U.S. patent number 3,808,433 [Application Number 05/319,442] was granted by the patent office on 1974-04-30 for methods and apparatus for detection of very small particulate matter and macromolecules.
Invention is credited to Wade L. Fite, Richard L. Myers.
United States Patent |
3,808,433 |
Fite , et al. |
April 30, 1974 |
METHODS AND APPARATUS FOR DETECTION OF VERY SMALL PARTICULATE
MATTER AND MACROMOLECULES
Abstract
A method and apparatus for detecting, sizing, and counting gas
borne particulate matter are described. The particles are impacted
onto a heated surface capable of pyrolyzing them. Some of the
products of the pyrolysis are then surfaceionized, producing a
burst of ions which is detected electronically producing a voltage
pulse proportional to the amount of surface-ionizable matter
originally present in the particle. Methods are described for
adding to each particle an amount of surface-ionizable material
proportional to the particle size, enabling the instrument to
measure the particle size distribution of a collection of gasborne
particles. The basic apparatus may detect particles by means of
either positive or negative surface-ionization, and is capable of
operation either when situated in air or when located in a vacuum
system.
Inventors: |
Fite; Wade L. (Pittsburgh,
PA), Myers; Richard L. (Wilkinsburg, PA) |
Family
ID: |
23242254 |
Appl.
No.: |
05/319,442 |
Filed: |
December 29, 1972 |
Current U.S.
Class: |
250/251;
250/425 |
Current CPC
Class: |
G01N
27/626 (20130101) |
Current International
Class: |
G01N
27/62 (20060101); G01m 027/78 () |
Field of
Search: |
;250/251,425 ;73/28 |
References Cited
[Referenced By]
U.S. Patent Documents
Primary Examiner: Borchelt; Archie R.
Assistant Examiner: Anderson; B. C.
Attorney, Agent or Firm: Mason, Mason & Albright
Claims
1. A method of detecting a particle of dust, smoke and
macromolecules of 1000 AMU or greater which comprises the steps of
producing a burst of ions by inducing said particle to strike a
heated surface and discerning the
2. A method in accordance with claim 1 wherein at least part of
said burst of ions comprises surface-ionizable atoms or molecules
occurring as
3. A method in accordance with claim 1 wherein said particle is
caused to pass through a vapor of surface-ionizable atoms or
molecules prior to striking said heated surface, said
surface-ionizable atoms or molecules attaching to said particle, at
least part of said burst of ions comprising ions produced from said
surface-ionizable atoms or molecules by surface
4. A method of determining the size of a particle of dust, smoke
and other macromolecules of about 1,000 AMU or larger, of
surface-ionizable atoms or molecules wherein some of said atoms or
molecules are attached to said particle during its passage through
the vapor in a number proportional to the size of said particle,
causing said particle to strike a hot surface where said attached
atoms or molecules are released and form a burst of ions, and
detecting and measuring the electrical charge of said ions, the
total amount of said electrical charge being proportional to the
number of said attached surface-ionizable atoms or molecules and
therefore
5. An apparatus for the detection of individual gasborne particles
of dust, smoke and other macromolecules of 1,000 AMU or more which
comprises ionization means which includes a heated surface in fluid
communication with the gas containing and surrounding said
particles, said surface adapted to receive said particles thereon
and to produce a burst of ions through surface-ionization upon
receiving one of said particles; and measuring means for performing
the function of responding to the electric charge of said burst of
ions including means for performing the function
6. An apparatus in accordance with claim 5 wherein said measuring
means includes a second surface, said heated surface and said
second surface being at different potentials whereby an electric
field is created between said surfaces which is adapted to cause a
burst of ions produced at said
7. An apparatus in accordance with claim 5, comprising means for
creating an electric field wherein said heated surface is located
in said electric field, said electric field being of such an
intensity that the production of burst of ions at the heated
surface initiates electrical breakdown of the carrier gas, said
breakdown producing an additional number of ions,
8. An apparatus in accordance with claim 5 wherein said heated
surface is located in a cylinder through which the gas containing
and surrounding the particles, means being associated with said
cylinder for inducing said gas to move at a speed sufficiently high
that said particles are impact with
9. An apparatus in accordance with claim 8 comprising means for
creating an electric field wherein said heated surface is located
in said electrical field, said electrical field being of such an
intensity that the production of burst of ions at the heated
surface initiates electrical breakdown of the carrier gas, said
breakdown producing an additional
10. An apparatus in accordance with claim 5 wherein said measuring
means comprises a pulse height discriminator adapted to separate
small pulses caused by surface-ionizable impurities in the material
of the heated surface from more intense pulses caused by said ions
produced at said
11. An apparatus in accordance with claim 5 wherein said heated
surface is composed of a metal in the group consisting of tungsten,
iridium,
12. An apparatus in accordance with claim 5 wherein a circuit is
provided for passing current through said heated surface for
causing it to become
13. An apparatus in accordance with claim 5, wherein a further
heated surface is included which is adapted to pyrolize said
particles thereby producing surface-ionizable atoms, molecules or
radicals which thereafter strike said first-mentioned heated
surface, where some of said atoms, molecules or radicals become
surface-ionized, said ions being detected by
14. An apparatus in accordance with claim 13 wherein the
temperature of said first-heated surface is higher than the
temperature of said further
15. An apparatus for the detection of particles of dust, smoke and
other macromolecules of 1,000 AMU or more which comprises a vacuum
chamber with a small aperture opening to the gas containing and
surrounding said particles, means for continuously exhausting said
vacuum chamber, the capacity of said exhaust means and the size of
said small aperture being such that the chamber is maintained at a
pressure substantially less than atmospheric pressure, a heated
surface within said vacuum chamber located to receive particles
therein and adapted to produce a burst of ions upon being struck by
one of said particles in said vacuum chamber, and measuring means
for performing the function of registering said bursts of
16. An apparatus in accordance with claim 15 wherein said measuring
means
17. An apparatus in accordance with claim 15 wherein said measuring
means comprises a pulse height discriminator adapted to separate
small pulses caused by surface-ionizable impurities in the material
of the heated surface from more intense pulses caused by said burst
of ions produced at
18. An apparatus in accordance with claim 15 wherein a further
heated surface is included which is adapted to pyrolize said
particles thereby producing surface-ionizable atoms, molecules or
radicals which thereafter strike said first-mentioned heated
surface, where some of said atoms, molecules or radicals become
surface-ionized, said ions being detected by
19. An apparatus in accordance with claim 18 wherein the
temperature of said first-heated surface is higher than the
temperature of said further
20. An apparatus in accordance with claim 15 wherein a circuit is
provided for passing current through said heated surface for
causing it to become
21. An apparatus in accordance with claim 15, wherein said heated
surface is composed of a metal in the group consisting of tungsten
iridium,
22. An apparatus in accordance with claim 15 wherein said measuring
means includes means for separating ions according to their
charge-to-mass
23. An apparatus in accordance with claim 22, wherein said means
for separating ions according to their charge-to-mass ratio is a
quadrupole
24. An apparatus for the detection of particles of dust, smoke and
other macromolecules of 1,000 AMU or more which comprises a first
vacuum chamber with a small aperture opening to the gas containing
and surrounding said particles and a small opening to a second
vacuum chamber, said aperture and said opening being aligned, means
for continuously exhausting both said vacuum chambers in a
differential pumping arrangement, the capacity of said exhaust
means and the sizes of said aperture and said opening being such
that said first vacuum chamber is maintained at a pressure
substantially less than atmospheric pressure and that said second
vacuum chamber is maintained at a pressure substantially less than
the pressure in said first vacuum chamber, a heated surface within
said second vacuum chamber located to receive particles that pass
in a substantially straight line through said aperture and said
opening and enter the second chamber, said surface being adapted to
produce a burst of ions upon being struck by one of said particles,
and measuring means responsive to said burst of ions including
means for registering burst of ions produced at said heated
25. An apparatus in accordance with claim 24 wherein a circuit is
provided for passing current through said heated surface for
causing it to become
26. An apparatus in accordance with claim 24 wherein said measuring
means comprises a pluse height discriminator adapted to separate
small pulses caused by surface-ionizable impurities in the material
of the heated surface from more intense pulses caused by said burst
of ions produced at
27. An apparatus in accordance with claim 24 wherein said heated
surface is composed of a metal in the group consisting of tungsten,
iridium,
28. An apparatus in accordance with claim 24 wherein said measuring
means
29. An apparatus according to claim 24 wherein one of the vacuum
chambers other than said second vacuum chamber contains means for
producing therein
30. An apparatus in accordance with claim 29 wherein said vapor is
composed of an organic compound from which positive ions of organic
radicals or the
31. An apparatus in accordance with claim 29 wherein said vapor is
composed of an alkali metal in the group consisting of lithium,
sodium, potassium,
32. An apparatus in accordance with claim 29 wherein said vapor is
composed of a compound containing halogen atoms in the group
consisting of fluorine, chlorine, bromine and iodine, or molecules
in the group
33. An apparatus in accordance with claim 29 including means for
producing said vapor in the form of an atomic or molecular beam
across which said
34. An apparatus in accordance with claim 24 wherein a further
heated surface is included which is adapted to pyrolize said
particles producing surface-ionizable atoms, molecules or radicals
which thereafter strike first-mentioned heated surface, where some
of said atoms, molecules or radicals become surface-ionized, said
ions being detected by said
35. An apparatus in accordance with claim 34 wherein the
temperature of said first-heated surface is higher than the
temperature of said further
36. An apparatus in accordance with claim 24 wherein said measuring
means includes means for separating ions according to their
charge-to-mass
37. An apparatus in accordance with claim 36 wherein said means for
separating ions according to their charge-to-mass ratio is a
quadrupole
38. An apparatus in accordance with claim 24 in which one or more
vacuum chambers and means for exhausting said vacuum chambers are
placed intermediate between said first vacuum chamber and said
second vacuum
39. An apparatus in accordance with claim 38 wherein said measuring
means comprises a pulse height discriminator adapted to separate
small pulses caused by surface-ionizable impurities in the material
of the heated surface from more intense pulses caused by said burst
of ions produced at
40. An apparatus in accordance with claim 38 wherein said heated
surface is composed of a metal in the group consisting of tungsten,
iridium,
41. An apparatus in accordance with claim 38 wherein a circuit is
provided for passing current through said heated surface for
causing it to become
42. An apparatus in accordance with claim 38 wherein said measuring
means
43. An apparatus in accordance with claim 38 wherein a further
heated surface is included which is adapted to pyrolize said
particles thereby producing surface-ionizable atoms, molecules or
radicals which thereafter strike said first-mentioned heated
surface, where some of said atoms, molecules or radicals become
surface-ionized, said ions being detected by
44. An apparatus in accordance with claim 43 wherein the
temperature of said first-heated surface is higher than the
temperature of said further
45. An apparatus in accordance with claim 38 wherein said measuring
means includes means for separating ions according to their
charge-to-mass
46. An apparatus in accordance with claim 45 wherein said means for
separating ions according to their charge-to-mass ratio is a
quadrupole
47. An apparatus in accordance with claim 38 wherein one of the
vacuum chambers other than said second vacuum chamber contains
means for
48. An apparatus in accordance with claim 47, wherein said vapor is
composed of an organic compound from which positive ions of organic
radicals or the negative ion CN.sup.- is produced by
surface-ionization.
49. An apparatus in accordance with claim 47 including means for
producing said vapor in the form of an atomic or molecular beam
across which said
50. An apparatus in accordance with claim 47 wherein said vapor is
composed of molecules or compounds containing halogen atoms in the
group consisting of fluorine, chlorine, bromine and iodine, or
molecules of the group
51. An apparatus in accordance with claim 47 wherein said vapor is
composed of an alkali metal in the group consisting of lithium,
sodium, potassium, rubidium and cesium.
Description
BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION
The detection and size determination of airborne particulate matter
has been the object of considerable research in recent years. In
U.S. Pat. No. 2,702,471, a device is described which can detect
either (1) particles with low vaporization temperatures, such as
water, or (2) particles which are readily combustible in air, such
as oil, the size of either type of particle being of the order of
tens of microns. U.S. Pat. Nos. 3,665,441, 3,178,930, and 3,679,973
describe devices which charge particles in an ionic discharge and
then separate them according to ion mobility, and a device
described in U.S. Pat. No. 3,628,139 utilizes the effect whereby an
aerosol particle causes an avalanche breakdown in the carrier
fluid. An apparatus described in U.S. Pat. No. 3,434,335 can
acoustically detect particles with sizes of the order of tens of
microns. The process whereby an aerosol particle can change the
resonance frequency of a piezoelectric crystal is described in U.S.
Pat. Nos. 3,561,253 and 3,653,253.
None of the devices described above has been demonstrated to detect
efficiently particles smaller than a few tenths of a micron. Other
conventional techniques such as light scattering and impingers also
become less effective for smaller particles. Yet, these smaller
particles may present a health hazard by penetrating to the deeper
portions of the lungs and constitute an explosion hazard in mines
by possessing a large surface-to-volume ratio. Particles smaller
than a tenth of a micron are difficult to trap in filters or to
remove from a gas by electrostatic precipitation. An effective
method is thus needed for continuously detecting and counting very
small particles. We have discovered that this can be accomplished
in a novel and new manner by a process of pyrolysis on a hot
surface, followed by surface ionization of some of the atoms of
each particle. Such a method is described below and some typical
apparatus are presented.
SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION
The invention relates to a new method and apparatus for detecting
individual gasborne particles and/or macromolecules. The method
essentially comprises bringing each particle into contact with
heated surface capable of decomposing or vaporizing the particle
and then surface-ionizing some of the atoms constituting the
particle. The pulse of ions thus generated is detected by
electronic means and converted into a signal which is stored in a
scalar or other recording device with a requirement being that the
pulse of ions generated by the particle be greater than the
background pulses generated by the ions which are formed from
impurities normally on and in the heated surface. A refinement of
this method comprises use of a vacuum pump to partially evacuate
the region in which the heated surface is located, with the gas
containing and surrounding the particles being leaked into the
partially evacuated region via a small aperture. This has the
effect of reducing the viscous drag of the gas on the particles,
enabling them to impact more efficiently onto the heated surface.
Another refinement comprises use of a device such as an electron
multiplier which has the effect of multiplying the electric charge
associated with each burst of ions by a factor of up to 10.sup.6,
hence creating a signal sufficiently large to be detected by
electronic means. A further refinement comprises use of a mass
analyzer to select one particular species, or a group of species of
ions leaving the heated surface and reject all other ions, thus
increasing the signal to noise ratio and hence the sensitivity of
the instrument. A still further refinement consists of adding to
each particle, prior to detection, an amount of some specific
surface-ionizable substance, said amount being characteristic of
the size of the particle. Upon impaction onto the heated surface,
the size of the ion pulse generated will be characteristic of the
size of the particle.
When an atom, such as sodium, having an ionization potential
comparable with the work function (the energy with which the metal
surface will hold an electron) of a metal, such as tungsten, comes
into contact with that metal which is in a heated condition, the
valance electron leaves the atom and enters the metal, with a
positive sodium ion being reemitted into the gas phase. The
resulting sodium ion is then detected through its electrical charge
or upon being accelerated into an electron multiplier. The metal
surface is heated to 800.degree.-1,500.degree. C. to establish
rapid equilibration, and hence rapid response times. (For alkalis
on tungsten at 1,400.degree. C., the average time required for
ionization and reemission after an atom strikes the surface is of
the order of 10.sup..sup.-4 - 10.sup..sup.-5 sec.) Such surface
ionization detectors have long been in use to detect beams of
alkali atoms and their compounds. In addition, many of the alkali
halides, certain other atoms of low ionization potentials, and some
hydrocarbon molecules and radicals can be detected in this
manner.
A similar phenomenon operates to produce negative ions when an atom
such as chlorine impinges upon a heated surface having a work
function comparable to the electron affinity of the incident atom.
In this case, an electron leaves the hot metal and attaches to the
chlorine atom, forming a negative chlorine ion which can be
detected by its negative charge. The halides, some alkali halides,
and certain other molecules containing electronegative radicals
such as CN with high electron affinities have been detected in this
manner.
In both positive and negative surface ionization, the the
temperature of the metal is ordinarily below that at which
appreciable thermionic electron emission occurs. In addition, any
electrons that are emitted are removed or trapped by applying an
appropriate magnetic field that affects the light electrons, but
not the heavier ions.
The selection of the metal is dictated by its work function, which
should be large for positive ion detection and small for negative
ion detection, and by the environment in which it is to operate.
For particles which are to be detected in vacuum through positive
ion detection, tungsten is a satisfactory material whereas the high
resistance to oxidation of iridium, rhenium, rhodium, and platinum
makes these materials preferable for operation in air. For negative
ion detection, surfaces such as thoriated tungsten are suitable for
operation in vacuum, whereas for negative ion detection in air,
materials such as barium zirconate may be used.
In the normal metals such as tungsten, there are always impurities,
some of which are alkali and halogen atoms. Upon heating the metal,
these diffuse to the surface where they surface-ionize and emit a
constant current of positive or negative ions. A particularly
troublesome species in the case of tungsten is potassium, which is
emitted in bursts of up to 10.sup.6 ions, with the duration of the
bursts .apprxeq. 50 microseconds (.mu.s). This background emission
can be reduced by "conditioning" the metal, i.e., by keeping it hot
for many hours. An alternative method is to deposit pure metal on
the surface through the pyrolytic decomposition of a compound such
as tungsten hexacarbonyl, which can be administered to the surface
either continuously or in cycles. This second technique has been
found to suppress the bursts of potassium ions (K.sup.+), resulting
in both a reduced background signal and a Poisson (random)
distribution for the emission of the K.sup.+ ions.
A series of events is said to be random if the probability of an
event occurring during a given time depends only on the length of
that period of time, and is completely independent of whether any
other similar events occur during the same period. Under these
circumstances, the probability P.sub.n that n events will occur
during a time interval .tau. is given by the Poisson distribution
function P.sub.n = e.sup..sup.-n.sup.-n n/n'., where n is the
average number of events for the time interval .tau..
If a particle or macromolecule containing some atoms (molecules) of
a surface-ionizable element (compound) arrives at a suitable hot
surface, these atoms (molecules) can be surface ionized within a
short period of time. A typical particle heats up to within 90
percent of the surface temperature within several microseconds, and
individual alkali atoms tend to be surfaceionized within a time of
10 to 100 .mu.s. This clustering in time of ions which originate
from a particle or macromolecule provides a powerful technique for
distinguishing between the ions which come from the heated metal
surface itself and those which originate from a particle.
Suppose the ion detector apparatus is made to perform electrical
integration over, say 10 microseconds. If the background signal
from the metal surface has been reduced through conditioning or
deposition of a fresh surface to 5 .times. 10.sup.6 ions/sec, then
the average number of background counts during one time constant of
the detector will be (5 .times. 10.sup.6) (10.sup..sup.-5) = 50
counts/10.mu.s. This causes the detector to put out an average
signal corresponding to 50 counts, with fluctuations corresponding
to a random distribution of arrival of background ions. For
example, if the average number of counts per 10 microseconds is 50
ions, then the probability of getting 100 or more counts during 10
microseconds is ##SPC1## or about 1 such count per 200 seconds on
the average. Owing to a slightly non-Poisson distribution of the
background ions due to incomplete suppression of the alkali pulses
mentioned earlier the average time period for such a count in
actual practice is somewhat less. Nevertheless, the arrivel at the
filament of a particle capable of emitting 50 or more ions during
the 10 .mu.s produces an effect which is only rarely exhibited by
the background ions. By sending the output signal from the ion
detector through a pulse height discriminator set to reject the
background pulses, the arrival of a large particle can be noted and
registered on a recording device.
As an example of the detection of heavy particles in air, suppose
we are dealing with particles of 0.1 micron radius which contain 10
parts per million of, say, sodium (Na; atomic mass 23). Assuming a
particle density of 5 gram/cm.sup.3, the number of sodium atoms
available for surface-ionization is 4/3 (10.sup..sup.-5 cm).sup.3
(5 gm/cm.sup.3) (10.sup..sup.-5) (1 amu/1.67 .times.
10.sup..sup.-24 gm) (1 atom/23 amu).apprxeq. 5 .times. 10.sup.3
sodium atoms. When these atoms are surface-ionized and then
collected at an electrode with a capacitance of 0.5 .times.
10.sup..sup.-12 farad, the voltage pulse developed across the
capacitor will be .DELTA.V = .DELTA.Q/C = (5 .times. 10.sup.3 ions)
(1.6 .times. 10.sup..sup.-19 coulombs/ion) (0.5 .times.
10.sup..sup.-12 farad).sup..sup.-1 .apprxeq. 1.5 .times.
10.sup..sup.-4 volts, a signal which is detectable by electronic
means. Since at atmospheric pressure ions tend to diffuse rather
slowly (the ionic mobility M.sub.O for sodium ions in nitrogen gas
at room temperature and pressure in an electric field E is about
M.sub.O = 3.0 cm.sup.2 volt.sup..sup.-1 sec.sup..sup.-1 E) it is
usually necessary to apply a suitable voltage to either the heated
surface or the collecting electrode or both, so as to produce an
electric field which causes the ions to reach the collector in a
reasonable period of time. For example, if the heated surface and
the collector are 0.5 cm apart and the applied voltage difference
is 2,000 volts, then the time t required for the ions to reach the
collector will be t = d/(M.sub.O E = (0.5 cm) (3.0 cm.sup.2
volt.sup..sup.-1 sec.sup..sup.-1).sup..sup.-1 (2 .times. 10.sup.3
volts/0.5 cm).sup..sup.-1 = 40 .mu.s. This enables the burst of
ions released from the heavy particle to be distinguished from the
background noise by means of the pulse-counting method discussed
earlier.
When the number of ions released by a particle is too small to
produce a measurable voltage pulse at the collecting electrode, the
particle can still be detected by utilizing some method of causing
the original burst of ions to become increased in number during the
transit from the heated surface to the collector. One such method
comprises increasing the electric field to a value slightly below
that at which the air breaks down but at a value at which the
introduction of the charge from a burst of ions causes an avalanche
breakdown of the carrier gas, producing many more ions. By methods
well known in the art, the electric field is momentarily reduced by
means of an external quenching circuit just after each breakdown
begins, quenching the breakdown and preparing the detector for the
next particle.
A major difficulty in detecting gasborne particles is that, as the
particle size decreases, the inertia of each particle decreases as
the cube of the particle radius, while the viscous forces exerted
by the carrier gas decrease only as the first power of the particle
radius. As a result, sufficiently small particles suspended in a
moving gas will not readily deposit on any surfaces, but will
instead tend to follow the streamlines of the carrier gas.
According to Fuks, Mechanics of Aerosols, Pergamon, p. 173, in
order for particles of radius r and density .gamma., moving in an
airstream of speed V.sub.O, viscosity n and at atmospheric pressure
to impact with efficiency greater than 50 percent onto a long
perpendicularly oriented flat ribbon of width w, the airstream
velocity V.sub.O must be in excess of V.sub.O = 9.eta.w/(r.sup.2
.gamma.). For a 1 micron (.mu.) particle with .gamma. = 1
gm/cm.sup.3 moving in air with visocity .eta. = 185 micropoise, the
velocity of the airstream required for 50 percent deposition on a 2
mm ribbon is about 3 .times. 10.sup.4 cm/sec, a difficult speed to
obtain at atmospheric pressure. For a particle ten times smaller,
the speed required increases by a factor of 100. One solution to
this problem comprises placing the heated surface into a chamber in
which is maintained a partial vacuum and leaking the carrier gas
with its suspended particles into the vacuum chamber through a
small aperture in fluid communication with the sample. If, for
instance, the pressure in the vacuum chamber is reduced to one torr
(1 mm of mercury), then it can be shown that a 1 micron particle of
density 1 gm/cm.sup.3 traveling 5 cm through the chamber can have
its velocity reduced by at most 8 percent prior to striking the
heated surface. For smaller particles, the vacuum can in principle
always be improved sufficiently to ensure impaction onto the heated
surface.
The method by which required pumping seeds are calculated will be
briefly discussed. If gas from an initial pressure P.sub.O leaks
with a speed S.sub.O liters/sec into a chamber which is at a lower
pressure P.sub.1 due to being pumped at a speed S.sub.1 liters/sec
by a vacuum pump, then in the steady state, conservation of mass
flow necessitates the relationship P.sub.O S.sub.O = P.sub.1
S.sub.1. As an example, if 10 cm.sup.3 /sec of air at atmospheric
pressure are being leaked into a chamber which is being evacuated
by means of a mechanical vacuum pump with a pumping speed of 25
liters/sec, then the steady-state pressure in the chamber will be P
= (1 atmosphere) (10.sup..sup.-2 liters/sec) (25
liters/sec).sup..sup.-1 = 4 .times. 10.sup..sup.-4 atmosphere. A
well rounded aperture will leak about 20 liters/sec of air per
cm.sup.2 of aperture area from atmospheric pressure into any
pressure less than about 10 torr (mm of mercury). Thus the size of
aperture required to leak the above 10 cm.sup.3 /sec into a chamber
is A = (10.sup..sup.-21 liter/sec) (20
liter/sec-cm.sup.2).sup..sup.-1 = 5 .times. 10.sup..sup.-4
cm.sup.2, corresponding to an aperture diameter of about 0.3
mm.
If a high vacuum is required, and if for this purpose two chambers
having pressures of P.sub.1 and P.sub.2 of background gas are
separated by an aperture of area a, with chamber 2 being evacuated
by means of a diffusion pump with a pumping speed of S.sub.2, then
1/4(p.sub.1 - p.sub.2)ca = P.sub.2 S.sub.2, where c is the average
molecular speed of the background gas. For instance, if P.sub.1 =
10.sup..sup.-3 torr, c = 10.sup.5 cm/sec, S.sub.2 = 10.sup.5
cm.sup.3 /sec, and we wish to have P.sub.2 less than 5 .times.
10.sup..sup.-5 torr, then the maximum aperture diameter allowable
is: a = (5 .times. 10.sup..sup.-5 torr) (10.sup.5 cm.sup.3 /sec (4)
(95 .times. 10.sup..sup.-5 torr).sup..sup.-1 (10.sup.5
cm/sec).sup..sup.-1 = 0.21 cm.sup.2.
If the vacuum in the region of the heated surface is improved to
less than 10.sup..sup.-4 mm of mercury, the ions emitted from the
surface can be accelerated into an electron multiplier, which is
adapted, to deliver an output charge of the order of 10.sup.6 times
the charge contained in the burst of ions. A pulse height
discriminator followed by a scalar or other recording device takes
the output signal from the electron multiplier and registers the
arrival of the particle.
It usually happens that the metal surface produces ions which
comprise predominantly several species, e.g., for most tungsten
surfaces, sodium ions, Na.sup.+, and potassium ions, K.sup.+,
constitute about 90 percent of the background. Hence, an
improvement in the sensitivity and the signal-to-noise ratio is
accomplished by taking the ions produced by surface ionization
through an ion mass analyzer (mass spectrometer) prior to their
reaching the electron multiplier. As an illustration, with a hot
tungsten surface which produces 5 .times. 10.sup.6 counts/sec of
total background (sodium, potassium, and other metallic and organic
ions) but only 5 .times. 10.sup.4 counts/sec of cesium ions
(Cs.sup.+). When a particle containing Cs impurities arrives then,
without mass analysis the particle must release 50 Cs.sup.+
ions/10.mu.S or more to be counted above the total background. By
interposing an ion mass analysis device which is tuned to pass only
cesium ions (thereby preventing the larger currents due to other
ionic species from reaching the multiplier), the number of cesium
ions which need be released for detection over the background
signal fluctuations is much smaller. Since n (background Cs.sup.+)
in this case is 0.5 pulses/10.mu.s, the probability for 10 or more
background counts during 10.mu.s is equal to ##SPC2##
or one such count every 10.sup.4 seconds. Hence one heavy particle
need release only 10 (or fewer, if a smaller signal/noise ratio is
permitted) Cs.sup.+ ions in order to be counted above the
background.
Most inorganic particulate matter (e.g., dust or smoke particles)
contains naturally occurring impurities such as alkali metals,
halogens, and hydrocarbons in sufficient quantity that the
particles are immediately detectable without any further treatment
of the particles. Organic materials such as macromolecules
frequently contain halogens or cyanogen radicals (CN) in sufficient
quantities to produce detectable signals of CN.sup.- or halogen
nagative ions or more complicated negative ions. It has also been
found that many organic molecules can be surfaceionized so that a
long macromolecule stands a good chance of breaking into fragments,
with some of the fragments being ions.
If a particle does not contain sufficient naturally occurring
surface-ionizable impurities for the detection sensitivity
available, the signal can be increased by "tagging." This procedure
consists of passing the particle through either a chamber
containing a vapor of surface-ionizable atoms (molecules), or
through a crossed atomic (molecular) beam of a surface ionizable
element (compound). Atoms (molecules) from the vapor or atomic
(molecular) beam strike the particle and are adsorbed onto the
surface. The tagged particle, its surface enriched with
surface-ionizable atoms (molecules), then moves to the hot metal
surface where it releases its tagging atoms (molecules) as a burst
of ions.
Through such tagging techniques it is possible to measure the
geometrical cross section, and therefore the size of a particle,
inasmuch as the size of the ion burst depends on the number of
surface-ionizable atoms delivered to the hot surface by the
particle, and that number is directly proportional to the surface
area of the particle while in the tagging chamber. A final
advantage is that one can choose for the tagging species a
substance not present in the normal background from the heated
metal detector surface, and thus obtain an improved signal-to-noise
ratio.
Macromolecules and large biological molecules are also detectable
by the tagging approach. One technique is chemically to substitute
the tagging species for an atom in the molecule being tagged, e.g.,
substitute a fluorine atom for a hydrogen atom in a methyl group.
Another method is to attach the tagging atom or molecule to the
macromolecule by a chemical bond, e.g., it has been found that a
cesium atom will attach itself to an aromatic or heterocyclic ring
(e.g., a nucleic acid molecule) via a weak resonance bond.
In view of the foregoing, it is a principal object of this
invention to provide a new method and apparatus for electrically
detecting a very small particulate matter and macromolecules
suspended in a gaseous medium. A further object is to detect said
particles by means of their naturally occurring surface-ionizable
constitutents. A still further object of the invention is to add to
such particles additional surface-ionizable materials which can
supplement the naturally occurring ones. A yet further object is to
use the amount of additional material added to each particle as a
measure of the size of said particle.
Other objects and advantages of the invention will become known by
reference to the following description of some typical apparatus
and the accompanying drawings.
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS
FIG. 1 is an isometric representation in partial section of one
form of the invention in which the particles are drawn into a
chamber, which may be either at atmospheric pressure or at a
partial vacuum, and impinged onto a heated surface where they
produce bursts of ions which are collected onto an electrode.
FIG. 2 is an isometric representation in partial section of a form
of the invention in which the particles are introduced into a
vacuum system and impinged onto a heated surface where they produce
bursts of ions which are detected by a particle multiplier;
FIG. 3 is an isometric representation similar to that in FIG. 2
except that there is interposed a mass analyzing device which
transmits one particular species, or several particular species, of
those ions which leave the heated surface;
FIG. 4 represents a form of the invention similar to that
represented by FIG. 3 excpet that there is added an intermediate
chamber and vacuum pump to provide a better vacuum in the detection
region and/or to permit a larger initial aperture into the vacuum
system;
FIG. 5 illustrates a further form of the invention similar to that
in FIG. 4 which illustrates the addition of a tagging chamber which
adds to the surface of each particle, subsequent to the injection
of said particle into the vacuum chamber, a specific
surface-ionizable substance;
FIG. 6 is a cross-sectional isometric view illustrating another
method by which the particles can be tagged within the vacuum
system;
FIG. 7 is a cross-sectional partial view showing the top of FIG. 4
with additional structure of a means of tagging each particle prior
to entry into the vacuum system included;
FIG. 8 is a cross-sectional view of the heated surface shown in
FIG. 1;
FIG. 9 is a sectional view representing another embodiment of the
heated surface;
FIG. 10 is a sectional view representing a further embodiment of
the heated surface; and
FIG. 11 is a sectional view illustrating another construction of
the upper portion of FIG. 2.
DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS
In FIG. 1 there is illustrated one embodiment of the invention in
which particles 10 suspended in a carrier gas are drawn through an
aperture 11 into a chamber 12 which is continuously being flushed
by an exit tube 14 which is connected to a suitable exhaust fan.
While in the chamber 12, some of the particles 10 impact onto a
heated surface 15, which is mounted onto two feedthroughs 16,
allowing electrical connections to be made to a power supply 17,
capable of providing the current needed to heat the surface. Upon
impinging onto the surface 15, each particle releases a burst of
ions 20 which is collected onto an off-axis electrode 21 mounted
onto two feedthroughs 22 and to which a voltage is applied so as to
attract the burst of ions, said voltage being applied through one
of the feedthroughs 22 from a high-impedance voltage supply 24. The
arrival of each burst of ions 20 onto the electrode 21 produces a
voltage pulse which is detected by a sensitive preamplifier 25, the
input resistance of which, coupled with the innate capacitance with
respect to earth of the detector apparatus, determines the
integrating time constant of the system. The integrated signal is
then taken into a pulse height analyzer 26, a circuit which can be
one of a number of variations known to the skill of the art, the
function of which is to sort signal pulses according to size and to
exclude random background counts, thus providing a pulse height
distribution curve which can be presented on on an appropriate
display instrument 27. The tendency of the collecting electrode 21
to become contaminated can be avoided by keeping said electrode
sufficiently warm as to reevaporate any collected impurities. One
means for accomplishing this comprises passing a current through
the electrode 21 by means of a battery 30 connected to the
feedthroughs 22.
In one of several specific embodiments which have been used in our
laboratories, the particles 10 have been coal dust, iron carbonyl
powder, talcum powder, submicron polystyrene spheres, cigatette
smoke, and aerosol crystals of sodium chloride (NaCl), cesium
chloride (CsCl), sodium iodide (Nal), potassium chloride (KCl),
sodium cyanide (NaCN), etc. The heated surface 15 was sometimes a
directly heated iridium ribbon or wire and other times an
indirectly heated film of platinum or tungsten oxide mounted on a
substrate of quartz glass. The collecting electrode 21 was
sometimes an irridium strip and sometimes a platinum wire. The
distance between the heated surface 15 and the collecting electrode
21 was varied from 2 mm to 1 cm, with the voltage differences
varying from 0 to .+-. 3,000 volts. The preamplifier 25 was of a
standard commercially available type with integrating time variable
from 10.sup..sup.-6 to 10.sup..sup.-3 sec. Some usable pulse-height
analyzing devices 26 ranged from the triggering level on a scope to
a multichannel analyzer. Display instruments 27 used scalers and
chart recorders. It was found necessary to shield the system
electrically to void pickup signals from line voltages, other
instruments, etc.
When the voltage between the heated surface and the collecting
electrode was increased to near 3,000 volts across a gap of about 1
mm, it was observed that small discharges occur whenever smoke is
blown onto the heated surface. it is considered that, inasmuch as
the amount of electric charge associated with each discharge is
many orders of magnitude greater than the charge associated with
each burst of ions from a single particle, the counting of such
discharges provides a useful means of counting the particles which
have the capacity to cause such discharges.
In a further set of experiments, the exit tube 14 was connected to
a mechanical vacuum pump with a pumping speed of 25 liters per
second, and the entrance apeture 12 was made about 0.5 mm in
diameter, leading to a steady-state pressure of about 5 torr. Under
these conditions, the voltage difference between the heated surface
and the collecting electrode needed to move the ions to the
collecting electrode is considerably reduced. In addition, the
voltage required to utilize the breakdown technique discussed above
is much lower at these pressures.
Upon evacuating the region in which the heated surface is located
to 10.sup..sup.-4 torr, it still was found possible to detect
pulses of ions on the collecting electrode when coal dust,
cigarette smoke, iron powder, and aerosol crystals of the alkali
halides were leaked into the vacuum system. The pulse heights were
of the same size as those found in air (provided the electric
fields in the latter case were kept below the breakdown threshold)
but with a shorter rise time, corresponding to the greater mobility
of ions in a vacuum.
In FIG. 2 there is illustrated one embodiment of the invention in
which particles 10 suspended in a carrier gas are allowed to pass
through a small aperture 11 into a partially evacuated chamber 12,
being continuously evacuated through a tube 14 connected to the
intake of a suitable vacuum pump. Most of the carrier gas is pumped
away through the tube 14, while particles 10, by virtue of their
greater inertia, travel in a straight line to an aperture 31 which
separates chamber 12 from another chamber 32 maintained at a higher
vacuum suitable for the operation of the apparatus. The second
chamber 32 is evacuated through a duct 34 which leads to a suitable
vacuum pump. Particles 10 then impinge upon the surface of a heated
material 15 which is mounted on two feedthroughs 16 providing
electrical connections through a flange 35. The heater power is
provided from a suitable power supply 17. It will be understood
that material 15 may be heated directly or indirectly. Particles
10, upon impinging upon heated surface 15, emit bursts of ions 20,
which are driven by electric fields into a particle multiplier 36.
Any one of a number of types of particle multipliers, the operation
of which are well known in the art, may be utilized for this
purpose. The voltage required to operate the multiplier is
administered through a feedthrough 37 in the wall of vacuum chamber
32 from a suitable power supply 42. The output signal of particle
multiplier 36 is taken to the outside of the system through a
coaxial feedthrough 40, leading to a preamplifier 25, the input
resistance of which, coupled with the innate capacitance of the
signal cable, determines the integrating time constant of the
detecting system. The integrated signal is then taken into a pulse
height analyzer 26, the circuit for which can be one of a number of
variations within the skill of the art and the function of which is
to sort signal pulses according to size and thus exclude random
counts and provide a particle size distribution curve which can be
presented on an appropriate display instrument 27.
A specific embodiment of this design, one of several which have
been successfully used in these laboratories, will be briefly
discussed. Particles 10 have been coal dust, iron carbonyl powder
(3-5 microns, diameter), talcum powder, powdered bone meal,
submicron cigarette smoke, submicron aerosol crystals of NaCl,
CsCl, KCl, NaI, NaCN, etc. Aperture 11 was a pinhole from 0.001 to
0.010 inch in diameter. Chamber 12 was maintained at 50-200 microns
of mercury pressure by a mechanical vacuum pump and region 32 was
maintained at 10.sup..sup.-5 torr by a mercury diffusion pump. The
heated surface 15 was composed of directly heated filaments
comprising a metal, iridium (Ir), tungsten (W), tantalum (Ta), and
platinum (Pt), as such, and also composed of such metals with a
freshly deposited coating of tungsten by the pyrolytic
decomposition of tungsten hexacarbonyl, W(CO).sub.6, by a known
technique. Filament temperatures from 700.degree.-2,000.degree. C.
were created by passing electric currents through the filaments.
Successful results were also obtained by depositing and decomposing
W(CO).sub.6 on nonconducting substrates such as quartz, glass or
ceramic materials, such substrates being indirectly heated by an
internal filament, or radition, or other appropriate techniques.
Both the venetian blind type and box-and-grind type multipliers
were used successfully. The preamplifier was a standard
commercially available type with integrating time variable from
10.sup..sup.-6 10.sup..sup.-3 sec. The pulse-height analyzing
devices used were the triggering level on an oscilloscope and a
multichannel analyzer. Display instruments used were scalers and
chart recorders. Inasmuch as aerodynamic forces are considerably
stronger than gravitational forces for small particles, the entire
apparatus may be mounted at any desired angle relative to the
vertical.
In another embodiment shown in FIG. 3, an ion mass analyzing device
46 is inserted intermediate the heated surface 15 and the particle
multiplier 36. Otherwise, in this as well as in subsequent
embodiments, the same reference numerals are used for components
similar to those used for describing FIG. 1. The mass analyzing
device 46, which is shown here as a quadrupole mass filter, is
powered through the set of feedthroughs 47 to which the mass
analyzer power supply 50 is connected. In our laboratories, the
mass analyzing device 46 consisted of a quadrupole mass filter.
Using this device, we were able to ascertain that ion pulses of
iodine, (I.sup.-), chlorine (Cl.sup.-), cyanogen (CN.sup.-),
bromine (Br.sup.-), cesium (Cs.sup.+), potassium (K.sup.+), sodium
(Na.sup.+) and lithium (Li.sup.+) were formed when and only when
particles containing these components reached the heated surface.
For example, aerosol crystals of CsCl, when impinged onto the
heated surface, released bursts of Cs.sup.+ and Cl.sup.-, but not
of the other aforementioned substances.
FIG. 4 illustrates a form of the invention wherein an additional
chamber 51 is inserted for the purpose of providing a better vacuum
in the region 32 of the detector apparatus. The intermediate
chamber 51 is connected to an appropriate vacuum pump by means of a
suitable vacuum connection to the opening 52. By causing most of
the background gas to be pumped away through the opening 52, this
technique allows a better vacuum in the region 32, permitting the
use of devices such as quadrupole mass filters which require a
vacuum better than 10.sup..sup.-4 torr, and also permitting a
larger initial aperture 11, reducing the tendency of the aperture
11 to become clogged.
FIG. 5 depicts a design of the apparatus similar to that in FIG. 4,
except a means of tagging the particles with a specific substance
is included. Thus the particles 10 pass through a small chamber 54
which contains a vapor of a specific surface-ionizable substance,
for example, rubidium, said vapor being formed by heating a small
sample 55 of the substance by means of a heating coil 56
surrounding the tagging chamber 54, with current being supplied to
the coil through the set of feedthroughs 57. Although the tagging
chamber is here shown in the intermediate chamber 51, it could also
be mounted in the lower chamber 32.
For the case of cesium vapor heated to 100.degree. C., it can be
shown that the number of cesium atoms which strike a particle or
radius r is 8 .times. 10.sup.2 r.sup.2, where r is given in
microns. The actual number tagging the particle is the above number
multipled by the sticking coefficient which, for a material such as
cesium which exhibits strong chemisorption, should be nearly unity.
In actual practice, it was found that this technique is effective
only for large particles (r > 10.mu.) because the cesium vapor
also leaks out of the tagging chamber onto the filament, creating a
large background signal.
FIG. 6 is a cross section of a different version of the tagging
chamber. Here the problem of noise signals due to surface-ionizable
vapor leaking out of the tagging chamber 54 onto the heated surface
is reduced by using a cross-beam technique. A beam of the specific
surface-ionizable substance, such as rubidium, is generated by
heating the substance 55 within an oven 60 which is heated by a
heating coil 61, with current supplied to the coil through the set
of feedthroughs 57. The advantage of this technique is that the
atoms or molecules of the specific surface-ionizable substance tend
to leave the oven in a horizontal direction, where they can impinge
upon and be trapped by a surface 62 which is cooled by contact with
a coil of tubing 64 which contains a very cold liquid such as
liquid nitrogen administered through an appropriate set of
feedthrough conduits 65. Such "cross-beam" tagging methods have
been carried out in our laboratories, with the tagging atoms
comprising cesium, rubidium, and lithium.
FIG. 7 is a cross-section of the uppermost portion of the apparatus
illustrated in FIG. 4 including chamber 12. However, prior to the
pinhole 11 a set of vessels are provided for the purpose of adding
to the surface of each particle 10, while said particle suspended
in a carrier gas, and prior to the injection of said particle into
vacuum, a sufficient amount of surface-ionizable material so as to
render the particle detectable by the apparatus of FIG. 4.
Particles 10 are thus passed slowly via an airstream through a
tagging vessel 66 to which a vapor designated 67 is continually
introduced through known techniques, the vapor 67 being comprised
of atoms or molecules of a surface-ionizable substance, such as
NaCl, Br.sub.2, I.sub.2, etc. Some of vapor 67 attaches to the
surface of each particle 10, the degree of attachment being
dependent upon the size of the particle. Upon leaving the tagging
vessel 66, the particles are passed through a cleanup vessel 70
which contains a device (such as a cold surface) or a material
(such as an appropriate chemical substance; for example, activated
carbon for chlorine) which preferentially removes from the carrier
gas most of those free tagging atoms (molecules) which have not
been to the surface of a particle. Such chemical traps and cold
traps are common to and easily within the skill of the art.
FIG. 8 represents one embodiment of the heated surface wherein the
surface is composed of a conducting material, such as tungsten,
which is directly heated by a current supplied by the surface power
supply. In this design the surface 15 is a wire, or a coil of wire,
or, preferably, a strip of a conducting material and is fastened to
two support rods 71 which pass through the two vacuum-tight
feedthroughs 61 mounted on the flange 35.
FIG. 9 depicts another embodiment of the heated surface in which
the surface is a conducting film 72 deposited on a non-conducting
substrate 74 of arbitrary shape such as mica, quartz, ceramic, etc.
Film 72 can be of any metal with suitable properties for
surface-ionization, such as high work function, low vapor pressure,
and chemical stability. Examples are tungsten, iridium and
platinum. In order to maintain electrical contact with the film 72,
the apparatus is clamped onto a metallic block 75 of appropriate
shape by means of a suitably designed metallic clamping device 78.
Block 75 is mounted onto an insulator 76 and a wire 77 fastened to
the block 76 and to an electrical feedthrough 80 from a voltage
source, selectively regulates the voltage on the thin film 72. The
entire assembly is mounted with insulating screws 81 on flange 35.
The substrate and thin film surface are heated by radiation from a
filament 82 which is mounted on the two feedthroughs 16. It is to
be understood that this is one typical design out of several that
have been constructed and out of many that could be constructed
using the same principles. The advantage of this technique is that
it is possible to make thin films of many metals which are
considerably purer than commercially available wires and ribbons.
Thin films of this type have been made of W, Pt, and Ir in these
laboratories.
FIG. 10 represents a further embodiment of the heated surface in
which two surfaces are used. In this design the particles to be
detected are first pyrolized on one surface 84, producing neutral
atoms and molecules, some of which strike a nearby second surface
85 and are ionized. The first surface 84 is not necessarily a
conducting material, in which case it will produce few or no ions
of its own. Examples of suitable materials for surface 84 are
quartz, glass and ceramic. Surface 84 can be constructed along
similar lines as the apparatus described in FIG. 9. For maximum
efficiency, the second surface 85, which can be directly or
indirectly heated, is mounted parallel to the first, one such
possible arrangement being shown in FIG. 10, where the second
surface 85 is directly heated and contains an aperture 86. The
particles are made to pass through the aperture and impinge upon
the first surface 84, where they are pyrolized and vaporized, thus
producing a number of atoms and molecules, many of which strike the
second surface 85, some of these producing ions which can then be
extracted from the intersurface region by suitable electric and
magnetic fields and detected by the pulse-counting techniques
discussed above. The advantages of such a technique are that one
can use the optimum temperatures of dissociating a particle and for
producing surface-ionization, (these temperatures generally not
being the same), and that this technique can help avoid
contamination of the ionizing surface.
FIG. 11 is an enlargement of an upper half of FIG. 1 wherein
orifice 31 is replaced by a skimmer 87 of the type described by
Anderson, Andres, and Fenn (Advances in Atomic and Molecular
Physics 1, 345 (1965)). This design is more effective for producing
a beam of particles than that of FIG. 2, especially for smaller
particles, whereas for sufficiently heavy particles, the structure
shown in FIG. 2 works just as well, is easier to construct, and is
more rugged.
For the purposes of the claims "particle," as such, is intended to
include (a) small particulate matter, whether electrically charged
or neutral, whether solid or liquid, whether crystalline or
polycrystalline, and of any chemical composition; or (b) large
molecules of mass exceeding about 1,000 atomic mass units (AMU)
with definite molecular structure, and polymers of such large
molecules, whether in the free state or in a droplet or solvent,
whether electrically charged or neutral and of any chemical nature.
The work "ion," as such, shall include positively or negatively
charged atoms, molecules, or radicals and shall also include, in
the case of Claim 1, electrons.
* * * * *