U.S. patent number 3,616,855 [Application Number 05/057,741] was granted by the patent office on 1971-11-02 for method of bulking or caving a volume of subsurface material.
This patent grant is currently assigned to New Mexico Tech. Research Foundation. Invention is credited to Stirling A. Colgate.
United States Patent |
3,616,855 |
Colgate |
November 2, 1971 |
**Please see images for:
( Certificate of Correction ) ** |
METHOD OF BULKING OR CAVING A VOLUME OF SUBSURFACE MATERIAL
Abstract
A volume of subsurface material is bulked or caved by generating
a gas pressure in the base of the volume in a time of from about 1
to about 10 seconds having an energy input sufficient to lift the
overburden material to an extent such that material falls or caves
and leaves a chamber having a generally hemispherical roof
containing the caved material and providing an interconnected void
space. The gas pressure to obtain what may be termed a quasi-static
lifting of the overburden material may be generated by shock
ignition of a volume-burning propellant, by flame front ignition of
a volume-burning propellant, by combustion of an oxidizer and fuel
delivered separately and mixed in place in the base of the volume,
or by rapid delivery to the base of the volume of a previously
stored gas under high pressure.
Inventors: |
Colgate; Stirling A. (Socorro,
NM) |
Assignee: |
New Mexico Tech. Research
Foundation (Socorro, NM)
|
Family
ID: |
22012472 |
Appl.
No.: |
05/057,741 |
Filed: |
July 23, 1970 |
Related U.S. Patent Documents
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Application
Number |
Filing Date |
Patent Number |
Issue Date |
|
|
691295 |
Dec 18, 1967 |
|
|
|
|
Current U.S.
Class: |
166/283; 166/300;
166/299 |
Current CPC
Class: |
E21B
43/263 (20130101); E21B 43/24 (20130101) |
Current International
Class: |
E21B
43/263 (20060101); E21B 43/24 (20060101); E21B
43/25 (20060101); E21B 43/16 (20060101); E21b
043/26 () |
Field of
Search: |
;166/283,281,280,247,300,299,302,308,260 |
References Cited
[Referenced By]
U.S. Patent Documents
Primary Examiner: Novosad; Stephen J.
Parent Case Text
This application is a continuation-in-part of application Ser. No.
691,295, filed Dec. 18, 1967, now abandoned.
Claims
I claim:
1. A method of bulking or caving a volume of subsurface material
comprising the step of generating a gas pressure at the base of the
volume in a time of from about 1 to about 10 seconds and with an
energy input such that the overburden material is lifted to an
extent sufficient to enable such overburden material above the said
base to fall or cave and leave a chamber having a generally
hemispherical roof and containing caved material and providing an
interconnected void space the gas pressure being generated by
slowly gasifying a heterogeneous mixture of a fuel and an oxidizer
of the fuel previously emplaced in a layer at the base of the
volume.
2. A method according to claim 1 wherein the fuel-oxidizer mixture
constitutes a volume-burning propellant and is gasified by
propagating through it a weak detonation front or strong shock to
provide shock ignition and secondary burn.
3. A method according to claim 1 wherein the fuel-oxidizer mixture
is a fluid and is gasified by generating a rapidly progressing
flame front and establishing Taylor unstable mixing to provide
flame front ignition of the mixture.
4. A method according to claim 3 wherein the gas pressure is
generated by introducing separately at the said base of the volume
a fuel and an oxidizer for the fuel that oxidizes the fuel upon
mixing therewith under the environmental conditions.
5. A method of bulking or caving a volume of subsurface material
comprising the steps of creating a generally horizontal fracture at
the base of said volume, emplacing in the fracture a layer of a
heterogeneous mixture of a fuel and an oxidizer for the fuel
capable of relatively slow gasification, and igniting the mixture
to generate by burning of the mixture a gas pressure in a time of
from about 1 to about 10 seconds with sufficient energy to lift the
overburden material above the fracture such that the overburden
material falls or caves and leaves a generally hemispherical
chamber containing caved material and providing an interconnected
void space.
6. A method according to claim 5 wherein the fracturing and
emplacement steps are carried out simultaneously by fracturing with
the fuel-oxidizer mixture.
7. A method according to claim 5 wherein the fracturing is
accomplished prior to emplacing the fuel-oxidizer mixture.
8. A method according to claim 7 wherein the material is first
repeatedly fractured with a setting or partially setting and
self-propping fracturing fluid to redistribute the stresses in the
material and ensure a final substantially horizontal fracture.
9. A method according to claim 5 wherein the fuel-oxidizer mixture
constitutes a volume-burning propellant and is gasified by
propagating through it a weak detonation front or strong shock to
permit shock ignition and secondary burn of the propellant.
10. A method according to claim 9 wherein the fuel is a fluid
hydrocarbon, and the oxidizer is a member selected form the group
consisting of ammonium perchlorate (NH.sub.4 C10.sub.3), potassium
perchlorate (KC10.sub.3), and combinations thereof.
11. A method according to claim 5 wherein the fuel-oxidizer mixture
is a fluid and is gasified by generating a rapidly progressing
flame front igniton of the mixture.
12. A method of obtaining control and redistribution of stresses in
a volume of underground material comprising the step of
sequentially and repeatedly fracturing the material in said volume
along at least two nonparallel fracture zones diverging generally
upwardly and outwardly from a zone of a well bore with a setting or
partially setting fracturing fluid.
13. A method according to claim 12 wherein the fracturing fluid is
a setting cement.
14. A method according to claim 12 wherein the fracturing fluid is
a self-propping and bridging mud.
15. A method according to claim 12 wherein the fracturing fluid is
permitted to set after each fracture operation.
16. A method of obtaining control and redistribution of stresses in
a volume of underground material comprising the steps of repeatedly
pumping into the volume from a point in a well bore passing through
the volume a setting or partially setting fluid under a pressure
sufficient to generate a fracture diverging generally upwardly and
outwardly from the said point in the well bore, and allowing the
fluid to set between each of the said repeated pumping steps,
thereby successively to spread portions of the volume of material
generally laterally to compress such portions and generate lateral
stresses in the volume of material to render the material in the
volume essentially self-supporting.
17. A method according to claim 16 wherein the fluid is a
self-propping and bridging mud.
18. A method according to claim 16 wherein the fluid is a
self-propping and bridging mud.
19. A method according to claim 16 wherein the total volume of
fluid pumped into the volume of material by the repeated pumping
steps is approximately equal to the volume of the said volume of
material times one-third the ratio of the overburden pressure at
said point in the well bore to Young's Modulls for the
material.
20. A method according to claim 16 and further comprising the step
of mining underground strata below said volume of material after
completing the repeated pumping and setting steps.
21. A method according to claim 16 and further comprising the step
of pumping a fluid into the ground below said volume of material
for storage thereof after completing the said repeated pumping and
setting steps.
22. A method according to claim 16 and further comprising the step
of forming a standard fluid fracture in a zone below said volume of
material to facilitate recovery of fluid from said zone after
completing the said repeated pumping and setting steps.
Description
BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION
The present invention relates to the creation of underground
interconnected void space, for the purpose of relative ease of
fluid or gaseous communication with large volumes of underground
material and in particular to a novel form of achieving this
interconnected void space by rapid-burning solid, liquid, or
gaseous oxidizer-fuel mixtures and novel methods of emplacement of
said materials.
The technique of creating underground interconnected void space is
well known in the oil industry as "hydraulic fracturing" and is
used for the stimulation of the oil or gas production from the
underground formations that do not have a high enough porosity to
permit sufficient flow at the available fluid or gaseous pressure.
The customary procedure requires that a fluid under high pressure
is pumped down the well bore at a sufficient rate such that the
overpressure underground cracks ("fractures") the rock formation
and the subsequent fluid flow carries hard particles into the crack
and "props" it open so that later fluid or gas can flow back
through the fracture to the well bore. The process of hydraulic
fracturing is a useful and efficient means of stimulating oil and
gas production and is widely used throughout the world. A possible
improvement to the process of hydraulic fracturing is the use of an
explosive for creating the underground pressure required for
fracturing the rock. This process requires emplacement of
relatively large volumes of explosive underground usually in liquid
or slurry form and then detonating the explosive so that the
pressure corresponds released almost simultaneously. The extreme
limit of the process of explosive hydraulic fracturing is
exemplified by the underground nuclear explosion. Since the under
ground nuclear explosion has been studied and analyzed in greatest
detail, it will be used as the prime example of explosive
fracturing, and the departure of the present invention will later
become apparent.
NUCLEAR EXPLOSIVE FRACTURING
The extreme heat of an underground nuclear explosion generates a
pressure infinitely above the overburden pressure and a spherical
bubble or cavity rapidly expands away from the point of detonation.
As the bubble expands the gases inside the cavity (vaporized rock
and steam) decrease in pressure according to the well-known
adiabatic law until the pressure becomes no greater than that due
to the overburden of rock and soil. The growth of the cavity would
cease at this point were it not for the momentum corresponding to
the rapid velocity at which the cavity initially expanded. The
kinetic energy corresponding to this expansion velocity is
comparable to that in the volume of gases when the gas pressure is
the same as the overburden. Consequently, the cavity overshoots the
equilibrium radius and finally oscillates (highly damped) around
this radius until becoming static. The equilibrium static
underground spherical cavity remains in this form until the gases
cool by heat conduction or leak into the surrounding rock. Because
a nuclear explosion is so large, the time for cooling and leaking
may be several minutes, whereas for a more conventional explosion
of moderate size the cooling and leaking time may be very short
indeed (a second or less). Nevertheless, after cooling and leaking,
when the gas pressure has fallen well below overburden pressure,
the cavity may remain standing in its spherical form for times of
minutes to hours, but after this somewhat uncertain time the roof
of the cavity starts to fall because the stresses do not distribute
themselves like a classical stone arch, but instead occasional
pieces of rock find themselves in tension and so fall or cave. (The
exception to this is an explosion in rock salt where the peculiar
properties of the material cause a bridging of the stresses and
caving does not occur as readily). When pieces of the roof of the
cavity fall down, they release other pieces and .cent.caving " of
the cavity proceeds. This process of caving is analogous to the
instability that takes place whenever a heavy fluid is supported by
a lighter one (scientifically called "Taylor instability"); the
heavy fluid falls in blobs into the lighter one, and unstable
mixing takes place the same as if one tries to support water with
air pressure. In the case of the rock, however, the mechanical
strength of the material prevents a fluid blob from forming and
only "chunks" defined by previous cracks can fall or cave out of
the roof of the cavity. The frequency of the cracks and the lateral
stress or bridging, as in a stone arch, determines whether the
"chunk" will fall. In the case of a spherical roof of usual rock
unstable caving occurs provided the mean spacing of cracks is small
compared to the radius of the sphere. If the roof were flat, caving
would occur much more readily as witnessed in mines where "roof
bolts" are used to distribute the stress more uniformly in the rock
above. In the case of the explosively formed cavity the many cracks
formed during the initial expansion assure that caving occurs
relatively easily despite the near perfect arch of the roof.
BULKING
Once caving has commenced, it continues either until the bulking of
the caved rock fills up the progressively enlarging cavity and the
bulked rock reaches the roof, or until a rock stratum is reached
that has a crack spacing as large as the reduced roof radius. This
usually leads to a volume of caved rock about four times the
initial spherical cavity volume. For the large energies available
from nuclear explosions, this volume of broken rock may be very
large, several million tons, and aside from radioactivity it is in
an ideal form for further processing by in-place mining methods
such as chemical leaching, or oil extraction by retorting. From the
standpoint of exposing large volumes of rock, however, the energy
of the nuclear explosion has not been used efficiently.
EFFICIENCY OF BULKING
The volume of space between the exposed rock is relatively large,
namely, 25 percent, whereas the fissures that are sufficient to
interconnect a gas or oil reservoir may be as small as 1/10 percent
of the total volume. In addition, a large fraction ( up to 50
percent) of the energy of the explosion has gone into heating an
melting the rock. An additional 25 percent has gone into shock
crushing and dynamical motion of the cavity. Finally, the heat that
creates the gas pressure that forms the cavity uses a gas
(vaporized rock and steam) that has a very large latent heat so the
remaining heat in the gas when the cavity has reached its static
equilibrium size is roughly eight times larger (1/(.alpha.-1),
.alpha.= ratio of specific heats) than the energy corresponding to
the displacement volume of the cavity. Consequently, by improving
on these various factors it is conceptually possible to expose rock
by interconnected voids very much more efficiently than with
nuclear explosives. The object of this invention is to perform this
function using slow, or quasi-static energy release, and thus
achieve a far more efficient fracturing and bulking of the
rock.
CAVING GEOMETRY
The ideal geometry for rock caving is one in which the rock is
supported over a large area by a relatively flat lense or layer of
gas; in this case a light fluid, the gas, supports a heavy
quasi-fluid, rocks with many cracks, and so "Taylor instability"
caving in not likely to take place. The many cracks means that the
crack spacing must be small compared to the relatively large
horizontal dimension of the gas layer. The vertical height to which
the caving will progress is determined both by the thickness of the
gas layer as well as the horizontal dimension. Once the vertical
caving has reached a height equal to the horizontal radius, the
near spherical configuration will cause bridging and further caving
will be inhibited. (A spherical gas "layer" caves to a height of
only four times the initial radius). In addition, the initial
fracture heterogeneity will determine the bulking ratio as caving
proceeds. However, if the crack spacing is large compared to the
gas layer thickness (the crack spacing is also small compared to
the gas layer radius) then one would expect that the chunks of rock
would slip a relatively small distance before permitting the next
one to move. In this case, the bulking fraction should be
significantly less than the relatively large 25 percent
corresponding to the caving of a spherical cavity. If, in addition,
the initial fractures that were preferentially vertical were
preferentially opened and lubricated, a still more favorably small
bulking ratio might be achieved. The proposed method of relatively
slow pressure release and the proposed method of oxidizer-fuel
emplacement should tend to augment each of these factors.
EXPLOSIVE PROBLEMS
If a conventional explosive like TNT, gels or high-velocity
slurries (ammonium nitrate, oil and aluminum) were used to create
the required gas layer, the first and largest inefficiency that
would occur would be the initial crushing of the rock by the very
high detonation pressure (400 kilobars) compared to the relatively
weaker crushing strength of the rock (75 to 100 kilobars). Thus the
major fraction (75 percent) of the explosive energy would be lost
from "lifting" the overburden rock. Next, of the remaining 25
percent useful energy almost all of this will do work on lifting
the overburden rock at a pressure that is large (75 to 100
kilobars) compared to the overburden pressure (350 bars at 5,000
feet depth), so that the kinetic energy will give rise to an
overshoot that is about equal to the equilibrium displacement. The
result is a fraction of this energy is emitted as a seismic wave
(50 percent) and an additional loss occurs due to the rebound and
recompression of the gas to a high temperature with the attendant
loss by thermal conductivity to the rock. The efficiency factor to
be gained by a relatively slow lift of the overburden rock is
perhaps as large as 10 if not more.
QUASI-STATIC LIFTING
Consequently, a major factor of efficiency can be obtained by
lifting the rock slowly. Slowly means the pressure must be raised
in a time not significantly shorter than the accommodation time of
the rock configuration. In the case of the formation of a gas layer
thin compared to its horizontal radius, the movement of the rock
will occur principally within a spherical volume corresponding to
the radius of the layer. The accommodation time then corresponds to
several times the traversal period of sound across the spherical
volume. Since the radius must be large compared to the average
crack spacing this means that most practical operations will be
performed where the radius of the layer will be several tens up to
100 meters in diameter. Since the speed of sound in rock is roughly
5 kilometers per second, the traversal period will be several
tenths of a second. Therefore, the pressure must be created in a
time not much less than a second at any one location. (The
corresponding time for a fast explosive is several microseconds and
so unsuitable by six orders of magnitude).
ROCKET PROPELLANTS
As a consequence, one naturally looks at the technology of rocket
propellants where relatively rapid combustion rates are achieved.
Unfortunately, however, heterogeneous or homogeneous premixed
propellants, usually called solid propellants, burn with a flame
front that progresses into the propellant at only several
centimeters per second, requiring several thousand seconds to burn
to completion to a radius of 100 meters. Ordinary solid propellant
technology, therefore, is several orders of magnitude too slow for
the rock caving requirements.
MAXIMUM BURN TIME
Before proceeding with the solutions to these problems, the maximum
burn times should be considered. Two losses occur when the gas is
generated too slowly; namely, the gas can leak away through
fissures as it is generated and, secondly, the high temperature or
heat content of the gas can be conducted into the rock, and hence
the pressure will dissipate before it has lifted the overburden.
Both these losses should become important in several tens of
seconds, so that the burn time of the "propellan" should occur
within 1 to 10 seconds.
SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION
In accordance with the invention, a subsurface interconnected void
space is obtained by the rapid burning of solid, liquid, or gaseous
fuel-oxidizer mixtures emplaced in a subsurface material. A
separate fuel and oxidizer, a fuel-oxidizer mixture, or a
compressed gas is used to lift the overburden material relatively
slowly, i.e., in from about 1 to about 10 seconds, so that the
overburden material caves into the cavity formed by the gas
pressure.
The invention also provides a technique for prestressing the ground
above a selected strata to be bulked for the purpose of preparing
it for bulking or for other operations in the strata, such as
mining or establishing a storage space. The technique permits the
"engineering" of underground stress fields. Prestressing is
accomplished by sequentially fracturing an underground zone with a
cement slurry or other setting or partially setting material, such
as self-propping mud.
DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS
For a better understanding of the invention, reference may be made
to the following description of exemplary embodiments, taken in
conjunction with the three FIGURES of accompanying drawings, each
of which illustrates diagrammatically a mode of carrying out the
invention.
DESCRIPTION OF EXEMPLARY EMBODIMENTS
Method of Gasification:
Described below are four variants of the method, according to the
invention, for generating the quasi-static but rapid gasification
required for efficient rock caving. 1. A heterogeneous mixture of
fuel and oxidizer can be ignited by the passage of a weak
detonation front or strong shock which releases only a small
fraction (less than 10 to 20 percent) of the ultimate heat of
combustion. The remaining larger fraction of the heat of combustion
is released only as the heterogeneous regions of fuel and oxidizer
mix and burn. The rate of this secondary burn that releases the
major fraction of the energy is governed by the size of the grains
of each component. It is referred to as shock ignition of a
volume-burning propellant. 2. A heterogeneous mixture of fuel and
oxidizer can be ignited by the rapid progression of a flame front
over a relatively large area and subsequent burn through a
relatively thin layer. In addition, if the mixture is a fluid (or
slurry), a bubble ignited within the mixture will propagate first
by flame progression over the inside surface of the bubble and then
the expansion of the surface of the bubble due to the pressure
generated by burning. Such bubble growth and subsequent coalescence
of bubbles leads to the same final limit of rapid flame front
ignition and subsequent burn of relatively thin web between
bubbles. The aforementioned "Taylor instability" occurring when the
fluid mixture is accelerated by the lighter combustion product
gases will create the bubbles. The combined effect of "Taylor
instability" bubble creation, and flame front progressive ignition
is referred to as flame front ignition of a volume-burning
propellant. 3. The separated oxidizer and fuel can be pumped
rapidly underground and burned in place at a rate determined by the
pumping rate. This is exactly the method used in a standard liquid
fuel rocket, except underground the preservation of the combustion
chamber is not important For deep holes and very large volume the
pumping problem becomes impractical. However, for relatively
shallow bulking problems as for instance the augmentation of the
porosity of ore dumps for leaching, such a solution as this might
be cheaper than heterogeneous propellants. (Liquid oxygen is a
cheaper oxidizer than the standard "solid" oxidizers such as
ammonium perchlorate, etc.) This method will be referred to as
local combustion of separated oxidizer and fuel. 4. Finally, the
gas required to lift or bulk the underground material can be
supplied directly as compressed air provided the depth is small,
less than about 100 feet, and the pipe diameter is large, and
further, the air pressure is many times overburden pressure so that
very rapid gas flow is achieved. One envisages that the gas would
be stored initially in a tank at high pressure with a
quick-opening, large diameter valve connected directly to the down
hole casing. This method will be referred to as compressed air
bulking.
Volume-burning propellants:
Regardless whether volume burning of a heterogeneous propellant is
achieved by a weak detonation front spreading, the time of burn is
limited in both cases by the particle size of either oxidizer or
fuel. The characteristic time is roughly the time for sufficient
heat to penetrate the larger particles to vaporize them. This time
is approximately
.tau..sub..congruent.(.rho.c/K) (d.sup.2 /4)
where K is the thermal conductivity, .rho. is the density, c is the
specific heat per unit mass and d is the particle size. For 0.2 cm.
solid particles of KC10.sub.3, or NH.sub.4 C10.sub.3, K .congruent.
10.sup..sup.-2 cal./deg. cm. sec., the time should be roughly 1
second. For an oxidizer that detonates strongly when driven hard
enough (NH.sub.4 NO.sub.3) the mixing of oxidizer with liquid fuel
(oil) may occur on a time scale of the turbulent flow of the hot
oxidizer gas which is very much more rapid. Indeed, it occurs
within the time of detonation ( .sup..sup.-4 to 10.sup..sup.-3
seconds). Hence the slurry-type explosives using somewhat similar
(but different) materials burn to completion rapidly and therefore
"detonate."
Therefore, the detonation properties of the oxidizer become an
important factor in determining the slow volume-burning properties
of the propellant. Ammonium perchlorate, NH.sub.4 C10.sub.3, or
potassium perchlorate, KC10.sub.3, are the preferred solid
oxidizers.
PROPELLANT EMPLACEMENT
In order to achieve the quasi-static lift of several feet of the
ground over a large area by combustion gases, the preferred
geometry for the initial distribution of the oxidizer and fuel is a
disc several tens to hundreds of feet in diameter and thickness of
one-fourth to 1 inch.
The lift, L, achieved with a layer thickness, D, of fuel-oxidizer
combination can be calculated front the formula
D .epsilon. (.alpha.-1) = L h g <.rho.> = L P.sub.0
Where .epsilon. is the energy release per unit volume of
fuel-oxidizer combination, (5,000 to 10,000 joules per cm.sub.3.),
.alpha. is the effective ratio of specific heats 1.2 to 1.4, h is
the burial depth, g, the acceleration of gravity, <.rho.>,
the average overburden rock density, and P.sub.o is the overburden
pressure. The simplest method of achieving this emplacement
geometry is by fluid fracturing of the rock structure using the
combined fuel-oxidizer as the fracturing fluid. If the rock
structure is highly bedded in layers of relatively strong rock and
the depth less than 3,000 to 4,000 feet, then the recorded fracture
pressures observed in the oil industry almost always correspond
exactly to the overburden pressure. This is the pressure that one
expects if a horizontal fracture is occurring, because the fluid
must support the force of overburden rock pressure with negligible
bridging or beam effect. At greater depths or in regions that are
not tectonically relaxed, the fracture fluid pressure varies
randomly mostly between one-third to two-thirds of of overburden
pressure. This pressure behavior is what would be expected if the
underground were supported by columns of rock that were packed
together with a "packing pressure" that varied from one-third to
two-thirds of the vertical overburden pressure on the columns. As a
consequence, a hydraulic fluid under pressure would more readily
penetrate between the columns rather than pumping them up
vertically. In order to achieve the horizontal fracture in a medium
initially in columnar support, it is first necessary to pack the
columns together with a greater pressure than occurs
vertically.
"Engineering" Underground Stresses:
Deep underground the ground is supported like columns in that the
vertical stress is large, i.e., "the overburden stress," and, in
general, corresponds to just the weight of the overburden material.
The horizontal stress, on the other hand, is in general less than
the overburden by roughly one-third to one-half. In certain
geologically active regions as during mountain building, this may
not be so, but in tectonically relaxed regions oil well fracturing
at 5,000 feet depth and greater indicates the ratio of overburden
to formation fluid acceptance pressure to be roughly two-thirds.
This is equivalent to surrounding our supporting columns of rock
with a fluid two-thirds as dense as the column materials.
Actually--and only rarely--would this picture be true. Instead, the
pressure in the rock is anistropic and if one injects a fluid
underpressure it will spread the rock sideways and not lift it.
This is called vertical fracture.
By way of contrast, the archways of stone in a building near their
center (keystone) have a horizontal stress (sideways thrust) large
compared to the vertical stress (weight). As a consequence, the
arch supports--or "bridges"--a horizontal area.
It is the object of the process of sequential cement fracturing to
create such a bridging of stress underground. By pumping in a
setting fluid--first the ground is spread sideways a little and the
fluid reaches out as a vertical crack--spreading the "columns"
sideways slightly and compressing them sideways slightly. After the
cement is set, a repeated series of such sequential fracturing an
setting will continue to increase the sideways stress until it
becomes greater than overburden pressure. (The volume of cement
required is roughly volume of rock effected times one-third the
ratio of the overburden pressure to Young Modulus for rock. At
5,000 feet depth, this would be about 1.3.times.10.sup..sup.-4 of
the rock volume effected).
When the horizontal stress is greater than the vertical, the rock
appears roughly like an arch or solid bridge. When further fluid is
pumped under such a bridge, it tends to lift the bridged region of
rock as a unit rather than finding vertical cracks to escape. In
other words, the next additional fluid should tend to flow
horizontally since this is the direction of least pressure
resistance.
By placing the spheres of stress (regions of sequential fracturing)
in turn in the shape of a hemishperical shell, very large areas
(domes) of stress can be created.
In addition to preparing for bulking by the techniques described
above, the engineering of the underground stress field into
prestressed shapes by the method of sequential fracturing can also
be used in operations such as, for example, the following: 1. If a
large cavern of rock is to be mined underground, prestressing of
the final roof contour by intially--before mining--sequential
fracturing will create the arch stresses before the removal of the
rock thus allowing a far safer mining operation and the creation of
far larger underground caverns. 2. If storage space is required for
underground gas, then prestressing of the overburden will "seal"
the "roof" against gas leakage so that when gas is pumped into the
ground below such a prestressed region ("roof") the gas will lift
the overburden (horizontal fractures) rather than creating vertical
fractures that lead to gas escape from the surface.
An example of this process of "sealing" the overburden (creating
horizontal stress) by the sequential fracturing with a setting
fluid exists in nature. People who observe or live in fear of
volcano eruptions are beset by the random way the flows break out
of the mountain. An eruption or flow never seems to break out of
the same place--or side of the mountain--more than a few times in
succession. The eruption always seems to give up the last "weak
point" in favor of a new and unknown one. What is evidently
happening is that any given flow increases the horizontal stress;
the hot lava sets when it cools and hence seals in a natural plug.
It might require more than one eruption, but after several, the
horizontal stress should then be greater than elsewhere and so a
new "weak point" becomes the new eruption. This is important for
gas storage because whenever a leak is detected at the ground
level, a relative straightforward mechanism is available to seal
the leak; namely, drilling and sequential fracturing, etc. 3.
Fracturing of oil formations to stimulate oil and gas flow is
usually accomplished by fracturing with a fluid with a crack
propping agent, beads, etc. Below 5,000 feet the fractures are
almost universally vertical. If they could be made horizontal a
larger recovery would be possible. By sequential concrete
fracturing above the oil or gas bearing zone a prestressed roof can
be created such that a standard fluid fracture below and within the
oil or gas formation should extend horizontally a distance
corresponding to the prestressed roof. 4. For inplacement of
leaching of minerals one wants interconnected void space within the
rock. This may be achieved by an explosive lifting of the
overburden to create the voids. The explosive, however, must be
placed in a horizontal layer beneath the region to be bulked.
Hence, the "roof" of the region should be prestressed so that a
liquid explosive or a propellant-type gas source can be placed
horizontally beneath the region to be bulked.
The reason for using cement or partially setting and self-propping
mud is so that the fluid in the vertical cracks does not continue
to migrate instead of remaining fairly local (several hundred feet)
from the point of injection. By remaining local and building up
layer after layer in the vertical cracks, the horizontal stress
will accumulate due to the added volume. If Y is Young modulus and
P is the difference between overburden pressure, P.sub.0 , and
fracture pressure, P.sub.f, then the fractional volume than must be
added becomes
V.sub.f = .DELTA.P/.sub.Y .
For typical rocks and depths 5,000 to 10,000 feet, the fractional
volume of mud or cement that must be added to raise the fracture
pressure to overburden is 10.sup..sup.-3 or less. For bulking as
described above, the combined oxidizer-fuel, on the other hand,
must be enough to raise the same volume something like 1 percent to
10 percent so that subsequent caving would give a bulking of
10.sup..sup.-3 of the total volume. The volume of fuel and oxidizer
required at 5,000 to 10,000 feet is roughly 1 to
2.times.10.sup..sup.-3 of the same rock volume so that the
horizontal fracture required for oxidizer-fuel emplacement is
roughly the same volume as the vertical fractures filled with mud
or cement.
EXEMPLARY EMBODIMENT
In one exemplary embodiment of this invention, referring to FIG. 1,
a cased drill hole is made to the rock stratum that is to be caved.
A heavy mud such as one incorporating barite or iron oxide is used
to fracture the formation. If the fracture pressure is equal to and
remains at overburden pressure, then it is presumed that a
horizontal fracture has been formed and no further mud is required.
If the pressure is less than overburden pressure, more mud is added
to continue fracturing until the pressure rises to overburden, or
until something like one-half the calculated volume is added that
theoretically should raise the horizontal stress to overburden
value. If the fracturing pressure has not risen significantly by
the time this volume is added, it implies that the mud is too fluid
and too little "bridging" and propping of the fractures (presumedly
vertical) is taking place. In this case, a setting cement must be
added so that the fractures will remain propped. Additional
fractures should then be made with cement (waiting for periods such
that the cement will set) so that the vertical fractures will be
additionally propped with each additional cement fracture. When the
fracture pressure reaches overburden pressure for a series of
repeated cementing fractures, then it can be presumed that some of
these are occurring in the horizontal direction. At this point the
combined oxidized fuel mixture is pumped down the hole at a volume
rate higher than that used for fracturing and preferably with
sufficient viscosity (for example heavy fuel oil with ammonium
perchlorate or potassium perchlorate) so that some self-propping of
the fracture occurs. If the heavy oil requires some modest heat
before it flows readily enough for pumping, then upon cooling in
the fracture, a thicker layer will be formed and the pressure,
temperature viscosity, and pumping rate will control the thickness
f the layer propping the fracture. The fuel oxidizer mixture is
then ignited by using a larger booster charge, preferably again, a
fracture emplaced high velocity slurry explosive. Large means up to
10 percent of the volume of the combined fuel-oxidizer mixture as
experience dictates is required to obtain either the necessary
volume ignition by shock or flame front spreading. The optimum
fuel-oxidizer ratio is stoichiometric, but large excesses of fuel
(e.g., oil) can be used to obtain the fluid properties desired.
According to other embodiments the method of local combustion of
separate fuel and oxidizer or the method of compressed air bulking,
a relatively large hole is drilled and cased to the desired depth,
and the fuel and oxidizer are pumped through separate lines to the
bottom of the hole in a time of several seconds (see FIG. 3), or
similarly the compressed air is released form a reservoir in
several seconds (see FIG. 3). The size of the drill hole, casing,
depth, volume to be delivered and pumping pressure or air reservoir
pressure determining whether the fluid or gas can be delivered to
the bottom of the hole in the required several seconds. If the hole
size, pump size, or air pressure become too large to be practical,
then, of course, the previous method of fracture emplaced
fuel-oxidizer mixture can be used.
The oil industry has amassed a large body of knowledge concerning
fracturing technology that will allow many variation upon the
procedures described above. Accordingly, variations and
modifications of the invention as hereinabove described that are
within the skill of the art are intended to be included within the
spirit and scope of the invention, as defined in the appended
claims.
* * * * *