U.S. patent application number 17/667680 was filed with the patent office on 2022-08-11 for electro-hydraulic actuator systems and methods of operating the same.
The applicant listed for this patent is Purdue Research Foundation. Invention is credited to Shaoyang Qu, Andrea Vacca.
Application Number | 20220252088 17/667680 |
Document ID | / |
Family ID | 1000006255735 |
Filed Date | 2022-08-11 |
United States Patent
Application |
20220252088 |
Kind Code |
A1 |
Vacca; Andrea ; et
al. |
August 11, 2022 |
ELECTRO-HYDRAULIC ACTUATOR SYSTEMS AND METHODS OF OPERATING THE
SAME
Abstract
An electro-hydraulic actuator system includes a
fixed-displacement hydraulic pump and a variable speed electric
motor configured in combination to constitute an individual
electro-hydraulic unit that is coupled to an actuator, and a bypass
valve in parallel to the actuator. The system is configured to
enable the actuator to be operated at actuation speeds that are
higher than a maximum actuation capability of the pump at the
maximum flow capability thereof, and at actuation speeds that are
lower than a minimum actuation capability of the pump at the
minimum flow capability thereof. The actuation velocity of the
actuator may be controlled by controlling the speed of the
electro-hydraulic unit and a size of an opening of the bypass
valve.
Inventors: |
Vacca; Andrea; (West
Lafayette, IN) ; Qu; Shaoyang; (West Lafayette,
IN) |
|
Applicant: |
Name |
City |
State |
Country |
Type |
Purdue Research Foundation |
West Lafayette |
IN |
US |
|
|
Family ID: |
1000006255735 |
Appl. No.: |
17/667680 |
Filed: |
February 9, 2022 |
Related U.S. Patent Documents
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Application
Number |
Filing Date |
Patent Number |
|
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63147429 |
Feb 9, 2021 |
|
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Current U.S.
Class: |
1/1 |
Current CPC
Class: |
F15B 11/044 20130101;
F15B 15/08 20130101 |
International
Class: |
F15B 15/08 20060101
F15B015/08; F15B 11/044 20060101 F15B011/044 |
Goverment Interests
STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH
[0002] This invention was made with government support under
contact number DE-EE0008334 awarded by the Department of Energy.
The government has certain rights in the invention.
Claims
1. An electro-hydraulic actuator system comprising: an actuator
having extension and retraction modes of operation; a
fixed-displacement hydraulic pump and a variable speed electric
motor configured in combination to constitute an individual
electro-hydraulic unit that is coupled to the actuator for
actuation thereof between the extension and retraction modes, the
fixed-displacement hydraulic pump having a maximum flow capability
and a minimum flow capability; and a bypass valve in parallel to
the actuator; wherein the system is operable to actuate the
actuator at actuation speeds that are higher than a maximum
actuation capability of the fixed-displacement hydraulic pump at
the maximum flow capability thereof and at actuation speeds that
are lower than a minimum actuation capability of the
fixed-displacement hydraulic pump at the minimum flow capability
thereof.
2. The electro-hydraulic actuator system of claim 1, wherein the
electro-hydraulic actuator system is capable of efficiencies equal
to or greater than 80%.
3. The electro-hydraulic actuator system of claim 1, wherein the
actuator is a single-rod double-acting cylinder.
4. The electro-hydraulic actuator system of claim 1, wherein the
electro-hydraulic actuator system includes an open-circuit
architecture.
5. The electro-hydraulic actuator system of claim 4, further
comprising a 4/3 directional on/off valve configured to enable
four-quadrant functionality of the actuator.
6. The electro-hydraulic actuator system of claim 4, further
comprising a filter and a check valve between the actuator and the
electro-hydraulic unit.
7. The electro-hydraulic actuator system of claim 4, further
comprising pressure relief valves on both sides of the actuator
that are configured to avoid over-pressurizations in either
extension or retraction of the actuator.
8. The electro-hydraulic actuator system of claim 4, further
comprising a check valve between the actuator and the
electro-hydraulic unit.
9. The electro-hydraulic actuator system of claim 1, wherein the
electro-hydraulic actuator system includes a closed-circuit
architecture.
10. The electro-hydraulic actuator system of claim 9, further
comprising a low-pressure accumulator configured to compensate for
differential flow between a bore side area and a rod side area of
the actuator.
11. The electro-hydraulic actuator system of claim 10, further
comprising two pilot check valves that, in combination with the
low-pressure accumulator, are configured to control charging or
discharging of the actuator.
12. The electro-hydraulic actuator system of claim 9, further
comprising two directional on/off valves configured to enable load
holding at a rest condition.
13. The electro-hydraulic actuator system of claim 9, further
comprising pressure relief valves on both sides of the
fixed-displacement hydraulic pump that are configured to avoid
over-pressurizations in either extension or retraction of the
actuator.
14. The electro-hydraulic actuator system of claim 9, further
comprising a filter and two check valves between the low-pressure
accumulator and the electro-hydraulic drive unit.
15. A method for configuring the electro-hydraulic actuator system
of claim 1, the method comprising: determining a target maximum
actuation velocity for the electro-hydraulic actuator system;
selecting the actuator based on the target maximum actuation
velocity; determining an operational pressure of the
electro-hydraulic actuator system based on a load force requirement
of the actuator; selecting a fixed-displacement hydraulic pump
based on the flow rate of the actuator and the operational pressure
of the electro-hydraulic actuator system; and selecting a variable
speed electric motor based on power requirements of the
electro-hydraulic actuator system.
16. The method of claim 15, further comprising: selecting an
accumulator based on the actuator with pressure and power level
limited by a drain pressure of the electro-hydraulic actuator
system; and selecting valves based on flow rate of the actuator and
operational pressure of the electro-hydraulic actuator system.
17. The method of claim 16, wherein selecting the valves includes
limiting the flow rate to a maximum flow rate of the
electro-hydraulic actuator system.
18. A method comprising: providing an electro-hydraulic actuator
system having a fixed-displacement hydraulic pump and a variable
speed electric motor configured in combination to constitute an
individual electro-hydraulic unit that is coupled to an actuator
for actuation thereof, and a bypass valve in parallel to the
actuator; and controlling the actuation velocity of the actuator by
controlling the speed of the electro-hydraulic unit and a size of
an opening of the bypass valve.
19. The method of claim 18, further comprising: inputting a speed
command (I); and converting the speed command (I) to a speed of the
fixed-displacement hydraulic pump and a control current of the
bypass valve.
20. The method of claim 19, further comprising: defining the speed
command (I) as a normalized number with a range between -1 and 1;
determining a working mode of the electro-hydraulic actuator system
based on the speed command (I) and a pressure difference at the
actuator (dp), the working modes including: a resistive extension
mode corresponding to extension of a piston of the actuator
indicated by I greater than zero and a resistive phase indicated by
dp greater than zero; an assistive extension mode corresponding to
extension of the piston of the actuator indicated by I greater than
zero and an assistive phase indicated by dp less than zero; a
resistive retraction mode corresponding to extension of the piston
of the actuator indicated by I less than zero and a resistive phase
indicated by dp less than zero; an assistive retraction mode
corresponding to extension of the piston of the actuator indicated
by I less than zero and an assistive phase indicated by dp greater
than zero; comparing the speed command (I) to a minimum operating
speed (n.sub.min) of the fixed-displacement hydraulic pump, a
maximum operating speed (n.sub.max) of the fixed-displacement
hydraulic pump, and an area ratio (.lamda.) of the actuator;
operating the fixed-displacement hydraulic pump and the bypass
valve based on the working mode and the comparison of the speed
command (i) to the minimum operating speed (n.sub.min) of the
fixed-displacement hydraulic pump, the maximum operating speed
(n.sub.max) of the fixed-displacement hydraulic pump, and the area
ratio (.lamda.) of the actuator, wherein: if in the resistive
extension mode and I is greater than n.sub.min/n.sub.max but less
than 1, then the bypass valve remains closed and the actuation
velocity is controlled by the speed of the fixed-displacement
hydraulic pump; if in the resistive extension mode and I is less
than then the bypass valve is at least partially opened and the
fixed-displacement hydraulic pump is operated at the minimum
operating speed (n.sub.min); if in the assistive extension mode and
I is greater than .lamda.n.sub.min/n.sub.max but less than .lamda.,
then the bypass valve remains closed and the actuation velocity is
controlled by the speed of the fixed-displacement hydraulic pump;
if in the assistive extension mode and I is less than
.lamda.n.sub.min/n.sub.max, then the bypass valve is at least
partially opened and the fixed-displacement hydraulic pump is
stopped; if in the resistive retraction mode and |I| is greater
than n.sub.min/n.sub.max but less than 1, then the bypass valve
remains closed and the actuation velocity is controlled by the
speed of the fixed-displacement hydraulic pump; if in the resistive
retraction mode and |I| is less than n.sub.minthen the bypass valve
is at least partially opened and the fixed-displacement hydraulic
pump is operated at the minimum operating speed (n.sub.min); if in
the assistive retraction mode and |I| is greater than
n.sub.min/(.lamda.n.sub.max) but less than 1/.lamda., then the
bypass valve remains closed and the actuation velocity is
controlled by the speed of the fixed-displacement hydraulic pump;
if in the assistive retraction mode and |I| is less than
n.sub.min/(.lamda.n.sub.max), then the bypass valve is at least
partially opened and the fixed-displacement hydraulic pump is
stopped; and if in the assistive retraction mode and |I| is greater
than 1/.lamda., then the bypass valve is at least partially opened
and the fixed-displacement hydraulic pump is operated in reverse at
the maximum operating speed (-n.sub.max).
Description
CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS
[0001] This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional
Application No. 63/147,429, filed Feb. 9, 2021, the contents of
which are incorporated herein by reference.
BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION
[0003] The present invention generally relates to electro-hydraulic
actuator systems. The invention particularly relates to
electro-hydraulic actuator systems that include a
fixed-displacement hydraulic pump and a bypass valve configured to
allow an actuator to operate (actuate) at speeds lower and higher
than what is otherwise possible with the minimum and maximum flow
capabilities, respectively, of the hydraulic pump.
[0004] With the advantages of high-power density, low cost, and
robust operation, hydraulic control technologies have been employed
in multiple industries for decades. However, hydraulic drives often
have very low energy efficiencies. For example, mobile hydraulic
applications in the US market have been reported to have an average
efficiency of about 21%. A significant source of these
inefficiencies is throttling losses associated with the regulation
of the actuator velocity, especially for mobile applications such
as construction and agriculture machines (e.g., excavators, wheel
loaders, cranes, agricultural tractors, etc.) which conventionally
use centralized hydraulic systems. In these systems, a limited
number of hydraulic pumps are utilized to power multiple actuators
with systems based on hydraulic control valves that introduce
throttling losses. Moreover, during assistive phases of the duty
cycles, a centralized system inevitably dissipates the energy
entering the system from the actuator. Therefore, there is an
increasing interest in replacing conventional centralized hydraulic
systems with decentralized hydraulic systems for improved energy
efficiency.
[0005] Due to emissions regulations and environmental concerns,
decentralized/individualized hydraulic systems that include an
electro-hydraulic actuator system having a dedicated electric motor
for each actuator are becoming more desirable. In particular,
hybrid systems that include electric batteries connected to the
electric motor or through hydraulic accumulators may have the
potential for high efficiency gains. Specifically, these hybrid
systems may be capable of recovering energy with the batteries and
hydraulic accumulators during assistive working modes. However,
apart from a few aerospace examples, electro-hydraulic actuator
systems have failed to penetrate commercial markets, especially
construction and off-road vehicle markets which contribute
significantly to industrial energy consumption.
[0006] One factor that has limited the adoption of
electro-hydraulic actuator systems is a tradeoff between cost and
flexibility. In particular, an electro-hydraulic unit comprising
one or more electro-hydraulic actuator systems tends to be both the
most expensive component as well as a significant aspect of overall
efficiency. Two common types of electro-hydraulic units are a
variable-speed electric motor combined with a fixed displacement
pump (VM-FP), and a constant-speed electric motor combined with a
variable-displacement pump (CM-VP). CM-VP electro-hydraulic units
(optionally with hydraulic transmission control) have shown good
controllability. However, VM-FP electro-hydraulic units are often
preferred due to their energy efficiency and cost
consideration.
[0007] One of the technical challenges impeding widespread adoption
of VM-FP-based electro-hydraulic actuator systems is a pump speed
limitation constraint, which hinders the functionality of
electro-hydraulic actuator systems for low-speed actuation. This
limitation is imposed by high volumetric and torque losses at low
speed operation of the hydraulic pumps, as well as increased wear
of the journal bearings.
[0008] In addition, sizing of electro-hydraulic actuator systems
for hydraulic systems is commonly based on a maximum flow required
for each actuator. This can result in a significant oversizing of
the hydraulic system when compared to conventional centralized
solutions that use a single hydraulic pump to supply multiple
actuators. Such oversizing can result in additional expense.
[0009] In view of the above, it can be appreciated that there are
certain problems, shortcomings or disadvantages associated with
electro-hydraulic actuator systems, and that it would be desirable
if VM-FP-based electro-hydraulic actuator systems were available
that were capable of addressing the pump speed limitation
constraint, and optionally, the common oversizing issue.
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION
[0010] The present invention provides electro-hydraulic actuator
systems with a variable-speed electric motor and a fixed
displacement hydraulic pump configuration and methods of operating
the same.
[0011] According to one aspect of the invention, an
electro-hydraulic actuator system is provided that includes an
actuator having extension and retraction modes of operation, a
bypass valve in parallel to the actuator, and a fixed-displacement
hydraulic pump and a variable speed electric motor configured in
combination to constitute an individual electro-hydraulic unit that
is coupled to the actuator for actuation thereof between the
extension and retraction modes. The fixed- displacement hydraulic
pump has a maximum flow capability and a minimum flow capability,
and the system is operable to actuate the actuator at actuation
speeds that are higher than a maximum actuation capability of the
fixed-displacement hydraulic pump at the maximum flow capability
thereof and at actuation speeds that are lower than a minimum
actuation capability of the fixed-displacement hydraulic pump at
the minimum flow capability thereof.
[0012] According to another aspect of the invention, a method is
provided that includes providing an electro-hydraulic actuator
system having a fixed-displacement hydraulic pump and a variable
speed electric motor configured in combination to constitute an
individual electro-hydraulic unit that is coupled to an actuator
for actuation thereof, and a bypass valve in parallel to the
actuator, and controlling the actuation velocity of the actuator by
controlling the speed of the electro-hydraulic unit and a size of
an opening of the bypass valve.
[0013] Technical effects of electro-hydraulic actuator systems and
methods as described above preferably include the ability to enable
an actuator to achieve relatively low actuation speeds without
being limited by the minimum flow capability of a hydraulic pump,
to enable the actuator to achieve relatively high actuation speeds
without relying on the electro-hydraulic unit, and to allow the
actuator to achieve relatively high actuation speeds without being
limited by the maximum flow capability of the hydraulic pump.
[0014] Other aspects and advantages of this invention will be
appreciated from the following detailed description.
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS
[0015] FIG. 1 schematically represents an electro-hydraulic
actuator system with an open-circuit architecture in accordance
with certain nonlimiting aspects of the invention.
[0016] FIG. 2 schematically represents an electro-hydraulic
actuator system with a closed-circuit architecture in accordance
with certain nonlimiting aspects of the invention.
[0017] FIG. 3 represents a four-quadrant plot representative of
working modes of an electro-hydraulic actuator system with a
closed-circuit architecture in accordance with certain nonlimiting
aspects of the invention.
[0018] FIG. 4 schematically represents various working modes of the
electro- hydraulic actuator system of FIG. 1 in extension phases
(first and second quadrants).
[0019] FIG. 5 schematically represents various working modes of the
electro- hydraulic actuator system of FIG. 1 in retraction phases
(third and fourth quadrants).
[0020] FIG. 6 schematically represents a test system for
experimentally testing efficiency of the electro-hydraulic actuator
systems of FIGS. 1 and 2.
[0021] FIG. 7 includes graphs representative of displacement,
velocity, and applied load measurements obtained with the test
system of FIG. 6 while operating in steady-state extension (50%
maximum velocity with 50 kN load).
[0022] FIG. 8 includes graphs representative of speed control
performance of the test system of FIG. 6 while operating with
different loading conditions with the electro-hydraulic actuator
systems of FIGS. 1 (left graph) and 2 (right graph).
[0023] FIG. 9 includes an efficiency map of the electro-hydraulic
actuator system of FIG. 1 based on measurements obtained with the
test system of FIG. 6.
[0024] FIG. 10 includes an efficiency map of the electro-hydraulic
actuator system of FIG. 2 based on measurements obtained with the
test system of FIG. 6.
[0025] FIG. 11 includes an efficiency map of the electro-hydraulic
actuator system of FIG. 1 based on measurements predicted with a
simulation model.
[0026] FIG. 12 includes a map representing relative discrepancies
of efficiency between FIGS. 10 and 11.
[0027] FIG. 13 includes an efficiency map of the electro-hydraulic
actuator system of FIG. 2 based on measurements predicted with the
simulation model.
[0028] FIG. 14 includes a map representing relative discrepancies
of efficiency between FIGS. 12 and 13.
[0029] FIG. 15 schematically represents a power flow diagram of the
electro- hydraulic actuator system of FIG. 1 (50% speed command, 50
kN load).
[0030] FIG. 16 schematically represents a power flow diagram of the
electro- hydraulic actuator system of FIG. 2 (50% speed command, 50
kN load).
[0031] FIG. 17 schematically represents a flow chart fora method of
sizing and selecting components for an electro-hydraulic actuator
system.
[0032] FIG. 18 contains Table I that includes certain parameters
used for sizing and selecting the components of the
electro-hydraulic actuator system of FIGS. 1 and 2.
[0033] FIG. 19 contains Table II that includes certain parameters
used in the components of the electro-hydraulic actuator systems of
FIGS. 1 and 2.
[0034] FIG. 20 contains Table III that includes regulation rules
for controlling working modes of the electro-hydraulic actuator
systems of FIGS. 1 and 2.
[0035] FIG. 21 contains Table IV that includes a list of hardware
components used to manufacture the test system of FIG. 6.
[0036] FIG. 22 contains Table V that includes equations associated
with individual components used in the simulation model for
simulating performance of the electro-hydraulic actuator systems of
FIGS. 1 and 2.
DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION
[0037] Disclosed herein are hydraulic systems and particularly
electro-hydraulic actuator (EHA) systems with energy regeneration
capabilities. Such EHA systems comprise an actuator (e.g., a
differential, double-acting cylinder) and a hydraulic pump, and are
configured to operate in a manner that is capable of operating
(extending and retracting) the actuator at actuation speeds that
are higher than a maximum actuation capability of the pump at its
maximum flow capability (i.e., maximum operating speed (velocity)
of the pump) and actuation speeds that are lower than a minimum
actuation capability of the pump at its minimum flow capability
(i.e., minimum operating speed (velocity) of the pump). As such,
the term "actuation capability" (and its variants) refers to the
actuation speeds of the actuator that would be achieved if the
actuator was being actuated solely by the pumping (flow) capacity
of the pump.
[0038] The EHA systems utilize a control strategy based on a
combination of throttle-less control as well as metering control,
accomplished in part with the use of a bypass valve. As such, the
EHA systems are capable of addressing the previous challenge of
pump speed limitation constraint which has commonly hindered the
functionality of EHA systems for low-speed actuation in
conventional hydraulic systems. The EHA systems comprise an
electro-hydraulic unit (EHU) that includes the hydraulic pump and
an electric motor. The EHU may have an open- circuit architecture
or a closed-circuit architecture. The EHA systems may promote cost
efficiencies by utilizing EHUs that are sized below the maximum
flow of the actuators that they control. For example, the EHU may
be sized to satisfy a flow rate at operating conditions where high
efficiency is desired. In this way, these operating conditions can
be achieved in complete throttle-less regulation.
[0039] FIG. 1 schematically represents a nonlimiting first EHA
system that includes an open-circuit architecture (also referred to
herein as the open-circuit EHA system). The EHU of the EHA system
includes a variable-speed electric motor (labeled as VM in FIG. 1)
and a fixed-displacement hydraulic pump (labeled as FP in FIG. 1)
that are operable to actuate an actuator, which in FIG. 1 is
depicted as a piston and cylinder assembly (labeled as CYL in FIG.
1). As such, the actuator may be referred to simply as a "cylinder"
in the following description. The cylinder has a piston connected
to a piston rod that extends and retracts under the influence of
hydraulic pressure delivered by the EHU (the pump and motor). The
pump of FIG. 1 operates with high pressure on a first side thereof,
which is connected to the cylinder, and is connected to a
low-pressure reservoir on a second side thereof. As such, the EHU
is capable of operating in two quadrants in terms of pressure and
speed and therefore operates in both pumping and motoring modes
(i.e., extension and retraction modes). Although the pump operates
in only two quadrants, the system includes a 4/3 directional valve
(labeled as 4/3 DV in FIG. 1) that allows for four-quadrant
functionality of the cylinder. A 2/2 proportional valve functions
as a bypass valve (labeled as BPV in FIG. 1) parallel to the
cylinder. Two check valves (labeled as CV1 and CV2 in FIG. 1) are
provided that address cavitation issues, which can occur in fast
assistive retraction modes. Two pressure relief valves (labeled as
RV1 and RV2 in FIG. 1) are installed on both sides of the pump in
order to avoid over-pressurization in either extension or
retraction. A combination filter (labeled as FL in FIG. 1) and a
third check valve (labeled as CV3 in FIG. 1) is provided for
maintenance.
[0040] FIG. 2 schematically represents a nonlimiting second EHA
system that includes a closed-circuit architecture (also referred
to herein as the closed-circuit EHA system). As in the open-circuit
EHA system of FIG. 1, the EHU of the closed- circuit EHA system
includes a variable-speed electric motor (VM) and a
fixed-displacement hydraulic pump (FP) operable for actuating a
cylinder (CYL). The pump operates with high pressure on both a
first side and a second side thereof and is directly coupled to the
cylinder on both the first and second sides. The pump includes a
high-pressure pump port configured to switch during operation.
Therefore, the pump can operate in four quadrants and, unlike the
open- circuit EHA system of FIG. 1, a multi-way directional valve
is not necessary. Similar to the open-circuit EHA system of FIG. 1,
the closed-circuit EHA system includes a 2/2 proportional valve
that functions as a bypass valve (BPV) parallel to the cylinder.
Differential flow required by a difference between bore and rod
side cylinder ports of the cylinder is compensated by a
low-pressure accumulator (ACC), in both extension and retraction
phases. Two pilot check valves (PCV1, PCV2) control the charging
and discharging process of the cylinder. Two on/off directional
valves (DV1, DV2) allow for a load holding capability. Two pressure
relief valves (RV1, RV2) are installed on both sides of the pump in
order to avoid over-pressurization in either extension or
retraction. A filter (FL) and two check valves (CV) are included to
protect against overloading and allow for proper fluid cleanliness.
As a self-contained system, the closed-circuit EHA system connects
a drain of the pump to the cylinder, and thus limits the cylinder
pressure to a maximum allowed drain line pressure.
[0041] FIG. 3 represents four working modes for the closed-circuit
EHA system in terms of the applied load and actuation velocity. The
working modes are labeled as 1 through 4 in the four quadrants
illustrated in FIG. 3. The quadrants are delineated by an x-axis
representing load force (F) on the cylinder and an y-axis
representing actuation velocity ( )of the cylinder. In the first
and third quadrants, the closed-circuit EHA system operates in a
resistive phase (i.e., the direction of speed is opposite to the
force direction). In the second and fourth quadrants, the
closed-circuit EHA system operates in an assistive phase in which
energy regeneration occurs.
[0042] In the closed-circuit EHA system of FIG. 2, the accumulator
compensates for the differential cylinder flow, as shown in
equation (1).
Q.sub.A=Q.sub.a+Q.sub.acc (1)
[0043] Q.sub.A, Q.sub.a, Q.sub.aac denote the cylinder flow rate on
the piston side, the cylinder flow rate on the rod side, and the
accumulator flow, respectively. The accumulator discharges in
extension phases (first and second quadrants) and charges in
retraction phases (third and fourth quadrants).
[0044] Considering a cylinder area ratio .lamda., flow rates are
obtained per equations (2) and (3), where A and a denote the piston
and rod areas, respectively. The accumulator compensates for
differential flow from the cylinder.
Q.sub.A=A{dot over (x)}=.lamda.Q.sub.a (2)
Q.sub.acc=(.lamda.-1)Q.sub.a=(.lamda.-1)a{dot over (x)}
[0045] The efficiency of the hydraulic transmission system, n, is
represented in equation (4).
.eta. = P out P in ( 4 ) ##EQU00001##
[0046] However, input power (P.sub.in) and output power (P.sub.out)
vary according to different working modes. In resistive phases, the
EHU power (P.sub.EHU) is equal to the input power, and the output
power is equal to the cylinder power (P.sub.CYL). In contrast, in
assistive phases the input power and the output power have opposite
roles. The accumulator power is added to the input power while
discharging and to the output power when charging. Based on this
definition, equations (5)-(8) represent the efficiencies identified
for each one of the four-quadrant modes of operation.
.eta. 1 = P CYL P EHU + P acc ( 5 ) ##EQU00002## .eta. 2 = P EHU P
CYL + P acc ( 6 ) ##EQU00002.2## .eta. 3 = P CYL + P acc P EHU ( 7
) ##EQU00002.3## .eta. 4 = P EHU + P acc P CYL ( 8 )
##EQU00002.4##
[0047] The cylinder power is given by equation (9), which is the
input power in assistive phases and the output power in resistive
phases. Equation (10) represents accumulator power.
P.sub.CYL=F{dot over (x)} (9)
P.sub.acc=Q.sub.accp.sub.acc (10)
[0048] As presented in equation (10), the accumulator power is
usually limited by the drain pressure
(p.sub.drain)(p.sub.acc<p.sub.drain).
[0049] The efficiency of the EHU (.eta..sub.EHU) under an
isothermal assumption can be defined as the product of the pump
efficiency (.eta..sub.HP) and that of the electric motor
(.eta..sub.EM) which are functions of the shaft speed (n), the
torque (T), and the pump pressure difference (.DELTA.p). Equations
(11) and (12) represent the efficiency and power of the EHU.
.eta. EHU = .eta. EM ( n , T ) .eta. HP ( n , .DELTA. .times. p ) (
11 ) ##EQU00003## P EHU , motor = T n .eta. EM , P EHU , gene = T n
.eta. EM ( 12 ) ##EQU00003.2##
[0050] To determine the performance of the closed-circuit EHA
system, the power at the shaft connecting the pump and the electric
motor may be defined as represented in equation (13).
p.sub.shaft=Tn (13)
[0051] The overall energy efficiency of the pump can be broken down
into its volumetric efficiency and its hydro-mechanical efficiency,
which are given by the following definitions:
.eta. vol , pump = Q p n V p , .eta. vol , motor = n V p Q p ( 14 )
##EQU00004## .eta. km , pump = .DELTA. .times. p V p T , .eta. km ,
motor = T .DELTA. .times. p V p ( 15 ) ##EQU00004.2##
[0052] By replacing P.sub.EHU with P.sub.shaft from equations (5)
to (8), it is possible to determine the efficiency of the overall
closed-circuit EHA system.
[0053] The four-quadrant operation principle of the open-circuit
EHA system is quite similar. A primary difference is that a
reservoir is provided instead of the accumulator. However, the
reservoir pressure is low and P.sub.acc is about equal to zero. As
such, the definition of the efficiencies is the same.
[0054] As previously stated, the EHA system can operate the
actuator at actuation speeds higher than what would otherwise by
possible when the pump is operating at its maximum flow (pumping)
capability (at maximum pump velocity) and at actuation speeds lower
than what would otherwise by possible when the pump is operating at
its minimum flow (pumping) capability (at the pump minimum
velocity). This is possible with proper usage of the bypass valve.
FIGS. 4 and 5 represent functionality of the bypass valve in each
quadrant separately for the open-circuit EHA system. FIG. 4
represents extension modes labeled as 1a, 1b, 2a, and 2b, and FIG.
5 represents retraction modes labeled as 3a, 3b, 4a, 4b, and 4c.
The closed-circuit EHA system operates similarly, and is not
represented here for brevity.
[0055] In each quadrant, working modes are classified into main
modes that are further classified into high-speed and low-speed
actuation sub-modes. The main modes are denoted by the letter "a"
(e.g., 1a, 2a, 3a, and 4a). In these main modes, the bypass value
remains closed and the working modes are the same as described in
reference to the closed-circuit EHA system in FIG. 3.
[0056] Low-speed actuation sub-modes are denoted with the letter
"b" (i.e., 1b, 2b, 3, and 4b). The sub-modes 1b and 3b are active
in the resistive phases. The pump is set to the minimum speed, and
the bypass valve is open to allow the desired flow to pass parallel
to the cylinder and back to the reservoir, thus controlling the
flow into the cylinder. In contrast, the sub-modes 2b and 4b are
assistive phases. In these sub-modes, the pump speed is set to
zero. Therefore, the opening of the bypass valve determines the
actuation velocity. In these sub-modes, the EHU is unable to
achieve energy recuperation.
[0057] High-speed actuation sub-modes are denoted with the letter
"c" (i.e., 4c). The sub-mode 4c is active for high-speed actuation.
In this sub-mode, the opening of the bypass value allows operation
with higher speeds than the pump would allow if it had to
compensate the full cylinder flow alone. Therefore, the sub-mode 4c
and the main mode 3a can both reach the same maximum velocity. All
sub-modes denoted with the letters "b" and "c" include metering
control.
[0058] Though the full speed range can be achieved by opening the
bypass valve, such operating conditions may introduce extra
throttling losses as well. Equation (16) represents the power
losses when the bypass valve is open.
P.sub.loss=Q.DELTA.p=Q.sub.BPV(p.sub.A-p.sub.a) (16)
[0059] The throttling losses resulting from other hydraulic valves,
pipes and connections of hoses can also be demonstrated by equation
(16). Though not as significant as those from the bypass valve, all
throttling losses can be considered.
[0060] During operation of the EHA system, a controller may enter
into the different working modes based on two signals: a speed
command (/) and a pressure difference at the cylinder (dp), which
are described in equations (18) and (19). The sign of i is defined
as positive in extension phases and negative in retraction phases.
A positive dp indicates that the pressure in the piston-side
chamber of the cylinder is higher, while a negative dp indicates
that the pressure in the rod-side chamber of the cylinder is
higher.
Q HP = n V D ( 17 ) ##EQU00005## i = x . des x . max ( 18 )
##EQU00005.2## d .times. p = p A - p a ( 19 ) ##EQU00005.3##
[0061] The maximum actuation velocity {dot over (x)}.sub.max is
defined in resistive phases, as given in equation (20) respectively
for extension and retraction. The volumetric efficiency is assumed
as 100% for the simple expression. Due to the differential
cylinder, extension and retraction have different maximum
velocities, as given in equation (21).
x . max , ex = Q max A = n max V D A , x . max , re = Q max a = n
.times. max V D a ( 20 ) ##EQU00006## x . max , re = .lamda. x .
max , ex ( 21 ) ##EQU00006.2##
[0062] The velocity can be converted to the flow rate Q according
to equations (2) and (3). Taking the working modes described in
FIG. 3 into account, the desired flow rate Q.sub.des and pump speed
n.sub.des to achieve {dot over (x)}.sub.des in four quadrants can
be obtained as represented in equations (22) through (25). The flow
rate of the hydraulic pump and the cylinder on the high-pressure
lines are always equal to each other, as shown in FIG. 3 and
described in equations (20) and (21). The first and third quadrants
explained in equations (22) and (24), which are subscripted by one
and three, correspond to the extension modes in equation (20).
Instead, the second and fourth quadrants subscripted by two and
four in equations (23) and (25), represent the retraction phases in
equation (20). As a result, the impact of the area ratio on the
speed regulation is evident.
Q des , 1 = n des , 1 V D = x . des , 1 A = i x . max , ex A = i n
max V D , n des , 1 = i n max ( 22 ) ##EQU00007## Q des , 2 = n des
, 2 V D = x . des , 2 a = i x . max , ex a = i n max V D .lamda. ,
n des , 2 = i n max / .lamda. ( 23 ) ##EQU00007.2## Q des , 3 = n
des , 3 V D = x . des , 3 a = i x . max , re a = i n max V D , n
des , 3 = i n max / .lamda. ( 24 ) ##EQU00007.3## Q des , 4 = n des
, 4 V D = x . des , 4 A = i x . max , re A = i n max V D .lamda. ,
n des , 4 = i n max .lamda. ( 25 ) ##EQU00007.4##
[0063] When n.sub.des is out of the operating speed range of the
pump (i.e., between the minimum operating speed, of the pump and
the maximum operating speed, n.sub.max, of the pump), the bypass
valve will be actively opened. As an example, sub-mode 1a in FIG. 4
can be regulated by n.sub.min<n.sub.(des,1)<n.sub.max.
According to equation (22), it can be expressed with i as
represented in equation (26). Meanwhile, i>0 and dp>0 for the
resistive extension mode.
n min n max < i < 1 ( 26 ) ##EQU00008##
[0064] Ultimately, the regulation of all modes in FIGS. 4 and 5 are
given in Table III (FIG. 20) following equations (22) through (25).
As .lamda.=A/a>1, the sub-mode 4c enables an actuation velocity
higher than the maximum pump flow rate allows. Considering the
volumetric efficiency of the pump n des and Q.sub.max are
multiplied by a number (.eta..sub.vol in pump modes,
1/.eta..sub.vol in motor modes) in the regulation and the range of
regulated/stays the same. In fact, .eta..sub.vol, may vary in
different working conditions, so that the threshold of/to get into
low-speed modes can vary slightly for an ideal control. This case
only has an impact when the EHA system gets very close to the
low-speed modes and does not change the overall performance.
[0065] FIG. 17 represents steps of a nonlimiting method for sizing
the open-circuit and closed-circuit EHA systems. In step 100, an
actuator may be selected to accommodate a target maximum actuation
velocity of the desired EHA system. Alternatively, actuator may be
selected based on a target most frequent velocity in a given duty
cycle rather than the maximum actuation velocity. This sizing
method provides for design of EHA systems with certain objectives,
such as maximizing efficiency of the rotating speed and pump
displacement of the EHU. All subsequent components may be selected
based on the actuator chosen.
[0066] In step 102, the target maximum actuation velocity ({dot
over (x)}) for a cylindrical actuator may be input into equation
(2) to calculate a required actuator flow rate. The loading
requirement of the actuator also provides the maximum operating
pressure of the EHA system. Based on the flow rate and the
operating pressure, a hydraulic pump may be selected in step 104.
To avoid oversizing, the hydraulic pump may be chosen based on
Q.sub.A in the first quadrant of FIG. 3. Based on equation (17),
different options may be available for hydraulic pumps with the
required flow rate in terms of maximum rotating speed and
displacement. A two-quadrant hydraulic pump may be used for the
open-circuit EHA system and a four-quadrant hydraulic pump may be
used for the closed-circuit EHA system. The hydraulic pumps may
have different displacements resulting in slightly different
velocities for the two configurations. In step 106, the electric
motor may be selected based on the power requirements of the
hydraulic pump chosen. However, the electric motor may be chosen to
have a different speed range with high efficiency from the
hydraulic pump.
[0067] Based on equation (3), the accumulator compensates for the
differential flow from the cylinder of the actuator. Therefore, the
accumulator may be selected to have a volume greater than or equal
to a volume of the cylinder rod as represented in step 108. In
addition, according to equation (10), the working pressure of the
accumulator should be no more than the drain pressure, thus
limiting the size of accumulator. More importantly, the power level
of the accumulator is limited due to the low pressure of
p.sub.drain, which is usually no more than 10 bar for the hydraulic
pump.
[0068] In step 110, the remaining hydraulic components may be
selected based on the flow rate and operating pressure. Generally,
the larger the components (e.g., the valves), the less the
resulting pressure drop during operation. However, in addition to
promoting efficiency, the EHA systems may optionally be configured
for promoting compactness. In such examples, the remaining
hydraulic components may be sized such that their rated flow
matches the maximum flow rates encountered in the EHA systems. This
choice results in non-negligible throttling losses in actuation
with high velocity, but not due to the regulation of the EHA
systems.
[0069] Nonlimiting embodiments of the invention will now be
described in reference to experimental investigations leading up to
the invention.
[0070] Two test systems, one open-circuit EHA system and one
closed-circuit EHA system, were fabricated using the sizing method
of FIG. 17 and configured as represented in FIGS. 1 and 2,
respectively. Specifically, the test systems were configured based
on a target maximum actuation velocity ({dot over (x)}) of
approximately 0.2 m/s corresponding to a required actuator flow
rate of 45 L/min and certain specific parameters given in Table I
(FIG. 18). Therefore, a maximum target flow of the hydraulic pump
was selected to also be about 45 L/min. It should be noted that
while the open-circuit EHA system was operating in the sub-mode 4c
(FIG. 5), the flow rate would be required to be about 75 L/min to
reach the maximum retracting velocity due to the differential area
of the cylinder. However, since this situation only occurred in one
sub-mode, to avoid oversizing of the hydraulic pump, the target
flow was set at 45 L/min and the bypass valve was used in sub-mode
4c to achieve the required actuation (i.e., 45 to 75 L/min).
[0071] The loading requirement of the actuator selected provided
for an operation pressure of about 130 bar which enabled a load
force of about 50 kN on the cylinder. Due to these conditions, the
relief valve was set at 200 bar to avoid over-pressurization.
Considering cost and practicality along with this operating
pressure requirement (i.e., 130 bar), hydraulic pumps were selected
having a displacement of about 15 cc/rec and a maximum rotating
speed of around 3000 rpm. The chosen electric motors provided the
EHA systems with a power of up to 20 kW.
[0072] The sizing parameters used for sizing the test systems are
provided in Table I (FIG. 18). Main parameters of the hydraulic
components selected for the test systems are provided in Table II
(FIG. 19).
[0073] As schematically represented in FIG. 6, the test systems
comprised two modules that included the EHA system under test and a
load module. The load module used an equal cylinder as the EHA
module. It had a hydraulic circuit that could pressurize the
cylinder chamber so that both resistive and assistive load
conditions on the EHA system could be established. The loading
force was controlled by two proportional reducing-relieving valves.
Dual-axis joints coupled two cylinders and linear ball rails
compensated for any side forces that occurred due to misalignment.
Certain specific components selected for the test systems are
provided in Table IV (FIG. 21).
[0074] In addition to the physical test systems, a lumped parameter
simulation model was prepared that reproduced the EHA systems
represented in FIGS. 1 and 2 along with the parameters and
components disclosed in Tables I, II, and IV (FIGS. 18, 19, and 21,
respectively). Table V (FIG. 22) outlines the models for the main
hydraulic components, including the theoretical modeling equations
used to describe the EHA system under the isothermal assumption.
For the hydraulic pump of the EHU (i.e., HP in Table V), the basic
steady-state modeling equation described the relation between flow
rate and speed, and between pressure differential and torque. These
equations included the energy efficiency parameters according to
definitions of the above equations (11)-(15). For the linear
actuator (i.e., the cylinder), the equations demonstrated the force
balance and basic pressure build-up in cylinder chambers. For the
accumulator, the modeling equation described the polytropic
progress of the gas, which gave the relation between pressure and
volume. To fulfill the flow rate requirements of the cylinder and
the accumulator given in equations (1)-(3), the effective volume of
the accumulator should be greater than that of the cylinder rod.
Finally, for the valves, a basic orifice equation was used to state
the relation between flow rate the pressure differential. The open
fraction of the check valve (CV) was assumed as a linear function
on the proportion of the pressure differential.
[0075] For the equations indicated with bold letters, the model
required lookup tables of data obtained from datasheets of the
components used for the test system. The efficiency map of the pump
was generated by basic measurements. Characteristic curves of
components were included in the simulation model, including but not
limited to the volumetric efficiency map of the hydraulic pump and
the performance graphs of the bypass valve. The speed range of the
external gear machine n.sub.min, n.sub.max from the datasheet
confirmed the necessity of all sub-modes discussed previously.
[0076] Tests for extension and retraction were conducted with the
test systems with an intention of covering a wide range of actuator
velocities and load conditions, including low-speed actuation and
velocities higher than the maximum pump flow. The load force varied
from -30 kN to 50 kN in 10 kN steps. However, the tests did not
include loads from 0 kN to 1 kN, as the EHA system under test could
not properly detect the working modes (assistive or resistive)
under such conditions.
[0077] FIG. 7 represents exemplary measurements for a certain data
point: resistive extension at 50% maximum velocity with a 50kN
load. In the measurements, the load was held constant and a step
speed command was given. As shown in the upper plot, a steady state
was reached in the extension step. The recorded data was averaged
in the step range to calculate power and efficiency. After each
measurement, the actuator was controlled to return to the original
position. By changing the applied load and speed command, the
measurements covered all cases needed to generate an efficiency
map. Although the load was supposed to be constant, the lower plot
represents that the actual force varied slightly due to
disturbances that could not be compensated the force controller of
the load drive. When the desired load was small (e.g., 0 kN to 1
kN), this slight deviation interfered with the detection of the
working mode and resulted in significant errors.
[0078] FIG. 8 represents the speed control performance of the test
systems. Regarding the actuation velocity and load applied to the
cylinder, the map shows the system efficiency in different
operating conditions. The velocity of actuation was defined as
positive when the cylinder extended, as given in the first and
second quadrants in FIG. 3. Negative velocity referred to a
retraction. As for the applied load, positive load resulted in a
higher pressure in the piston-side chamber, as represented in first
and fourth quadrants in FIG. 3, while the negative force was
covered by the second and third quadrants.
[0079] The linearity between the input speed command and the
actuation velocity confirmed the functionality of the test systems.
The low-speed modes showed some nonlinearity as a result of the
characteristics of the bypass valve. Taking the pressure influence
on the valve behavior into account, which was feasible as the
pressures were measured, the performance could be improved. This
was not done before because the pressure only has a significant
influence on the valve behavior for very low-pressure drops, which
are uncommon for many applications. In the right plot of FIG. 8
representing the closed-circuit EHA system, nonlinearity also
appeared in high-velocity retraction modes. This may be attributed
to slight cavitation from high pressure drops over the DVs during
high flow rates. Regarding the linearity, the open-circuit EHA
system performed better that the closed-circuit EHA system.
[0080] FIG. 9 represents an efficiency map of the open-circuit EHA
system generated from steady-state test data. The power flow in the
tests started at the hydraulic pump and ended in the cylinder, so
the efficiencies were defined by equations (5)-(8) replacing
P.sub.EHU with P.sub.shaft. The thick black reference zero lines
divide the map into four quadrants corresponding to the quadrants
of FIG. 3. The white dashed lines and characters denote all of the
sub-modes explained in reference to FIGS. 4 and 5. The efficiencies
were observed to reach more than 70% in the main modes as shown in
FIGS. 4 and 5, and up to 84.7% at very high loads.
[0081] In terms of the low-efficiency areas, two areas are
especially noteworthy. One is the area covering low-speed (slow)
actuation modes (i.e., sub-modes 1b, 2b, 3b, 4b in FIG. 9). In this
scenario, the pump was set to minimum speed (resistive phases 1b
and 3b) with low-efficiency or zero speed (assistive phases 2b and
4b). In assistive phases (2b and 4b) no energy could be
recuperated, resulting in zero efficiencies. For low-speed
resistive actuation, a portion of the pump power was converted to
heat by the bypass valve, causing a reduced efficiency, but still
not zero. As a result, the resistive phase area was less red than
the assistive phase area. However, these cases only happened within
a limited actuation velocity range (under about 0.06 m/s), and this
low-speed resulted in low power consumption.
[0082] The other noteworthy low-efficiency area corresponds to the
high-speed (fast) actuation mode. The reason for the low efficiency
in the assistive phase (sub-mode 4c) was that the opening of the
bypass valve introduced throttling losses. Besides, when the load
was small, low efficiency appeared in high velocities resistive
retraction. The reason was that the 4/3 directional valve shown in
FIG. 1 introduced throttling losses that were only dependent on the
flow rate which is up to 75 L/min. When the overall power level was
low, these throttling losses had more significance and resulted in
lower efficiency.
[0083] For comparison, FIG. 10 shows the efficiency map of the
closed-circuit EHA system based on measurement data. Some
small-load cases (below 5 kN) were excluded, as the closed-circuit
EHA system tended to oscillate due to the difficulty in controlling
the bypass valve with a rather small pressure differential.
Moreover, for low forces, the power levels were quite low, and the
resulting efficiencies from the power ratios were more sensitive to
measurement errors, thus showing unrealistic values.
[0084] Good efficiencies were observed for the areas in which the
bypass valve was closed. For example, a highest observed efficiency
was 81.80% and most regions reached at least 60%. However, compared
to the open-circuit EHA system, the overall efficiency was lower
due to poor performance of the pump which was expected, being that
the chosen pump was designed for more demanding conditions (e.g.,
bidirectional rotation and high pressure occurring at both ports)
concerning the standard monodirectional gear pump used in the
open-circuit EHA system. Therefore, the four-quadrant pump did not
perform as well as the two-quadrant pump due to the constraints in
the symmetric design.
[0085] In brief, comparing the results of the open-circuit EHA
system in FIG. 9 and the closed-circuit EHA system in FIG. 10, the
former performed more efficiently.
[0086] The efficiency maps of FIGS. 9 and 10 may provide for
implementation of the EHA systems of FIGS. 1 and 2 on different
applications. For example, duty cycles of an excavator boom may
occur in the first and the fourth quadrants in the efficiency maps.
According to the working conditions of the application, an
estimation can be made on efficiency performance in one duty cycle.
The efficiency differed from 60% to 80% in most conditions based on
the efficiency maps. As a comparison, the average efficiency of
mobile hydraulic applications is currently about 21%. Therefore, a
significant improvement could be reached with the EHA systems
disclosed herein. Moreover, the efficiency maps indicate whether
the EHA systems will perform with high efficiencies for certain
applications or whether the EHA systems and/or other hydraulic
components need to be resized to achieve better energy performance
in a specific duty cycle.
[0087] The simulation model was used to provide a realistic
estimation of the efficiency of the EHA systems in all of the
working modes based on the parameters given in Table I (FIG. 18).
All simulations were conducted considering steady-state
conditions.
[0088] FIG. 11 represents an efficiency map of the open-circuit EHA
system based on results of the simulation. Similar to what was done
in post-process for the experimental results, the power flow in the
simulation started from the pump and ended at the cylinder.
According to the results, the open-circuit EHA system showed high
efficiencies of up to 83.8%. Low efficiencies existed in low-speed
modes and high-speed modes when the bypass valve was actively
opened, which was noticed in the experiments as well.
[0089] FIG. 12 highlights the discrepancies between the
experimental and simulation results by identifying differences
between FIGS. 9 (experiments) and 11 (simulation). A negative
number means the simulation model has higher efficiency, which
occupies a large region in the map. This slight efficiency
overprediction was expected because some losses, such as the line
losses and linkage of fittings, were not included in the simulation
model. In most regions of the map, discrepancies were between -0.1
to 0, meaning that the simulation and experiment results were in a
very good agreement.
[0090] More relevant discrepancies occurred when the EHA systems
operated in low-speed modes. The inaccuracy of the available
efficiency data for the hydraulic pump under low-speed operation
may have been a cause. In regards to the darkest area close to the
zero-force line, the overall power was limited because of the small
load. As a ratio of the input and output powers, the calculated
efficiency could be sensitive and showed a large discrepancy at
some points, which was up to .+-.0.3.
[0091] Similarly, FIG. 13 represents an efficiency map of the
closed-circuit EHA system from the simulation results. According to
the simulation results, the best achievable efficiency was 82.0%.
In terms of efficiency and compared to the open-circuit EHA system,
the closed-circuit EHA system benefitted from the contribution of
the accumulator as high-efficient energy storage. However, the
lower energy efficiency of the hydraulic pump was more significant
leading to an aggregate reduction in the overall efficiency of the
closed-circuit EHA system. In summary, the overall energy
efficiencies of the two EHA systems were similar, although the
open-circuit EHA system performed better in the fourth quadrant
(assistive retraction).
[0092] The low efficiencies appeared during low-speed actuation and
high-speed assistive retraction modes because the bypass valve was
opened and thus introduced additional throttling losses. Moreover,
the displacement of the chosen four-quadrant pump was slightly
smaller than the two-quadrant pump, resulting in a smaller speed
range and less throttling losses, so that the efficiency under
conditions with a small load and high velocity was better.
[0093] FIG. 14 represents the discrepancies between FIGS. 10
(experiments) and 13 (simulations), which confirmed a good match
for the efficiency trends in most regions of operation of the
closed-circuit EHA system. Large discrepancies were noticed in the
low-speed region (3b) and the fourth quadrant (4a). Again, this may
be due to the low accuracy of the available data for the
four-quadrant pump's efficiency. For the darkest area (inside 4a),
another contributing factor may be the calculated efficiency was
rather sensitive to the small values of power of the measurements
in this area.
[0094] Other reasons for the discrepancies may have been that the
losses in hydraulic pipes and valves were underestimated in the
simulation of the closed-circuit EHA system. For example, the load
force was assumed constant in simulation. However, in each
measurement, the load force varied slightly. Insufficient dynamics
of the force controller in the load drive caused these inaccuracies
which may have impacted the discussed efficiency results. Finally,
the simulation model was developed based on the isothermal
assumption, which may have caused inaccuracies.
[0095] Overall, the good agreement between the simulation and the
experiment efficiencies indicated how the simulation model was
valid for at least a first estimate of the performance (e.g.,
system pressures and flows, system efficiencies parameters) of the
EHA systems. Although the model had a tendency to slightly over
predict the system efficiency, particularly when accurate
characteristics from the components were not known, the model can
still be very useful to study EHA systems of different sizes, such
as equipped with different actuators or different hydraulic pumps.
Therefore, the model can limit the recourse of expensive testing
activities. Moreover, the model could be used for further
considerations about the scalability of the EHA systems disclosed
herein.
[0096] To further explain the performance of the EHA systems, FIG.
15 illustrates power flow of the open-circuit EHA system in a
moderate power actuation (50% speed command, 50 kN load). The
nonlimiting numerical values in the figure refer to exemplary
experimental results. From the shaft connecting the electric motor
with the pump to the cylinder, the diagram represents the
input/output power of each component in the EHA system and the
corresponding power losses. In the resistive extension mode, the
pump wasted 15.46% of the input power while the throttling losses
present in the system counted only for 2.47%. As for the assistive
retraction, a higher speed was achieved due to the area ratio of
the differential cylinder. More flow rate resulted in 10.9% power
losses in the hydraulic circuit. A different sizing choice, such as
larger valves, could be beneficial to reduce the fluid throttling.
The two-quadrant pump showed high efficiency as a motor and could
regenerate energy with a power of 7.36 kW.
[0097] FIG. 16 represents power flow of the closed-circuit EHA
system under the same working conditions as FIG. 15. Because the
four-quadrant pump's displacement was smaller than the two-quadrant
pump, the actuation velocity and the overall power level were
lower. One of the main differences from the open-circuit EHA system
was on the utilization of the accumulator, which could assist the
system in the resistive extension mode and store energy during
assistive retraction. However, the operating pressure of the
accumulator was limited by the maximum pump drain line pressure
ratings, which are commonly lower than 5 bar (some pumps accept up
to 10 bar). Compared to the cylinder's working pressure, the
accumulator pressure was too low to contribute much to energy
saving. The power of the accumulator was less than 0.1 kW under
these working conditions. Another difference was the performance of
the pump. The four-quadrant pump resulted in 2.13 kW power losses
in motor mode, corresponding to 26.46% of the cylinder's input
power. The throttling losses were similar as in the open-circuit
EHA system.
[0098] The power flow analysis confirmed that the open-circuit EHA
system operated more efficiently and had a better energy-saving
capability. The closed-circuit EHA system remained less efficient
due to the low pressure at which the accumulator operated and the
poor performance of the four-quadrant pump.
[0099] The experiments and the simulations were performed
considering a reference 20 kW application consisting of a
differential cylinder of 0.89 m stroke and 50 kN maximum force,
commonly used in some off-road vehicles. The results indicated that
the EHA systems can achieve efficiencies greater than 80% for both
open-circuit and closed-circuit architectures. These EHA systems
were able to operate efficiently by decreasing the throttling
losses and enabling energy regeneration. However, the low-speed
modes have low efficiencies due to the use of the bypass valve
being open. Similarly, the high-speed modes use the bypass valve
and therefore have high throttling losses, with the assumption that
the pump operates at the same maximum speed under assistive or
resistive phases.
[0100] Comparing the open-circuit EHA system and the closed-circuit
EHA system, the open-circuit EHA system performed better in terms
of energy efficiency. This was mainly because a standard
two-quadrant pump typically has higher efficiencies than a gear
unit designed for a four-quadrant operation. The accumulator used
in the closed-circuit EHA system could not contribute much to the
energy savings because of the limited operating pressure required
by the EHA system in the accumulator line.
[0101] These experimental and simulated results indicated that the
system represents a viable solution for applying EHA systems in
cost-sensitive applications, such as off-road vehicles in
construction and agriculture (e.g., excavators, wheel loaders,
etc.). Specifically, the EHA systems were able to reach high energy
efficiency and good potentials of energy recuperation during
instances of assistive phase loads. As a nonlimiting example, the
EHA systems could be used in fluid power machines such as off-road
vehicles to potentially increase the energy efficiency level of the
fluid power actuation system from a current industry average of
about 21% to 80% or more as shown herein.
[0102] In addition, the simulation model was able to accurately
determine the overall behavior of the EHA systems and identify
operating conditions of maximum efficiency for all the working
modes. As such, the simulation model represents a powerful tool for
design considerations for EHA systems.
[0103] While the invention has been described in terms of specific
embodiments, it is apparent that other forms could be adopted by
one skilled in the art. For example, the physical configuration of
the EHA systems could differ from those shown, and materials and
processes/methods other than those noted could be used. Therefore,
the scope of the invention is to be limited only by the following
claims.
* * * * *