U.S. patent number 3,552,494 [Application Number 04/807,834] was granted by the patent office on 1971-01-05 for process of hydraulic fracturing with viscous oil-in-water emulsion.
This patent grant is currently assigned to Esso Production Research Company. Invention is credited to Othar M. Kiel.
United States Patent |
3,552,494 |
Kiel |
January 5, 1971 |
**Please see images for:
( Certificate of Correction ) ** |
PROCESS OF HYDRAULIC FRACTURING WITH VISCOUS OIL-IN-WATER
EMULSION
Abstract
A method for the hydraulic fracturing of a subterranean
formation wherein an oil-in-water emulsion containing a heavy crude
oil, petroleum fraction, or similar hydrocarbon oil having a
viscosity in excess of about 1500 centipoises at 100.degree. F. is
injected into a well at a rate sufficient to open a fracture in the
exposed formation.
Inventors: |
Kiel; Othar M. (Houston,
TX) |
Assignee: |
Esso Production Research
Company (N/A)
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Family
ID: |
25197265 |
Appl.
No.: |
04/807,834 |
Filed: |
March 17, 1969 |
Related U.S. Patent Documents
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Application
Number |
Filing Date |
Patent Number |
Issue Date |
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655356 |
Jul 24, 1967 |
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421578 |
Dec 28, 1964 |
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641275 |
May 25, 1967 |
3378074 |
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Current U.S.
Class: |
166/308.4;
507/922 |
Current CPC
Class: |
C09K
8/64 (20130101); Y10S 507/922 (20130101) |
Current International
Class: |
E21B
43/26 (20060101); C09K 8/60 (20060101); C09K
8/64 (20060101); E21b 043/26 () |
Field of
Search: |
;166/280,283,308
;252/8.55A ;137/13 |
References Cited
[Referenced By]
U.S. Patent Documents
Foreign Patent Documents
Primary Examiner: Novosad; Stephen J.
Assistant Examiner: Calvert; Jan A.
Parent Case Text
CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS
This application is a continuation-in-part of Ser. No. 655,356,
filed July 24, 1967, and now abandoned, which is in turn a
continuation-in-part of Ser. No. 421,578, filed Dec. 28, 1964, and
now abandoned, and Ser. No. 641,275, filed May 25, 1967, now U.S.
Pat. 3,378,074.
Claims
I claim:
1. A method for the hydraulic fracturing of a subterranean
formation surrounding a wellbore which comprises injecting a
viscous oil-in-water emulsion containing a hydrocarbon oil having a
viscosity in excess of about 1,500 centipoises at 100.degree. F. as
the oil phase into said wellbore at a rate sufficient to open a
fracture in said formation and thereafter producing said
hydrocarbon oil from said fracture into the wellbore.
2. A method as defined by claim 1 wherein said oil has a viscosity
in excess of about 5,000 centipoises at 100.degree.F.
3. A method as defined by claim 1 wherein said emulsion contains
from about 50 to about 90 volume percent of said hydrocarbon oil
and from about 50 to about 10 volume percent water.
4. A method as defined by claim 1 wherein said hydrocarbon oil is a
lube oil extract with a viscosity at atmospheric temperature in
excess of about 100,000 centipoises.
5. A method as defined by claim 1 wherein said hydrocarbon oil is a
residual petroleum fraction.
6. A method for the hydraulic fracturing of a subterranean
formation exposed within a wellbore which comprises injecting into
said wellbore a water-external emulsion containing from about 50 to
about 80 percent by volume of a hydrocarbon oil having a viscosity
in excess of about 1,500 centipoises at 100.degree. F. and from
about 20 to about 50 percent by volume of water, applying
sufficient pressure to said emulsion to open a fracture in said
exposed formation, and thereafter producing said hydrocarbon oil
from said fracture into said wellbore.
7. A method as defined by claim 6 wherein said hydrocarbon oil has
a viscosity in excess of about 25,000 centipoises at atmospheric
temperature.
8. A method as defined by claim 6 wherein said hydrocarbon oil is a
heavy extract obtained from the manufacture of lubricating oil.
9. A method for propping a fracture in a subterranean formation
exposed with a wellbore which comprise generating a fracture in
said exposed formation; injecting an oil-in-water emulsion and a
propping agent suspended in said emulsion into said fracture, said
emulsion containing a hydrocarbon oil having a viscosity in excess
of about 1,500 centipoises at 100.degree. F. as the oil phase; and
thereafter producing said hydrocarbon oil from said fracture into
the wellbore.
10. A method as defined by claim 9 wherein said hydrocarbon oil has
a viscosity in excess of about 25,000 centipoises at atmospheric
temperature.
11. A method as defined by claim 9 wherein said hydrocarbon oil has
a viscosity at formation temperature equal to or greater than that
defined by the equation ##SPC2## where .mu. is the viscosity in
centipoises at formation temperature, .kappa. is the permeability
of the formation to said oil in millidarcies, .phi. is the porosity
of the formation expressed as a decimal fraction, and P.sub.c is
the difference between the fluid pressure in the fracture and the
formation pressure in pounds per square inch.
12. A method as defined by claim 9 wherein said hydrocarbon oil is
a straight run petroleum asphalt.
Description
BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION
1. Field of the Invention
This invention relates to the hydraulic fracturing of subterranean
formations surrounding oil wells, gas wells, and similar
boreholes.
2. Description of the Prior Art
Hydraulic fracturing has been widely used for stimulating the
production of crude oil and natural gas from wells completed in low
permeability formations. The methods normally employed require the
injection of a fracturing fluid containing a suspended propping
agent into a well under sufficient pressure to open a fracture in
the exposed formation. Continued pumping of fluid into the well at
a high rate extends the fracture and leads to the buildup of a bed
or propping agent particles between the fracture walls. These
particles prevent complete closure of the fracture as the fluid
subsequently leaks off into the adjacent formation and result in
permeable channels extending from the wellbore into the formation.
The conductivities of these channels depend upon the fracture
dimensions, the size of the propping agent particles, the particle
spacing, and the confining pressures. Equations which can be used
to compute the fracture dimensions and conductivities that will be
obtained under particular operating conditions have been published
in the technical literature and will be familiar to those skilled
in the art.
The fluids used in hydraulic fracturing operations must have filter
loss values sufficiently low to permit buildup and maintenance of
the required pressures at reasonable injection rates. This normally
requires that such fluids either have high viscosities or contain
filter loss control agents which will plug the pores in the
formation. Although the use of "low penetrating fluids" with
viscosities of 5,000 centipoises or higher at atmospheric
temperature has been proposed, much less viscous fluids are
generally used. Typical fluids include crude oils and petroleum
fractions having viscosities up to about 200 centipoises at
atmospheric temperature; gelled hydrocarbons containing aluminum
soaps, polymers and similar thickening agents, temporary emulsions
prepared with kerosene, diesel fuel, and similar light
hydrocarbons, and aqueous solutions containing polymers and other
additives. The filter loss values of such fluids are generally high
unless they contain filter loss control agents or other additives
which tend to plug the pores in the formation. Many of the
materials used as thickeners or gelling agents have this ability.
In the absence of such materials, silica flour, lime, talc, guar
gum, hydrocarbon resins, or similar agents are normally added to
reduce the filter loss values.
The use of fracturing fluids having relatively low viscosities in
conjunction with filter loss control agents is advantageous in that
it avoids excessive friction losses in the tubing and casing. The
wellhead pressures and hydraulic horsepower required to overcome
such friction losses may otherwise be prohibitive. Gelled fluids
prepared with water, kerosene, and similar low-viscosity liquids
are particularly useful in this respect. Such fluids have apparent
viscosities sufficient to permit pumping of the propping agent
particles and yet shear down in contact with the tubing or casing
wall to give low friction losses. The gelling agents also promote
laminar flow under conditions where turbulent flow would otherwise
take place and hence in some cases the losses may be lower than
those obtained with the low viscosity base fluids containing no
additives. Certain water soluble polyacrylamides, oil-soluble
polyisobutylenes and other polymers which have little effect on
viscosity when used in low concentrations can be added to the
ungelled fluids to achieve similar benefits.
The trend in fracturing in recent years has been toward the use of
gelled fluids which have viscosities sufficient to permit pumping
of the propping agent particles and which contain filter loss
control agents designed to provide the required low penetrating
properties as described above. The propping agents employed include
quartz sand grains, tempered glass beads, rounded walnut shell
fragments, aluminum pellets, and similar materials. These agents
are generally used in concentrations between about one and about
four pounds per gallon. The permeability obtained with such a
material is roughly proportional to the square of the particle
diameter and hence the use of particles up to about 4 mesh on the
U.S. Sieve Series scale has been suggested. In practice, however,
propping agents with particle sizes of 20 to 40 mesh or smaller are
generally employed. At the injection rates used with such fluids,
generally between about 10 and about 50 barrels per minute, such
particles can generally be pumped satisfactorily in fluids with
viscosities from about 10 to about 30 centipoises. Where very high
rates are used, the particles are often used with plain water or
other fluids of lower viscosity.
The use of larger propping agent particles to secure higher
fracture conductivities as outlined above has been hampered by
difficulties in injecting the larger sized particles. Experience
has shown that particles greater than about 20 mesh will frequently
bridge across the mouth of the fracture and begin to accumulate in
the wellbore. This is referred to as a "screenout." Once such an
accumulation commences, the entire operation generally has to be
terminated, even though only a small fraction of the required
propping agent has been placed. Because of the frequency with which
difficulties are encountered when the larger particles are used,
most operators prefer to employ 20 to 40 mesh or smaller
particles.
The productivity improvement obtained as a result of fracturing
depends upon the contrast between the conductivity of the fracture
and the permeability of the formation and upon the fracture
length-to-radius of drainage ratio. In zones of very low
permeability, a relatively short fracture of low conductivity may
permit a two-to three-fold improvement in the fluid production
rate. In a more permeable formation, on the other hand, such a
fracture may result in only a small increase in production or may
not be successful at all. Because of the poor response in the more
permeable zones, conventional fracturing operations have generally
been confined to severely damaged wells or wells completed in
undamaged formations having permeabilities below about 15 to 20
millidarcies. Most such operations are carried out in wells with
permeabilities in the one to ten millidarcy range.
The incentives for developing fractures with conductivities
sufficient to permit the application of fracturing to high
permeability reservoirs are substantial. The low permeability
formations in which conventional methods are used generally produce
at low rates and hence total production remains low even though an
improvement of severalfold is obtained. In reservoirs of higher
permeability, the initial production rates are normally much higher
and hence a successful fracturing operation may produce a much
greater improvement in terms of incremental barrels of oil per day.
This is true even though the percentage improvement may be somewhat
smaller than in a reservoir of lower permeability. Efforts to
extend fracturing operations to undamaged reservoirs with
permeabilities substantially in excess of about 15 to 20
millidarcies have in the past been largely unsuccessful.
SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION
This invention provides an improved fracturing method which at
least partially alleviates the difficulties outlined above. The
method of the invention involves the injection of a viscous
oil-in-water emulsion or suspension containing a heavy crude oil,
petroleum fraction, or similar hydrocarbon oil having a viscosity
in excess of about 1,500 centipoises at 100.degree.F. into a well
at a rate sufficient to open a fracture in the exposed formation.
Injection of the emulsion or suspension is continued until a
fracture of sufficient dynamic width and length to produce a highly
conductive channel has been formed. Particles of a propping agent,
suspended in the emulsion or suspension or in a later-injected
fluid, are used to prevent complete closure of the fracture. The
injected fluids are then permitted to leak off into the formation
until the fracture has closed sufficiently to hold the particles in
place. Thereafter, the fluids remaining in the fracture may be
produced back into the wellbore. This method permits the generation
of fractures with substantially higher conductivities and greater
fracture length-to-radius of drainage ratios than have generally
been obtained heretofore, results in greater productivity
improvements than do conventional methods, ad permits the
application of fracturing to wells not readily susceptible to
treatment by conventional fracturing methods.
The mechanisms responsible for the improved results obtained in
accordance with the invention are not fully understood. It has been
found, however, that loose oil-in-water emulsions or suspensions
prepared with heavy crude oils, petroleum fractions or similar
hydrocarbon oils having viscosities in excess of about 1,500
centipoises at atmospheric temperature can be injected through the
tubing or casing without excessive friction losses and that these
fluids permit the formation of much wider and longer fractures than
can generally be obtained with the light hydrocarbon emulsions or
suspensions employed in the past. Water contacting the formation
during injection of the emulsion or suspension apparently permeates
into the reservoir rock, leaving heavy oil in contact with the rock
surface. This heavy oil leaks off into the formation very slowly
and at the same time results in a relatively high pressure drop
within the fracture. The wider, longer fractures which are thus
obtained with the emulsions or suspensions and the concurrent use
of larger propping agent particles than have generally been
practical in the past provide higher conductivities and greater
fracture length-to-radius of drainage ratios than have generally
been obtained heretofore. Although other mechanisms may also be
involved, studies indicate that these particular mechanisms play
important roles.
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWING
FIG. 1 in the drawing is a graph which shows the settling rate of
typical propping agent particles in fracturing fluids of various
viscosities;
FIG. 2 is a graph illustrating the effect of fluid viscosity on
filter loss control agents; and
FIG. 3 is a graph showing the effect of changes in temperature on
typical heavy oils that may be employed in preparing the fracturing
fluids used for purposes of the invention.
DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS
The fracturing process of this invention involves the use of
oil-in-water emulsions or suspensions that permit the generation of
fractures with higher conductivity contrasts and larger effective
fracture length-to-radius of drainage ratios than have generally
been obtained with oil-in-water emulsions or suspensions employed
in the past. The process is based in part upon studies which
indicate that much of the water initially present in an
oil-in-water emulsion prepared with a heavy oil is quickly lost to
the surrounding formation after such a fluid enters a fracture. The
mobility of water in the rock matrix is generally higher than the
mobility of the heavy oil and hence the oil initially present as
the dispersed phase tends to remain behind and become the
continuous phase. Even though substantial quantities of water may
be present, the viscosity of the remaining fluid will generally be
similar to that of the oil itself. This oil must have the ability
to transport large propping agent particles over relatively long
distances if high conductivity contrasts and large effective
fracture length-to-radius of drainage ratios are to be
obtained.
The ability of a fracturing fluid to transport propping agent
particles depends in part upon the rate at which the particles
settle out of the fluid within the fracture. FIG. 1 in the drawing
is a plot of the single particle settling rate for quartz sand
propping agent particles of various sizes in Newtonion fluids.
Similar plots can be prepared for other particle-fluid systems. The
curves of FIG. 1 show that the particle settling rate is an inverse
function of the fracturing fluid viscosity and indicate that oils
having viscosities of about 25 centipoises or higher at formation
temperature are necessary if low settling rates are to be obtained
with the 20--40 mesh or larger sand grains, glass beads, or similar
propping agent particles generally employed. At atmospheric
temperatures between about 30.degree.F. and about 100.degree. F.,
such oils will generally have viscosities of 1,500 centipoises or
higher.
In addition to being able to transport relatively large propping
agent particles effectively, the oils employed for purposes of this
invention must have filter loss values sufficiently low to permit
the generation of fractures having the required dynamic dimensions.
This will often necessitate the use of filter loss control agents.
Experience has shown that the effectiveness of such agents depends
upon the viscosities of the fluids in which they are used. This is
illustrated in FIG. 2 of the drawing, which is a plot of the filter
loss coefficients, D.sub.w, obtained with a typical filter loss
control agent in oils of various viscosities. The curves of FIG. 2
show that the full benefits of the filter loss control agents are
not obtained with low viscosity fluids and that the viscosity of
the oil employed should be 25 centipoises or higher at formation
temperature. As pointed out above, this will normally require the
use of oils having viscosities of 1,500 centipoises or higher at
atmospheric temperatures.
A variety of different crude oils, petroleum fractions, and similar
hydrocarbon oils having viscosities in excess of about 1,500
centipoises at normal atmospheric temperatures can be employed for
preparing the oil-in-water emulsions or suspensions used in
accordance with the invention. Suitable hydrocarbon oils include
high viscosity crude oils, vacuum still residual fractions, heavy
lube oil stocks, low pour point residual heating oils, extracts
from the solvent extraction of lubricating oils, bright stocks,
straight run asphalts, low temperature Gilsonite, and similar oils
with viscosities between about 1,500 centipoises and about 20
million centipoises at temperatures in the range between about
30.degree.F. and about 100.degree.F. Heavy oils having viscosities
of 5,000 centipoises or higher are generally preferred. Oils with
viscosities greater than about 3,000 centipoises at atmospheric
temperature are often difficult to handle with conventional pumping
equipment and may therefore be heated prior to preparation of the
emulsions or suspensions. The viscosities of typical heavy oils at
various temperatures are illustrated in FIG. 3 of the drawing. A
typical crude oil of moderate viscosity is shown for purposes of
comparison.
As pointed out above, the heavy oils employed for purposes of the
invention may be used in conjunction with filter loss control
agents. If such agents are not used, the oils selected will
preferably have viscosities at formation temperatures equal to or
greater than those defined by the equation ##SPC1## where .mu. is
the viscosity of the crude oil or petroleum fraction at formation
temperature in centipoises, k is the permeability of the formation
to the crude oil or petroleum fraction in millidarcies, .phi. is
the porosity of the formation expressed as a decimal fraction, and
P.sub.c is the difference between fluid pressure in the fracture
and the formation pressure in pounds per square inch. The fluid
pressure in the fracture can be determined by multiplying the
fracture gradient in pounds per square inch per foot of depth by
the depth in feet and adding the friction drop within the fracture.
The fracture gradient is a measure of the pressure required to
break down the formation and is normally between about o.7 and
about 0.9 pounds per square inch per foot of depth. The friction
drop in the fracture can be calculated by means of equations found
in the literature if certain assumptions are made but for purposes
of this invention it is generally satisfactory to assume a friction
drop of 1,000 pounds per square inch. The viscosities determined by
means of this equation can be translated into viscosities at
atmospheric temperatures through the use of viscosity-temperature
charts similar to that shown in FIG. 3 of the drawing.
Except in shallow formations of low permeability where the
reservoir temperatures are quite low, it will generally be
necessary to employ oils with viscosities well above 1,500
centipoises at 100.degree.F. to obtain the viscosities required at
formation temperatures by the equation set forth above. In typical
formations with permeabilities in the 1-to 10-millidarcy range for
example, the use of heavy oils with viscosities in the range
between about 1,500 centipoises and about 5,000 centipoises at
atmospheric temperature is generally satisfactory but in formations
with higher permeabilities, crude oils, heavy petroleum fractions,
and similar oils having viscosities in the range between about
5,000 centipoises and about 25,000 centipoises at atmospheric
temperature are usually more effective. Where the permeability and
temperature are both high, crude oils, residual petroleum
fractions, or similar hydrocarbon oils having viscosities well in
excess of 25,000 centipoises at atmospheric temperature may be
necessary to secure the desired fracture dimensions. Oils with
viscosities in excess of about 100,000 centipoises at atmospheric
temperature are particularly effective in wells of this latter
type.
A variety of different commercially available surface active agents
may be employed in preparing the emulsions or suspensions utilized
for purposes of the invention. These include alkyl esters of sodium
sulfosuccinic acid, alkali metal salts of alkylaryl benzene
sulfonic acids, soluble salts of alkyl naphthalene sulfonic acids,
alkyl esters of polyalkylene glycols, polyalkylene esters of fatty
acids, polyoxyalkylene anhydrosorbitol esters of fatty acids, long
chain amine hydrochlorides, alkylene oxide-amine condensation
products, alkylene oxide-alkylphenol condensation products, long
chain carboxylic acids and mixtures of such materials. All of these
surfactants are not equally effective for purposes of the invention
and hence certain agents described in greater detail hereafter are
generally preferred.
The surfactant concentration required will depend in part upon the
particular agent selected, the oil to be employed, the salinity of
the water to be used, and the relative amounts of oil and water to
be employed. In general, however, surfactant concentrations between
about 0.005 percent and about 5 percent by weight will be
satisfactory. The optimum concentration for a particular surfactant
and a particular oil-water system can be readily determined by
mixing the surfactant with the oil and the water in various
concentrations and observing whether suitably viscous emulsions or
suspension of the desired water-external type are formed.
The water-external emulsions or suspensions used in accordance with
the invention are generally prepared by adding a mixture of a long
chain alkyl or aryl sulfonate and a polyoxyethylated glycol or a
similar water-soluble surface active agent to water or brine in a
concentration of from about 0.05 to about 2 percent by weight,
mixing the resultant solution thoroughly, and then adding a heavy
solvent neutral extract from the manufacture of lubricating oil or
a similar heavy oil having a viscosity in excess of about 1,500
centipoises at 100.degree. F. to the solution with agitation until
a mixture of from about 50 to about 90 volume percent oil and from
about 10 to 50 volume percent water is obtained. The use of from 50
to 80 percent oil and from 20 to 50 percent water is preferred.
Thorough mixing as the oil is added results in a viscous emulsion
which has low filter properties, supports most propping agents for
long periods without perceptible settling, and can be pumped with
low friction losses. It is usually preferred to mix these emulsions
or suspensions by circulating the fluids through the pumps until a
smooth uniform dispersion is obtained but other mixing methods may
be used.
In lieu of adding the surfactant to the water as described above,
it is sometimes preferred to dissolve the surface active agent in
the oil prior to the introduction of any water. Laboratory work has
shown that certain surface active agents will not readily permit
the preparation of oil-in-water emulsions or suspensions if the
surfactant is initially present in the water but may perform
satisfactorily if added to the oil first. Since the behavior of the
surfactant may be affected by natural surface active agents present
in the oil and by ions in the water or brine, it is normally
advantageous to prepare sample emulsions containing the oil, water
and surface active agent in various concentrations in the
laboratory before undertaking the preparation of large volumes of
an emulsion for use in the field. Such laboratory tests provide a
convenient means for readily determining the optimum concentrations
in which particular constituents should be used.
Other surface active agents which are particularly useful for
preparing water-external emulsions containing the heavy oils
include alkyl trimethyl diamines such as tallow trimethyl diamine,
alkyl trimethyl diamine-ethylene oxide condensation products such
as tallow trimethyl diamine condensed with 15 moles of ethylene
oxide, quaternary ammonium halides such as dicocodimethyl ammonium
chloride, and the like. Emulsifiers of this type are often employed
for the preparation of water-external emulsions containing heavy
oils by heating the water to be used to a temperature of about
120.degree. F., adding concentrated hydrochloric acid to the water
in a concentration between about0.01 an about 0.5 percent, based on
the total weight of water and oil to be employed, mixing into the
resultant acid solution from about 0.01 to about 0.05 percent of
the emulsifier, again based on the total weight of water and oil to
be used, and then blending the heavy oil and emulsifier solution in
the desired proportions with vigorous agitation. The heavy oil may
be heated to a temperature of 120.degree. F. or more to facilitate
the blending. The use of hydrochloric acid to convert the
emulsifier to the hydrochloride salt is not always necessary but
frequently simplifies the preparation of such emulsions.
The water-external emulsions or suspensions prepared as described
above may have apparent viscosities somewhat less than those of the
heavy oils employed in preparing them but the viscosity obtained
will depend on the relative amounts of oil and water present and
the shear rate in the system. Such emulsions will normally contain
at least 50 percent of the heavy oil by volume and will preferably
contain less than 80 percent oil by volume. Because the heavy oil
thus normally constitutes the major constituent of the
water-external systems, the apparent viscosities of the emulsions
or suspensions at low shear rates will generally approach those of
the heavy oils. These fluids have non Newtonian characteristics and
hence the emulsion viscosities tend to decrease with increasing
shear rates.
It will be understood that the compositions set forth above are
typical of those that may be employed for purposes of the invention
but that other oils with viscosities in excess of about 1,500
centipoises and other surface active agents may be employed.
Because of the effect of salts on most ionic surfactants, certain
anionic and cationic surfactants may be suitable for use with
brines, while others are not. In certain cases the oils employed
may contain oxygen, nitrogen, and sulfur compounds and other
natural surface active agents in concentrations sufficient to
permit the formation of suitable emulsions without the addition of
surfactants to the system. Film strengtheners, viscosity index
improvers, inorganic salts, inhibitors and other additives may be
incorporated in the oil or water used in preparing the emulsions if
desired.
In carrying out the invention, the emulsion or suspension to be
employed is normally prepared by mixing water or brine containing a
suitable surface active agent with a viscous crude oil, petroleum
fraction, or similar hydrocarbon oil having a viscosity in excess
of about 1,500 centipoises at atmospheric temperature. This will
generally be done at the well site as described above. In lieu of
this, the fluid may be formulated at a refinery or similar plant
and transported to the well site in a tank truck, barge or the
like. In either case, the fluid will generally be pumped into one
or more tanks connected to a blender of conventional design. The
blender is generally provided with jets and a ribbon mixer to
facilitate the introduction of a propping agent into the fluid as
it is injected and is operated at high speed to prevent buildup and
"slugging" of the propping agent particles. If it does not include
a ribbon mixer, extra jets may be installed and connected to the
blender pump or to an auxiliary pump to insure sufficient
agitation. Discharge lines from the blender extend to high pressure
positive displacement triplex pumps which are connected in parallel
and driven by diesel engines or turbines. The pump discharge lines
in turn are manifolded to an injection line which extends to the
wellhead. All of the equipment thus employed may be of the type
utilized in conventional fracturing operations.
After the emulsion has been delivered to the well site or prepared
on location and circulated for a short time to insure a proper
mixture, the lines in the system are filled with fluid and pressure
tested in the conventional manner. it is often preferred to break
down the formation with water or a light oil before injecting the
viscous fracturing fluid and hence water or oil may be first pumped
into the well through the tubing or casing. A packer will normally
be used to isolate the formation to be fractured. Injection of the
water or oil is continued at a high rate until a pressure
sufficient to break down the formation and initiate a fracture is
obtained. The generation of this fracture will normally be
indicated by a sharp drop in pressure. As soon as this occurs,
injection of the viscous emulsion or suspension to be used as the
fracturing fluid is commenced. After the emulsion or suspension is
flowing into the fracture satisfactorily, the propping agent can be
added to the fluid at the blender.
The propping agent is generally added to the emulsion or suspension
in amounts sufficient to give a propping agent particle
concentration between about one-fourth and about 20 pounds per
gallon. The concentration used will depend in part upon whether a
partial monolayer, a concentration near the lower end of the range
will normally be employed; whereas a considerably higher
concentration will ordinarily be used to produce a fully packed
fracture. Propping agent concentrations well above those feasible
in conventional operations can be used if desired. Sand will
ordinarily be employed as the propping agent in relatively shallow
wells up to about 7500 feet but in deeper wells it may be
advantageous to employ glass beads, steel shot or other materials
capable of withstanding higher confining loads than ordinary sand.
Regardless of the agent selected, the propping agent used will
normally have a particle size between about 4 mesh and about 40
mesh on the U.S. Sieve Series scale. Particles in the 8-to 12-mesh
size range are usually preferred. The use of particles less than
about 12 mesh in size frequently precludes maximum productivity
improvements except in formations of very low permeability.
The viscous emulsion or suspension containing suspended propping
agent particles passes through the tubing or casing into the
fracture. The friction losses will generally be low because the
water constitutes the external phase of the emulsion. As the
emulsion or suspension enters the fracture, water contacting the
exposed formation rapidly permeates into the porous rock. As water
is lost, the emulsion may invert. The viscous oil or resulting
oil-external emulsion has low dynamic filter loss characteristics
and therefore remains in the fracture, serving to propagate it.
This highly viscous fluid produces a relatively high-pressure drop
within the fracture and permits the generation of a much wider and
longer fracture than can normally be obtained with gelled fluids or
viscous emulsions prepared with kerosene, diesel fuel or crude oils
of moderate viscosity.
After the required quantity of emulsion or suspension and propping
agent has been injected into the formation, the blender and
fracturing pumps are shut down. Water or crude oil may be flushed
through the equipment and into the tubing to clean out any heavy
emulsion or suspension remaining. The water or oil should not be
injected into the fracture itself. The well is then closed and
allowed to stand, generally for 24 hours or longer. As the injected
fluid slowly leaks off into the adjacent formation, the fracture
closes on the propping agent particles so that they are held in
place. After the pressure has been bled off, the injected fluid may
be produced back into the wellbore. Dilution by oil from the
formation normally accelerates production of the heavy oil employed
in preparing the emulsion. Lease crude oil, kerosene, diesel fuel
or the like can be injected into the casing to dilute the heavy oil
further and facilitate its removal from the well. Small amounts of
propping agent may be dislodged from the face of the fracture when
the well is first returned to production but the amount of this
material produced will not normally be sufficient to create any
serious production problems.
Although the propping agent will normally be suspended in the
viscous emulsion or suspension as described above, this is not
always essential. Instead, the emulsion or suspension may be
employed to open a wide fracture in the formation and a second
fluid which is less viscous and contains the propping agent can
then be injected. The later injected fluid containing the propping
agent apparently fingers into the viscous emulsion or heavy oil
remaining in the fracture and thus permits placement of the
propping agent. Some narrowing of the fracture may occur as the
fluid containing the propping agent is injected but this may not
always be the case. This use of two stages has been found
advantageous for the fracturing of water injection wells and gas
wells where it is desired to limit the quantity of viscous fluid
remaining in the fracture at the end of the treatment and thus
accelerate the resumption of normal operations. In lieu of this
procedure, a low viscosity fluid miscible with the highly viscous
oil can be injected in front of the emulsion or suspension so that
the viscosity of the heavy oils will be reduced by dilution when
injection or production is resumed. Diluents can in some cases also
be injected after completion of the fracturing operation.
A further modification of the invention involves injection of the
viscous emulsion or suspension into the well at a rate insufficient
to generate a fracture until essentially all of the low viscosity
connate fluids present in the wellbore have been displaced into the
formation and the pressure behavior at the surface indicates that
the emulsion is in contact with the formation. At this point, the
injection rate can be rapidly increased to build up the pressure
and generate the required fracture. Field tests have shown that
this procedure can be employed in shallow wells to generate
vertical fractures under conditions such that horizontal fractures
might otherwise tend to be formed.
It will be understood from the foregoing that the invention is not
restricted to the specific formulations set forth above and that
other water-external emulsions or suspensions containing
hydrocarbon oils with viscosities in excess of about 1,500
centipoises at atmospheric temperature may be employed. Oils other
than those specifically mentioned above which have viscosities in
excess of about 1,500 centipoises at 100.degree. F. including
dewaxed or deasphalted oils, oils derived from coal tar or oil
shale, and synthetic oils, can also be used. A variety of different
surface active agents, including materials which permit breaking of
the emulsion or suspension after the fracture has closed and
compositions designed to promote inversion to an oil-external
system as the fluid passes through the perforations or loses water
to the formation, may be employed.
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