4,000
psig.; liquid hourly space velocities varying from about 0.2 to 10
and hydrogen/hydrocarbon ratios varying from about 1 to about 15
M.s.c.f./b.
10. Process as defined in claim 1 wherein the hydrogenation is
conducted at temperatures varying from about 350.degree. to about
600.degree.F.; pressures varying from about 400 to about 3,000
psig.; and liquid hourly space velocities varying between about 0.1
and 2.
11. A process for the preparation of lubricating oils of enhanced
stability comprising:
i. hydrocracking a liquid hydrocarbon oil feedstock the predominant
portion of which exhibits an initial boiling point above about
650.degree.F. over a hydrocracking catalyst comprising (1) from 10
to 30 weight % of a crystalline aluminosilicate having a
silica/alumina ratio of from 3 to 6, upon which is deposited or
base exchanged from 0.1 to 25 weight %, based on aluminosilicate,
of a transition metal hydrogenation catalyst, and (2) from 70 to 90
weight % of a porous, substantially inert, thermally stable
inorganic adjuvant upon which is deposited a minor proportion of a
transition metal hydrogenation component to produce a
hydrocrackate;
ii. fractionating said resulting hydrocrackate to form at least two
lubricating oil fractions;
iii. dewaxing each of said lubricating oil fractions; and
iv. hydrogenating each of said dewaxed lubricating oil fractions
over a hydrogenation catalyst consisting of nickel on a kieselguhr
support at a temperature ranging from about 350.degree. to about
600.degree.F., at a pressure from about 400 to about 3,000 psig and
a space velocity of between about 0.1 and 2 so as to reduce the
aromatics content of each of said fractions to below about 1% by
weight.
Description
This invention relates to an improved process for the preparation
of lubricating oils. More particularly, this invention relates to
an improved process for hydrogenating hydrocracked lubricating
oils.
Lubricating oils are susceptible to decomposition caused by contact
with light, especially ultraviolet light and oxygen.
Lubricating oils derived from hydrocracked vacuum distillates
and/or deasphalted oils have been found deficient as compared to
conventional solvent-refined lubricating oils in that they are more
unstable to daylight and air, and are rapidly degraded to sludge.
Attempts to overcome this deficiency via hydrogenation have proved
unsatisfactory. Generally, hydrogenation of the hydrocrackate
yields, after subsequent fractionation and de-waxing, lubricating
oils of improved color, but only slightly improved stability.
Accordingly, it is an object of the present invention to provide an
improved process for the preparation of lubricating oils.
It is another object of the present invention to provide an
improved process for hydrogenating hydrocracked lubricating oils
whereby lubricating oils of significantly improved color and
stability are obtained.
These as well as other objects are accomplished by the present
invention which provides a process for the preparation of
lubricating oils of enhanced stability comprising:
I. hydrocracking a liquid hydrocarbon oil the predominant portion
of which exhibits an initial boiling point above about
650.degree.F. over a hydrocracking catalyst;
Ii. fractionating the resulting hydrocrackate to form at least two
lubricating oil fractions; and
Iii. hydrogenating each of said fractions over a hydro-genation
catalyst.
The process of the present invention will become more completely
understood from the drawings, wherein:
FIGS. 1 to 3 are schematic arrangements illustrating, the process
of the present invention and showing a de-waxing treatment at
various stages in the processing.
The liquid hydrocarbon oil feedstocks that are suitable for use in
the process of the present invention include hydrocarbons, mixtures
of hydrocarbons and particularly hydrocarbon fractions, the
predominant portions of which exhibit inital boiling points above
about 650.degree.F. Unless otherwise indicated, boiling points are
taken at atmospheric pressure. Nonlimiting examples of useful
process feedstocks include: crude oil vacuum distillates from
paraffinic or naphthenic crudes, deasphalted residual oils, the
heaviest fractions of catalytic cracking cycle oils, coker
distillates and flash or thermally cracked oils and the like. These
fractions may be derived from petroleum crude oils, shale oils, tar
sand oils, coal hydrogenation products and the like. Preferred
feedstocks include: deasphalted petroleum oils that exhibit initial
boiling points in the range of from about
850.degree.-1050.degree.F. and a conradson carbon residue number
less than about 3 and heavy gas oils that boil predominantly
between about 650.degree. and 1050.degree.F. and exhibit
viscosities ranging from about 35-200, preferably 40-100 S.U.S. at
210.degree.F. In the embodiments illustrated in each of the
figures, the feedstock is charged via line 2 into a catalytic
hydrocracker 10 containing one or more beds of hydrocracking
catalyst wherein it is contacted with hydrogen which is charged to
the hydrocracking unit via line 4 to effect both hydrotreating and
conversion of the feedstock in one operation.
Useful hydrocracking catalysts include (a) metal compounds
contained on a porous non-zeolitic support, and (b)
zeolite-containing catalysts having exchanged or deposited
catalytic metals. Suitable catalyst materials falling within the
first category are the oxides and/or sulfides of Group VIB metals,
such as molybdenum and/or tungsten, preferably composited with a
Group VIII metal oxide and/or sulfide such as the oxides or
sulfides of nickel and/or cobalt. Preferred catalysts of this type
comprise sulfided composites of molybdenum oxide and nickel oxide
supported on a porous, relatively non-cracking carrier such as
activated alumina, silica-alumina or other difficultly reducible
refractory oxides. When alumina or silica-alumina are employed as
supports, they may be promoted with phosphorous or
phosphorous-containing compound such as phosphoric acid. The most
preferred catalyst materials of this general type contain about 2-6
weight percent nickel and about 5-25 weight percent molybdenum.
As described above, zeolite-containing materials can also be
employed as the process catalyst. These catalysts comprise a
crystalline aluminosilicate (sieve component) and a porous,
relatively inert, thermally stable inorganic adjuvant (amorphous
component). The porous adjuvant is preferably alumina, silica and
mixtures thereof. The crystalline aluminosilicates employed in the
preparation of these catalysts can comprise one or more natural or
synthetic zeolites. Representative examples of particularly
preferred zeolites are zeolite X, zeolite Y, zeolite L, faujasite
and mordenite. Synthetic zeolites have been generally described in
U.S. Pat. Nos. 2,882,244, 3,130,007 and 3,216,789, the disclosures
of which are incorporated herein by reference.
The silica/alumina mole ratio of useful aluminosilicates is greater
than 2.5 and preferably ranges from about 2.5 to 10. Most
preferably this ratio ranges between about 3 and 6. These materials
are essentially the dehydrated forms of crystalline hydrous
siliceous zeolites containing varying quantities of alkali metal
and aluminum with or without other metals. The alkali metal atoms,
silicon, aluminum and oxygen in the zeolites are arranged in the
form of an aluminosilicate salt in a definite and consistent
crystalline structure. The structure contains a large number of
small cavities, interconnected by a number of still smaller holes
or channels. These cavities and channels are uniform in size. The
pore diameter size of the crystalline aluminosilicate can range
from 5 to 15 A and preferably from 5 to 10 A.
The aluminosilicate component may comprise a sieve of one specific
pore diameter size or, alternatively, mixtures of sieves of varying
pore diameter size. Thus, for example, mixtures of 5 A and 13 A
sieves may be employed as the aluminosilicate component. Synthetic
zeolites such as type-Y faujasites are preferred and are prepared
by well-known methods such as those described in U.S. Pat. No.
3,130,007.
The aluminosilicate can be in the hydrogen form, in the polyvalent
metal form or in the mixed hydrogen-polyvalent metal form. The
polyvalent metal or hydrogen form of the aluminosilicate component
can be prepared by any of the well-known methods described in the
literature. Representative of such methods is ion-exchange of the
alkali metal cations contained in the aluminosilicate with ammonium
ions or other easily decomposable cations such as
methyl-substituted quaternary ammonium ions. The exchanged
aluminosilicate is then heated at elevated temperatures of about
300.degree.-600.degree.C. to drive off ammonia, thereby producing
the hydrogen form of the material. The degree of polyvalent-metal
or hydrogen exchange should be at least about 20%, and preferably
at least about 40% of the maximum theoretically possible. In any
event, the crystalline aluminosilicate composition should contain
less than about 6.0 wt. % of the alkali metal oxide based on the
final aluminosilicate composition and, preferably, less than 2.0 wt
%, i.e. about 0.3 wt. % to 0.5 wt. % or less.
The resulting hydrogen aluminosilicates can be employed as such, or
can be subjected to a steam treatment at elevated temperatures,
i.e. 427.degree. to 704.degree.C. for example, to effect
stabilization, thereof, against hydrothermal degradation. The steam
treatment, in many cases, also appears to effect a desirable
alteration in crystal structures resulting in improved
selectivity.
The mixed hydrogen-polyvalent metal forms of the aluminosilicates
are also contemplated. In one embodiment the metal form of the
aluminosilicate is ion-exchanged with ammonium cations and then
partially back-exchanged with solutions of the desired metal salts
until the desired degree of exchange is acheived. The remaining
ammonium ions are decomposed later to hydrogen ions during thermal
activation. Here again, it is preferred that at least about 40% of
the monovalent metal cations be replaced with hydrogen and
polyvalent metal ions.
Suitably, the exchanged polyvalent metals are transition metals and
are preferably selected from Groups VIB and VIII of the Periodic
Table. Preferred metals include nickel, molybdenum, tungsten and
the like. The most preferred metal is nickel. The amount of nickel
(or other metal) present in the aluminosilicate (as ion-exchanged
metal) can range from about 0.1 to 20% by weight based on the final
aluminosilicate composition.
In addition to the ion-exchanged polyvalent metals, the
aluminosilicate may contain as non-exchanged constituents one or
more hydrogenation components comprising the transitional metals,
preferably selected from Groups VIB and VIII of the Periodic Table
and their oxides and sulfides. Such hydrogenation components may be
combined with the aluminosilicate by any method which gives a
suitably intimate admixture, such as by impregnation. Examples of
suitable hydrogenation metals, for use herein, include nickel,
tungsten, molybdenum, platinum, palladium and the like, and/or the
oxides and/or sulfides thereof. Mixtures of any two or more of such
components may also be employed. Particularly preferred metals are
tungsten and nickel. Most preferably, the metals are used in the
form of their oxides. The total amount of hydrogenation components
present in the final aluminosilicate composition can range from
about 0.05 to 50 wt. %, preferably from 0.1 to 25 wt. % based on
the final aluminosilicate composition. The final weight %
composition of the crystalline component of the total catalyst will
range from about 10 to 70 wt. % and preferably from about 10 to 30
wt. %, i.e. 20 wt. % based on total catalyst. The final weight %
composition of the amorphous component will range from about 30 to
90 wt. % and preferably from about 70 to 90 wt. %, i.e. 80 wt. %
based on total catalyst.
The amorphous component and the crystalline aluminosilicate
component of the catalyst may be brought together by any suitable
method, such as by mechanical mixing of the particles thereby
producing a particle form composite that is subsequently dried and
calcined. The catalyst may also be prepared by extrusion of wet
plastic mixtures of the powdered components following by drying and
calcination. Preferably the complete catalyst is prepared by mixing
the metal-exchanged zeolite component with alumina or
silica-stabilized alumina and extruding the mixture to form
catalyst pellets. The pellets are thereafter impregnated with an
aqueous solution of nickel and molybdenum or tungsten materials to
form the final catalyst. The preferred catalyst species are a
nickel exchanged hydrogen faujasite admixed with a major amount of
alumina, the final catalyst also containing deposited thereon a
minor amount of a transition metal hydrogenation component, such as
nickel and/or tungsten and/or molybdenum metal or their oxides or
sulfides.
The temperature within the hydrocracking unit can range from about
550.degree. to about 850.degree.F. and preferably ranges from about
650.degree. to about 800.degree.F. Pressure within the unit can
range from about 500 to about 4000 psig. and preferably ranges from
about 1,000 to about 3,000 psig. The liquid hourly space velocity
(LHSV) can range from about 0.2 to 10 and preferably ranges from
about 0.5 to about 5. The hydrogen to hydrocarbon ratio ranges from
about 1 to about 15 M.s.c.f./b. and preferably ranges from about 2
to about 6 M.s.c.f./b.
The total effluent from the reactor 10 is passed into a heat
exchanger or suitable cooling device 12. In the heat exchanger 12,
the effluent is cooled to temperatures at which gaseous hydrogen
can be separated from the liquid phase. The thus cooled effluent is
passed into a high pressure separator 14. The gaseous phase
containing substantial amounts of hydrogen is removed and can be
recycled to hydrocracker 10 through line 16. A liquid product from
the high pressure separator 14 is then passed through a
depressurizing zone 18.
In cocnducting the process of the present invention, it may be
necessary to de-wax the liquid product at some stage in the
processing. The exact stage in the process sequence for performing
the de-waxing operation is not critical and is normally dictated by
economics and the local refining situation with regard to the
availability of equipment, materials, etc. For example, the
de-waxing can be performed: before fractionation, as illustrated in
FIG. 1; after fractionation but before hydrogenation, as
illustrated in FIG. 2; of after hydrogenation, as illustrated in
FIG. 3.
According to the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 1, the liquid
product from depressurizing zone 18 is charged to a suitable
de-waxing unit 20, wherein the wax is separated and removed through
conduit 22 as a result of precipitation in the presence of a
solvent introduced to the unit through line 24. The solvent and oil
mixture from the de-waxing unit 20 is charged to stripper 26
wherein the solvent is removed by steam stripping. The mixture of
steam and solvent is removed via line 28 and sent to a solvent
recovery system (not shown).
The de-waxed liquid product effluent is then charged to a suitable
fractionating tower 30 via line 32. In the fractionator 30, the
de-waxed liquid product is fractionated into two or more
lubricating oil cuts.
It has been found in the present invention that by initially
fractionating the liquid product, before or after de-waxing, from
the hydrocracking unit into two or more lubricating oil fractions
and separately hydrogenating each of these fractions, lube oils are
produced which exhibit unusual stability to daylight and air.
Surprisingly, it has been found that hydrogenation of the total
liquid product does not produce a lube oil product characterized by
stability to the formation of sludge under the influence of
daylight or air oxidation. However, fractionation of the total
liquid product into a number of fractions and the separate
hydrogenation of each of these fractions unexpectedly does produce
a lube oil having the desired stability characteristics. Thus, as
shown in the illustration, the respective hydrocracked, de-waxed
lube oil fractions are subjected to individual hydrogenation
treatments. The effluent streams from conduits 34, 36 and 38 are
respectively admixed with hydrogen and heated to about reaction
temperature in heaters 58, 60 and 62. The heated mixtures are
respectively charged to hydrogenation reactors 64, 66 and 68 each
containing one or more beds of hydrogenation catalyst. The reaction
products are removed via lines 70, 72 and 74 and flow into high
pressure separators 76, 78 and 80 wherein the hydrogen is separated
and recycled via lines 82, 84 and 86. The lube oils then flow
respectively into low pressure separators 88, 90 and 92 wherein any
small amount of light gases present are removed through conduits
94, 96 and 98. The finished lube oil products are then respectively
removed through conduits 100, 102, and 104.
The embodiment illustrated schematically in FIG. 2 is similar to
that of FIG. 1, differing only in that the dewaxing treatment is
performed after fractionation of the total liquid product.
According to this embodiment, each of the fractionator effluent
streams 34, 36 and 38 are charged, respectively, to de-waxing units
shown generally as 40, 42 and 44 and are dewaxed therein in the
manner described with reference to FIG. 1. The de-waxed liquid
effluent streams 46, 48 and 50 are then hydrogenated as in the
embodiment illustrated in FIG. 1.
The embodiment illustrated schematically in FIG. 3 is similar to
that to FIGS. 1 and 2, differing only in that the de-waxing
treatment is performed after hydrogenation. According to this
embodiment the total liquid effluent from the hydrocracker is
fractionated into three narrow boiling range lubricating oil
fractions which are separately hydrogenated. The hydrogenated
product effluents 100, 102 and 104 are then passed through
de-waxing units shown generally as 106, 108 and 110 and are
de-waxed therein in the manner described with reference to FIG. 1.
The finished lube oil products are then removed through conduits
112, 114 and 116 respectively.
In each instance, hydrogenation is conducted at temperatures
ranging from about 350.degree. to about 600.degree.F., at pressures
from about 400 to about 3000 psig. at space veolicities (LHSV)
between about 0.1 and 2. The hydrogenation catalyst employed must
be active enough not only to hydrogenate the olefins, diolefins and
color bodies within the lube oil fractions, but also to reduce the
aromatic content of these fractions to a value of below about 1% by
weight. Suitable hydrogenation catalysts include conventional
metallic hydrogenation catalysts, particularly the Group VIII
metals such as cobalt, nickel, palladium, platinum and the like,
associated with suitable carriers such as bauxite, alumina, silica
gel, silica-alumina composites, crystalline aluminosilicate
zeolites, and the like. Nickel is a particularly preferred
hydrogenation catalyst. If desired, Group VIII metals associated
with molybdates can also be suitably employed. It has been found
that the sulfided forms of these metals are not particularly
suitable for use in accordance with the present invention.
The following examples further define, describe and compare methods
of preparing lubricating oils of enhanced stability in accordance
with the present invention. Parts and percentages are by weight
unless otherwise indicated.
Comparative example 1
lubricating oils are prepared by hydrocracking a feedstock over a
catalyst at a temperature of 760.degree.F., a pressure of 2,500
psig and a space velocity of 0.5V/V/hr. with 5000 SCF/B pure
hydrogen. The catalyst is used in the form of a 1/16 in. extrudate
and comprises 4.5 wt. % NiO, 13.0 wt. % MoO.sub.3, 15 wt. %
SiO.sub.2 and the remainder alumina. The feedstock is a blend of 40
LV% of a heavy vacuum distillate boiling between about 850.degree.
and 1,050.degree.F from a West Texas crude and 60LV% of a blend of
deasphalted vacuum residua from West Texas and other crudes. The
hydrocrackate is fractionated to separate low boiling fuel products
and to recover three lubricating oil fractions having respective
boiling ranges of 700.degree. - 925.degree. F., 925.degree. -
1050.degree.F. and 1050.degree.F. plus. These lubricating oil
fractions are then de-waxed. These lubricating oils are exposed to
daylight and air and are found to rapidly form a heavy brown
sludge. The results obtained are summarized in Table I below:
TABLE I ______________________________________ Days Exposed to
Lubricating Oil Tag Robinson Light and Air to Fractions (.degree.F)
Color Form Sludge ______________________________________ 700 - 925
11 2 925 - 1050 5 2 1050 + 1 2
______________________________________
It can be seen that lubricating oils prepared in this manner
exhibit both poor color and stability to daylight and air as
manifested by the rapid formation and deposition of a heavy brown
sludge upon exposure to daylight and air.
Comparative example 2
a liquid hydrocrackate obtained in the manner described in
Comparative Example 1 is hydrogenated by contacting said
hydrocrackate with 5000 SCF/B pure hydrogen over a catalyst
comprising 58 wt. % nickel on a kieselguhr support at
500.degree.F., 2,500 psig., and a space velocity of 0.5 V/V/hr.
Thereafter, the hydrogenated product is fractionated and de-waxed
to provide lubricating oils of improved color as compared to those
obtained in Comparative Example 1; however, only slight improvement
is obtained with respect to stability to daylight and air. The
results obtained are shown in Table II below:
TABLE II ______________________________________ Days Exposed to
Lubricating Oil Tag Robinson Light and Air to Fractions (.degree.F)
Color Form Sludge ______________________________________ 700 - 925
171/2 3 925 - 1050 9 4 1050 + 7 4
______________________________________
It can be seen that although hydrogenating of the hydrocrackate
aids in improving color, it is of little effect in improving
stability to light and air.
EXAMPLE 1
A hydrocrackate obtained in the identical manner described in
Comparative Example 1 is fractionated into three lubricating oil
cuts and these narrow boiling range materials are de-waxed and then
hydrogenated separately employing a catalyst having the same
composition as that in Comparative Example 2, above. Hydrogenation
is conducted at 500.degree.F. at 2000 psig., at space velocities of
at least about 2 V/V/hr. with 5,000 SCF/B of pure hydrogen. Lube
oils obtained in this manner exhibit excellent color, are extremely
stable to daylight and air. The results obtained are summarized in
Table III below:
TABLE III ______________________________________ Lubricating Space
Tag Days Exposed to Oil Velocity Robinson Light and Air to
Fractions (.degree.F) (V/V/hr.) Color Form Sludge
______________________________________ 700 - 925 2 +34.sup.(1)
>14 925 - 1050 3 18 >50 1050 + 5 16 >50
______________________________________ .sup.(1) Saybolt Color
It can be seen from Table III that both color and stability are
significantly improved in the process of the present invention as
compared to the results obtained by hydrogenating the total liquid
product from hydrocracking as shown in Comparative Example 2, or by
simply hydrocracking as shown in Comparative Example 1. The process
of the present invention is also more economical than that wherein
the total liquid hydrocrackate is hydrogenated due to the much
higher space velocity which can be employed. This enables higher
through puts or lower reactor pressures to be used.
* * * * *