U.S. patent number 3,773,684 [Application Number 05/016,185] was granted by the patent office on 1973-11-20 for dipolar electro-optic compositions and method of preparation.
Invention is credited to Alvin M. Marks.
United States Patent |
3,773,684 |
Marks |
November 20, 1973 |
**Please see images for:
( Certificate of Correction ) ** |
DIPOLAR ELECTRO-OPTIC COMPOSITIONS AND METHOD OF PREPARATION
Abstract
Methods and apparatus incorporating suspensions of assymetric
minute dipolar particles for the control of electromagnetic
radiation. The physical electrical and optical properties of the
dipolar particles and their suspending medium are specified in
conjunction with apparatus employing them.
Inventors: |
Marks; Alvin M. (Whitestone,
NY) |
Family
ID: |
26688282 |
Appl.
No.: |
05/016,185 |
Filed: |
March 3, 1970 |
Related U.S. Patent Documents
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Application
Number |
Filing Date |
Patent Number |
Issue Date |
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378836 |
Jun 29, 1964 |
3512876 |
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Current U.S.
Class: |
252/583; 342/6;
342/2; 359/296; 516/33 |
Current CPC
Class: |
G02F
1/172 (20130101) |
Current International
Class: |
G02F
1/01 (20060101); G02F 1/17 (20060101); B01j
013/00 () |
Field of
Search: |
;252/63.5,63,309
;343/18A ;29/192R ;75/.5 ;148/1.6 ;350/267 |
References Cited
[Referenced By]
U.S. Patent Documents
Other References
Powder Metallurgy, Goetzel, Vol. I, Interscience Publishers, Inc.,
N.Y. pp. 92-97 copy in library (1949)..
|
Primary Examiner: Welsh; John D.
Parent Case Text
This application is a continuation-in-part of an application for
patent entitled, Dipolar Electro-Optic Structures and Method, filed
June 29, 1964, Ser. No. 378,836, now U.S. Pat. No. 3,512,876, in
the name of Alvin M. Marks.
Claims
I claim:
1. An electrodichroic composition of matter comprising a suspension
of conductive particles in a non-reactive transparent fluid
suspending medium, said particles having lengths in the rage of 0.1
-1 .mu. and each of said particles having length to thickness
ratios of at least 5.
2. An electrodichroic composition of matter according to claim 1 in
which the transparent fluid suspending medium is a thermoplastic
medium.
3. An electrodichroic composition of matter according to claim 1 in
which the transparent fluid suspending medium is thixotropic.
4. An electrodichroic composition of matter according to claim 1 in
which the transparent fluid suspending medium has a resistivity of
at least 30 megohm-cm.
5. An electrodichroic composition of matter according to claim 1,
in which the conductive particles are selected from the class
consisting of aluminum, aluminum nickelide, antimony, cadmium,
chromium, copper, gold, indium, lead, palladium, platinum, silver
tantalum, thalium, titanium herapathite and tungsten.
6. An electrodichroic composition of matter according to claim 1 in
which the particles are needle-like.
7. A pigment comprising an electrodichroic composition of matter
according to claim 6, in which the dipoles have maximum lengths in
the rnage of 1000 to 3000 A.
8. An electrodichroic composition of matter according to claim 1 in
which the particls have a long dimension of the order of
.lambda./2n, and at least one other dimension not exceeding
.lambda./10n, where .lambda. is the wavelength of light in the
visual range and n is the index of refraction of said transprent
suspending medium.
9. An electrodichroic composition according to claim 5 in which the
particles are flakes having long dimensions in the range of 1000 to
10,000 A, and said flakes having thicknesses of 50 to 250A.
10. The method of preparing a dipolar crystalline suspension
defined by claim 1 which comprises forming from solution a
suspension of needle-like crystals in a solvent media, saod
solution being in at least a saturated condition, adding a miscible
non-solvent of higher boiling point to said solution, and
thereafter removing the solvent component.
11. The method of preparing a dipolar crystalline suspension
defined by claim 1 which comprises forming from solution a
suspension of needle-like crystals in a solvent media containing a
polymer, said solution being in at least a saturated condition,
adding a miscible non-solvent of higher boiling point to said
solution and thereafter removing the solvent component.
12. The method of preparing a dipolar crystalline suspension
defined by claim 1 which comprises forming from solution a
suspension of needle-like crystals in a solvent media containing a
polymer, said solution being in at least a saturated condition,
adding a miscible non-solvent of higher boiling point to said
solution and thereafter removing the solvent component, said
non-solvent being of a sufficient quantity to form a paste upon
removal of the solvent.
13. The method of preparing a dipolar crystalline suspension
defined by claim 1 which comprises forming from solution a
suspension of needle-like crystals from a solvent media containing
a polymer, said solution being in at least a saturated condition,
adding a miscible non-solvent of higher boiling point to said
solution and thereafter removing the solvent component by vacuum,
said non-solvent being of a sufficient quantity to form a paste
upon removal of the solvent, and thereafter adding a low viscosity
miscible non-solvent to dilute the paste to form a low viscosity
dipolar suspension.
14. A method according to claim 13 in which the needle-like
crystals are Herapathite crystals.
15. An electrodichroic composition of matter of a high viscosity
concentrate including a polymer 1000 parts, plasticizer 1000-5000
parts, dipolar particles 1-1000 parts suspended therein, and said
dipolar particles having lengths in the range of 0.1-1.mu..
16. An electrodichroic composition of matter including a nonionic
fluid containing 1-10 percent of a high viscosity concentrate
according to claim 15, with which the polymer and plasticizer is
compatible, and dissolved therein, and in which total composition
the dipoles are suspended.
17. An electrodichroic composition of matter comprising a
suspension of conductive particles in a non-reactive transparent
fluid suspending medium, said particles having lengths in the range
of 0.1-0.2 .mu. and each of said particles having length to
thickness ratios of at least 5.
Description
BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION
It has previously been suggested to employ a suspension of
orientable dipolar particles as a light-controlling element, and to
orient the particles in such a suspension by the application of an
external electric or magnetic force field. Devices of this general
type that have so far been proposed, however, have had little use
because of a number of important deficiencies. One of such prior
art faults was the tendency of the oriented particles to coagulate
or clump together, rather than remain uniformly dispersed. Another
shortcoming was that the optical properties of the devices, either
in the oriented or disoriented condition, were of a low order.
Thus, when such a suspension was switched from maximum
transmittance to minimum transmittance, or maximum reflectance to
minimum reflectance, the obtainable ratios of these transmittances,
or reflectances, were too small. Moreover, clear suspension of
dipolar particles, free from light scatter, were not available.
Furthermore, the response of such a system to an applied electric
or magnetic force field tended to be slow. Orientation and
disorientation control techniques were lacking. Consequently, prior
art devices were not suitable for incorporation into most
electro-optical systems. In general the underlying physical laws
governing electrodichroic systems were not at all well understood,
and the physical parameters of such systems were relatively
unknown.
DEFINITIONS
Electrodichroic systems as used herein means, dipolar suspensions
which exhibit changes in optical properties upon the application of
electric or magnetic fields.
Optical density is defined as the negative logarithm to the base 10
of the light transmittance of an optical element. Thus, if the
element is completely transparent, it transmits 100 percent of the
incident light, the transmittance is 1.00, and the optical density
is -log.sub.10 1.0, or 0.
Similarly, if the element transmits 10 percent of the incident
light, the transmittance is 0.10 and the optical density is:
-log.sub.10 10/100 = -log.sub.10 0.10 = log.sub.10 = 1
Similarly, if an element transmits 1 percent of the incident light,
the transmittance is 0.01, and the optical density is 2. In the
same way an element that transmits 0.1 percent of the incident
light corresponds to a transmittance of 0.001, and an optical
density of 3, etc.
It is useful to employ the following convention: The plane of a
dipole layer is taken as the XY plane, X generally being considered
the horizontal and Y the vertical axis. The direction of incident
light normal to the plane of the cell is taken as the Z axis. The
X, Y and Z axes are all mutually perpendicular. The electric field
may be applied along the X, Y or Z axes, and the subscripts x, y
and z indicate the electric field direction. The subscript r
indicates no voltage with the dipole orientation randomized.
A suspension of rod-shaped particles in a fluid which exhibits
change in optical properties upon the application of an electric
field is defined as a dipolar material having electrodichroic
properties.
The electrodichroic ratio of a dipolar material is defined as the
ratio of the optical density in the opaque condition for dipoles in
random orientation, to the optical density in the transparent
condition for dipoles partially or completely oriented parallel to
the electric field direction.
The parallel Electrodichroic ratio refers to the electrodichroic
ratio with the electric field applied parallel to the light path;
that is: q.sub.rz = D.sub.r /D.sub.z.
The normal electrodichroic ratio refers to the electrodichroic
ratio with the electric field applied normal to the light path;
that is: q.sub.rx = D.sub.r /D.sub.x.
The electrodichroic response is defined as the change in the
electrodichroic ratio with respect to the change in applied
electric field intensity E; that is: .sigma. = (dq/.DELTA.E).
The electrodichroic sensitivity is defined as the change of
electrodichroic ratio with respect to the change in electric field
intensity, per unit of mass in the unit area. Thus the
electrodichroic sensitivity in the electrodichroic response per
unit mass in a unit area of a dipole suspension layer; that is: S =
1/M (.DELTA.q/.DELTA.E) = .alpha./M. Subscripts define parallel and
normal cases.
Relaxation means the disorientation in the absence of aligning
field of previously aligned dipolar particles.
For most effective performance, an electro-optical shutter should
be characterized by an electrodichroic ratio of preferably 10 or
more.
An electrodichroic ratio of 15, therefore, signifies that the
optical density of the shutter in the opaque condition is 15 times
that of optical density of the same shutter in the transparent
condition.
As a specific example, a shutter capable of transmitting 60 percent
of the incident light in the transparent state, and only 0.1
percent of the incident light when the opaque state, would have the
following optical densities:
Transparent: D.sub.t = log.sub.10 (100/60) = 0.22
Opaque: D.sub.o = log.sub.10 (100/0.1) = 3
The electrodichroic ratio of such a shutter, then would be:
D.sub.o /D.sub.t = 3/0.22 = 13.6
An object of the present invention, is to provide improved dipole
particle suspensions, and methods and apparatus for electrically
controlling light and other electromagnetic radiation.
Another object is to provide light-controlling compositions whose
optical properties can be varied electrically without the use of
mechanical moving parts.
Still another object is to provide light-controlling compositions
and devices as aforesaid, characterized by improved electro-optical
characteristics; greater electrodichroic ratios, greater
electrodichroic sensitivity and smaller alignment.
A further object is to provide an electro-optical layer having an
electrodichroic ratio in excess of 10.
Another object still is to provide a light controlling panel having
electrical means for decreasing relaxation time.
Another object is to provide a light controlling panel having
electrical means for causing dipole orientation or relaxation,
selectively confined to a particular area.
Yet another object is to provide a thin electro-optical light
control panel or shutter of large area suitable for use as an
electrically controlled variable density window, visor, optical
element, or ophthalmic lens.
A feature of the present invention is the use as a
light-controlling medium of a suspension of dipole particles having
optimum optical and electrical properties resulting from novel
relationships established amongst the physical dimensions,
resistivity and concentration of the dipole particles and the
viscosity of the suspending fluid.
Still another feature is the utilization of the "antenna" effect
influencing the optical properties of dipolar particles, as
hereinafter more fully described.
Another feature of the present invention is the control of
alignment rise time to maximum transmittance of a suspension of
dipolar particles by correlation of dipole particle dimensions,
concentration of the dipolar particles, the viscosity of the
suspending fluid, and the application of pulsed electric fields of
high intensity.
Another feature is the use of an electric or magnetic field to
orient or disorient the dipole particles in such a suspension.
Another feature is the use of current-carrying shielding means for
confining an orienting electric field.
Still another feature is the use of transparent conductive films
which serve as shielding means for establishing different
orientations of the dipolar particles to change the transmittance
or reflectance of the device.
Another feature of the invention is the use of the "curtain
effect", and transparent conductive shielding electrodes to
reorient a dipolar suspension.
A further feature of this invention is a novel electrooptical iris
or curtain diaphragm without mechanical moving parts.
Other objects, advantages, and novel features of the present
invention will become apparent from the following more complete
description and claims.
In one form, the present invention contemplates a light-controlling
device employing a suspension of particles hereinafter referred to
as dipoles or dipole particles, said particles having at least one
dimension large relative to at least one other dimension. The
suspended particles are orientable in response to an applied
electric, magnetic or mechanical shear field. The application of a
non-constant force field to said suspension enables maximum
alignment to be attained without coagulation of the particles.
In another form, this invention contemplates an electro-optical
light control device having a cell containing a suspension of
dipole particles in a transparent medium, capable of interacting
with electromagnetic radiation, said cell having spaced transparent
walls and being provided with spaced, transparent electrically
conductive films generally parallel with the transparent walls.
This embodiment also has a pair of electrodes at opposite edges of
the cell, near the edges of the transparent walls, and insulated
from the conductive films. Such a cell is made transparent by
orienting the dipole particles in the suspension with their long
dimensions normal to the transparent walls. Orientation is achieved
by imposing an electrical potential between the transparent
conductive films. The cell is rendered opaque by starting to orient
the long dimensions of the dipole particles parallel with the
transparent walls, by imposing an electrical potential in a
direction parallel to the walls between the electrodes at the edges
of the cell, but stopping the orienting influence while the
particles are in an intermediate, random phase.
In this phase of operation, the field between the two edge
electrodes is confined within the cell by simultaneously passing an
electric current through each of the conductive films. Passage of
such a current effectively prevents the lines of force from
short-circuiting through the conductive films and thus by-passing
the interior of the cell where the dipole particles are
located.
In still another form, this invention contemplates an
electro-opticallight control device comprising in combination a
first cell and a second cell, each of which is enclosed in part by
generally parallel, spaced, transparent walls, both of said cells
being located in the space between a pair of generally parallel
spaced conductive loops. The first cell has a first pair of
electrodes located at opposite edges of the cell, and a second pair
of electrodes, angularly spaced from the first pair of electrodes
by approximately 90.degree. measured in a plane parallel with the
transparent walls. The shutter is rendered transparent by imposing
electrical fields between the conductive layers, thus orienting the
particles in both cells normal to the transparent walls. To render
the cell opaque, each of the two pairs of electrodes is connected
to a source of electrical potential difference thereby creating a
first electrical field between the first pair of electrodes in the
first cell, and a second electrical field between the second pair
of electrodes in the second cell, the first and second electrical
fields being at right angles. The effect of the two fields is to
orient the dipole particles in the first cell in a first direction
parallel to the transparent walls, and the dipoles in the second
wall in a second direction parallel to the transparent walls, these
first and second directions being perpendicular. Since the dipole
particles, when aligned normal to the light path, act like
polarizing elements, the cross-orientation effectively blocks all
but a very small portion of the light.
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES
The invention consists in the construction, combination and
arrangement of parts and of operating steps as hereinafter more
fully described and claimed, and as illustrated in the drawings, in
which like parts appearing in more than one view are given the same
reference numeral throughout, and in which:
FIG. 1 is a fragmentary view on an enlarged scale of an
electrically responsive light-controlling structure made in
accordance with the present invention showing disoriented dipole
particles in a reflecting or light absorbing state,
FIG. 2 is a view similar to FIG. 1, showing the dipole particles in
aligned orientation, with the long dimension of the particle normal
to the plane of the structure, in a transmittive state,
FIG. 3 is a fragmentary view similar to FIGS. 1 and 2, showing a
protective coating between the conductive coating and the dipole
suspension,
FIG. 4 is a cross-sectional view showing a structure similar to
that shown in FIGS. 1 and 2, provided with an electromagnet to
effect orientation,
FIG. 5 is a perspective view of another embodiment of the
invention, showing a comparatively bulky high voltage switching
device utilizing a single plane dipolar suspension and unshielded
electrostatic fields for controlling the orientation of a dipolar
particle suspension,
FIG. 6 is a fragmentary diagrammatic detail of a portion of the
embodiment of FIG. 5, on a larger scale,
FIG. 7 is a view similar to FIG. 6, showing another stage in the
operation of the device in FIG. 5,
FIG. 8 is a schematic diagram of an electrical circuit used to
apply potential to the electrodes of the device in FIG. 5,
FIG. 9 is a fragmentary view, on a greatly enlarged scale, of a
single dipole in an elementary volume of suspending fluid,
FIG. 10 is a fragmentary perspective view, similar to FIG. 1, of
another embodiment of the invention, namely a reflective-absorptive
panel,
FIG. 11 is a partially cut away perspective view, partially
schematic, of another embodiment of the invention, in the nature of
an electro-optical iris diaphragm,
FIG. 12 is a perspective view of the same electrooptic iris
diaphragm as in FIG. 11 but with the device in another stage of
operation,
FIG. 13 is a view similar to FIG. 12, showing the device of FIG. 11
at still another stage of operation,
FIG. 14 shows a dipole curtain shutter in cross section, used in
producing a "curtain effect" according to another embodiment of the
invention,
FIG. 15 is another view similar to FIG. 14 showing an intermediate
stage of the "curtain effect",
FIG. 16 is a curtain shutter as shown in FIG. 14 but at a stage in
which the dipole particles are all oriented in the X-direction,
FIG. 17 shows a front view of the device in FIG. 14 at an
intermediate stage of the curtain effect,
FIG. 18 is a front view of the device of FIG. 14 in another mode of
operation,
FIG. 19 graphically shows the percent transmittance versus time
during a change in dipole particle orientation from the Z-direction
as shown in FIG. 2 through random orientation to the orientation in
the X-direction, and also shows the corresponding E.sub.z and
E.sub.x alternating electrical pulses applied first along the Z
axis, and then along the X axis to achieve this result,
FIG. 20 shows a graph of percent transmittance versus time during
orientation and disorientation when pulses are on and off
respectively;
FIG. 21 shows a transmittance-time curve corresponding on the
application of a series of pulses timed to give an increasing
degree of orientation with intervening periods of partial
relaxation between successive pulses,
FIG. 22 is a graphic representation of the voltage-time
characteristic of a reversing D.C. pulsed current used in certain
embodiments of the invention,
FIG. 23 shows the relative power absorbed or reradiated versus
wavelength for thick and thin half-wave dipoles,
FIG. 24 shows a polar graph of response versus angle to ray path of
the dipole antenna,
FIG. 25 shows a graph of response versus angle to the polarization
direction for a dipole antenna,
FIG. 26 shows a conventional half-wave dipole with a central
electrical load,
FIG. 27 shows a half-wave dipole with a distributed electrical
load,
FIG. 28 illustrates diagrammatically the effective cross section of
a dipole antenna,
FIG. 29 shows a graph of the random-normal electrodichroic ratio
versus the electric field intensity, steady state 60 cycle A.C. for
an herapathite suspension,
FIG. 30 shows a random-parallel electrodichroic ratio versus
electric field intensity, steady state 60 Hz for herapathite
suspension of two different concentrations.
FIG. 31 shows the transmittance versus time for an herapathite
dipole suspension having various electric field intensities applied
parallel to the light path as a D.C. pulse,
FIG. 32 shows the random-parallel electrodichroic ratio versus the
electric field intensity from the data of FIG. 31,
FIG. 33 shows the peak transmittance versus electric field
intensity from the data of FIG. 31, for various initial
transmittances for the dipole layer in the random state,
FIG. 34 shows a plot of the inverse rise time versus the electric
field intensity from the data of FIG. 31,
FIG. 35 shows the transmittance versus time for the various given
electric field intensities plotted from an empirical equation which
closely fits the experimental data shown in FIGS. 31-34
inclusive.
FIG. 36 shows the random-parallel electrodichroic ratio versus
electrical field intensity steady state 60 cycle A.C. for an
aluminum flake suspension,
FIG. 37 is the same as FIG. 36 except that the parallel
electrodicroic ratio is plotted on a log scale versus electric
field intensity on a linear scale,
FIG. 38 is an exploded perspective view of a two layer dipole
suspension, current shielded transparent electrode type of shutter
in the transparent condition,
FIG. 39 is an exploded perspective view showing the device of FIG.
38 in the opaque condition, using current shielded transparent
electrodes,
FIG. 40 is an assembled cross section of the device of FIGS. 38 and
39 in the opaque condition, taken along line 40--40 of FIG. 41,
FIG. 41 is a front view of the device, corresponding to the
cross-sectional view of FIG. 40,
FIG. 42 is an exploded perspective view of a single dipole
suspension layer shutter of the present invention, in a condition
to polarize transmitted light, utilizing current-shielded
transparent electrodes,
FIG. 43 is another exploded perspective view showing the device of
FIG. 42 in the transparent condition,
FIG. 44 is a perspective view of a shutter according to another
embodiment of the invention, in the opaque condition without
shielding, utilizing electrostatic fields in air,
FIG. 45 shows a schematic diagram of the pulse circuit for
actuating the dipole cell,
FIG. 46 shows the wiring diagram for an intermediate pulse
amplifier,
FIG. 47 shows a high voltage pulse amplifier,
FIG. 48 shows various cross sectional areas for half-wave
dipole,
FIG. 49 shows the cross section versus the ratio of radiation
resistance to absorption resistance,
FIG. 50 shows the maximum percent transmittance versus
electrodichroic ratio for constant minimum transmittance of 0.01
percent, 0.1 percent and 1.0 percent,
FIG. 51 shows the optical density versus (1) Alignment Time (2
KV.sub.rms 3 CM) (2) Relaxation Time, for a Herapathite
Suspension,
FIG. 52 shows the optical density versus electric field intensity
for herapathite suspension for Z orientation,
FIG. 53 shows the parallel electrodichroic ratio versus electric
field intensity for a herapathite suspension,
FIG. 54 shows the parallel electrodichroic ratio versus frequency
at various electric field intensities for a herapathite
suspension,
FIG. 55 shows the parallel electrodichroic ratio versus electric
field intensity in KV.sub.rms /CM for various frequencies,
FIG. 56 shows the transmittance versus wavelength for a herapathite
suspension in aligned (open) and random (closed) orientation,
FIG. 57 shows the relative electrodichroic ratio versus
wavelength,
FIG. 58 shows the relative transmittance versus angle for
herapathite dipole layer for:
1. Nonpolarized
2. Polarizer parallel
3. Polarizer crossed
Dipole layer with dipoles oriented parallel to Z axis
FIG. 59 shows the transmittance for polarized light versus
wavelength, for various electric field intensities;
A. polarizer Parallel
B. polarizer Crossed
For chromium dipoles of average particle size 7700A .times. 700A
oriented in the plane of the suspension, parallel to the plane of
polarization or at right angles thereto;
FIG. 60 shows the percent polarization versus wavelength for a
chromium metal dipole suspension (computed from data of FIG.
59.);
FIG. 61 shows the transmittance versus wavelength for electric
field parallel to light path, for various electric field
intensities for chromium metal dipoles oriented in Z direction,
FIG. 62 shows the parallel electrodichroic ratio versus electric
field intensity at 2300 nm for a chromium dipole suspension,
FIG. 63 shows the parallel electrodichroic ratio versus wavelength
for chromium metal dipole suspension oriented in Z direction, at
various applied electric field intensities in Kv/cm,
FIG. 64 shows the cross section of a typical cell for Z
orientation,
FIG. 65 shows the front view of the cell shown in FIG. 64,
FIG. 66 shows the cross section of a typical cell for X
orientation,
FIG. 67 shows the front view of the cell shown in FIG. 66,
FIG. 68 shows a graph of relative transmission versus time across a
cell containing a chromium dipole suspension for an applied voltage
pulse applied in the Z direction, on a time scale of 0 to 5
milliseconds,
FIG. 69 shows the same graph as FIG. 68 on a time scale of 0-100
milliseconds.
Light-controlling devices according to this invention are useful in
varying embodiments, as camera shutters, variable iris diaphragms,
variable density windows for control of room lighting, visors for
automobiles, opthalmic and optical elements, 2-dimensional and
3-dimensional displays, radiation absorption and reflection control
elements for buildings, spacecraft, decorative elements, signalling
devices, and in a variety of other ways which their novel
characteristics will readily suggest to those skilled in the
art.
The dipole particles useful in the present invention are
characterized in that they have at least one dimension large
relative to at least one other dimension -- that is to say, they
are in the form of flakes, needles or the like. The dipole
particles should have at least one dimension equal to one-half of
the wavelength of the radiation to be controlled, (normally,
visible light, but in some cases infrared, ultraviolet, microwave,
or other portions of the electromagnetic spectrum) and at least one
other dimension substantially smaller than one-half of said
wavelength. The magnitude of the third dimension -- that is,
whether the particle is a needle or a flake -- depends on the
requirements of the specific embodiment of the invention, as more
fully discussed below.
For purposes of brevity, the term "light" is used throughout the
present specification and claims in a general sense and is intended
to encompass not only visible light but also infrared and
ultraviolet "light", as well as microwave radiation in the
neighboring portions of the electromagnetic spectrum.
In addition to the dimensional and resistance requirements for
strong interaction with electromagnetic radiation herein disclosed,
the electrical or magnetic properties of the dipolar particles,
i.e., in the electrical case the conductivity or the dielectric
constant, must be such as to facilitate orientation in an electric
or magnetic field.
The suspending medium is a fluid, non-reactive with the dipole
particles, or is a substance capable of being converted to a fluid,
at a temperature sufficiently low to avoid any adverse effect on
the dipole particles.
It is not in all cases necessary that the suspending medium be in a
liquid state. Providing the applied torque is sufficiently strong
to orient the dipole particles against a certain amount of plastic
resistance of the suspending medium, it is sufficient if the
suspending medium is in a deformable plastic or thixotropic state.
The term "fluid" as used herein should, therefore, be understood to
encompass such a plastic condition. For most applications of the
present invention, the suspending medium is present as a liquid
during alignment or disorientation of the dipole particles.
The suspending medium may be thermoplastic which is fluid about a
given temperature, for example 40.degree. to 60.degree.C. The
dipole layer is oriented by an electric field, while the suspending
medium is fluid. Then the orientation may be fixed by causing the
suspending medium to solidify.
The dipole particles must also be of such a nature that they are
capable of being oriented by an applied electric, magnetic or in
certain cases a mechanical shear force field.
Some particles have an inherent dipole moment by reason of their
internal structure, in which the effective center of positive
charge in the molecule or crystal is spaced from the center of
negative charge. Such an inherent dipolar character, if present, is
effective to some degree in augmenting the tendency of the
particles to orient themselves in an applied force field. Inherent
dipolarity is, however, neither essential nor a major factor in
determining the effectiveness of the dipole particles.
The major factor in effecting orientation of the dipolar particles
in an applied field is induced dipolarity, which may arise because
of a difference between the dielectric constant of the insulating
dipole particles and that of the surrounding medium. Alternatively,
the dipolarity may arise because the dipolar particle is a
semi-conductor, or a conductor permitting opposing charges to
accumulate at the long opposite ends of the dipole particle.
Ordinarily, an insulating dipole particle has a larger dielectric
constant than the medium, and tends to concentrate the lines of
force within itself. In so doing, it acquires an induced
dipolarity, the end of the particle nearer the positive electrode
acquiring an induced negative charge, and vice versa. Once the
induced dipolarity has arisen, the particle tends to orient itself
by swinging so that the end having the induced positive charge
points directly toward the negative electrode, and vice versa.
Similar considerations apply when the orienting field is a magnetic
field, except that the induced dipolarity is magnetic, rather than
electrostatic, in character.
In the unusual case where the particles have a smaller dielectric
constant than the surrounding medium, the same general principles
apply, but in such a case, the lines of force tend to concentrate
in the medium rather than in the particles, and the medium then
tends to push the particles into alignment in the process of
shortening the lines of force.
Suitable dipole particles according to the present invention,
therefore, include such materials as herapathite crystals, which
are particularly advantageous because of their optical properties,
as well as other materials which, by virtue of their shape,
dielectric constant or conductivity characteristics tend to
concentrate the lines of force of a magnetic or electrostatic field
within themselves. Needle-shaped particles of a ferro-magnetic
substance such as iron will orient themselves when subjected to the
influence of a magnetic force field. Similarly, needles of any
electrically conductive substance tend to align themselves parallel
to the lines of force of an applied electrostatic field.
When reference appears herein to "dipolar particles", or "dipoles",
it is therefore intended to include conductive asymmetric particles
and insulating asymmetric particles having a substantial difference
in dielectric constant from the medium in which they are immersed.
All such particles are capable of acquiring induced dipolarity, and
reference to the particles as "dipoles" is not intended to limit
them to particles characterized by inherent or permanent
dipolarity.
To illustrate the above considerations with reference to some
specific examples, dipole particles may be insulating providing the
difference in dielectric constant or index of refraction between
the particle and the liquid in which it is suspended is
substantial. An example of this is a lead carbonate which forms
minute hexagonal flakes having an index of refraction of
approximately 2.25 and which may be immersed in a fluid having a
relative index of refraction of approximately 1.5. The
electrostatic lines of force tend to concentrate in the vicinity of
the material having the higher index of refraction or higher
dielectric constant and thus produce a torque causing alignment of
the particles.
Herapathite forms flat needles having a length to thickness of
approximately 25 to 1 and having a much higher index of refraction
than the suspending fluid. Moreover, the particles are in
themselves minute polarizing elements tending to polarize light
passing therethrough by virtue of their molecular structure.
Graphite flakes are minute hexagonal crystals having a very high
conductivity in the plane of the hexagon and a very low
conductivity across the plane. They are thus similar to metallic
flakes insofar as their conductivity is concerned since electric
charges are free to flow across the plane of the hexagon.
Because the conductivity is anisotropic, it is very low normal to
the plane of the hexagon, and hence relatively thick particles of
graphite may be effectively oriented.
Still another and preferred class of materials are those comprising
metals in which the electric charge is free to move. These metals
in fact show the quickest alignments in the smallest fields.
Moreover, they are suited for the practice of the "antenna effect"
which is more fully described hereinafter.
THE DIPOLE PARTICLE
In FIG. 9 there is shown a single dipole particle 50 of length L
and thickness L/a, its cross section being shown as square for
simplicity. The particle is shown aligned along the Z axis but the
dipole particle 50 can be tilted through an angle .phi. as shown.
The dipole particle is shown in an elementary cubic volume of fluid
51. This Figure is useful in connection with the
mathematical-physics discussion given in a subsequent section.
For example, the dipole particle length is L = .lambda./2n where n
is the index of refraction of the fluid. Usually n is approximately
1.5 so that the dipole length is in almost all cases then
.lambda./3. The thickness of the dipole L/a depends on whether the
dipole is to be reflecting or absorbing and upon the resistivity of
the metal from which the dipole is formed.
The length to width ratio "a" also controls the resonant response
of the dipole to radiation, in effect determining the wavelength
range to which the dipoles are tuned to absorb or reflect. All
these factors will be more fully described hereinafter.
The dipoles may be oriented by electrical or magnetic fields as
described herein.
As an example of the alignment of non-metallic needle-like
crystals, we may take the FIG. 35 which shows the transmittance
versus time due to the alignment of a suspension of dipolar
herapathite needles, for various electric field intensities applied
as a high voltage D.C. pulse as shown in FIG. 45.
The curves shown in FIG. 29 and 30 are based on data obtained for
suspensions of herapathite dipoles using 60 cycle A.C. FIG. 29
shows that the normal electrodichroic ratio increases linearly with
the field strength at first, increasing more slowly as the field
strength is increased. An empirical exponential equation shows with
fair agreement. FIG. 30 shows that in the range 1<q.sub.rz <7
the parallel electrodichroic ratio varies directly with the
electric field intensity, and as the square of the concentration of
herapathite dipoles in the suspension.
The graph of FIG. 36 demonstrates that for thin aluminum flake
dipoles the parallel electrodichroic ratio increases more rapidly
as the electric field strength increases and follows an empiric
equation which is an increasing exponential function. This is
further demonstrated in FIG. 37 in which the data of FIG. 35 is
plotted on a semi-log linear scale obtaining a straight line.
In FIG. 36 it can be seen that ultrathin flakes produced by the
floatation method in which only particles from the upper layer of
the suspending fluid are used, show a marked increase in the
electrodichroic ratio at much lower electric field intensity,
without coagulation.
In the FIG. 36 above referred to, the end points of the curve or
the last experimental observation represents the voltage at which
coagulation or agglomeration occurred. The test data shown in FIGS.
29 and 30, were made with a steady applied A.C. voltage. When the
voltage exceeded the values indicated the agglomeration
occurred.
The force field referred to herein is preferably electrostatic for
most embodiments of the present invention, but it may also be
magnetic, and the latter is preferred in certain cases. The field
is also described as "non-constant", by which is meant that it is
non-constant with respect to time. It may, therefore, be continuous
alternating voltage, or a pulsed voltage, the pulses being either
direct or alternating. A steady direct current, however, is
intended to be excluded by the term "non-constant". The
non-constant field is required for dipolar suspending fluids
containing ions, as with herapathite fluid. In certain applications
a constant D.C. voltage will be useful to provide a momentary light
pulse. In other cases, where the dipolar suspending fluid is
substantially free from ions and is a good insulator a steady D.C.
field may be employed.
CONDUCTIVE FILMS
In the practice of the present inventions, suitable transparent
conductive coatings are required which are known to the art. One
such material is a stannic oxide film on glass or plastic such as
is sold by the Liberty Mirror Company under the designation EL-SX;
by Pittsburgh Plate Glass Company under the designation NESA. These
transparent conductive films have a transmittance of between 70 and
90 percent.
ELECTRO-OPTICAL LIGHT CONTROLLING PANEL
Referring now to the drawings and more particularly to FIGS. 1 and
2, 52 indicates a transparent sheet of glass, plastic or the like.
A second sheet of the transparent material 53, also made of glass,
plastic or other fluid-impervious material is spaced from the first
sheet 52. A fluid-tight gasket 54 is disposed between the sheets 52
and 53, adjacent the edges thereof, to form a small, thin
sheet-like area 55 between said sheets. The surfaces of sheets 52
and 53 which define the sheet-like area 55 are covered with an
electrically-conductive transparent coating or electrode 56
hereinafter more fully described. The insulating gasket 54 may
extend beyond the transparent sheets 52, 53 so as to form a longer
electrical air path, and thus prevent arcing between the electrodes
57 at the edge of the sheets. The conductive coatings 56 are
connected to suitable metallic strips or bus bars 57 which are
disposed along the edges of sheets 52 and 53. Electrical leads 58
are in turn connected to the bus bars 57 and lead to a suitable
source of electrical potential (not shown).
The thin sheet-like space 55 between sheets 52 and 53 is filled
with a fluid 51 in which there is carried a suspension of dipole
particles 50.
When the dipole particles 50 are free to move about in the
suspending fluid within the sheet-like space 55 they are subject to
Brownian movement and become randomized as shown in FIG. 1. The
dipole particles within the sheet-like area 55 may be
highly-reflective, or strongly absorptive, flat flake-like or
needle like particles. In FIG. 1, light ray 59, in the direction
indicated by arrow is shown reflected by the particles emerging
from the structure as the reflected beam 60.
When an electric field is imposed across the conductive coatings 56
by the application of an electrical potential difference to leads
58, the dipole particles 50 become aligned with their long
dimension parallel to the electric field and normal to the surfaces
of sheets 52 and 53, as shown in FIG. 2. Since the thickness of
dipole particles 50 is small compared to their length, the light 59
is able to pass between them and reach the second sheet 53. The
second sheet 53 also being transparent, the light then passes
unimpeded out of the cell as transmitted beam 61. For purposes
other than one presently under consideration namely, the
electro-optical shutter - it is also within the purview of the
invention to make sheet 53 of a non-transparent reflective or
absorptive material, so that when the dipole particles 50 are
oriented as described, the light passes through the suspension and
is reflected, absorbed, or partially reflected and partially
absorbed upon striking second sheet 53.
When the electric field is decreased or zero, the dipole particles
50 again become randomized by Brownian movement, with the result
that many of them assume positions in which their long dimension is
at an angle to the incident light ray 59. Because the dipole
particles have then random angular positions the incident light is
reflected back in a more or less diffused pattern.
It will be apparent that the optical characteristics of the
assembly may be varied from highly reflective to highly absorptive
and also may be employed to change from highly reflective or
absorptive to light transmitting. Whether the particles, in random
array, reflect or absorb light depends on their optical and
electrical properties, particularly their dimensions and electrical
resistivity, as more fully explained below.
In FIG. 3, the conductive coatings 56 are covered by a transparent
protective layer 62 which is disposed upon the coatings 56 on the
faces thereof nearest the dipole suspension. The protective layer
62 is necessary in certain cases where the dipole suspension may be
chemically reactive with the conductive coating. Protective layer
62 may be, for example, a layer of transparent silicon monoxide,
tantalum oxide, or magnesium fluoride.
While the flat sheet-like area 55 has been shown with substantial
thickness in the drawings, it is to be understood that the
thickness is exaggerated for the purpose of clarity, and in actual
practice sheets 52 and 53 may be spaced apart, for example, a
distance of from 0.01 to 1.0 millimeter. As a result of a small
spacing between the sheets, a substantially complete alignment of
the dipoles within the sheet-like area 55, may be obtained using
voltages as small as 10 to 500 volts.
For a rapid response, the electric field intensity employed should
be as large as practicable, short of the point at which the
suspending medium, the dipoles, or other components are broken
down. In most embodiments of the invention, voltages of the order 1
to 100 kv/cm are preferred. The voltage required to attain these
electric field intensities depends on the thickness of the dipole
suspension layer required to obtain the required transmittance
range, as set forth hereinafter. The use of larger electric field
intensities gives a proportionately shorter response time in
switching from a random to an oriented state, vice versa, or from
one oriented state to another, an advantage in certain embodiments.
Also, it has been discovered, in accordance with the present
invention, that troublesome coagulation and clumping of the dipole
particles, experienced in prior art devices, can be overcome by
using one or more pulses of high intensity and short duration, or a
non-constant field, in the form of one or more pulses having a
suitable peak electric field intensity, time duration and
repetition rate.
The effect which tends to cause coagulation is believed to be
explained as follows: When the electric field is applied and the
dipoles become oriented, each particle assumes an induced polarity
(which reinforces its own inherent polarity, if any). When any two
dipoles are aligned in approximately end-to-end relationship, the
two ends which are close together are of opposite polarity. They,
therefore, attract each other, resulting in longitudinal migration
and coagulation. This effect may be avoided by pulsing the field so
that it lasts only long enough to effect the desired orientation,
and is discontinued before any migration can take place.
The speed of orientation, and consequently the required dureation
of the pulse, depends on the electric field intensity of the pulse,
the dimensions and electrical characteristics of the dipole
particles, and the viscosity of the suspending medium.
A very small mass per unit area of dipoles is effective to control
the light, because of their large effective cross section for the
capture of incident radiant energy (as discussed below under the
heading "Antenna Effect"). Avoidance of the coagulation or clumping
effect by the use of a non-constant force field enables greater
concentrations of dipole particles to be used in the
suspension.
An advantage in using greater concentrations is that the layer
thickness and operating voltage is decreased and the dipole
suspensions are more responsive to the orienting field. The more
rapid response occurs because the particles are closer together at
greater concentrations, and the induced dipoles on each pulse exert
an increased mutual attraction, much as two compass needles would
attract each other when they are brought closer together.
Uncontrolled, this increased attraction may result in coagulation,
but using a pulsed D.C. or a pulsed alternating field, leads to the
desirable result that each dipole particle helps to align its
neighbors, producing a rapid response to the orienting field.
Concentrations of dipoles which give rise to high viscosities,
however, should be avoided where rapid response is desired, because
they slow down the response by viscous drag.
After the initial voltage pulse is applied, and the field is off,
the particles start to disorient at a rate dependent on temperature
(which is normally almost constant), viscosity, and particle size.
Pulses of lower voltage, and of such repetition rate as to make the
time between pulses considerably less than the disalignment time
constant, will keep the particles in substantial alignment without
coagulation.
The use of a pulsed field, rather than a steady D.C field, has
still another advantage. Despite all precautions, stray ions may be
present in the system, either originally as impurities, or produced
by breakdown of the suspending medium and/or the dipole particles.
When a steady D.C. field is employed, such ions tend to migrate
toward the electrodes (i.e. transparent conductors 56). The
positive ions migrate toward and collect at the transparent wall in
the vicinity of the negative electrode, and the negative ions
collect at the transparent wall in the vicinity of the positive
electrode, thus shielding the applied electric field and partially
offsetting or neutralizing the electric field applied across the
dipole suspension layer. When a pulsed field is employed, this
migration is avoided, and such shielding does not take place. A
simple, intermittent unidirectional D.C. pulse of high intensity
and short duration is effective to momentarily orient the particles
without causing coagulation, and is also largely effective to avoid
migration of ions. Migration of ions is better avoided, however, by
using a reversing D.C. pulse, in which alternate pulses are
opposite in direction, as illustrated in FIG. 22. Still more
effective, and the preferred type of pulse, is a pulsed A.C., in
which each pulse is of sufficient duration to include several
cycles of the A.C. alternation, as illustrated for example in FIG.
20, which are of sufficiently high frequency to prevent substantial
ion separation.
When it is desired to return the particles to their original random
state, it is usually sufficient merely to discontinue application
of the orienting field. The particles then quickly return to the
random condition by the action of Brownian movement. Where more
rapid randomization is required, the dipole particles 50 may be
randomized by applying a second electrostatic field in a different
direction, or a rotating field. The disorientation in certain cases
may be alternatively accomplished by applying a viscous drag in the
plane of the sheet by a relative linear or rotary motion of the two
sheets 52, 53, or a mechanical vibrator may be employed to agitate
the cell.
In one form of the invention illustrated in FIGS. 1 and 2, the
electro-optical shutter is "opened", that is to say the dipoles are
oriented normal to the transparent sheets 52 and 53, by an
electrostatic field applied between electrically-conductive
transparent coatings 56, which then serve as electrodes. The
orientation may if desired be produced by a magnetic field instead
of an electric field, provided the dipoles are ferromagnetic, or
diamagnetic or paramagnetic material relative to the suspending
fluid. Magnetic orientation can be achieved, for example, as shown
in FIG. 4, by positioning the cell containing the suspension
between the poles 63, 64 of an electromagnet 65. When the magnet is
energized by closing switch 66, the ferromagnetic dipoles 68 are
oriented. The use of a magnetic field for orienting the dipoles,
however, is not preferred in most cases because it requires more
cumbersome equipment and greater power input. Magnetic orientation
is useful, nevertheless, in connection with some of the embodiments
of the invention hereinafter described.
In FIG. 5 there is shown a cell containing a dipole suspension
layer 67 between discs of transparent sheets such as glass 52 and
53 separated at the rim by a gasket ring 54. Electrodes 69 and 70
are located on the Y axis and electrodes 71 and 72 are located on
the X axis, at the rim as shown in FIG. 6. An electrostatic field
extending in the Y direction is obtained by applying a voltage
between electrode 69 and 70, or an electrostatic field in the
direction of the X axis is obtained by applying a voltage between
electrodes 71 and 72. An electric field along the Z axis may be
obtained by applying a voltage between rings 75 and 76. The
electrode rings 75 and 76 must be separated a sufficient distance
in air so that the fields may be effectively applied along the X or
Y axis without being diverted toward the rings 75 and 76.
As a result of suitably spacing the electrodes, electric fields may
be applied alternatively along the X, Y or the Z axes. However, the
construction shown in FIG. 5 is relatively bulky and the large
spacing between electrodes 75 and 76 necessitates the application
of very large voltages to obtain substantial alignment of the
dipole suspension layer in the Z direction..
To bring the ring electrodes 75 and 76 into close prosimity to the
dipole suspension and obtain a uniform electric field between these
electrodes requires that the metal rings 75, 76 be replaced by
transparent conductors as shown in FIG. 1. However, when this is
done, a voltage, for example, applied to the electrodes 71, 72 on
the X axis, tends to terminate on the transparent conductors and
does not pass across along the X axis to align the body of the
dipole suspension in the X direction. This condition, shown in FIG.
14, occurs particuarly when the spacing between the transparent
electrodes is small.
However, when the transparent electrodes have a critical spacing of
2 to 10 times the suspension layer thickness, the "curtain effect"
occurs as hereinafter described in connection with FIGS. 14 to 18
inclusive. The employment of the curtain effect enables effective
alignments to be obtained in the X, Y or Z directions with compact
spacing of the electrodes. Consequently utilizing the curtain
effect shutter of FIG. 14 smaller voltages along the Z axis produce
substantial alignments of dipole particles in the suspending fluid
compared to the relatively large voltages required to similarly
align the dipole particles in the shutter shown in FIG. 5.
Another method of obtaining the alignment in the X, Y or Z
directions with a compact shutter operating at relatively small
voltages, utilizes the technique of current shielding in which an
electric current is passed along transparent conductors parallel to
an aligning X or Y electric field, while no current is passed
through the transparent electrodes when a voltage is applied
between them in the Z direction. A compact shutter operating at
relatively small voltages is achieved by this current shielding
technique as more fully described in connection with FIGS. 38-43
inclusive. FIGS. 38-41 show two layer suspensions in which the
current shielding and cross polarization is utilized to achieve an
opaque state; and in which the transparent state is achieved by
aligning the dipolar particles in both layers along the Z direction
by electric fields applied along the Z direction, with no current
flow along the transparent conductors.
In FIGS. 42 and 43 a single layer suspension cell is shown with
FIG. 43 showing the alignment in the Z direction achieved by
applying the electric field between the transparent electrodes
without current flow along the electrodes, while FIG. 42 shows an
alignment in the Y direction accompanied by current flow in the
transparent electrodes in the Y direction.
It will be understood in connection with FIG. 42 that the passage
of the dipole particle alignment from Z to the Y direction may be
interrupted while the dipole particles are at the random alignment
stage. The phenomena herein employed is shown graphically in FIG.
19. Random alignment of the dipolar particles occurs during the
time in which the particles pass from the alignment in the Z
direction, to the random state, and then into an alignment in the Y
direction. To accomplish this the pulse of electric field intensity
applied along the Y direction, or the X direction, may be stopped
at a critical time t.sub.2 at which the particles have assumed a
random position as indicated by a minimum transmittance through the
dipole suspension layer.
ROTATOR
A dipolar device having applications for example for 3D television
and movies is a polarized filter in which the plane of polarization
is rotated electrically through 90.degree.; herein termed an XY
rotator.
Various devices illustrated herein may be employed for this
purpose: Thus, in FIGS. 6 and 7 the plane of polarization may be
shifted from the Y direction to the X direction; and then applying
the electric field as in FIG. 7 between electrodes 71 and 72, by
first applying the electric field as in FIG. 6 between 69 and
70.
By modifying the electric circuit and the cycling of cells 50 and
51 as in FIG. 38; first switch cell 50 to the Y direction keeping
51 in the Z direction; then switch cell 50 to the Z direction and
switch cell 51 to the X direction. This structure can also act as a
shutter by switching as shown in FIG. 39; that is, by cross
polarizing cells 50 and 51, Y and X respectively.
Another method (not shown) may incorporate electrodes embedded in
the X direction on one sheet and in the Y direction on the other
sheet.
Various other embodiments of this invention may be made.
An electro-optical device of the type shown in FIGS. 1 and 2 is
highly satisfactory for many purposes such as camera shutters,
control of room lighting by means of windows equipped with
electro-optical "shades", etc. For other uses, such as
environmental radiation control panels for buidling walls, roofs
and space vehicles, data display screens, and the like, a
suspension is required which may be switched from a
light-transmitting state to a reflective state. Such a suspension
is described hereinafter.
REFLECTING-TRANSMITTING PANEL
A reflecting-transmitting shutter is shown in FIGS. 5, 6 and 7. In
a cell 78 is a suspension of flake-shaped particles 77. Electrodes
69 and 70 are provided at the top and bottom edges of the cell to
impress a first electrostatic field across the cell 78 along the Y
axis and the electrodes 71 and 72 are provided to impress a second
electrostatic field along the X axis. A third pair of electrodes 75
and 76 for example, in the form of rings surrounding the field of
view on either side of the cell 78 (as shown in FIG. 5), are
provided for the purpose of impressing a third electrostatic field
along the Z axis normal to the plane of the suspension layer and
generally parallel to the incident light path. Alternatively,
alignment in the Z direction can be obtained by a compact
disposition of the electrodes as explained hereinafter.
A compact disposition of transparent electrodes to switch from the
Z to the X or Y axes or vice versa may be achieved as hereinafter
described in connection with current shielded fields along the X or
Y axes, as explained in connection with FIGS. 38-40 inclusive.
In the operation of the light reflecting-transmitting shutter, the
first two pairs of electrodes 69, 70, 71 and 72 are used to orient
the flakes 77 parallel to the transparent sheets 52, 53 of the
shutter. A suitable voltage is applied between the two side
electrodes 71 and 72. As a result of the applied field, each of the
random flakes represented by flakes 77, tends to move under the
influence of a couple turning on its axis, so as to bring the
electric forces on the flake into opposition and alignment, so that
no further turning of the flake will result. Next, the voltage
across side electrodes 71 and 72 is reduced to zero and an
equivalent voltage is applied across top and bottom electrodes 69
and 70, respectively, resulting in a rotation of the applied field
through 90.degree.. This causes a couple to act on each flake 77,
turning it about its axis, which is perpendicular to a second axis.
The result of the two-fold rotation is that the flake is aligned in
a plane parallel with the transparent faces 52 and 53 of the cell.
Since all flakes of the suspension are so oriented, the net result
is a substantially specular reflection of light incident upon the
cell with corresponding high opacity.
The alternation of the applied field between top and bottom
electrodes 69 and 70 on the one hand, and side electrodes 71 and 72
on the other hand, is readily accomplished by using a suitable
single-phase A.C. input (for example at 10 KHz and 1-3 Kv/cm). To
insure that the voltages across the cell are balanced, a bridge
circuit such as that shown in FIG. 8 may be employed. Terminals 81
and 82 are connected to electrodes 69 and 70, respectively, and
terminals 79 and 80 are connected to electrodes 71 and 72
respectively. For example, when terminal 81 is at +E/2 volts and
terminal 82 is at -E/2 volts (E being the total applied voltage),
then terminals 79 and 80, which are connected to the other pair of
electrodes 71 and 72, are at zero potential.
In the circuit as illustrated in FIG. 8, it will be noted that
there are provided a first pair of power-supply leads 83, 84
connected to electrodes 69 and 70, respectively; a second paid of
power-supply leads 85 and 86, connected respectively to electrodes
71 and 72, and a set of four balancing resistors 73, 83.sub.a,
84.sub.a, 85.sub.a, and 86.sub.a.
When it is desired to switch the shutter from a reflective to a
transparent condition, the power to electrodes 69, 70, 71, and 72
is shut off, and ring electrodes 75 and 76 are energized. This
results in a field substantially normal to the transparent sheets
52 and 53 of the cell, which causes the particles to be aligned
parallel with the light path, making the cell transparent in the
manner similar to that shown in FIG. 2.
SINGLE LAYER DIPOLAR ORIENTATION AND ITS EFFECT ON LIGHT
Light passing through a single layer dipolar suspension is affected
by the orientation of the long dimension of the dipolar particles.
Using the device shown in FIG. 5, with a dipole particle suspension
comprising an electrically conductive needle shaped metal or an
herapathite crystal, and with the dipolar particles oriented normal
to the light path in the plane of the cell, unpolarized transmitted
light is polarized. The electric vector of the transmitted
polarized light is normal to the direction of the alignment of the
dipolar particles. The electric vector in the direction of dipole
alignment of the incident unpolarized light is absorbed because it
induced a motion of charges in dipole particles. In the absence of
an electric field, the dipole particles are randomly oriented and
the dipolar suspension layer may be substantially opaqued to light
but does not polarize the light.
In similar manner, when the particles are oriented in the direction
of the light by an electrical field along the Z axis, applied for
example between the ring 75 and 76 in FIG. 5, the cell is highly
transmitting to ordinary non-polarized light which is transmitted
without polarization.
FORCED RANDOMIZATION OF DIPOLES
In most of the embodiments of the invention thus far discussed, the
dipoles will revert to random orientation within a fraction of a
second after the orienting field is withdrawn, and no additional
steps are necessary to achieve rapid opaquing of the shutter. Where
it is desired to hasten the randomization process, it may be
speeded up by switching from a Z to a Y orientation and
interrupting the reorientation at the intermediate opaque condition
or in various other ways. Randomization may be hastened for
example, by mechanically vibrating the cell, by sliding or rotating
one face of the cell relative to the other, or by application of a
rotating electric or magnetic field. The rotating magnetic field
may be generated by a conventional rotating field assembly such as
is used in a single phase A.C. motor, the dipole chamber being
disposed within the "cage" of field coils where the armature of
such a motor is housed.
In switching from a Z orientation to an X or Y orientation it will
be observed that the transmittance goes through a minimum as shown
in FIG. 19. At a position intermediate the Z orientation and the X
or Y orientation, the cell becomes quite opaque. This phase is
ascribed to an intermediate condition, in which the dipoles are
oriented in all directions at 45.degree. to the plane of the
suspension, and behave in effect as if they were randomly oriented,
and probably are quite close to the random state.
FIG. 19 shows a graph of transmittance versus time for an area
whose particules have been initially oriented in the Z direction
with a transmittance of 50-80 percent by a pulse E.sub.z of time
duration t.sub.1. At the time t.sub.1 a pulse E.sub.x is applied,
and in a time duration (t.sub.2 - t.sub.1) the particles have
started to revolve into the X direction, but however, have only
just passed into the random state, and for this reason the
transmittance curve is dropped to a minimum at time t.sub.2,
corresponding to the random state.
The E.sub.x pulse may be discontinued at this point and the
particles will remain in the random state. However, if the E.sub.x
pulse is continued for an additional time duration (t.sub.3 -
t.sub.2) the particles now reorient themselves in the X direction
polarizing transmitted light, with the transmittance increasing to
between 20 and 50 percent.
Less time is taken for the particles to pass from one given
orientation to the random state than from the given orientation to
another at 90.degree. thereto. Moreover, the random state has the
minimum transmittance for a single layer dipole suspension.
DIPOLE ROTATIONAL INERTIA EFFECT
In a high-speed switching of the electro-optical shutter by means
of pulsed high intensity electric fields, the transmittance of the
suspension may reach a maximum and then decrease, particularly in
suspending fluids of small viscosity, (less than 10mp). Under these
circumstances the dipole particles acquire an appreciable angular
velocity, and by reason of inertia tend to shoot past the parallel
position of maximum transparency, provided however that the fluid
viscosity is sufficiently small so that the particles will rotate
through a considerable angle before stopping. This effect may be
overcome by compensation, for example, by shortening the duration
of the pulse so that it has fallen to zero before the particles are
fully aligned and letting them "coast" into alignment.
The inertia effect may also be utilized to provide a shutter which
automatically transmits a light pulse of predetermined duration and
shuts itself off. This is accomplished by applying a high-voltage
pulse sufficient to impart a predetermined angular momentum to the
particles, and allowing them to coast to and through the
transmitting position to a position of extinction. The duration of
the light pulse may be controlled by the momentum imparted by the
intensity duration of the applied voltage and viscosity.
ORIENTATION BY REPEATED VOLTAGE PULSES
FIG. 20 is a graph showing a transmittance versus time for light
passing through a cell containing a dipole layer subject to a
voltage pulse, for example an A.C. voltage pulse 122 having an
amplitude E.sub.z and time duration t.sub.1, resulting in the
transmittance vs. time curve 123 shown. The rise time on this curve
depends upon the particle dimension and concentration, the
viscosity of the suspending fluid, and the electric field
intensity. For the most rapid alignment and disalignment generally
it is preferred to use fluids of relatively low viscosity in the
range of 2 to 20 millipoise and electric field intensities just
below the breakdown strength of the fluid, which is usually of the
order of 100-300 kv/cm. Dipolar particles having a length of the
order of 0.18 microns, 25 to 1 length to thickness ratio, and
concentrations, and preferably as high as possible in the range
0.01 to 10 percent are also employed for this purpose. Minimum
alignment times are about 100 nanoseconds. When the pulse
terminates and there is no field, particles start to disalign by
Brownian motion as indicated at 124 on the curve. When they are
partially disaligned, a shorter pulse may be applied to cause the
particles to realign following the transmittance time graph shown
at 125.
FIG. 22 shows the application of a series of A.C. voltage pulses of
amplitude E.sub.z in which the time duration t' is so short that
only partial alignment is obtained during each pulse as shown by
the segments of the transmittance time graph, FIG. 21, at 126, 127,
and 128. Corresponding A.C. voltage pulses 129, 130 and 131
respectively are applied with a repetition rate of 1/t" pulses per
second. These pulses cause a maximum alignment to be achieved bit
by bit. Moreover, once the alignment has been attained, the
alignment is maintained by the application of pulses of even
shorter duration or lower amplitude.
A maximum peak voltage applied for a small time duration enables
the particles to be quickly oriented into parallel position in the
field. When the pulse discontinues the relaxation time is
relatively long, as shown in FIG. 20, so that considerable time may
intervene before particles are substantially oriented away from the
parallel position. Thereafter, a pulse of relatively shorter
duration or lesser voltage is sufficient to reestablish
alignment.
If A.C. or D.C. electric fields are applied continuously they first
orient the particles into parallel alignment; then, since the
neighboring particles have absolute induced charges on their
adjacent faces, the closest particles are drawn into contact,
causing coagulation of the dipole suspension, rendering it
inoperable. To avoid this coagulation, peak voltages below
electrical breakdown of the shortest duration time, sufficient to
cause the particles to orient, may be applied to establish maximum
orientation in the least time. Thereafter, alignment may be
maintained indefinitely and coagulation avoided by the application
of a voltage pulse of suitable peak intensity and duration just
sufficient to maintain alignment and counterbalance the effects of
Brownian disorientation.
Pulses which may be employed may be D.C. pulses, or voltage pulses
alternating in polarity of the type shown in FIG. 21, in which the
pulse is an envelope for an alternating field of greater frequency
as shown in FIG. 22. For example, in FIG. 22 the pulse length t' is
10 microseconds, and the time t" is 100 microseconds, then the
alternating frequency of the electric field may be 10 megacycles;
which would provide 100 alternations in the pulse. All the pulses
may be of the same voltage. Alternatively, the initial pulse may be
of a high voltage to align the particles quickly, and the
subsequent pulses may be of smaller voltage or shorter time
duration.
DIPOLE REFLECTIVE ABSORPTIVE PANEL
In another embodiment, this invention is useful in the form of a
panel which becomes reflective on applying a voltage and absorptive
when the voltage is removed.
A reflective-absorptive panel shown in FIG. 10 in fragmentary
fashion comprises a cell enclosed in part by parallel glass plates,
52, 53. Plate 52 is provided with a transparent conductive coating
56, and plate 51 is coated with a conductive coating 88 which is a
mirror such as a metallic coating. The cell is filled with a
suspension of dipole particles 50, for example, herapathite
particles, suspended in a suitable medium 51. The medium 51 may be,
for example, a plasticizer such as dibutyl sebacate or the like.
When a voltage is applied between coating 56 and coating 88, the
particles 50 are aligned normal to glass plates 52, 53 and parallel
with the direction of an incident light ray 59, so that light which
enters through transparent plate 52 (and coating 56) is transmitted
through the suspension, reflected from the mirror surface of
coating 88, and transmitted back out through the suspension as a
specular reflection 60. When the applied voltage is zero, the
dipole particles disalign and the panel becomes absorptive (dark).
Thus by applying a voltage from zero to the maximum aligning
voltage, the panel may be regulated from highly absorptive (black)
to reflective (silvery) or any condition between, as partially
absorptive and partially reflective.
DIPOLE IRIS DIAPHRAGM
An iris, electrically controllable to any given diameter is shown
in FIGS. 11 to 13. Referring to FIG. 11 there is shown a pair of
point electrodes 89, 90 along the same axis in the Z direction in
the center of the field, one near each face of the cell 91. When an
electrical potential is applied between the point electrodes 89,
90, no effect is observed until the potential reaches a threshold
value which depends on the chacteristics of the cell 91 and of the
suspension. When the threshold voltage is reached, a small
transparent spot 92 appears between the electrodes 89, 90. The
diameter of the transparent spot 92 may be reversibly increased or
decreased by increasing or decreasing the separation between the
electrodes or by increasing or decreasing the applied voltage or
both.
By the way of example, a transparent circular spot surrounded by a
very dark area 93 approximately 8mm in diameter can be made to
appear in a herapathite suspension by applying a 60 Hz A.C.
potential difference and 5,000 volts or about 10KHz and 500 volts
across electrodes 89, 90 spaced 3mm apart.
As shown in FIG. 12, the apparatus comprises a cell 91 enclosed in
part by transparent plates 52, 53 filled with a suspension of
dipole particles 50 in fluid 51 and equipped with two pairs of
electrodes 89, 90. X-orienting electrodes 95, 96 are located at
opposite edges of the cell 91 and are optional, depending on the
service in which the apparatus is to be employed. Z-orienting
electrodes 89, 90 are centrally located at or near the outer
surfaces of transparent plates 52 and 53 respectively.
If the dipole suspension is initially in the random condition, the
entire field of view is opaque. When a suitable voltage is applied
between electrodes 89 and 90, a transparent spot 92 appears between
them, the size of which depends on the electric potential
difference and the spacing between the tips of electrodes 89 and
90. The dipoles 50 within the transparent spot are Z oriented by
the applied field, while the dipoles outside the spot are outside
the force field and remain randomly oriented. For this mode of
operation, X orienting electrodes 95, 96 are not needed and may be
omitted altogether.
The line of demarcation between the transparent spot 92 and the
dark randomized area 93 surrounding it, is quite sharp. There is a
critical initial electric field intensity required to start the
formation of a small central transparent spot. The rim of the
transparent circular area shows an abrupt change from transparent
to opaque, (see FIG. 13).
In applying a field between point electrodes 89, 90 along the Z
axis, the field intensity is greatest along the axis and then
decreases as the distance radius from Z axis increases. The sharp
line of demarcation between the transparent to the opaque areas
appears to occur at that radius from the Z axis at which the field
intensity falls below the critical field intensity required to
cause the Z alignment.
The aligned dipoles also produce a counterfield which tends to
offset the applied field. The counterfield of the aligned dipoles
thus modifies the applied field.
When a step D.C. electric field is applied, the Z alignment within
the dipole iris may be momentarily established, but then disappears
due to the formation of the shielding field produced by ion
migration to the outer surfaces of the dipole layer. A light pulse
thus occurs. However, the dipole iris is permanently maintained by
the application of an A.C. electric field. While 60 Hz A.C. for
example, is very satisfactory, a greater frequency such as 5-10 KHz
is preferred because of much smaller operating voltage.
A constant D.C. electric field may be employed when the axial
electrodes 89, 90 are in contact with the dipole suspension layer.
This continuously drains off ions which may be present in the
suspending fluid and prevents the establishment of an ionic
shielding field. A dipole iris of controllable diameter requires
that the electrodes 89 and 90 be sufficiently far apart to
establish an electric field of suitable intensity and diameter.
If the dipoles in the suspension layer are oriented in the X
direction by a voltage applied between electrodes 95, 96 as shown
in FIG. 12, the cell is partially transparent, transmitting and
polarizing about 45 percent of the incident light. The layer has
light-polarizing properties of about 45 percent of the incident
light. The layer has light-polarizing properties, because of the X
orientation of the dipoles.
If, when the cell is in the condition described and illustrated in
FIG. 12, the voltage to the X oriented electrodes 95, 96 is cut
off, the dipoles will retain their X orientation for a small time
interval before appreciable randomization takes place. This time
interval depends on the characteristics of the suspension,
particularly on the viscosity of the suspending fluid and the
dipole particle dimensions.
If, after the voltage to X orienting electrodes 95, 96 is
discontinued, a voltage is immediately thereafter applied across Z
orienting electrodes 89 and 90 a transparent spot 92 will again
appear in the center of the cell, between electrodes 89 and 90.
This phase is illustrated in FIG. 13, showing a transparent spot 92
which transmits light along the Z axis without polarization leaving
the area 97 outside of the spot 92 partially transparent and
polarizing, instead of opaque as in FIG. 11. This result is
obtained because the particles unaffected by the field between Z
orienting electrodes 89 and 90 still retain their initial X
orienting in the area 97. The condition shown in FIG. 13 can be
made to persist using a fluid of medium or high viscosity; or
permanently if the fluid is solidified.
The appearance of the cell 91 in this mode of operation is also
characterized by an opaque ring 93 defining the borderline between
the fully transparent interior of the spot 92 and the partially
transparent, polarizing area 97 outside the spot. Inside the spot
92, the dipole particles 50 are Z oriented. Outside the spot, the
particles are X oriented. In the dark band there exists an opaque
"pseudo-random" orientation, characteristic of particles in
transition from X or Y to Z orientation, or vice versa.
An apparatus of this type provides a field of view comprising a
fully-illuminated non-polarizing central pupil surrounded by a
partially transparent, polarizing general field, and a dark line of
demarcation between the two in the form of a dark ring 93
separating the central pupil 92 from the surrounding field. An
element having these characteristics is a useful component for
optical range finders, gunsights, navigational instruments and the
like.
DIPOLE "CURTAIN SHUTTER"
FIGS. 14-16 inclusive show cross-sectional views, and 17 and 18
front views of a dipole curtain shutter. A pair of X or Y orienting
electrodes in the form of parallel bus bars 110,111 are placed at
the opposite edges of a rectangular cell 100 containing a dipole
suspension layer between spaced transparent electrodes 106,109.
The dipole curtain effect may be applied to what is herein termed a
dipole curtain shutter, the operation of which will be understood
in connection with FIGS. 14-18.
FIG. 14 shows the cell initially in a random, opaque condition.
When a voltage is applied between the bus bar electrodes and
gradually increased after the threshold value is reached, the
dipoles 50 closest to the bus bars become oriented in the X-Y
plane, producing a narrow, transparent (and polarizing) strip near
each of the electrodes. The oriented dipoles nearest the bus bar
electrodes then act as secondary electrodes (see FIGS. 15-18), and
these, in turn, cause orientation of particles still farther away.
The effect produced is that of a shrinking opaque "curtain", which
leaves behind it a transparent strip of a width which is a function
of time, applied voltage difference, particle size and fluid
viscosity.
Referring to FIG. 14, there is shown a dipole cell 100 containing a
suspension of dipoles 50 between transparent members 102 and 103.
The transparent member 102, for example, may comprise two
transparent glass or plastic sheets 104 and 105 laminated together
with a transparent conductive film 106 therebetween. In a similar
manner, transparent member 103 may comprise transparent glass or
plastic sheets 107 and 108 with a transparent conducting film 109
laminated therebetween.
Spaced X orienting electrodes 110 and 111 are supported
respectively within insulating transparent or opaque blocks 98 and
99. Blocks 98 and 99 serve to insulate the electrodes 110 and 111.
In addition, the transparent glass sheets 105 and 108 serve to
insulate the transparent conducting films 106 and 109 from each
other and from the electrodes 110 and 111. In FIG. 14 the field
configuration is shown when a voltage is applied to the electrodes
110 and 111. The electrostatic field lines 113 and 114 issuing
respectively from electrodes 110 and 111 have only a relatively
short range of effect upon the dipole suspension in the immediate
vicinity of the electrodes. In effect the field is shorted by the
transparent conductive films 106 and 109. The result is that the
central region between the transparent members 102, 103 generally
indicated as 116 is effectively field free. The dipole particles
are in random direction and hence opaque to light.
If the suspension was initially in the disoriented state, an
alignment of the dipoles will initially occur in the vicinity of
the electrodes 110 and 111. However, as soon as the dipoles closest
to the electrodes 110 and 111 are aligned, the electrostatic field
is effectively moved toward the central area 116 as shown in FIG.
15. In fact, the aligned particles tend to act as a pathway for the
electrostatic lines of force which then travel along the aligned
particles leaving a smaller central strip 116a still in the random
condition. This process continues, the dipole particles 50 aligning
in succession like a series of falling dominoes, so that the field
free central region 116a becomes smaller and smaller and the planes
at which alignment is occuring continue to approach each other
until the condition shown in FIG. 16 prevails in which all of the
dipole particles 50 between the electrodes 110, 111 are aligned in
the X direction.
FIG. 17 is a front view of the condition shown in FIG. 15 showing
two horizontally X aligned areas 112 and 115, and a central
disaligned area or band 116. The areas 112 and 115 generally have a
transmittance of between 15 percent and 45 percent and strongly
polarize light. The central band 116 forms a black absorbing strip
having a transmittance of the order of 0.01 to 1 percent.
Assuming no voltage initially, and the particles in a random state,
the application of the voltage along the X axis causes the black
absorbing band 116 to become progressively narrower until it
disappears, the entire cell then being uniformly oriented and
transparent to light polarized with the H vector parallel to the
orientation direction of the dipole particles.
FIG. 18 shows another mode of operation.
As a first step the cell shown in FIG. 14 may be rendered initially
transparent by applying an electric field along the Z axis which
aligns the dipoles normal to the face of the cell; and then as a
second step FIG. 18, an electric field is applied along the X axis.
When these steps are taken, the dipole particles in the strips 112
and 115 in the vicinity of the X orienting electrodes 110 and 111
attempt to realign themselves in the X direction but first pass
through a random state of very low transmittance as shown in strips
117 and 118.
As this process continues, the central area 116b in FIG. 18, which
was initially transparent, becomes narrower and narrower. On both
sides of the transparent strip 116b there are dark strips 117 and
118 which are in that random phase through which the initially Z
oriented particles pass to become X oriented particles.
As the process continues further, the transparent band 116b becomes
narrower and narrower, finally merging into a single central dark
band. As the strip areas 117 and 118 come together and merge,
transparent area 116b disappears; thereafter, all of the randomly
directed particles in the dark central band produced by merging of
bands 116 and 117 disappear, and the entire cell then contains
dipole particles which are X oriented.
When the sequence just described is complete, all of the dipole
particles are oriented in the X direction and the cell is partially
transparent and polarizing. From this condition the cell may be
switched as desired to either an opaque or a transmitting
non-polarizing condition, by application of a suitable voltage
pulse between Z orienting electrodes via the transparent conductive
films 106, 109.
If it is desired to switch the cell from the X orientation to an
opaque condition, the electric field in the Z direction is applied
between the transparent electrodes 106, 109 in a short pulse. The
short pulse swings the dipole particles part of the way from the X
toward the Z orientation, but is discontinued before the
orientation is complete, leaving the dipoles in an intermediate
random condition. The cell is then opaque, and is either absorptive
or diffusely reflective, depending upon the characteristics of the
particular dipole suspension used.
If it is desired to switch from partially transparent X orientation
to a fully transparent condition, it is necessary only to apply the
electric field between the Z orienting electrodes, via the
transparent conducting films 106, 109, in a longer pulse of
sufficient duration to allow the oriented action in the Z
direction, and the cell to become fully transparent. FIG. 19
graphically illustrates the operation of this cell.
A dipole curtain shutter of the type just described is useful in a
variety of ways, among which may be mentioned exposure control and
masking in photographic processes, as a light control element for
displays, etc.
COMPACT LIQUID DIPOLE SHUTTER
FIGS. 38 and 39 show exploded views of still another embodiment of
the present invention, comprising two cells, 119 and 120, each
containing a suspension of dipole particles 50 in a transparent
medium 51. Each of the cells is enclosed by suitable enclosure
means including transparent walls of glass or the like which are
omitted in this view for purposes of clarity.
Each of the two cells 119, 120, is located between a pair of
electrically conductive, transparent films. The films 106 and 109
are located on either side of cell 119 and films 106a and 109a are
located on either side of cell 120. The conductive films may be
enclosed in and protected by walls of glass or the like in the
manner set forth above in connection with FIGS. 14, 15 and 16.
Where appropriate, a single sheet of glass, transparent plastic or
the like may serve as one of the enclosing walls of one of the
cells and simultaneously as one of the enclosing and protecting
walls for a neighboring conductive film. In certain cases the
conductive film forms a layer on the glass surface in direct
contact with the dipole suspension layer.
FIG. 38 shows the cells 119, 120 in the transparent condition. This
condition is brought about by orientation of dipole particles 50 in
a "Z" direction, normal to the faces of cells 119 and 120, and
hence parallel with the direction of an incident light ray 121. In
order to effect this orientation, a voltage is imposed between
conductive films 106, 109, and 106a, 109a, in both cells. The
voltage between the films 106 and 109 orients the dipole particles
in the cells 119, 120. The voltage is applied to the conductive
films by suitable leads electrically connected to bus bars 101a,
101b, 101c, 101d or the like in the form of metallic strips along
the edges of the conducting films 106, 109, 106a, 109a. Strip 101b
along the top of film 109, is connected as shown to one side of a
voltage source, which may be an A.C. or D.C. generator or the like
(not shown), and a charge is thereby imparted to the whole surface
of conductive film 109. Strip 101a, along the bottom of film 106,
is connected to the other side of the same voltage source and film
106 thereby acquires an opposite charge. The opposiing charges of
the two films set up an electrical field in the Z direction
indicated by the arrows, and this field is effective to orient
dipole particles 50 parallel with the arrows, thus making the cell
transparent.
In similar manner, strip 101c on the right edge of film 106a, is
connected to the one end of the voltage source and strip 101d on
the left edge of film 109a is connected to the other, thus
generating a similar electric field through cell 120, and orienting
the dipole particles therein also in the Z direction.
When it is desired to switch the shutter to an opaque condition,
the electrical connections are switched to the arrangement, shown
in FIG. 39. With the apparatus in this condition, strip 101b, on
the top edge of cell 119, is connected to one side of the voltage
source, and strip 101a, on the bottom edge of cell 119 is connected
(through ground) to the other, thus setting up an orienting
electric field within the cell in the vertical or Y direction.
If conductive films 106 and 109 were widely spaced as illustrated
in FIGS. 38 and 39, the electric field applied across the dipole
layer alone would be sufficient to orient dipole particles 59 in
the vertical or Y direction, as shown. FIGS. 38 and 39, however,
are exploded views, and for the sake of compactness films 106 and
109 should be located in close proximity to the surfaces of the
dipole suspension layer. When so located, the conductive films 106
and 109 whould tend to deflect the field by "short-circuiting" the
lines of force, thereby causing the field to bypass the interior of
the cell, leaving no field throughout most of the cell area to
orient dipole particles 50 along the X or Y axes. To overcome this
effect, strip 101b along the top of film 109, is also connected to
the one side of the voltage source and strip 101a, along the bottom
thereof, to the other. The conductive films have an optimum
resistivity per square which limits current and ohmic heating to a
low value, yet provides a current shield sufficient to provide a
uniform voltage gradient in the X or Y directions. This shield
causes a direct or alternating current to flow through film 109 in
or against the direction indicated by the arrows. Similarly, strip
101b, on the top of film 109, is connected to the one end of the
voltage source and strip 101a, on the bottom thereof, to the other
side of the voltage source, thus causing current flow in film 109.
The effect of the current flow in films 106 and 109 is to prevent
their functioning as conductive paths for the electric field
between strips 101a and 101b. Consequently, the electric field
gradient is produced parallel to the X or Y axes, which is
effective to orient the particles as indicated in FIG. 39.
In similar fashion, an electric field is generated in cell 120 by
connecting strip 101c, on the right edge thereof to one side of the
voltage source and strip 101d, on the left edge, to the other.
Short-circuiting of the electric field is avoided and an electric
field gradient is established in the cell parallel to the X or Y
axes by connecting strip 101c to the one end of the voltage source
and strip 101d to the other, thus causing current flow through
films 106a and 109a, respectively, in or against the direction
indicated by the arrows.
With the cell in the opaque condition, as illustrated in FIG. 39,
the dipole particles in cell 120 are oriented in the horizontal or
X direction, and the dipole particles in cell 119 are oriented in
the Y direction. The opaquing effect is the same as excluding light
by crossed polarizers.
For the type of cell illustrated ijn FIGS. 38 and 39, best
advantage can be taken of the "crossed" condition of the two cells
in the opaque state, by using a light polarizing type of dipole
particle, such as a suspension of herapathite crystals in a
transparent, inert, non-conductive fluid, as hereinafter set forth
in Example A. Alternatively, the suspension may comprise metallic
dipoles in a fluid, as hereinafter described.
The conductive films 106, 109 and 106a and 109a may be any suitable
transparent electrically conductive film as previously described
herein.
The cell illustrated in exploded form in FIGS. 38 and 39 is shown
in assembled form in FIGS. 40 and 41. In FIGS. 40 and 41, some of
the electrical connections illustrated in FIGS. 38 and 39 have been
omitted, and the transparent plates of glass, transparent plastic
or the like, forming part of the shutter assembly, have been
included. Thus, in FIG. 40, the cell is seen to comprise a first
glass plate 133, and a second glass plate 134, with conductive film
106 laminated between them. Second plate 134 serves also as one of
the containing walls of cell 119. The opposite facing wall of cell
119 is a third glass plate 135. Conductive films 109 is laminated
between plate 135 and a fourth plate 136. Similarly, conductive
film 106a is laminated between plate 136 and a fifth plate 137,
which also serves as one of the containing walls for cell 120. The
opposite facing wall of cell 120 is a sixth plate 138. Conductive
film 109a is laminated between plate 138 and a seventh plate 139.
It will be understood that the relative dimensions are distorted in
FIG. 40 for purposes of clarity, and the entire assembly may be,
and preferably is, quite thin -- for example having an overall
thickness of 6mm, while the width as viewed from the front (as in
FIG. 39) may be 60mm or more. In FIG. 40 the dipoles in layers 140
and 141 are shown oriented the same as in the exploded view of FIG.
39, for the opaque state.
Another embodiment of the compact liquid dipole shutter according
to the present invention is illustrated in exploded perspective in
FIGS. 42 and 43. In this design, only one cell is used. In the
transparent state shown in FIG. 43, all of the dipole particles 50
are oriented normal to the faces of cell 142, in the Z direction,
in essentially the same manner as illustrated for the two cells 119
and 120 of FIGS. 38. Thus to render the shutter transparent, metal
strip 143 at the top of conductive film 109 is connected to the one
side of a voltage source, so that film 109 acquires a charge. Strip
144, at the bottom of conductive film 106, is connected to the
other side of the voltage source, and film 106 thus acquires an
opposite charge. The two oppositely charged films create an
electrical field effective to orient the particles in the Z
orientation, as shown.
When it is desired to switch the shutter of FIG. 43 to the opaque
condition, the electrical connections are switched to the
arrangement shown in FIG. 42. When so connected, bus bar 101 at the
top of cell 142 is connected to one side of the voltage source, and
bus bar 101a at the bottom thereof, connected to the opposite side,
setting up an electric field effective to orient dipole particles
50 in the vertical or Y direction. Simultaneously, diversion of the
electric field due to the presence of conductive films 106 and 109
is avoided by connecting strips 143 and 145 to bus bar 101 and
strips 144 and 146 to the bus bar 101a, thereby causing a current
to flow in each of the conductive films 106, and 109. In connection
with FIG. 42 it is preferred to induce the opaque random state by a
voltage pulse of suitable amplitude and duration, as explained in
connection with FIG. 19.
In this type of shutter, in order to achieve a large
electrodichroic ratio, it is important to provide dipole particles
having suitable electrodichroic characteristics. One type of
dipolar particle which may be employed in a cell such as shown in
FIG. 43 is a metal flake, for example a suspension of minute flakes
of aluminum or the like. Such flakes may be prepared by chopping or
milling a thin, aluminum layer, preferably while the same is
carried on a suitable carrier film such as a soluble polymer film
or the like, and then dissolving away the carrier film and
concentrating the desired size fraction by centrifugation.
When a suspension of flakes is oriented by a field parallel to the
path of incident light rays, as shown in FIG. 43, the particles are
aligned edgewise to the incident light, and the suspension is
transparent.
When, on the other hand, the particles are oriented by a field
parallel to the Y axis, as in FIG. 42, the major axes of the
particles are vertically oriented, while the minor axes are
randomly arranged in the horizontal plane. The effect might be
likened to a roomful of panels each hung by a single string from
the ceiling, and the passage of light is effectively prevented.
DIPOLE SHUTTER WITH SPACED ELEMENTS
The dipole shutters just described, and illustrated in FIGS. 38 to
43 inclusive, have the advantage in that they may be compact.
However, a small current must be drawn which does not constitute a
disadvantage in most applications. Where a very small power drain
is a primary factor and compactness is a secondary factor, the
embodiment of the invention illustrated in FIG. 44 may be
utilized.
FIG. 44 shows a shutter comprising a pair of spaced conductive
loops or rings 75 and 76, which may be of any conductive material,
for example copper. In the space between the rings are two cells
147 and 148.
Cell 147 is enclosed by transparent glass walls 149 and 150, spaced
by annular gasket 151. In the interior of the cell, within the
central space bounded by walls 149 and 150 and gasket 151, is a
suspension of dipole particles 50 in a transparent, non-conductive
fluid medium. The suspension may advantageously be a suspension of
herapathite dipoles as described in Example A.
Cell 148 is of construction similar to cell 147, and is bounded by
transparent glass walls 152 and 153 and gasket 154. Cell 148
contains a dipole particle suspension similar to that contained in
cell 147.
Electrodes 155 and 156 are provided at opposite side edges of cell
147, and electrodes 157 and 158 are provided at the top and bottom,
respectively, of cell 148.
The electrical system comprises a source of electrical potential
(not shown), having one side indicated at 159 and the other as
ground 160.
Various switches or relays or a single multiple-throw switch, are
provided as indicated at A,B at various points in the figure.
When the shutter is to be made transparent all switches are thrown
to the "B" position indicated in the drawing. This causes ring 76
to be connected to one side of the voltage source and ring 75 to
the other side. The electrodes 155, 156, 157 and 158 are
disconnected from the voltage source in this phase of operation.
The result of the connection of rings 75 and 76 as just indicated
is to impart one charge to ring 76 and an opposite charge to ring
75. This arrangement sets up an electrostatic force field through
the cells in the direction indicated by the dashed lines 161a,
generally parallel with the path of an incident light ray indicated
at 161. The force field orients the long direction of the dipole
particles in both cells in the same direction as the light ray and
renders the shutter transparent.
When it is desired to make the shutter opaque, the switches are
thrown to the position in which they are actually illustrated (the
"A" position in each case). This position disconnects rings 75 and
76 from the voltage source 159, and connects electrodes 156 and 157
to the one side of the voltage source. The result is to set up a
vertically directed electric field in cell 148, and a horizontally
directed field in cell 147, and the field in each case being
parallel with the transparent walls of the cell. The long
directions of the dipole particles are thereby cross-oriented,
those in cell 148 being vertically oriented and those in cell 147
horizontally oriented. The incident light is thereby effectively
blocked. In one embodiment of the present invention the dipole
particles employed are minute elongated crystals of herapathite.
The electrodichroic ratio of such a shutter is particularly high,
ratios of 12 and greater being obtainable.
In order to prevent the conductive rings 75 and 76 from
"short-circuiting" the electric field lines and thus diverting the
field away from the interiors of the cells, each ring should be
separated from the cell nearest it by a suitable air gap, or some
transparent insulating material (indicated as distance d in FIG.
44). Also, to prevent shorting of the field between electrodes 156
and 157, or between electrodes 155 and 158, there should be
provided an air gap or other transparent insulating means between
cell 147 and 148, also indicated in the drawing as an air gap of
width d. The magnitude of d, or the insulating value of other
insulating means employed, depends primarily on the voltage of the
field, and the distance between electrodes 156 and 157, or 155 and
159, respectively and whether air or other medium is employed. For
a typical shutter having an aperture, or cell diameter of 3cm, and
using a dipole suspension having a resistivity of 30 megohm-cm, and
a maximum voltage just under breakdown in the range of about
30kv/cm, a spacing of 3cm between each ring and its neighboring
cell gives satisfactory results. The spacing between cells should
ordinarily be approximately the same as the spacing between the
cells and the rings.
It may be noted that current flow is not required either in
rendering the shutter transparent or opaque. Although high voltages
are required, the only power loss results from the usually small
leakage current in a well designed shutter, so that the power
demand is very small notwithstanding the voltages involved.
PULSE CIRCUITS
FIG. 45 shows an electronic circuit employed for the application of
D.C. pulses of a large voltage across a dipole cell.
In FIG. 45 a switch 161 operates a conventional pulser 162. This
pulser produces a positive 50 volt rectangular D.C. pulse 163 of
controlled duration which has a rise time of about 1
microsecond.
The intermediate pulse amplifier 164 is to increase the amplitude
of the voltage pulse 163 from +50 volts to +200 volt pulse 165.
FIG. 46 shows the intermediate pulse circuit amplifier 164, with
the values of its components.
The 200 volt pulse 165 applied to the control grid of the high
voltage pulse amplifier circuit 166 results in an output negative
4,000 volt pulse 167 having a pulse duration which is controlled by
the pulser 162. FIG. 47 shows the circuit and component values of
the high voltage pulse amplifier 160. The high voltage pulse 167 is
applied to the transparent electrodes 168 and 169 of the dipole
cell 170 which is shown schematically in FIG. 45. Between the
transparent conductive layers 168 and 169, a dipole suspension
layer 171 is provided. The construction of the cell may be
generally similar to that shown in FIG. 1.
In the tests made and illustrated herein the graphs of FIGS. 31
through 35 inclusive, a single rectangular D.C. pulse was applied
and the effect observed upon a light beam from a suitable light
source. The light beam passed through the dipole cell 170 to a
photocell (not shown) which was amplified by a logarithmic
amplifier and viewed on a storage oscilloscope, which displays a
single transient.
The storage oscilloscope was triggered by the voltage pulse applied
to the dipole cell. A curve of transmittance versus time was
displayed and photographs obtained from which the graphs of FIGS.
31-35 were made.
Other well known circuits may be employed. In place of the pulser
162, there may be employed a frequency-pulse generator which can
put out any of the voltage pulses shown in FIGS. 19 to 22,
inclusive, which may be suitably applied to the X,Y or Z electrodes
to obtain the required optical response.
POLARIZERS
A polarizing medium results if the fluid layer shown in FIG. 12 is
solidified (as by cooling if the fluid is a thermoplastic or a
glass). For example, the dipoles may be metal needles, such as
platinum, and the medium a low melting point low viscosity glass,
such as "solder glass".
The dipole particles utilized in polarizers according to this
invention differ from those of prior art polarizers such as the
Polaroid "J" polarizers which were an oriented herapathite
suspension in cellulose acetate butyrate. The dipoles of the
present invention are controlled in size and shape to close
tolerances, whereas those of the prior art were of random size and
shape. Consequently, polarizers produced in accordance with this
invention have a greater percent transmission and a greater percent
polarization with little perceptible light scatter. Light scatter
was a particularly serious disadvantage of prior art polarizers and
was a result of the process of manuacture in which larger particles
were produced in situ.
PREPARATION OF DIPOLE SUSPENSIONS
The state of the prior art was unsatisfactory in relation to the
preparation of asymmetric particle suspensions having
electro-optical properties suitable for utility for the present
invention. The mathematical section hereinafter sets forth the
ranges of physical variables of dipolar particle suspensions which
provides electro-optical properties suitable for the purposes of
this invention. As a result of the specifications provided by this
mathematical analysis, certain novel compositions and methods of
preparation of dipole particle suspensions suitable for practice of
this invention were discovered, examples of which follow:
PREPARATION OF SUBMICRON HERAPATHITE CRYSTALS
To produce submicron herapathite crystals in high concentration in
a low viscosity suspending fluid, which form an optically clear,
non-scattering dipole particle suspension of suitable
electrodichroic ratio and sensitivity, the reacting solutions
should be:
1. miscible
2. near maximum concentration
3. at low viscosity
4. at low temperature
5. rapidly mixed in reacting proportions
6. violently agitated
An example follows:
EXAMPLE A
No. 1 Parts by Weight Iodine 20 Normal propanol 80 Total 100
The iodine is dissolved in the normal propanol by heating and
shaking.
No. 2 Quinine Bisulphate 32.5 Methanol 67.5 Total 100
For complete solution warm with agitation in a hot water bath to
about 70.degree..
No. 3 Nitrocellulose, 5-6 second type RS (solids) 12.5 Isopropyl
Alcohol 5.5 Isopropyl Acetate 16.0 Toluol 16.0 Methanol 50.0 Total
100.0
Solutions Nos. 2 and 3 are then heated to 70.degree.C and used to
prepare No. 4.
No. 4 Material % Solution %Solids No. 2 Quinine Bisulphate 32.5
12.5 4.06 No. 3 Nitrocellulose 12.5 60.6 7.55 Methanol 13.0 Butyl
Acetate 14.0 Total 100.0 11.61
This solution is then warmed to 70.degree.C and pressure filtered
at the same temperature to remove any small undissolved crystal
which would act as nuclei for crystallization.
Solutions Nos. 1 and 4 are then mixed in proportion and rapidly
mixed in a container cooled by an acetone dry-ice bath. The result
is:
No. 5 Before Reaction After Reaction % Solids Solids % Solids No. 1
9 pts. Iodine 20.0 1.8 (Quinine Bisulphate) 4.06 3.7 5.5 IQS 44.4
No. 4 91 pts. (Nitrocellulose ) 7.55 6.87 N/C 55.6 Total 100 5.5
12.37 100.0
While Solution No. 5 is being prepared, akyl epoxy stearate
(Celluflex-23) a high boiling solvent also known as a "plasticizer"
is cooled in an ice bath to 0.degree.C, and added in the following
proportions to make a paste containing the submicron herapathite
particles in suspension:
No. 6 Paste % Pts. Material Solids Solids Solution (Iodoquinine
4.24 Sus- 13. No. 5 77 Sulphate) pended Cellu- Nitrocellulose 5.30
Sol- 16.3 flex-23 23 Celluflex-23 23.0 ution 70.7 Total 100 32.54
100.0
No. 6 is then mixed with a mechanical stirrer for about 10 minutes
to insure complete reaction and homogenity. After this, to remove
the volatile solvents, the suspension No. 6 is placed in a rotating
evacuator for about two hours and a paste is then obtained which is
substantially free from solvents except the plasticizer and which
has a resistivity of at least 30 megohm-cm.
The analysis of the paste resulting from No. 6 after the volatiles
have been removed is:
No. 7 % by Wt. Iodoquinine Sulphate 13.0 Nitrocellulose 16.3
Celluflex 23 70.7 Total 100.0
As a diluent for the paste there is then prepared:
No. 8 Xylol 80 parts Butyl Acetate 20 parts Total 100.0 No. 9 No. 7
50 parts No. 8 50 parts Total 100 parts
A solids analysis of No. 9 is as follows:
Solids % Solids Iodoquinine Sulphate 6.5 44.3 Nitrocellulose 8.15
55.7 Total 14.65 100.0
% Solids Total -- 14.65%
% IQS in Suspension--6.5%
No. 9 may be used directly or be centrifuged to obtain a
supernatent liquid for use in an electrodichroic system.
A herapathite suspension prepared in this manner is characterized
by elongated submicron crystals of herapathite, which remain in
suspension without settling and which is suitable for use as a
dipole particle suspension in the practice of this invention.
Chemically herapathite is quinine trisulphate dihydroiodide
tetraiodide hexahydrate, the chemical name for 4C.sub.20 H.sub.24
O.sub.2 N.sub.2 .sup.. 3H.sub.2 SO.sub.4 .sup.. 2HI .sup.. I.sub.4
.sup.. 6H.sub.2 O. The molecular weight 2,464.
Stoichiometrically herapathite contains approximately 25.8 percent
of iodine which is approximately a ratio of iodine to quinine
bisulphate of 1/3.
However, I have found that the proportions can be varied from
one-half through one-fourth. This is apparently due to herapathite
being a molecular compound or a mixed crystal in which the
proportion of the components may vary.
Moreover, the HI in the compound is present in the proportion of
two moles of quinine to one of HI. The heating of the iodine
solution No. 1 usually suffices to provide sufficient HI as set
forth in the above example. The presence of HI in stoichiometric
quantities is required to form a stable crystalline compound. An
additional quantity of HI may be added to achieve the molar ratio
set forth.
Generally I have found the composition of Example A to be
satisfactory, and this composition has been used in most of the
tests.
FLAKE DIPOLE SUSPENSIONS
To prepare metallic flakes for use as dipole particles, a layer of
metal is deposited, for example, by known vacuum deposition
techniques, on a film of plastic or other convenient substrate, and
the substrate is subsequently dissolved, thus causing the metal
film to be suspended as a flake in the solvent. The suspended film
is then chopped to flakes of the desired size.
EXAMPLE B
ALUMINUM FLAKE SUSPENSIONS
Aluminum flake suspensions were prepared in silicone oils utilizing
irregularly shaped flake-like aluminum particles of a diameter
between 1 to 17 microns and a thickness about 0.01 to 0.1 microns.
Two different suspensions were prepared:
Material Density Viscosity Parts of Weight Aluminum Flake 5
Silicone Oil 0.65 10 Silicone Oil 3.0 50 Silicone Oil 1000.0 35
Total 100
Viscosity: -- 23 cs
Concentration: 0.05 gms Al per gm suspension
The aluminum is put into suspension by shaking the mixture at room
temperature.
EXAMPLE C
THIN ALUMINUM FLAKE SUSPENSIONS
A new method of preparing ultrathin aluminum flake suspensions has
been developed. Aluminum flakes 1-17 microns in diameter, and 0.01
to 1.0 micron in thickness are used as the starting point. A
suspension is prepared by adding 48 grams of the aluminum flake
material to 300 cubic centimeters of di-iso-octyl adipate. This
mixture is then shaken and poured into a 500 cubic centimeter
graduated cylinder and allowed to settle. Most of the aluminum
flakes then settle to the bottom of the graduate. However, a small
portion of the flakes remain suspended in a thin layer at the top
of the graduate. This top layer then comprises ultrathin aluminum
flakes, approximately 0.01 micron in thickness. The layer is then
poured off and utilized for testing.
Thus, by means of this flotation method, the thinner flakes are
separated from the thicker flakes. These thin flakes may be further
separated and concentrated by centrifuging.
With the low viscosity, thin flake suspension, a large
electrodichroic ratio and large sensitivity is obtained.
EXAMPLE D
ULTRATHIN ALUMINUM FLAKE SUSPENSIONS
Another way to make thin flakes of aluminum or the like is to coat
a thin rubber or other stretchable sheet with a film of aluminum by
exposing it to aluminum vapor, until a film of 50-200 A thickness
has been built up. This sheet is then stretched to break up the
surface into flakes of aluminum. The underlying sheet is next
dissolved in order to place the flakes in suspension. Finally, the
large flakes are eliminated and the small flakes in the desired
size range are concentrated, by centrifugation. This technique can
also be employed using polyvinyl alchol or polyvinyl chloride
sheets by heating the sheets after the coating step, to facilitate
their being stretched.
The resulting suspension is suited for use in those embodiments of
the invention which require a suspension of dipoles in the form of
flakes - for example the Reflective-Absorptive panels discussed
earlier herein.
NEEDLE-LIKE METAL PARTICLES FROM STRETCHED POLYMERS
A method for the production of suspension metal rod dipole
particles is: dissolve a metal salt in a matrix of polyvinyl
alcohol, cast the solution as a polyvinyl alcohol film, soften and
stretch the film in known manner, reduce the metal salt to the
metal by exposure of the film to a reducing liquid or gas, and then
dissolve the polyvinyl alcohol in water.
NEEDLE-LIKE METAL DIPOLES FROM "WHISKERS"
Needle-shaped metallic dipoles may be formed from a metal such as
gold, platinum, paladium, chromium, tin or the like, which are
known to grow submicron-diameter crystal whiskers under appropriate
conditions, for example, from the vapor phase. These crystal
whiskers may then be incorporated into fluid to form a dipole
suspension. Such needles, if classified to a uniform length, may be
made sharply selective as to the wavelengths of light affected by
them. This property results from their large length-to-thickness
ratio and resistivity, as explained below. Such materials
constitute a new class of pigments different in effectiveness and
mode of operation from conventional pigments.
METHOD OF VAPOR PHASE GROWTH
In the vapor phase, factors controlling the growth of needle-like
whisker dipoles are partial pressure, temperature of the metal
vapor, temperature and nature of the deposition surface and the
time of growth. The growth usually occurs best under vacuum, or
inert gas such as helium or nitrogen, but in some cases as with
gold whiskers can be grown in air. Two gold sheets separated by a
few millimeters and by a few degrees temperature difference, held
in air at a temperature such as to generate an appreciable gold
partial vapor pressure, will cause gold whisker crystals to grow
normal to the surface of the cooler gold sheet. The dimensions of
the whiskers are such as to fall within the size ranges herein
specified. On cooling, the whiskers may be incorporated in a
plastic film formed by coating the surface of the gold sheet,
encompassing the whiskers. Upon drying, the film may be stripped
away and dissolved leaving the gold dipoles in suspension in the
fluid. This process may be performed continuously using an endless
belt of a material such as stainless steel, which is initially
provided with active sites for initiation of whisker growth.
METHOD OF LINEAR COOLING OR EUTECTIC MELT
Another important method is indirectional cooling of a eutectic
melt to precipitate oriented fibres. Examples are chromium fibres
(whiskers) grown in a copper matrix; and aluminum nickelide -
Al.sub.3 NI grown in an aluminum matrix. The matrix is then
dissolved in acid leaving behind the metal fibres which are washed
in a solvent, suspending in a fluid, chopped into suitable lengths
in a high speed blender, and centrifugally assorted into various
lengths. The chromium metal suspension reporter later herein was
prepared in this manner.
Submicron whiskers may be obtained by using small diameter melted
rods, such as 0.1 to 1cm minimum and large temperature gradients
over a similar axial distance.
FLAT CRYSTALS
Flakes made from crystalline material such as lead carbonate
(pearlescence) may be grown to any desired size by methods well
known to the art. These flakes have an index of refraction of about
2.4, and when placed in a fluid having an index of refraction of
about 1.5, are readily aligned by an electric field, and in the
equivalent of about 15-20 layers almost totally reflect visible
ultraviolet and near infrared radiation, when disoriented or
oriented in the plane of the cell wall or sheet; while being almost
completely transparent when aligned normal to the sheet
surface.
Zinc vapor will deposit submicron flat crystals on a substrate,
which can be dissolved away as above described, to yield a metal
flake suspension having a dipolar characteristic.
Graphite forms flat hexagonal flakes which, when suspensed in an
oil of small viscosity, show dipolar characteristics.
ANTENNA EFFECT
The submicron dipole particles of this invention may be described
as behaving like minute dipole antennae, exhibiting many of the
physical properties associated with the macroscopic dipole antennae
in a manner similar to those used for transmission and reception of
microwaves for television, radar signals and the like. The
submicron dipoles differ from these large antennae primarily in
that they are "tuned" to very much shorter wavelengths namely those
in the visible and neighboring portions of the electromagnetic
spectrum. Despite the difference in dimensions, certain dipole
particles of this invention behave toward light rays in the manner
very similar to that in which large dipole antennae behave toward
microwaves.
To review briefly the theory underlying this concept, light is an
electromagnetic wave having three functional attributes, which are
(1) amplitude or intensity, (2) wavelength or color, and (3)
polarization or the vibration direction at right angles to the
direction of propagation of the ray. Both television waves and
light waves are electromagnetic waves, and share the same
fundamental properties.
A half-wave dipole antenna, of the type used for television
reception, is responsive to all three attributes, and absorbs and
reradiates energy in a manner dependent on all three, depending on
its length, thickness, resistivity and angular orientation with
respect to the incident wave. In the same way a half-wave dipole
tuned to visible light is capable of controlling all three
attributes of light by varying its length, thickness, resistivity
and angular orientation.
The electric power absorbed from the radiation by the half-wave
dipole depends upon two orientation angles of the dipole. The first
angle, .phi., is that between the length of the dipole and the
direction of polarization of the signal. The direction of
polarization of an electromagnetic wave is herein defined as the
vibration plane of the electric vector of the wave. The second
angle .theta., is the angle between the long axis of the dipole and
the ray direction.
FIG. 24 shows, for a half-wave dipole antenna, a polar graph of
absorbed or reflected radiant power versus signal direction
.phi..
In FIG. 25 the radiation ray path is normal to the plane of the
diagram, and there is shown the angle between the dipole length and
the polarization direction .theta. versus the power absorbed or
reflected by the dipole.
The radiation interacting with the dipole depends upon two angles;
the angle between the length of the dipole and the ray path, and
the angle between the length of the dipole and the direction of the
electric vector of polarization of the ray.
Maximum absorbed or reflected radiant power results when the
antenna is aligned parallel to the polarized electric vector of the
radiation and at right angles to the signal path (.theta. = 0 and
.phi. = 90.degree.). The antenna absorbs or reflects no power when
it is placed at right angles to the polarized electric vector of
the radiation, or arranged parallel to the ray path.
When adjusted for a maximum absorption or reflection of radiant
power, a half-wave or .lambda./2 antenna is then said to become
resonant to the particular wavelength .lambda..
The power absorbed by the dipole from the radiant energy may be
reradiated, or absorbed and dissipated as heat, depending on the
length and width and the electrical resistance of the half-wave
dipole antenna.
If power is to be absorbed from the dipole antenna and utilized in
an outside electric circuit, as for example in a television set, a
matched or characteristic resistance of about 73 ohms must be
inserted at the center of the half-wave dipole antenna, as shown in
FIG. 26.
An antenna may be made of such material, thickness and length as to
achieve almost complete power absorption, or almost complete
reflection.
In FIG. 27 there is also shown a half-wave (.lambda./2) antenna in
which the central resistor is replaced by a single rod 172 having a
distributed resistance of approximately 80 ohms, which results in
total absorption of radiation in a wavelength range .DELTA..lambda.
centered about the wavelength .lambda..
Now, if instead of a half-wave antenna with a central resistor or
an equivalent distributed resistance, a half-wave antenna of low
resistance is employed, then the half-wave dipole antenna becomes
relfective for the full wavelength. The radiant power may be said
to be absorbed by the half-wave dipole and then reradiated in all
directions, with the intensity direction pattern shown in FIG.
24.
FIG. 28 illustrates a very important property of the half-wave
dipole antenna, to the "effective cross section". The half-wave
dipole antenna shown has a thickness of (1/25) its length. Its
length is .lambda./2 and its thickness .lambda./50. The physical
cross section of this half-wave dipole at right angles to the light
ray is: (.lambda./2) (.lambda./50) = .lambda. .sup.2 /100. However,
it is known that the effective cross section of a half-wave dipole
antenna is much larger. The cross section from which the half-wave
dipole appears to absorb power from a polarized wave with the
electric vector parallel to the length of the dipole, is
approximately .lambda..sup.2 /8, or in this example 12.5 times.
Dipole antennas have been employed for the electromagnetic spectrum
all the way from long wave radio down through the television range
into the microwave and millimeter wave spectrum.
To date, however, no practical method has been suggested for making
controlled use of dipole antennae in the visible or adjacent
portions of the spectrum.
According to the present invention, visible-light dipoles are
readily prepared. Methods and devices for readily putting them to
controlled, practical use are described.
Because their effective cross section is much greater than the
physical cross section, the dipolar particles may be very sparsely
distributed in space. The dipolar particles maybe sufficiently far
apart from each other so as to have no physical interreaction. Each
dipolar particle may act independently of the other.
From the known resistivity of metals the ideal length to width
ratio of absorbing or reflecting dipole particles of various
materials have been computed.
FIG. 12 shows a cell in the XY plane in which the dipole particles
50 are aligned in the X direction. Light transmitted along the Z
axis into the surface emerges from the other side plane polarized
with the electric vector E.sub.y in the ZY plane. Reflected light,
if any, is plane polarized with the electric vector E.sub.x
parallel to the ZX plane. Reflected light is polarized and
scattered.
A mathematical study applying the principles of the electromagnetic
radiation-antenna theory to dipolar conducting particles was made.
In accordance with this theory, the flow of incident radiation
power into the antenna is defined by a space cross section
A.sub.s.
Consider a dipole antenna of a length .lambda./2 for receiving
electromagnetic radiation tuned to absorb a maximum of incident
radiation of wavelength .lambda.. For maximum absorption this
antenna has a distributed resistance R.sub.a equal to its radiation
resistance R.sub.b. This antenna intercepts incident
radiation-power from an equivalent area approximately
(.lambda..sup.2 /4), for dipoles whose long direction is in the
direction of electric vector of the incident polarized light. Half
this radiation power is absorbed and converted to heat, and the
other half is re-radiated as scattered light.
The space cross section A.sub.s varies with .beta., defined as
R.sub.a /R.sub.b. The equivalent cross section of a half-wave
dipole antenna is greater than its actual physical dimensions. This
important effect applies to suspensions of dipoles in a transparent
medium.
The ratio "a" of antenna length to diameter determines the width of
the wavelength band that will interact with the antenna. The
spectral interaction bands of a conducting half-wave dipole
particle become narrower as the length to diameter ratios increase.
The interaction is for a wavelength band centered about wavelength
.lambda..
If the antenna is relatively thick; i.e., the ratio of length to
thickness is about 5 to 15, the antenna is capable of absorbing a
broad band of incident energy.
If the antenna is relatively thin; i.e., the ratio of length to
thickness is large, say 30 or more, the antenna is tuned to accept
a narrow band of frequencies.
For most dipole devices, such as windows or shutters, a wide band
response is usually required, and there may be used a range of
lengths from about 1000A to 2500A, having a length to width ratio a
= (L/d) of between 10 and 25.
Metal of lower resistivity results in a greater ratio "a" for the
dipole antenna rod, and a narrower absorption band for radiation
absorbed or reflected.
For rod shapped conducting dipole particles in random orientation,
the mass concentration to substantially attenuate transmitted light
is less than that otherwise required using plates of the same size,
by a factor of l/a. The volume of the dipole is L.sup.3 /a.sup. 2,
while the volume of a plate is L.sup.3 /a. (l/a) equals 2 to 10
percent for 50> a> 10.
The physical cross sections of rod and plate are respectively in
the ratio L.sup.2 /a and L.sup.2 ; hence, the rod shape has a
smaller physical cross section than the plate by a factor of
l/a.
When the dipoles particles in a suspension are arranged with their
length normal to the light rays and parallel to the electric vector
of the light, they absorb light from an area of approximately 10 to
100 times their physical cross section, or, 5 to 50 times their
physical cross section for ordinary light incident on randomly
directed dipoles.
However, when these dipole particles are oriented by the applied
electric field, with their length parallel to the light rays, the
physical cross section presented to the rays is decreased by a
factor of "a" or from about 5 to 100 times. As the dipoles are
oriented, the space cross section and absorbance diminish faster
than the physical cross section of the dipole particles. When the
dipole rods are randomly oriented in a suspending layer, the
absorbance is almost complete.
Thus, for a dipole layer containing long rod shaped dipole
particles operating in the random-parallel, the absorption in the
open (parallel) state is negligible, while absorption in the closed
state is almost complete. The light scattered from the rod shaped
particles is negligible because the particle diameter is less than
(.lambda./30).
When the suspended particles are metal conductors, electromagnetic
radiation antenna theory as used in microwave technology, is
applied to the suspended dipole particles which are considered as a
plurality of antenna elements. By selecting the length, thickness,
resistivity, and angular position of these dipole particles, the
transmittance, absorption, reflectance, peak wavelength and
polarization of the light interacting with such a dipole suspension
can be controlled.
In considering a half-wave dipole suspended in a fluid medium the
wavelength of light in the suspending medium must be used. This
wavelength is inversely proportional to the index of refraction of
the medium. Thus, .lambda./2 or a half-wave dipole for light
radiation in vacuum or air has a length of .mu./2n in a suspending
medium with an index of refraction of n. For example, a half-wave
dipole for light of wavelength 5600 A as measured in air has a
length of 2800 A, but has a length of 1867A in a suspending medium
with an index of refraction of 1.5.
The dipole suspensions disclosed and described herein comprise
suspensions of herapathite crystals and metal crystals rods.
Chemically, herapathite is iodoquinine-sulphate which forms long
blade shaped hexagonal crystals, having a length to width ratio of
about 25 and a thickness of about 1/10 the width, and which
strongly polarize transmitted light.
Herapathite contains parallel polyiodide chains of various lengths
within the crystal structure held in a dielectric crystalline cage,
or cathrate crystal structure. Electron transfer occurs along the
polyiodide chains, which act as conductive dipoles rigidly mounted
in parallel arrays within a dielectric matrix. Light transmitted
through a herapathite crystal has the greatest polarization in the
visible, over a wide range.
Herapathite polyiodide chains react to light as though they were
groups of metallic dipoles held in parallel array separated by an
insulating structure.
Because the dipoles in herapathite are in the form of rigid
parallel arrays held within a bulky dielectric crystal matrix, the
idealized theory presented for isolated metal dipoles is not exact,
and an empirical approach is employed.
Table of symbols
the cgs unit system is used throughout, except as noted.
A = real cross-sectional area of the dipole antenna = Ld.
A.sub.s = A.sub.a + A.sub.b = the equivalent area of space from
which the dipole antenna absorbs and/or reflects incident
radiation.
A.sub.a = cross section for absorbed power of antenna
A.sub.b = cross section for re-radiated power of antenna
a = ratio of dipole length to width = L/d
a = [1n (2 L/d) - 0.80]
C.degree. = concentration of dipole particles in suspending fluid
in proportion by mass.
D = optical density, or log.sub.10 [100/percent transmittance]
D = minimum optical density obtained by applying an electric field
E (where E< E, and D <D).
D = minimum optical density, corresponding to peak transmittance T,
corresponding to that peak electric field intensity E required to
achieve maximum alignment of the dipoles.
d = diameter of dipole considered as a square rod.
d.sub.1 = thickness of a layer of the dipole suspension
d.sub.p = mean distance between dipole particles centers
E = electric field intensity
E' = electric field intensity which just causes coagulation
E.sub.r = electric field intensity which just balances relaxation
due to Brownian motion
f = frequency of electric field
g = A.sub.s /A = ratio of space cross section to physical cross
section of dipole
l = Current induced by radiation field in dipole antennae
k = Boltzmann's constant = 1.38 .times. 10.sup..sup.-23 J
.degree.K.sup..sup.-1 (mks -.degree.K)
K = randomizing constant = .pi./18k = 1.26 .times. 10.sup.22
.degree.K J.sup..sup.-1 (mks - .degree.K)
L = length of dipole particle
M = mass of dipole particles per unit area of layer of a suspension
of thickness d.sub.1 ; M=Cd.sub.1
M.sub.1 = mass of liquid volume per unit area of dipole suspension
of thickness d.sub.1
m.sub.p = mass of dipole particle
N = number of dipole particles per unit area of suspension
n = index of refraction of the suspending fluid
p = number of dipoles aligning per unit time in a unit volume
q = electrodichroic ratio = D.sub.r /D, corresponding to E.
R.sub.a = resistance of dipole particle (absorption)
R.sub.b = radiation resistance of the dipole antenna
(reflection)
S = sensitivity, defined as (1/M) (.DELTA.q/.DELTA.E) =
.sigma./M
T = transmittance
V.sub.p = volume of one dipole particle of square cross section =
Ld.sup.2
V.sub.1 = volume of fluid occupied by one dipole particle
(.alpha.L)3 (.alpha.L)3
Greek Symbols
.delta..sub.1 = density of the fluid in which the dipole is
suspended
.delta..sub.p = density of the dipole particle
.epsilon..sub.o = dielectric constant for free space
.epsilon. = extinction factor for dipoles
.alpha. = d.sub.p /L
.beta. = r.sub.a /R.sub.b
.gamma. = A.sub.s /.lambda..sup.2 = space across section factor
.sigma. = .DELTA.q/.DELTA.E, electrodichroic response; or the
change in electrodichroic ratio with respect to the change in the
electric field intensity
.eta. = viscosity of the suspending liquid
.theta. = absolute temperature in .degree.K
.lambda. = wavelength of incident radiation in vacuum
.rho. = resistivity of the material comprising the dipole
particle
.tau..sub.B = relaxation time factor; the characteristic time for
an aligned suspension to randomize due to Brownian motion, in which
time the optical density increases by (D.sub.r - D)/e
.tau. = Alignment time factor; a characteristic time for a random
suspension to orient due to the applied electric field intensity E;
in which time the optical density decreases by (D.sub.r - D)/e
Subscripts
a = for absorbed radiation
b = for re-radiated radiation
r = random or most opaque state
x = in the x direction or normal to the light ray
z = in the z direction or parallel to the light ray
rx = in which the orientation of the dipole changes from random to
normal to the light ray
rz = in which the orientation of the dipole changes from random to
parallel to the light ray
ms = milliseconds = 10.sup..sup.-3 sec
.mu.s = microseconds = 10.sup..sup.-6 sec
A = angstrom = 10.sup..sup.-10 m
mp = millipoise = 10.sup..sup.-3 poise (cgs viscosity)
Superscripts
= maximum value
= a value, below maximum
THEORY OF ISOLATED DIPOLES
Antenna Cross Section
A dipole antenna absorbs, reflects and transmits electromagnetic
radiation over an area of space termed its cross section.
FIG. 48 shows a half-wave antenna with its long axis parallel to
the Y axis. For Cases I and II incident light is directed along the
Z axis, and is polarized with the E vector parallel to the Y
axis.
FIG. 49 shows the reflection-scattering cross section A.sub.b and
the absorption cross section A.sub.a as a function of the ratio
.beta. = R.sub.a /R.sub.b, or the ratio of the ohmic
self-resistance to its radiation resistance of the antenna. As
.beta. increases, the reradiation cross section A.sub.b becomes
small compared to the absorption cross section A.sub.a.
Case I - The radiation resistance of the antenna is equal to its
ohmic resistance; R.sub.a = R.sub.b. The re-radiated power is equal
to the absorbed power. The absorbed power is a maximum. The
effective cross section for the absorbed power is the area ABCD; or
A.sub.a = .lambda..sup.2 /8. The cross section for the power
re-radiated as scattered light by the antenna, is also area ABCD:
A.sub.b = .lambda..sup.2 /8 = 1/2 (.lambda./2).sup.2 For a half
wave dipole antenna in a medium of index of refraction n, L =
.lambda./2n and A.sub.a = A.sub.b = 1/2 L.sup.2
The total cross section for the absorbed power and the re-radiated
scattered power is twice the area ABCD; or the area EFGH; In a
random suspension the re-radiated power from a single dipole is
absorbed by other dipoles. In this case, substantially all the
power is absorbed, hence:
A.sub.s = A.sub.a + A.sub.b = L.sup.2 (.gamma. = 1) (1)
case II - The antenna resistance R.sub.a is very small; the power
incident upon the antenna cross section is all reradiated, or
reflection-scattered; and the area is IJKL:
A.sub.s = 0 + A.sub.b = .lambda..sup.2 /2 = 2L.sup.2 (.gamma. = 2).
(2)
cases III and IV are the same as Cases I and II respectively,
except that (a) the light is ordinary light, and (b) the dipoles
have a random orientation in space. The absorption factor .gamma.
is decreased by a factor of 1/2 by (a), and another 1/2 by (b) so
that:
Case III - Same as Case I, except for (a) and (b)
A.sub.r = 1/2 .times. 1/2 .times. L.sup.2 = (1/4) L.sup.2
(.gamma..sub.r = 1/4) (3)
Case IV - Same as Case II except for (a) and (b)
A.sub.r = 1/2 .times. 1/2 .times. 2L.sup.2 = (1/2)L.sup.2
(.gamma..sub.r = 1/2) (4)
Generalizing in terms of a cross section factor y, the space cross
sectional area A.sub.s for a half-wave dipole of length L =
.lambda./2n suspended in a medium with index of refraction n,
is:
A.sub.s = .gamma.L.sup.2 (5)
for a random dipole suspension and ordinary light A.sub.s = A.sub.r
and .gamma. = .gamma..sub.r ; and for an aligned suspension with
the dipoles aligned parallel to the Z axis A.sub.s = A.sub.z ;
.gamma. = .gamma..sub.z, and L is decreased by the length to width
ratio a = L/d. Assuming a square cross section for the antenna,
it's physical cross section A = Ld when normal to the ray; that
is:
A = L.sup.2 /a (normal); or L.sup.2 /2a (random) (6)
In Case III, for ordinary light, and with the dipoles at random
directions, the ratio g of the space cross section A.sub.s for
which a dipole antenna is absorbing and/or reflecting ordinary
light, to the actual physical cross section of the dipole antennae
A, is found from (3) and (6):
g = (A.sub.r /A) = (1/4)L.sup.2 / (L.sup.2 /2a) = a/2 (7)
As example, with a thick antenna a = 4 and g = 2; and with a thin
antenna, a = 100 and g = 50.
This discussion does not imply that there is no power transmitted
through the cross section. For a suspension of a large number of
dipole antennae, the absorption cross section may be replaced by
the absorption factor in accordance with Beer's law and the
scattering reflection factor. The absorption cross section is
variable and depends upon dipole orientation, which is a function
of the applied electric field intensity. As a consequence, in a
dipolar medium, the absorption, reflection, scattering and
transmittance is a function of the electric field intensity, time
and other variables. These relationships are derived and discussed
in this paper.
The cross section .gamma. is evaluated empirically for a suspension
of rod-shaped conductive particles at random or aligned by the
electric field. In the case of a rod-shaped conductive particle
aligned parallel to the light path, where the diameter of the rod
is less than about .lambda./30, the light scattering or re-radiated
component is negligible. The signal pickup by an antenna aligned
parallel to the light path is a minimum.
For large particles the absorption cross section is twice the
physical cross section, but this does not exactly apply to very
small particles. Explicit mathematical physics relationships for
aggregates of conductive rodlike submicron particle suspensions is
not known. The analysis herein empirically combines
mathematical-physics theory with experimental results to
characterize the observed properties of a rod-shaped dipolar
suspension in an electrical field.
Radiation Resistance
The radiation resistance R.sub.b corresponds to the reradiated
power 1.sup.2 R.sub.b.sup.2 from the dipole antennae.
The radiation resistance R.sub.b of a short dipole with uniform
current is:
R.sub.b = 80.pi. .sup.2 (L/.lambda.).sup.2 (8)
for a .lambda./2 dipole, thus:
R.sub.b = 20.pi..sup.2 = 197 ohms (9)
For a .lambda./2 dipole with a center resistance, and with a
sinusoidal current distribution, for peak absorbed power:
R.sub.b = 73 ohms, and for .epsilon. = 1 R.sub.a = 73 ohms
The radiation resistance of an isolated dipole with distributed
resistance in a medium having an index of refraction n; and the
radiation resistance of a dipole in random infinite arrays in which
interaction occurs, are not explicitly known.
The distributed ohmic resistance of the dipole can be calculated
from its resistivity .rho., cross sectional area d.sup.2 and
length:
R.sub.a = .rho. L/d.sup.2 (10)
THEORY OF DIPOLE SUSPENSIONS
Relationships of the Physical Variables
The relationships between the physical variables are found from the
space cross section of a rod-shaped dipole particle.
Let the dipoles be uniformly spread on a plane of unit area in a
suspending medium with their cross sections contiguous, to
substantially absorb or reflect incident light; whereupon the
number of dipole particles per unit area are:
N = 1/A.sub.r = 1/.gamma..sub.r (.lambda./2n).sup.2 = 4n.sup.2
/.gamma..sub.r .lambda..sup.2 (11)
Each dipole particle occupies a cubic volume V.sub.1 in the medium,
and a cube of volume V.sub.1 has a side .alpha.L; from which:
V.sub.1 = (.alpha.L).sup.3 = (.alpha..lambda./2n).sup.3 (12)
Total volume per unit area of the medium in which the dipoles are
suspended is:
V = N V.sub.1 = 1.sup.2 . d.sub.1 (13)
The layer thickness d.sub.1 is from (11), (12) and (13):
d.sub.1 = .alpha..sup.3 .lambda./2 .gamma..sub.r n (14)
The mass of a half wave dipole is:
m.sub.p = .delta..sub.p L d.sup.2 = .delta..sub.p .lambda..sup.3
/8a.sup.2 n.sup.3 (15)
The mass of dipoles per unit area is:
M = m.sub.p N = .delta..sub.p .lambda. /2n.delta..sub.r a.sup.2
(16)
The mass concentration C, or mass of dipoles per unit mass of the
suepending medium, may be obtained by the mass of the dipole and
the mass of the medium in which a single dipole is suspended, for
.alpha.>> 1:
C = .delta..sub.p V.sub.p /.delta..sub.1 V.sub.1 = (.delta..sub.p
L.sup.3 /a.sup.2) /.delta..sub.1 .alpha..sup.3 L.sup.3 =
(.delta..sub.p /.delta..sub.1)/a.sup.2 .delta..sup.3 (17)
EXAMPLE 1
Given: .alpha. = 5; .lambda. = 5 .times. 10.sup..sup.+5 cm;
.gamma..sub.r = 1/4; n = 1.5
Find: Thickness of dipole layer d.sub.1
Answer:
From (14): d.sub.1 = 5.sup.3 .times. 5 .times. 10.sup..sup.-5
/(3/4) = 0.083 cm
EXAMPLE 2
Given: .delta..sub.p = 10; .lambda. = 5 .times. 10.sup..sup.-5 cm;
.gamma..sub.r = 1/4; a = 10; n = 1.5
Find: Mass per unit area of dipoles M, for a = 10, and a = 26
Answer:
From (16): the mass per unit area of dipoles is:
for a = 10:
M = 10 .times. 5 .times. 10.sup..sup.-5 /2 .times. 1.5 .times.
(1/4) 10.sup.2
m = 6.67 .times. 10.sup..sup.-6 gms/cm.sup.2,
For a = 26.sub.2 :
M .congruent. 1 .mu.g/cm.sup.2
EXAMPLE 3
Given: A silver dipole .delta..sub.p - 10.5 is suspended in a fluid
of density .delta..sub.1 = 1. The silver dipole has a length to
width ratio a = 26, and the interparticle spacing to particle
length ratio is .alpha. = 5.
Find: Concentration C
Answer:
From (17):
C = (10.5/1) /26.sup.2 .times. 5.sup.3
c = 1.24 .times. 10.sup..sup.-4 gm silver/gm of fluid.
The Electrodichroic Ratio
The random-parallel electrodichroic ratio is defined for a dipole
suspension layer which has a minimum (closed) transmittance when
the dipole particles have a random orientation, and a maximum
(open) transmittance when the dipole particles are partially or
completely oriented parallel to the light path normal to the plane
of a dipole suspension layer by an electric or other force field.
For zero electric field the dipole particles are oriented at
random. As the applied electric field intensity is increased from
zero, the dipole particles become more completely aligned parallel
to the field.
Beer's law, in which M = Cd.sub.1, may be utilized for the closed
state:
T.sub.r = e .sup..sup.-.sup..epsilon. .sup.M (18)
beer's law may be utilized for the open state:
T.sub.r = e.sup.-.sup..epsilon. .sup.M
Using the definition of the optical density, equations (18) and
(19) are now expressed in terms of the corresponding optical
densities:
D.sub.r = log.sub.10 (1/T.sub.r) = (log.sub.10 .epsilon.)
.epsilon..sub.r M = 0.434 .epsilon..sub.r M (20) D.sub.z =
log.sub.10 (1/T.sub.z) = (log.sub.10 .epsilon.) .epsilon..sub .z M
= 0.434 .epsilon..sub .z M (21)
by definition, and from (20) and (21), the random-parallel
electrodichroic ratio is:
q.sub.rz = D.sub.r /D.sub.z = .epsilon..sub.r /.epsilon..sub.z
(22)
In a similar manner, other electrodichroic ratios have been
defined.
The electrodichroic ratio q.sub.rz is measure of the effectiveness
of the dipole layer as a light control medium, and is particularly
useful because it is parameter which is independent of the dipole
concentration and layer thickness.
The significance of the electrodichroic ratio will be clear from
the following discussion:
EXAMPLE 4
An electro-optic dipole shutter which has an electric field along
the Z axis, transmits 63 percent of the incident light in the
maximum transparent state, and 0.1 percent of the incident light in
the random opaque state. The corresponding optical densities
are:
Transparent: D = log.sub.10 (100/63) = 0.2
Opaque: D.sub.r = log.sub.10 (100/0.1) = 3
The parallel electrodichroic ratio is:
q.sub.rz = D.sub.r /D.sub.z = 3/0.2 = 15.0
A q.sub.rz = 15 is highly satisfactory for most applications, such
as electrodichroic photographic shutters, and variable
transmittance windows.
FIG. 50 shows maximum percent transmission versus the
electrodichroic ratio for the minimum percent transmission: 0.01,
0.1 and 1. The corresponding maximum percent transmission may be
read off directly.
For particles aligned parallel to the Z axis the physical cross
section is (L/a).sup.2. However, for a>3, data from the
literature for conducting spheres of radius r, shows that: the
scattering cross section A.sub.b is negligibly small; only the
absorption cross section A.sub.a need be considered; and this
relationship holds:
A.sub.a = .pi. r.sup.2 . 2 .pi.r/.lambda. (23)
The term .pi.r.sup.2 is the physical cross section and the term
(2.pi. r/.lambda.) is the factor .gamma. for the case of the
sphere. For an equivalent square dipole rod r = L/2a and .lambda. =
2nL. On this basis, for a dipole rod aligned parallel to the Z
axis:
.gamma..sub.z = .pi./2na .congruent. 1/a (24)
Hence A.sub.z = .gamma..sub.z (1/a).sup.2 .congruent. (1/a.sup.3)
L.sup.2 (25)
the random-parallel electrodichroic ratio may be expressed in terms
of the absorption factors according to (22) and in terms of the
absorption cross sections, as follows:
q.sub.rz = .epsilon..sub.r /.epsilon..sub.z = A.sub.r /A.sub.z
(26)
From (25) and (26):
q.sub.rz = .gamma..sub.r L.sup.2 / (1/a.sup.3)L.sup.2 .congruent.
.gamma..sub.r a.sup.3 (27)
This expression may be used to empirically determine the cross
section .gamma..sub.r from measurements of the electrodichroic
ratio and the particle dimensions.
EXAMPLE 5
Given: A herapathite dipole suspension for which
q.sub.rz = 15, and a = 5
Find: .gamma..sub.r
Answer:
From (27):
.gamma..sub.r .congruent. q.sub.rz /a.sup.3 = 15/125 .congruent.
1/8
EXAMPLE 6
Given: q.sub.rz = 100 and T.sub.z = 0.96, then D.sub.z = 0.04 and
D.sub.r = 100 .times. 0.04 or T.sub.r = 0.01 percent. This dipole
suspension will change from practically transparent to practically
opaque. For this data and .gamma..sub.r = 1/10, according to (27),
a = 10.
EXAMPLE 7
Given: an electrodichroic ratio of 6 at (1/e) (D -D.sub.r) for an
applied electric field intensity of E.sub.z = 10.sup.3 volts/cm
Find: The electrodichroic response
Answer:
.sigma..sub.rz = (.DELTA.q/.DELTA.E) = (6-1)/10.sup.3
.sigma..sub.rz = 5 .times. 10.sup..sup.-3 .DELTA. q
(volts/cm).sup..sup.-1
EXAMPLE 8
Given: In example (7 ) a dipole mass of
M = 1.0 .times. 10.sup..sup.-6 gm/cm.sup.2
Find: the electrodichroic sensitivity S.sub.rz
S.sub.rz = .sigma..sub.rz /M = (5 .times. 10.sup..sup.-3 /1 .times.
10.sup..sup.-6)
S.sub.rz = 5000.DELTA.q cm.sup.3 /volt gm.
Dimension Ratios and the Resistivity of Materials
If .rho. is the resistivity of a conductor, then the resistance
R.sub.a of a ;conductor of length L and cross-sectional area A is
found from (10); into which substitute the length of a half-wave
dipole in a suspensing medium of index of refraction n, L =
.lambda./2n.
Then, for a dipole rod having a square section:
R.sub.a = .rho. (.lambda./2n) / (.lambda./2na).sup.2 = 2n .rho.
a.sup.2 /.lambda. (28)
Solving (27) for a:
a = .sqroot.R.sub.a .lambda. /2n.rho. (29)
Known resistivities .rho. for metals at 20.degree.C are: silver 1.6
.times. 10.sup..sup.-6 ohm cm; gold 2.4 .times. 10.sup..sup.-6 ohm
cm; chromium 2.6 .times. 10.sup..sup.-6 ohm cm.
EXAMPLE 9
An ideal absorbing dipole is assumed to have a distributed
resistance R.sub.a of about 80 ohms, and an ideal reflecting dipole
is assumed to have a distributed resistance R.sub.a of 8 ohms.
Given: Values of 1.5 for n and 5 .times. 10.sup..sup.-5 cm for
.lambda., and the resistivities .rho. for silver and chromium given
above.
Find: the length to width ratio "a" for an absorbing and a
reflecting half-wave dipole.
Answer: Substituting these values, it is found for these metals.
From equation (29) the length to width ratio "a" was 20 and 30 for
an absorbing dipole; and 6 and 10 for a reflecting half-wave
dipole.
Relaxation Time Factor
After the dipoles are aligned by the applied electric field, the
electric field is suddenly turned off. Brownian molecular impacts
produce torques which cause the dipoles to turn to random
directions. From the literature in a related field an equation was
derived for .tau. .sub.B the relaxation time factor:
.tau..sub.B = (.pi./18k) (.eta.L.sup.3 /T{ [ln (21/d)] - 0.80 })
(30)
Setting K = .pi./18k; and a.sub.o = ln(21/d) - 0.80:
.tau..sub.B = K (.eta./T) (L.sup.3 /a.sub.o) (31)
For example for (L/d) = 10, a.sub.o = 2.20; (1/d) = 20, a.sub.o =
2.89; and (L/d) = 30, a.sub.o = 3.29.
Evaluating (31) by expressing L in A, .tau..sub.B in .mu.sec, and
in millipoise or .eta..sub.mp and T in degrees Kelvin:
.tau..sub.B.sub..mu.s = 1.26 .times.
10.sup..sup.-6.sub..sub..eta.mp LA.sup.3 /T.sub.o a.sub.o (32)
Since the optimum length L is approximately .lambda./3, for 5650A,
L = 1800A. For .eta. = 10 millipoise, this results in a relaxation
time factor of .tau..sub.B = 127 microseconds.
By way of example, the viscosities for various liquids at
30.degree. C in millipoise are: water, 10; hexane 2.9; Toluene,
5.8; Dioctyl adipate 129.; Glycerine 6240.
Using Equation (32) it is shown that a relaxation factor of
.tau..sub.B = 6.mu.s is obtained with a low viscosity fluid such as
Hexane (2.9) millipoise and a dipole length L = 1000A.
A Herapathite dipole suspension in a fluid with a viscosity of 100
millipoise and a dipole length of 2000A has a relaxation time of
about three milliseconds.
A dipole suspension in a fluid with a viscosity of 1000 millipoise
and a dipole length L = 4000A has a relaxation time of about 0.24
seconds.
Thus, the relaxation time may be controller over a wide range.
Alignment and Relaxation vs. Frequency
A dipole suspension disorients by Brownian motion from the aligned
state to the random state with a relaxation time .tau..sub.B. An
applied alternating voltage has a critical frequency f.sub.c, in
which a half period is equal to the Brownian relaxation time
.tau..sub.B ; that is:
f.sub.c = 1/2 .tau..sub.B (33)
if the frequency of the applied alternating voltage field is equal
to or a little less than f.sub.c ; then the orientation of dipole
rods in the suspension will oscillate between partial alignment and
randomization; causing an electro-optic modulation of the dipole
suspension. Better alignment is obtained at greater frequencies, f,
for which half period 1/2 f is much smaller than .tau..sub.B. In
this case less relaxation occurs during field reversals. Hence, to
assure the substantial maintenance of alignment, and no apparent
modulation of transmitted light, the frequency should greatly
exceed the critical frequency f.sub.c ; that is:
f>>f.sub.c (34) EXAMPLE 10 The relaxation factor is
.tau..sub.B = 1 millisecond, then from (34) f>>1/2 .times.
10.sup..sup.-3 ; that is, f>> 500 hz; or f = 5000 Hz.
In the case of dipole suspensions having a greater fluid viscosity,
or having longer dipoles, .tau..sub.B is greater and a smaller
frequency can be used without apparent modulation of transmitted
light. When the relaxation factor .tau..sub.B is smaller, the
critican frequency increases.
EXAMPLE 11
For .eta. = 1000 millipoise, and L = 3000A, the Brownian relaxation
time .tau..sub.B = 0.1 sec; and the critical frequency f.sub.c
>> 5 hz; hence a 60 cycle frequency will suffice to align
this dipole suspension without apparent modulation of the
transmitted light.
FIG. 54 shows for an herapathite suspension, an experimental plot
of the parallel electrodichroic ratio q.sub.rz versus frequency f,
for various electric field intensities E.sub.z. In general, for
constant E.sub.z, the q.sub.rz increases rapidly as the frequency
increases from 0.5 KHz to 3KHz, less rapidly from 3KHz to 10KHz,
and substantially reaches an assymptotic value above 30KHz.
The ions in the dipolar suspension have a mobility expressed in
cm/sec per volt/cm, or cm.sup.2 /volt-sec. The ion mobility in the
dipole cell was calculated as follows:
The ions are assumed to travel during the half-cycle a distance
equal to the length of a dipole 0.5 .times. 10.sup..sup.-4 cms in a
field of 1.5 Kv/cm. The length of the half-wave of light is taken
as 0.5 .times. 10.sup..sup.-4 cm. At a frequency of 10kc, the
half-cycle time is 0.5 .times. 10.sup..sup.-4 seconds. The rms ion
velocity is then 0.5 .times. 10.sup..sup.-4 /0.5 .times.
10.sup..sup.-4 or 1 cm/sec at 1500 volt/cm. Hence the mobility of
the ion in the dipole suspension must be 1/1500 = 6.7 .times.
10.sup..sup.-4 cm.sup.2 /volt-sec. Experimentally, ion mobilities
reported in the literature were found to be: 6.9 .times.
10.sup..sup.-4 for Cl, 18.1 for OH.sup.- , and 32.0 for H.sup.+ in
cm.sup.2 /volt sec.
For a herapathite suspension the ion is probably I.sup.-, which
should have a mobility approximating that of Cl.sup.-. The
calculations of ion mobility in the dipole suspension are in good
agreement with the experimental values of ion mobility given in the
literature.
Effect of Ions on Dipole Alignment
In a strong electric field at lower frequencies, the ions migrate a
greater distance in the dipole layer, periodically concentrating at
the ends of the dipole particles, and at the surfaces of the dipole
layer. These charge concentrations counteract the applied electric
field, and the dipole alignment is decreased. However, as the
frequency increases, the ions oscillate only a short distance about
a main position, the ionic shielding effect is diminished or
eliminated, and the applied electric field more effectively
produces alignment of the dipoles. A low voltage high frequency
field will align as well as a high voltage low frequency field.
When ions are present, a step DC voltage momentarily partly aligns
the dipole particles. An ionic shielding layer is soon set up near
the induced charges at the end of each dipole, counteracting the
applied field. The dipole particles then start to disalign under
randomizing molecular impacts due to Brownian motion. For the step
DC voltage to cause a substantial initial alignment, the rise time
of the applied step voltage must be less than 10 microseconds.
With an AC electric field having a frequency in excess of 1 KHz the
dipoles align during each half-cycle. Greater alignment is achieved
with a smaller electric field as the frequency is increased,
substantially reaching an assymptotic value of frequencies greater
than 30 KHz. At frequencies greater than 10KHz, the disalignment
due to Brownian motion during field reversals is usually small
compared to the large alignment effect occuring during each
half-cycle.
With DC or low frequency AC electric fields, positive and negative
ions may migrate to opposite surfaces of the dipole layer, or to
the ends of the induced dipoles, decreasing or cancelling the
aligning electric field within the dipole layer. This
field-neutralizing effect depends upon the presence of ions in the
dipole suspension.
With non-ionic or slightly ionic suspensions such as a DC or low
frequency AC field may be used and the transparent conductive films
may be in direct contact with the suspension layer surfaces to pick
up a small current and prevent charge build up.
Where the dipole layer contains a substantial concentration of
ions, direct contact with the transparent conductors may cause
their electrolysis and destruction. Consequently, a herapathite
suspension which contains a concentration of ions, requires a
protective transparent insulating layer over the transparent
conductive layer, (see FIG. 3).
With an electric field having a frequency of 5 KHz or more ion
migration and separation of oppositely charged ions is diminished
and the field-neutralizing effect substantially eliminated.
Using a herapathite dipole suspension, for frequencies up to a few
hundred Hz, the transmittance increase of the cell is small at
1-3.5 Kv/cm but as the frequency increases in the 1 to 30 KHz
range, the transmittance increases substantially and above 30 KHz
there is little further increase in transmittance.
Herapathite dipole suspensions are particularly sensitive to
electrolytic destruction yet, when placed between a dipole cell in
which the transparent conducting electrodes are covered with thin
transparent protective transparent layer; these suspensions are
stable.
ELECTRIC ALIGNMENT TIME FACTOR
A gated alternating pulse having an rms electric field intensity E
is applied to a random dipole suspension. The electric alignment
time factor .tau. is a function of the applied electric field
intensity E.
The Brownian motion impacts result in randomizing-torques which
disorient the dipoles. The average randomizing-torque corresponds
to an rms electric field intensity E.sub.r. Before alignment of the
dipoles can occur, the torque on the dipoles due to the applied
electric field intensity E must exceed the randomizing torque
E.sub.r.
The alignment time factor .tau. due to the applied electric field E
is proportional to the relaxation time factor .tau..sub.B and to
the ratio of these torques.
.tau.=.tau..sub.B [E.sub.r / (E - E.sub.r) ] = .tau..sub.B {1/
[(E/E.sub.r) - 1 ]} (35)
For E >>E.sub.r Equation (35) becomes
E .tau. = E.sub.r .tau..sub.B (36)
combining equations (31) and (36)
.tau. = (K.sub..eta.L.sup.3 /Ta.sub.o) (E.sub.r /E) (37)
equation (36) may be used to evaluate E.sub.r from measurements of
.tau., .tau..sub.B and E.
For an herapathite suspension, the ratio (.tau..sub.B /.tau.)
usually measures 20 to 32, for an electric intensity of about 3
Kv/cm at 10 KHz.
EXAMPLE 12
Given: An herapathite suspension layer in a cell had a relaxation
time .tau..sub.B = 8 ms and an alignment time .tau. = 0.25 ms at an
applied electric field of 3.2 Kv/cm rms at 30 KHz.
Find: E.sub.r
Answer: r
From (36):
E.sub.r = E(.tau./.tau..sub.B) = 3.2 (0.25/8)
E.sub.r .congruent. 0.1 Kv/cm; or 100 volts/cm.
It may seem strange that E.sub.r is so large, compared to the small
Brownian motion force, usually associated with molecular impact
having energies in the fractional voltage range. However, the
torques are exerted by an applied electric field on a dipole rod
only about 2 .times. 10.sup.-.sup.5 cm long. For 100 volts/cm, this
corresponds to an aligning potential difference V = EL = 100
.times. 2 .times. 10.sup.-.sup.5 = 2 .times. 10.sup.-.sup.3 volts
applied to the dipole rod to balance the disaligning effect due to
Brownian motion.
A rapid alignment time (say 25 s) is obtained by applying a pulse
comprising large electric field (say 30 kv/cm) (less than
breakdown, about 400 kv/cm) for a short time (say 25 s). After this
alignment the electric field intensity is decreased to about 2.0
kv/cm to maintain alignment without coagulation.
ALIGNMENT OF DIPOLES IN AN ELECTRIC FIELD
Insight into the alignment process may be had from the following
consideration. An applied DC or AC electric field induces opposite
charges on each end of the dipole. The opposite induced electrical
charges on the neighboring ends of the particles produces torques
tending to align the particles in the direction of the electric
field. It might be thought that when the electric field is applied,
all the randomly directed dipolar particles start to align
simultaneously at a rate determined only by their initial direction
and other factors which are the same for all dipoles of the same
size and shape. However, while alignment occurs in this manner, a
greater factor is that the ends of adjacent induced dipole
particles in closest proximity exert attractive forces on each
other, producing greater torques, and more rapid alignment. The
most closely proximate particles are aligned most quickly, while
other dipoles of the suspension remain almost randomly directed.
Another group of the most closely proximate particles then align.
The process continues until all the dipoles are aligned. The
alignment principle may now be set forth:
Groups of the most closely proximate particles align first, leaving
the remaining particles more or less random in direction. Let p be
the proportion of dipole particles aligned parallel to the electric
field at time t. Then the proportion of dipole particles aligning
per unit of time (dp/dt), varies directly as (1-p) the proportion
of remaining randomized dipole particles:
(dp/dt) = (1/.tau.) (1-p) (38)
where .tau. is the electric alignment time factor; which is a
constant under given conditions. Integrating (38) and evaluating
for p = O, when t = 0, there is obtained:
p = 1-e.sup.-.sup.t/.sup..tau. (39)
The absorption factor of a layer of suspension of which a
proportion p of dipole rods is aligned and a proportion of the
dipole rods (1-p) is in the random state, is:
.epsilon..sub.z p +.epsilon..sub.r (1-p) = .epsilon..sub.r +
(.epsilon..sub.r -.epsilon..sub.z)p (40)
Use of the combined absorption factor (40) in Beer's law determines
the transmittance: ##SPC1##
Characteristic Electro-Optic Equations
FIG. 51 shows optical density vs. time for a voltage pulse Ez
applied at time t = 0. Curve 1 shows the optical density
exponentially decreasing to time t.sub.1, reaching the assymptotic
value D. At the time t.sub.1 the voltage is cut off, and the dipole
particles relax, the optical density then increases exponentially
along the curve 2. For a strong electric field the electric
alignment time factor.tau.is very small compared to the Brownian
relaxation time factor .tau..sub.B.
In FIG. 51 Curve 1 is empirically expressed by the following
formula:
D.sub.z = D.sub.z + (D.sub.r - D.sub.z) e.sup..sup.-t/.sup..tau.
(47)
Equation (47) may be put in the form of Equation (45) which was
theoretically derived in Section on alignment of dipoles in an
electric field.
By the relationship between optical density D and the absorption
factor .epsilon. :
D.sub.r = 0.434 M.sub..epsilon. (48)
d.sub.z = 0.434 M.sub..epsilon.
D.sub.z = 0.434 M.sub..epsilon.
Substituting the relations (48) into (47) and using the definition
of optical density equation (45) follows as before.
As a result of the applied step voltage, at a sufficiently long
time t.sub.1 >> .tau..sub.B, the optical density is presumed
to have reached the minimum D.sub.z. The applied voltage is
suddenly turned off at time t.sub.1. The dipole rod suspension then
starts to randomize, represented by Curve 2 of FIG. 51, and by the
following empirical expression:
D = D.sub.r - (D.sub.r - D.sub.z) e.sup..sup.-t/.sup..tau. (49)
FIG. 52 shows a plot of optical density D.sub.z vs. applied
electric field intensity E.sub.z. There is no change in the optical
density until the electric field intensity exceeds a threshold
value E.sub.r. However, because of the statistical spread in the
molecular impact velocities the step due to E.sub.r is not abrupt,
but curved. E.sub.r may be determined by extending curve 3 until it
intercepts the line D.sub.r, as shown at 4. As E.sub.z increases
the optical density decreases exponentially to a minimum optical
density D. The practical operating voltage range is below E'.sub.z
; above which coagulation of the dipole suspension occurs.
The curve 3 in FIG. 52 is represented by the following
equation:
D.sub.z = D +(D.sub.r - D) e.sup..sup.-(E .sup.- .sup.E .sup.)/E
(50)
for E >>E.sub.r (50) becomes:
D.sub.z = D + (D.sub.r - D) e.sup..sup.-E/E (51)
the curve 5 of electrodichroic ratio as a function of electric
field intensity is shown in FIG. 53. The equation of curve 5 is
found from (51) the definition of the electrodichroic ratio:
q.sub.rz = (D.sub.r /D.sub.z) = q.sub.rz / [1 + (q.sub.rz - 1)
e.sup..sup.-E/E ] (52)
the electrodichroic response .sigma..sub.rz = .DELTA.q.sub.rz
/.DELTA.E is obtained by differentiating 52, and evaluated at
E.fwdarw.0 (actually E.fwdarw.E.sub.r) and for q .sub.rz >>
1. There is thus obtained:
.sigma..sub.rz .fwdarw. (1/E.sub.r) (53)
The electrodichroic response has a limiting value, given by (53),
which for a particular herapathite suspension measured about 1
.DELTA. q (kv/cm).sup..sup.-1. In this case the limiting
electrodichroic response .sigma..sub.rz = (q.sub.rz - 1)/3 - 10,
solving this q.sub.rz maximum .congruent. 31.
EXPERIMENTAL
The figures are the result of many tests using:
1. a herapathite suspension
2. a chromium rod metal suspension
The transmittance and optical density measurements were taken in
the visible range using an RCA 931 photomultiplier tube, which has
a peak response at 510 nm. Optical density was obtained directly
using a logarithmic amplifier. Dynamic measurements were shown on a
storage scope. The measurements were taken on electro-optic cells
having glass windows constructed in accordance with this invention
as shown in FIGS. 64 - 67 for z parallel orientation, (b) as shown
in FIGS. 2 and 4 for x normal orientation.
The cells shown in section in FIGS. 66 and 65 are numbered to
correspond to FIGS. 1 and 3. The conductive coatings 56 expand to
about 2 mm from the edge of this glass plate, surrounded by a
conductive 62' bus bar which is connected to the leads 58. The
circumferential bus bar 62' results in decreasing the resistance of
the conductive coatings in the circuit by a factor of 12 relative
to that of a single edge bus bar. This is important since the more
transparent coatings have a greater resistance which may be
decreased by an order of magnitude in this manner.
In FIG. 67, the strips 200 and 201 were solid conductors with edges
separated by a distance d" = 5 mm. However, any other value may be
used. Alternatively, invisible lines inscribed in the lamination
may be used as described in my copending application Ser. No.
551,113 -filed June 8, 1966.
Herapathite Suspension
The herapathite suspension contained blade shaped particles of L
.congruent. 3000A, d .congruent. 150 A and a blade thickness of 50
A. The suspension was adjusted to a D.sub.r .congruent. 3 for
d.sub.1 .congruent. 0.075cm.
The electrodichroic response is obtained by the slope
.sigma..sub.rz = .DELTA. q.sub.rz /.DELTA.E =
11.DELTA.q(kv/cm).sup..sup.-1. The mass unit area of herapathite
dipoles was M = 410 .times. 10.sup..sup.-6 gms/cm.sup.2, and the
sensitivity was S.sub.rz = .sigma..sub.rz /M = 27000.DELTA.q(kv
gm/cm.sup.3).sup..sup.-1. Based on the percent iodine in
herapathite, the iodine conducting rods are 31 percent of the total
herapathite mass. The active M is 127 .times. 10.sup..sup.-6
gms/cm.sup.3. On this basis S.sub.rz = 87000.DELTA.q (kv
gm/cm.sup.3).
FIG. 54 shows the relative parallel electrodichroic ratio q.sub.rz
vs. frequency f for various electric field intensities E.sub.z in
kv(rms)/cm.
A maximum electrodichroic ratio is reached assumptotically at about
3 KHz for all applied electric field intensities.
FIG. 55 shows the relative parallel electrodichroic ratio q.sub.rz
vs. the electric field intensity in kv(rms)/cm; for 1, 10, and 100
KHz. This shows that about 10 KHz, and about 3 kv(rms)/cm., the
alignment, and q.sub.rz has reached a maximum value.
FIG. 56 shows present transmittance versus wavelength for parallel
(open) and random (closed) states.
FIG.57 shows relative electrodichroic ratio q.sub.rz versus
wavelength, plotted from data of FIG. 56. The peakq.sub.rz occurs
at about 575 nm.
FIG. 58 shows wedge angle effect of transmittance versus angle, the
dipoles being aligned in the Z direction for:
1. ordinary light
2. polarized light parallel
3. polarized light crossed
Permanent wedge-angle filters may be prepared with a film
containing a dipole suspension having a fixed Z orientaion and
laminated to a linear polarized film. The dipole layer is is
oriented by an electric field, while the suspending medium is
fluid. Then the orientation is fixed by causing the suspending
medium to solidify.
Metal Dipole Suspension
The results on a chromium metal dipole suspension are shown in
FIGS. 59-63 inclusive.
The chromium metal dipole particles were producd in a limited
sample, of an average length of about 7700 A and a diameter from
400-600 A. There was a considerable spread of sizes, and many very
small irregularly shaped particles; so that, this suspension was
not refined or optimized. Nevertheless these results substantiate
the antenna theory as applied to dipole suspensions. The results
show (1) a strong polarizing effect (FIGS. 59 and 60); and (2) a
large parallel electrodichroic ratio q.sub.rz = 28, with a peak at
.lambda. = 3L = 3 .times. 0.77 = 2.3.mu.. According to the analysis
herein, the dipole particles of length 1880A will have a peak
565nm.
MANUFACTURE OF SUBMICRON FLAKES
An aluminum film is coated on to a two mil thickness mylar. The
coating thickness may be varied and preferably has a thickness to
provide a transparency from 1 percent to 3 percent.
AL FILMS
THICKNESS VS. % TRANSMISSION THICKNESS TRANSMISSION A % 50 50 100
18.5 150 3. 200 1
the coated mylar is cut into one inch squares and 100 grams of this
are placed in a jar with 1000 grams of acetone. The jar is shaken
in a paint shaker for about two hours and cooled as needed to
prevent excessive pressure from the acetone vapor. The suspension
of flakes is decanted from the mylar. The process is repeteed as
many times as needed to get the required concentration of flake;
for example, five or ten times. 8 grams of 12 1/2 percent
nitrocellulose solutiln and 2 grams of plasticizer are added; for
example, Drapex which is an epoxy stearate. The fluid suspension
which is a dark blue color, is placed in Ehrlenmyer flask. The
Ehrlenmyer flask is placed on a water bath to evaporate all the
acetone. A black paste remains containing a flake suspension. The
paste is then placed on an evaporator until the resistivity is in
excess of 30 meghom-cm. The paste is then diluted with a suitable
solvent, for example, the same used in herapathite suspension to
provide a fluid having an optical density of about three in a 1mm
thick cell.
MANUFACTURE OF DIPOLE NEEDLES
Metal powder having particles which are about one micron in
diameter is placed in a pyrex test tube and subjected to an
elevated temperature for a period of many hours. As an exmaple,
gold or platinum powder is heated for 30 hours at 400.degree. C to
grow on them submicron whiskers of about 2000 A long and 100 A in
diameter. One gram of the micron powder with the whiskers is then
placed in 10 grams of acetone and the process repeated as above
with the flakes; however, in this case after the agitation the
metal needles remain in the suspension. The suspenstion stands
until the one micron metal particles settle leaving the submicron
needles in suspension. Centrifugation may be used instead of
settling. The same procedure as with the flakes is then followed
and the paste formed in this case contains the required submicron
needles. ##SPC2##
Table 1 summarizes the results of these investigations presenting
the electro-optical and response characteristics for
random-parallel alignment, showing values for:
a. theoretical
b. goal
c. herapathite dipoles
d. metal dipoles-chromium
The values given in column (a) follow from the theory. Numerous
examples are presented herein.
Under (b), goal represents what appears to be attainable results on
further development, with no major breakthrough shorter dipoles and
lower viscosity fluids will lead to faster response times for
electric alignment, and Brownian relaxation.
The herapathite suspension is most fully developed. Its
characteristics are shown in column (c). The chromium metal dipole
suspension characteristics are shown in column (d). The chromium
metal dipole suspension may be optimized.
Comparison of the data presented herein for herapathite dipole
suspensions, and metal dipole suspensions shows:
1. The parallel electrodichroic ratio q.sub.rz of the metal dipole
suspension at 2300 nm was 28 compared to about 15 for the
herapathite suspension at 575.
2. The parallel electrodichroic response o.sub.rz of the metal
suspension was 3.2 times that of the herapathite suspension.
3. The threshold electric field intensity E.sub.r of the
herapathite suspension was 0.1 - 0.2 kv/cm; while that of the metal
suspension was probably only about 0.03 kv/cm.
The much greater electrodichroic response and much smaller
threshold observed for the metal dipole suspension relative to that
of the herapathite dipole suspension may be ascribed to the greater
conductivity of the metal. This results in a greater dipole torque
for the metal in a given electric field intensity. This also
explains the much smaller threshold electric field intensities for
the metal dipole suspension compared to that for the herapathite
dipole suspension, since a smaller electric field intensity will
then be effective in the former case to turn the dipole against the
randomizing effects of molecular impact.
The metal dipoles are cylindrical rods, while the herapathite
dipoles are blade-shaped. Molecular impact on a blade will cause it
to rotate about its long axis, as well as about its center; while
molecular impact on a cylindrical rod would be more effective to
rotate it about its center. In alignment by an electric field or in
relaxation by molecular impact, the rod will have less resistance
than a blade and will turn faster. The shape and the increased
conductivity of the metal dipole particle compared to the
herapathite dipole particle, explains the much smaller threshold
electric field intensity required to align the metal dipoles.
4. For a dipole layer to be substantially opaque with the dipoles
in random orienation, theory predicts a dipole mass/unit area M of
about 1 .mu.g/cm.sup.2. (example 2). The herapathite dipole layer
required 410 .mu.g/cm.sup.2 total, or about 127 .mu.g/cm.sup.2
calculated as iodine conducting rods only; while the metal dipole
rods 0.77.mu. long required only 33.mu.g/cm.sup.2.
The herapathite dipole crystal comprises a bulky insulating
clathrate cage for the conducting iodine rods. This extra bulk
slows alignment and relaxation, increases the mass per unit area;
and decreases response and sensitivity. If the metal rods were only
0.19.mu. long compared to 0.77.mu.(1/4 the length), then the peak
electrodichroic ratio would be at 3 .times. 0.19 or 570 nm; and the
mass/unit area required would be (1/4).sup.3 = 1/64 or
approximately 0.5.mu.g/cm.sup.2, which is of the order of that
predicted.
5. The parallel electrodichroic sensitivity S.sub.rz =94 .sub.rz /M
expressed in .DELTA.q (cm.sup.3 /gm kv) of the herapathite dipole
suspension was 2.7 .times. 10.sup.4 ; while that of the metal
dipole suspension was 10.sup.6 ; theoretically for M = 1
.mu.g/cm.sup.2, and for .sigma..sub.rz = 33, S.sub.rz = 33 .times.
10.sup.6.
6. The relaxation time .tau..sub.B compared to the rise time .tau.
at 10 kv/cm, had a ratio of .tau./.tau..sub.B of about 30 for the
herapathite to about 8 for the metal suspension. The rise and
relaxation times were much faster for the metal suspension, despite
the greater density of the metal dipoles 7.2 gms/cm.sup.3 compared
to about 2 gms/cm.sup.3 for the herapathite dipoles; and lengths of
0.77.mu. and 0.5.mu. respectively. The equations (31) and (32) may
possibly have to be modified by the inclusion of the density
.delta..sub.p in the numerator on the right hand side; although
this is not suggested in the literature.
By decreasing the length of the metal dipole to about 0.19.mu.
(1/4) 0.77.mu. the rise times and relaxations times should decrease
by a factor of (1/4).sup.3 = 1/64 or to about 30.mu.s and 240.mu.s
respectively.
The fluid viscosity in all these tests was about the same, 180
millipoise. By decreasing the fluid viscosity to about 18
millipoise, these times should be further decreased to about 3.mu.s
and 24.mu.s respectively.
7. FIGS. 67 and 68 show that the voltage of AC pulse, applied
across the Z cell, decreases as the metal dipole rods are aligned
by the electric field, which causes an increase in the cell
capacitance. The alignment of the metal dipole rods causes an
increase in the apparent dielectric constant.
This effect may be useful as a capacitance control device, which
has many applications in electronic circuits -- timing control,
modulation, amplification, etc.
8. The metal dipoles operate at lower operating voltages -- for the
present example about 10 percent the voltage of the herapathite
suspension for the same electrodichroic ratio 10. Thus for a
herapathite cell operating at 200 volts rms, the same cell would
operate at 20 volts rms/cm for the metal suspension.
9. The transmittance -- time -- electric field equations are
extraordinary; an exponential power raised to an exponential power,
having the unique characteristics of a rapid tremendous change in
transmittance from substantially opaque to substantially
transparent; for a relatively small voltage applied parallel to the
light path. Thus large area electro-optic windows, display panels,
shutters and other devices become feasible.
10. The metal dipole suspensions are chemically more stable than
herapathite suspensions.
11. The metal suspensions demonstrate the predicted antennae
effects.
12. The metal dipoles are generally superior to the herapathite
suspensions .
* * * * *