U.S. patent application number 17/472555 was filed with the patent office on 2022-03-03 for single-molecule nanofet sequencing systems and methods.
The applicant listed for this patent is Pacific Biosciences of California, Inc.. Invention is credited to Jeremiah Hanes, Satwik Kamtekar, Jonas Korlach, Stephen Turner.
Application Number | 20220064725 17/472555 |
Document ID | / |
Family ID | |
Filed Date | 2022-03-03 |
United States Patent
Application |
20220064725 |
Kind Code |
A1 |
Turner; Stephen ; et
al. |
March 3, 2022 |
SINGLE-MOLECULE NANOFET SEQUENCING SYSTEMS AND METHODS
Abstract
Real time electronic sequencing devices, chips, and systems are
described. Arrays of nanoFET devices are used to provide sequence
information about a template nucleic acid in a polymerase-template
complex bound to the nanoFET. The nanoFET devices typically have a
source, a drain and a gate comprising a nanowire. A single
polymerase enzyme complex comprising a polymerase enzyme complexed
with the template nucleic acid is bound to the gate. The polymerase
is bound to the gate non-covalently through a polymeric binding
agent that has two strands, each strand interacting with the
nanowire such that the polymerase is in a central location between
the strands with the polymeric binding agent extending away from
the polymerase complex along the nanowire in both directions.
Inventors: |
Turner; Stephen; (Eugene,
OR) ; Korlach; Jonas; (Camas, WA) ; Kamtekar;
Satwik; (Muntain View, CA) ; Hanes; Jeremiah;
(Woodside, CA) |
|
Applicant: |
Name |
City |
State |
Country |
Type |
Pacific Biosciences of California, Inc. |
Menlo Park |
CA |
US |
|
|
Appl. No.: |
17/472555 |
Filed: |
September 10, 2021 |
Related U.S. Patent Documents
|
|
|
|
|
|
Application
Number |
Filing Date |
Patent Number |
|
|
16137357 |
Sep 20, 2018 |
11142792 |
|
|
17472555 |
|
|
|
|
15227661 |
Aug 3, 2016 |
10125391 |
|
|
16137357 |
|
|
|
|
62201731 |
Aug 6, 2015 |
|
|
|
62239176 |
Oct 8, 2015 |
|
|
|
International
Class: |
C12Q 1/6869 20060101
C12Q001/6869; B82Y 10/00 20060101 B82Y010/00; B82Y 15/00 20060101
B82Y015/00; C12Q 1/6874 20060101 C12Q001/6874; G01N 27/414 20060101
G01N027/414; G11C 19/28 20060101 G11C019/28; H01L 29/06 20060101
H01L029/06; H01L 29/16 20060101 H01L029/16 |
Claims
1.-20. (canceled)
21. A nanoFET device comprising: a substrate comprising a pair of
nanoscale electrodes; a nanotube extending across the pair of
nanoscale electrodes; a conductive material on top of each of the
nanoscale electrodes and on top of the nanotube; an insulating
material over the nanoscale electrodes whereby at least a portion
of the nanotube is not covered by the insulating material.
22. The device of claim 1 wherein the conductive material comprises
aluminum, silver, gold, and platinum.
23. The device of claim 1 wherein the insulating material is a
metal oxide or metal nitride.
24. The device of claim 1 wherein the nanotube comprises a carbon
nanotube.
25. The device of claim 1 wherein the nanotube has a polymerase
enzyme bound to it.
26. The device of claim 1 wherein the length of the nanotube is
less than 300 nm.
27. The device of claim 1 wherein the insulating material comprises
a well that constitutes the portion of the nanotube that is not
covered by the insulating material.
28. The device of claim 27 wherein the well is cylindrical and has
a diameter of less than 300 nm.
29. The device of claim 27 wherein the well is cylindrical and has
a diameter of less than 200 nm.
30. The device of claim 27 wherein the well is cylindrical and has
a diameter of less than 100 nm.
31. The device of claim 27 wherein the ratio of the depth to the
width of the well is from 1:2 to 1:10.
32. The device of claim 27 wherein the ratio of the depth to the
width of the well is from 1.5:1 to 5:1.
33. The device of claim 7 wherein the depth of the well is between
5 nm and 300 nm.
34. The device of claim 1 comprising 1000 nanoFETs to a ten million
nanoFETs.
35. The device of claim 1 wherein the substrate comprises
silicon.
36. A chip for sequencing a plurality of single nucleic acid
template molecules comprising: a plurality of nanoFET devices of
claim 25: wherein the substrate is configured such that the
plurality of nanoFET devices come into contact with a sequencing
reaction mixture comprising a plurality of types of nucleotide
analogs each having a different conductivity label; and a plurality
of electrical connection sites for bringing current and voltage to
the nanoFETs, and for receiving electrical signals from the
nanoFETs.
37. The chip of claim 36 wherein the substrate comprises about
1,000 nanoFET devices to about 10 million nanoFET devices.
38. The chip of claim 36 wherein the substrate comprises about
10,000 nanoFET devices to about 1 million nanoFET devices.
39. The chip of claim 36 wherein at least one of the conductivity
labels comprise a polymer chain having multiple charges.
40. The chip of claim 36 wherein at least one of the conductivity
labels comprise a protein.
Description
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS
[0001] This application is a continuation of U.S. patent
application Ser. No. 16/137,357, filed Sep. 20, 2018, which is a
continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/227,661, filed
Aug. 3, 2016, now U.S. Pat. No. 10,125,391, which claims the
benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 62/201,731, filed on
Aug. 6, 2015, and 62/239,176, filed on Oct. 8, 2015, the
disclosures of which are each incorporated herein by reference in
their entireties.
STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH
[0002] Not Applicable.
BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION
[0003] Nucleic acid sequence data is valuable in myriad
applications in biological research and molecular medicine,
including determining the hereditary factors in disease, in
developing new methods to detect disease and guide therapy (van de
Vijver et al. (2002) "A gene-expression signature as a predictor of
survival in breast cancer," New England Journal of Medicine 347:
1999-2009), and in providing a rational basis for personalized
medicine. Obtaining and verifying sequence data for use in such
analyses has made it necessary for sequencing technologies to
undergo advancements to expand throughput, lower reagent and labor
costs, and improve accuracy (See, e.g., Chan, et al. (2005)
"Advances in Sequencing Technology" (Review) Mutation Research 573:
13-40 which is incorporated herein in its entireties for all
purposes.
[0004] Various methods of sequencing are used and each has its
strengths and weaknesses. Single molecule real time sequencing has
advantages over other sequencing methodologies including the
ability to provide longer read lengths. Many current methods of
sequencing use optical labels. There is a need for improved
sequencing instruments and methods that use non-optical readouts,
and in particular real time single molecule sequencing methods with
these characteristics.
[0005] Electronic detection of single molecules and single
particles, including by capacitive, impedance, and conductive
methods has been demonstrated. The current invention provides
instruments, devices and methods for non-optical real-time single
molecule sequencing and for real time non-optical detection of
biomolecules.
BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION
[0006] In some aspects, the invention provides a method for nucleic
acid sequencing comprising: providing a substrate comprising an
array of nanoscale field effect transistors (nanoFETs) capable of
measuring electrical changes due to molecular interactions, wherein
a plurality of the nanoFETs have a single polymerase enzyme
complex.
[0007] In some aspects, the invention provides methods for nucleic
acid sequencing comprising: providing a substrate comprising an
array of nanoFETs, each comprising a source, a drain, and a gate,
wherein a plurality of the nanoFETs comprise a single polymerase
enzyme complex comprising a polymerase enzyme and a template
nucleic acid, the complex attached to gate of the nanoFET, wherein
the polymerase enzyme is attached to the gate in an orientation
whereby the nucleotide exit region of the polymerase enzyme is
toward the gate of the nanoFET; exposing the substrate to a
plurality of types of nucleotide analogs, each comprising a
different conductivity label attached to the phosphate portion of
the nucleotide analog through a linker under conditions whereby
polymerase mediated nucleic acid synthesis occurs, resulting in
cleavage of the conductivity label and the growth of a nascent
nucleic acid strand; applying a voltage between the source and
drain, whereby when a nucleotide analog resides in the active site
of the enzyme, the conductivity label on the nucleotide analog
produces a measurable change in the electrical signal at the gate;
monitoring an electrical signal at the gate over time, whereby the
electrical signal indicates an incorporation event for a type of
nucleotide analog having a specific conductivity label; and using
the electrical signal to determine a sequence of the template
nucleic acid.
[0008] In some embodiments the electrical signal used to determine
the sequence of the template nucleic acids includes the duration of
the signal indicating the residence time of a nucleotide analog in
the active site of a polymerase. In some embodiments the gate of
each nanoFET comprises a nanowire. In some embodiments the gate of
each nanoFET comprises a carbon nanotube. In some embodiments the
voltage across the source and drain is DC. In some embodiments the
voltage across the source and drain is AC, and the frequency of the
AC voltage is changed with time.
[0009] In some embodiments the substrate is exposed to four types
of nucleotide analogs corresponding to A, G, C, T, or A, G, C, U,
each of the four types of nucleotide analogs having a different
conductivity label. In some embodiments the conductivity label
comprises a protein. In some embodiments the protein has a
molecular weight that is between 1/10 and 3 times the molecular
weight of the polymerase enzyme. In some embodiments the protein
has a molecular weight that is between 1/10 and 3 times the
molecular weight of a phi29 polymerase.
[0010] In some embodiments the polymerase is attached through a
linker at a single point on the polymerase that is within 50
angstroms of the nucleotide exit region of the enzyme. In some
embodiments the polymerase is a phi29-type polymerase and the
polymerase is attached through a linker at a single point on the
polymerase that is within 5 amino acids from position 375 or
position 512. In some embodiments the polymerase is modified phi29
polymerase.
[0011] In some embodiments the polymerase is attached through two
linkers at two different positions on the polymerase, wherein at
least one is attached to a position that is within 50 angstroms of
the nucleotide exit region of the enzyme. In some embodiments the
polymerase is attached through two linkers at two different
positions on the polymerase, wherein both linkers are attached to
positions that are within 50 angstroms of the nucleotide exit
region of the enzyme. In some embodiments the polymerase is
attached through an trivalent linker that attaches to the
polymerase at two different positions that are within 50 angstroms
of the nucleotide exit region of the enzyme, and the trivalent
linker is attached to a single point on the gate of the
nanoFET.
[0012] In some embodiments at least one of the conductivity labels
comprises a polymer chain having multiple charges. In some
embodiments there are 4 types of nucleotide analogs and each
comprises a conductivity label comprising a polymer chain having
multiple charges. In some embodiments there are 4 types of
nucleotide analogs and each comprises a conductivity label having a
different number of negative charges. In some embodiments there are
4 types of nucleotide analogs and each comprises a conductivity
label having a different number of positive charges. In some
embodiments there are 4 types of nucleotide analogs and each
comprises a conductivity label having both negative and positive
charges and each has a different net charge. In some embodiments
there are 4 types of nucleotide analogs and two labels have a net
negative charge, and two labels have a net positive charge.
[0013] In some embodiments there are 4 types of nucleotide analogs
and two of the labels result in an increase in conductivity at the
gate when their corresponding nucleotide analog is associated with
the polymerase, and two of the labels result in an decrease in
conductivity at the gate when their corresponding nucleotide analog
is associated with the polymerase
[0014] In some aspects the invention provides a chip for sequencing
a plurality of single nucleic acid template molecules comprising: a
substrate comprising; a plurality of nanoFET devices, each nanoFET
device comprising a source, a drain and a gate and a single
polymerase enzyme complex bound to the gate of the nanoFET, wherein
the polymerase enzyme complex comprises a polymerase enzyme and a
template nucleic acid, wherein the polymerase enzyme is attached to
the gate in an orientation whereby the nucleotide exit region of
the polymerase enzyme is toward the gate of the nanoFET; wherein
the substrate is configured such that the nanoFET device comes into
contact with a sequencing reaction mixture comprising a plurality
of types of nucleotide analogs each having different conductivity
labels; and a plurality of electrical connection sites for bringing
current and voltage to the the nanoFETs, and for receiving
electrical signals from the nanoFETs.
[0015] In some embodiments the gate of each nanoFET comprises a
nanowire. In some embodiments the gate of each nanoFET comprises a
carbon nanotube. In some embodiments the substrate comprises
greater than 1,000 nanoFET devices. In some embodiments the
substrate comprises greater than 10,000 nanoFET devices. In some
embodiments the substrate comprises about 1,000 nanoFET devices to
about 10 million nanoFET devices. In some embodiments the substrate
comprises about 10,000 nanoFET devices to about 1 million nanoFET
devices.
[0016] In some embodiments the substrate comprises electronic
elements for one or more of: providing electrical signals to the
nanoFETs, measuring the electrical signals at the nanoFETs, analog
to digital conversion, signal processing, and data storage. In some
embodiments the electrical elements are CMOS elements. In some
embodiments the polymerase is attached through a linker at a single
point on the polymerase that is within 50 angstroms of the
nucleotide exit region of the enzyme. In some embodiments the
polymerase is a phi29-type polymerase and the polymerase is
attached through a linker at a single point on the polymerase that
is within 5 amino acids from position 375 or position 512. In some
embodiments the polymerase is modified phi29 polymerase.
[0017] In some embodiments the polymerase is attached through two
linkers at two different positions on the polymerase, wherein at
least one is attached to a position that is within 50 angstroms of
the nucleotide exit region of the enzyme. In some embodiments the
polymerase is attached through two linkers at two different
positions on the polymerase, wherein both linkers are attached to
positions that are within 50 angstroms of the nucleotide exit
region of the enzyme.
[0018] In some embodiments the polymerase is attached through a
trivalent linker that attaches to the polymerase at two different
positions that are within 50 angstroms of the nucleotide exit
region of the enzyme, and the trivalent linker is attached to a
single point on the gate of the nanoFET.
[0019] In some aspects, the invention provides a system for
sequencing template nucleic acids comprising: a housing having
housing electrical connection sites; a chip that reversibly mates
with the housing comprising a substrate comprising; chip electrical
connection sites that reversibly connect to the housing electrical
connection sites; a plurality of nanoFET devices, each nanoFET
device comprising a source, a drain, and a gate, and a single
polymerase enzyme complex bound to the gate, wherein the polymerase
enzyme complex comprises a polymerase enzyme and a template nucleic
acid, wherein the polymerase enzyme is attached to the gate in an
orientation whereby the nucleotide exit region of the polymerase
enzyme is toward the gate of the nanoFET; a fluid reservoir for
contacting a sequencing reaction mixture with the nanoFET devices,
the sequencing reaction mixture comprising a plurality of types of
nucleotide analogs, each having a different conductivity label,
wherein the conductivity labels are sensed by the nanoFET while an
analog is associated with the polymerase enzyme complex; an
electronic control system electrically connected to the nanoFET
devices through the electrical connections to apply desired
electrical signals to the nanoFET and for receiving electrical
signals from the nanoFET devices; and a computer that receives
information on the electrical signals at the nanoFET over time and
uses such information to identify a sequence of the template
nucleic acid.
[0020] In some embodiments the gate of each nanoFET comprises a
nanowire. In some embodiments the gate of each nanoFET comprises
doped silicon. In some embodiments the substrate comprises greater
than 1,000 nanoFET devices. In some embodiments the substrate
comprises greater than 10,000 nanoFET devices. In some embodiments
the substrate comprises about 1,000 nanoFET devices to about 10
million nanoFET devices. In some embodiments the substrate
comprises about 10,000 nanoFET devices to about 1 million nanoFET
devices.
[0021] In some embodiments the substrate comprises electronic
elements for one or more of: providing electrical signals to the
nanoFET devices, measuring the electrical signals at the nanoFET
devices, analog to digital conversion, signal processing, and data
storage. In some embodiments the electrical elements are CMOS
elements.
[0022] In some aspects the invention provides methods of producing
an array carbon nanotube nanoFETs comprising: providing a substrate
having an array of sets of nanoscale electrodes, each set of
nanoscale electrodes having four nanoscale electrodes in a line,
the four electrodes comprising two outer electrodes and two inner
electrodes; exposing the substrate to a solution of carbon
nanotubes; and applying a voltage across the outer electrodes for
each set whereby carbon nanotubes are deposited across the set of
nanoscale electrodes, thereby producing an array of carbon nanotube
nanoFETs each having a source and drain provided by the inner
electrodes.
[0023] In some embodiments the methods further comprise a step of
selectively depositing a conductive material onto the inner source
and drain electrodes. In some cases the selective deposition is
carried out by electrodeposition from solution.
[0024] In some embodiments the methods further comprise a step of
cleaving the nanotube between the inner and outer electrodes.
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS
[0025] FIGS. 1A-1C illustrate a method of the invention for
sequencing using a nanoFET. FIG. 1A, FIG. 1B, and FIG. 1C show
various stages of the sequencing reaction
[0026] FIG. 2 shows how electrical signal at the gate of the
nanoFET can be used to sequence a template nucleic acid.
[0027] FIG. 3(A) illustrates the reaction at the polymerase enzyme,
and FIG. 3(B) illustrates the measurement of electrical signal
versus time during the sequencing reaction.
[0028] FIG. 4A show a single point of attachment near the
nucleotide exit region to a nanowire. FIG. 4B shows multiple
attachments from the polymerase to a nanowire. FIG. 4C shows a
trivalent linker that multiply attaches to the polymerase and makes
a single attachment to the nanowire.
[0029] FIG. 5 illustrates carrying out single molecule nanoFET
sequencing with a polymerase having its nucleotide exit region
oriented toward a carbon nanotube gate of a nanoFET using a single
attachment to the nanotube.
[0030] FIG. 6 shows various approaches for attaching the
polymerase-template complex to the nanotube with polymeric
non-covalent binding components such as proteins.
[0031] FIG. 7 shows representative chemistry for covalent
attachment of a polymerase enzyme to a carbon nanotube.
[0032] FIG. 8 illustrates how a fused particle or protein bound
between the nanoFET gate and the polymerase can result in improved
detection of charged species at or near the active site of the
polymerase.
[0033] FIG. 9 shows a method of the invention for using electric
field to deposit a nanotube onto the surface of the chip.
[0034] FIG. 10 shows a method in which the polymerase enzyme
complex (or polymerase enzyme without associated template) is
deposited onto the chip.
[0035] FIG. 11 provides an approach in which a number of
source-drain sets are arranged in a line across the surface of the
chip to electrically deposit a nanotube.
[0036] FIG. 12 shows a sequencing modes of the invention in which
unincorporatable nucleotides are bound to the surface of the
nanowire with different length linkers for each base.
[0037] FIG. 13 shows a device having a constrained region to reduce
the interaction of associated nucleic acid molecules with the
nanotube nanoFET.
[0038] FIG. 14 provides approaches to forming nanoFETs in confined
regions such as topologically constrained nanowells.
[0039] FIGS. 15A and 15B show a side and top view respectively of a
portion of a chip having a nanoFET in a confined volume that is a
trough or trench.
[0040] FIG. 16 shows a device in which the constrained region is a
region between two fluid reservoirs into which the nucleic acids
associated with the polymerase will move due to the volume
constraints in the vicinity of the nanotube nanoFET.
[0041] FIG. 17 illustrates an array of nanoFET devices in two
dimensions on a chip.
[0042] FIG. 18 shows an example of a nucleotide analog having a
protein conductivity label having a size on the order of the
polymerase enzyme.
[0043] FIG. 19 illustrates how a long chain conductivity label can
be used to provide effective signal at the gate of the nanoFET.
[0044] FIG. 20 shows an exemplary set of nucleotide analogs
providing four differentiable charged conductivity labels.
[0045] FIG. 21 shows an exemplary set of nucleotide analogs
providing four differentiable nanoparticle conductivity labels.
[0046] FIG. 22 shows an embodiment of providing a tangential flow
field to pull the nucleic acid associated with the polymerase away
from the nanotube to reduce background noise.
[0047] FIG. 23 shows a device having walls are erected between rows
of nanoFET devices and having a tangential field applied.
[0048] FIG. 24 shows an example a device with walls having shapes
that divert the nucleic acids from neighboring nanoFET devices.
[0049] FIG. 25 shows an example of a polymerase bound to a nanotube
by a single attachment through a pyrene covalently linked to a side
chain of the polymerase.
DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION
[0050] In some aspects, the invention provides methods, devices,
systems, and compositions of matter directed to single-molecule
real-time electronic sequencing. The electronic detection can
performed using with a nanoscale field effect transistor
(nanoFETs), wherein the nanoFETs is sensitive to molecular
interactions in the vicinity of the gate of the nanoFETs. In some
aspects a single polymerase-template complex is immobilized on or
proximate to a the gate of a nanoFET device, and the electrical
signal from the nanoFET is used for determining a nucleic acid
sequence. The nanoFETs of the invention typically have a nanoscale
gate that comprises a nanowire such a carbon nanotube. In some
aspects the invention provides devices and methods for making and
using nanoFET devices for single molecule real-time analysis of
biomolecules.
[0051] Where single molecule nanoFET sequencing is employed,
typically four nucleotide analogs, each having a different
distinguishable conductivity label, are present in a sequencing
reaction mixture. The term conductivity label is used to designate
a label that will produce a change in the electrical signal at a
nanoFET. In some cases, this change in electrical signal is due to
a change in the conductivity of the gate of the nanoFET, but the
change in electrical signal can include other aspects as described
in more detail below. The conductivity label is typically connected
to the nucleotide analog through the phosphate portion of the
nucleotide analog such that when the nucleotide analog is
incorporated by the polymerase enzyme into a growing nascent
nucleic acid strand, the label is released. The conductivity label
is typically connected to the nucleotide portion of the analog
through a linker. When the nucleotide analog is held in the
polymerase enzyme active site during the incorporation reaction,
the conductivity label produces a change in conductivity of the
gate of the nanoFET. The change in electrical signal such as gate
conductivity can be used to determine the presence and the identity
of the nucleotide analog that is in the active site of the
polymerase enzyme. The characteristics of the gate conductivity
while the nucleotide is in the active site will be different than
the characteristics of a nucleotide that freely diffuses near the
electrode. Because the nucleotide is held close to the gate of the
nanoFET during the incorporation process by the enzyme, it is held
in place long enough for its characteristic conductivity change at
the gate to be determined to measure the presence of the nucleotide
and also to identify which type of nucleotide is being
incorporated.
[0052] In some cases, a fixed voltage is applied across the source
and drain electrodes, and the level of conductivity through the
gate between the electrodes is monitored over time. In some cases,
gate conductivity is monitored while an AC current is applied to
the electrode. The frequency of the current applied to the nanoFET
can be varied over time in a manner that allows for the
identification of the nucleotide analog in the active site, for
example having gate electrical signal versus frequency
characteristics. Base calling software is then employed to call
bases by correlating the gate conductivity over time at the
relevant voltage with the expected characteristics of the labels.
The called bases can be used to identify the sequence of the
template nucleic acid whose sequence is complementary to that of
the added bases. The methods of the invention utilize the
characteristic that a nucleotide analog which is incorporated into
a growing nucleic acid chain spends more time in the active site of
the enzyme and therefore spends more time proximate to the gate of
the nanoFET than do non-cognate nucleotides that are not
incorporated or freely diffusing nucleotides passing near the
electrode. Thus, the residence time of the labeled nucleotide in
the active site of the enzyme can be used as a characteristic to
distinguish incorporated nucleotides from freely diffusing
nucleotides in solution.
[0053] Chips having arrays of nanoscale electronic elements having
nanoFET devices are described. Each nanoFET device performs a
sequencing reaction in real time, allowing for hundreds, thousands,
millions, tens of millions or more sequencing reactions to be
monitored simultaneously. The nanoscale elements used in devices,
such as the source, gate, and drain, are typically constructed to
have a small size, and therefore to have low levels of capacitance
noise. This allows for rapid transfer of current for electronic
measurements of events which typically occur on the microsecond to
millisecond timescale. The chips can be prepared using known
semiconductor processing techniques, for example on a silicon
substrate. The nanoFETs in the array have a polymerase
enzyme-template complex attached to the gates of the nanoFETs or
attached proximate to the gates.
[0054] Systems for carrying out sequencing are described. The
nanoFET sequencing chips of the invention typically mate with a
socket that holds the chip in place and provides electrical
connections to interconnects on the chips for transferring
electrical signals to and from the nanoFETs. A current/voltage
source provides the current and voltage to bring the nanoFETs to
the desired potential and in some cases to apply the desired AC
frequencies as a function of time. A nanoFET is used to determine
the electrical signal changes associated with the presence of the
conductivity labels.
[0055] The system includes a fluid reservoir for holding the
sequencing reagents in contact with the nanoFET on the chip. The
fluid reservoir can be, for example, a microfluidic chamber or a
well. The system can also have either a counter electrode, a
reference electrode or both in contact with the fluid. The counter
electrode and or the reference electrode can be incorporated into
the chip or can be separate from the chip, and in contact with the
liquid sample. In the fluid reservoir is a sequencing reaction
mixture that allows a single polymerase enzyme proximate to the
nanoFETs to perform nucleic acid synthesis. The sequencing reaction
mixture has nucleotide analogs with conductivity labels that are
cleaved when the nucleotide is incorporated into the growing
nucleic acid strand. The enzyme is proximate to the gates such that
when a nucleotide analog is associated with the polymerase enzyme
on its way to incorporation into the growing chain, the
conductivity label on the nucleotide analog changes the electrical
characteristics such as conductivity at the gate. A voltage/current
source can be used to vary an AC signal at the nanoFETs over time.
A current meter can be used to measure the level of current flow
and other characteristics such as impedance. The measurement of a
change in electrical characteristics at the nanoFET gate indicates
the presence of a conductivity label on the nucleotide analog held
within the enzyme. A computer changes in signal at the nanoFETs,
and uses this information to determine the sequence of nucleotide
incorporation. The conductivity signal indicates that the
nucleotide corresponding to that label is being incorporated into
the growing strand. By measuring a time sequence of incorporation,
the sequence of the growing strand, and thereby the sequence of the
corresponding template nucleic acid, is ascertained.
[0056] One aspect of the invention provides for real-time
sequencing in which the incorporation of nucleotides into the
growing strand is detected using a field effect transistor, e.g.,
FET devices, nanoscale field effect transistors (nanoFETs),
nanowire FET devices, carbon nanotubes/nanowires, single-walled
carbon nanotube (SWNT) FETs, and other conductive nanowires, e.g.,
conductive silicon nanowires. As such, although certain specific
embodiments herein describe features of the invention with
reference to nanowires or nanotubes, it will be understood that the
invention is not limited to the use of nanowires or nanotubes and
can employ other FET devices, such as those listed above. It will
be understood in this context that the terms "nanowire" and
"nanotube" is meant to encompass all of the concepts involving FET
devices and in particular carbon nanotubes, as well as any other
FET device with a spatially restricted gate. The incorporation can
be detected, for example, by changes in the conductivity of the
gate of the nanoFET. Thus, where the application refers to the gate
of a FET devices it is to be understood that the gate can be a
nanowire or carbon nanotube. In some cases, the FET comprises a
nanowire, and incorporation is detected by detecting changes in
conductance of a nanowire. Although various embodiments described
herein comprise polymerase enzymes performing nucleobase
incorporation, the invention is not limited to only those
embodiments and can also or alternatively comprise other types of
nucleic acid processing enzymes, e.g., helicases, ligases,
topoisomerases, nucleases, and the like, where interaction of the
nucleic acid processing enzyme with a nucleic acid results in a
detectable change in conductance, whether or not nucleobase
incorporation is occurring. These changes are detected as signals
that measure some aspect of the interaction between the enzyme and
the nucleic acid, e.g., informing about the components or progress
of a biochemical reaction between them. Thus, in the specification,
where a polymerase enzyme is described as being attached to a
nanoFET, it is to be understood that this description also applies
to any suitable biomolecule, and where conductivity labels are
described as being used to measure polymerase enzyme activity, it
is understood that this description will apply to measuring the
activity of biomolecules other than polymerase enzymes, including
measuring the behavior and activity of other suitable enzymes.
[0057] In certain embodiments, a polymerase enzyme complex
including a polymerase enzyme and a template nucleic acid is
immobilized onto the nanowire or proximal to the nanowire. The
polymerase enzyme complex is exposed to a reaction mixture that
supports nucleic acid synthesis. The reaction mixture includes
nucleotides or nucleotide analogs in which at least one of the
types of nucleotide analog has a label that will be referred to
herein as a conductance label (which can also be referred to as a
conductivity label or as a conductance-modulating label). In some
cases the conductance or conductivity label is a charge label. In
certain embodiments, the label is connected to the polyphosphate
portion of the nucleotide analog such that when the nucleotide
analog is incorporated, the label is released as the polyphosphate
chain is cleaved. In other embodiments, the label is a
characteristic of the nucleotide analog that is absent from a
canonical nucleotide, e.g., a base modification or extended
polyphosphate tail that does not prevent incorporation into a
nascent strand by a polymerase enzyme. In other embodiments, the
label is a chemical moiety that has been attached to the nucleobase
or the sugar ring. In alternative embodiments, the conductance
label is a natural part of a nucleotide, e.g., the naturally
occurring triphosphate of a nucleotide could produce the electric
field detected by the FET device. In some embodiments, all the
nucleotides in a reaction mixture are natural and the identity of
the bases is derived from differences in the electrical signal that
result from base-dependent position changes of the nucleobase, the
sugar ring, and/or the phosphate groups. In other embodiments, a
subset of the nucleotides would be natural and the rest would be
analogs containing different number of phosphates or terminal
phosphate labels as described above.
[0058] Where the conductance-modulating label is linked to a
phosphate group other than the alpha phosphate or when the
conductance-modulating label comprises the beta phosphate the
incorporation of the nucleotide analog results in the release of
the conductance label, restoring the conductivity of the nanowire
to a value that is not impacted by the presence of the label, e.g.,
a baseline value. It is contemplated in the present invention that
the baseline value may be impacted by the primary structure of the
nucleic acid template and/or different conformational states of the
enzyme, and baseline correction for sequence content is an aspect
of the invention. While each of the four types of nucleotides may
sample the active site, the nucleotide or nucleotide analog that is
incorporated (a cognate nucleotide) will spend a longer time in the
active site than a nucleotide or nucleotide analog that is not
incorporated. Thus, the conductivity of the nanowire detects when a
labeled nucleotide analog is present in the active site of the
polymerase enzyme.
[0059] The invention provides for real time sequencing in which the
incorporation of nucleotides into the growing strand is detected
using a nanoscale field effect transistor (nanoFET). The
incorporation can be detected, for example, by changes in the
conductivity of the gate of the nanoFET. The characteristics of the
conductance change in the nanowire can be different for different
conductance labels. Thus, in addition to detecting the presence of
an incorporated nucleotide, the methods of the invention allow for
discriminating between two or more nucleotide analogs in the
reaction mixture. Typically four types of nucleotide analogs are
used, corresponding to A, G, T, and C for DNA and to A, G, U, and C
for RNA, each having a different conductance label. By observing
the incorporation of nucleotides over time, the sequence of the
template nucleic acid in the polymerase enzyme complex can be
determined. The polymerase specifically adds a nucleotide to the
growing strand that is complementary to the nucleotide in the
template strand, e.g. A.revreaction.T, and G.revreaction.C. By
determining which nucleotides have been added to the growing
strand, the sequence of the template strand can be determined.
[0060] A nanowire can be used as the gate in the nanoFET, with
electrodes attached to either side of the nanowire acting as the
source and the drain. The nanowire can be, for example, a carbon
nanotube or a semiconductor such as doped silicon. There are many
materials that can make up the nanowire or gate, examples of which
are described in more detail below.
[0061] In some cases the nanowire or nanoFET are used to perform
nucleic acid sequencing by measuring the presence of the labeled
nucleotide analog within the enzyme complex as the enzyme adds
nucleotides to a growing strand in real time. FIGS. 1A-1C provides
a schematic representation of a method for real time nucleic acid
sequencing with two nanoscale electrodes acting as source and drain
with a nanowire or gate connecting them. A polymerase-template
complex bound proximate to the nanowire or gate. In FIGS. 1A-1C the
polymerase enzyme is attached directly to the nanowire. In some
cases, rather than being directly attached, the polymerase enzyme
is attached to the substrate proximate to the nanowire at a
distance such that the presence of a conductivity label attached to
a nucleotide analog that is associated with the enzyme is detected
by a change in conductance of the nanowire. A substrate 100 has a
region on its surface with two electrodes 102 and 106 separated on
the order of nanometers to hundreds of nanometers. For example, the
separation can be from 1 nm to 400 nm, or from 2 nm to 100 nm. A
nanowire 104 extends across the gap, connecting electrodes 102 and
106 (the source and drain of the FET). In some cases, the source
and drain are covered with an insulating material such that the
source and drain are not in direct contact with the solution. Onto
the nanowire or gate 104 is attached a polymerase enzyme complex
comprising a polymerase enzyme 110 and a nucleic acid template 130.
For the embodiment shown in FIGS. 1A-1C, the enzyme is shown with
the nucleotide exit portion of its active site directed toward the
nanotube to increase the signal from the labeled nucleotide analog.
Approaches for orienting the polymerase enzyme in this way are
described herein. While a linear template is shown in FIGS. 1A-1C,
other template conformations can be used, e.g., hairpin or circular
templates such as those described in U.S. Pat. No. 8,153,375,
incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. The complex is
attached to the nanowire or gate 104 by an attachment moiety 120.
As shown in FIGS. 1A-1C, the polymerase enzyme is attached to the
nanowire or nanotube. In some cases, the template nucleic acid can
be attached to the nanowire, either directly, or, for example,
through hybridization with a primer attached to the nanowire. In
some cases, the nanoFETs are disposed horizontally on a surface. In
some cases, the electrodes and nanowire are disposed vertically,
e.g. as a stack of layers.
[0062] The substrate comprising the nanoFETs is contacted with a
fluid comprising a sequencing reaction mixture. The sequencing
reaction mixture has the reagents required for carrying out
polymerase mediated nucleic acid synthesis. The sequencing reaction
mixture will generally include divalent catalytic cations such as
Mn++ or Mg++ salts for activating the enzyme, as well as other
salts such as Na+ or K+ for providing the appropriate ionic
strength. Desirable ionic strengths range from 0.01 mM for minimal
functioning upwards. Typically, ionic strengths from 50 mM to 500
mM, more preferably from 100 to 400 mM, and even more preferably
between 200 and 300 mM can provide for desired levels functioning
of the enzyme. In some cases, even concentrations as high as 3 M
might be desired to study the behavior of these enzymes at high
salt concentration. These salts can also be used to adjust the
background capacitance at the electrodes. The ions in the solution
are attracted to any charge that might be brought close to the
nanowire FET, and these charges, having the opposite charge as the
approaching charge, will have the effect of screening or blocking
the penetration of the electric field into the solution. The
blocking effect by these so-called counter ions can have a
characteristic length scale which is very short--just 1 nm at
.about.150 mM of salt. Because the typical sequencing enzyme might
have a dimension of between 5 and 15 nm in diameter, there can be
portions of the enzyme that are outside the detection zone of the
nanowire detector, thus reducing the power and sensitivity of these
methods. As such, various strategies described herein improve the
sensitivity of sequencing detection at ionic strengths that might
screen the charges that are associated with the presence of a
nucleotide, as further described below.
[0063] The sequencing reaction mixture also contains conductivity
labeled nucleotide analogs such as labeled nucleotide analog 140.
In FIGS. 1A-1C, nucleotide analog 140 is a cognate nucleotide
having a base that is complementary to the next position in the
template nucleic acid 130. The nucleotide analog 140 has a
nucleotide portion 144 comprising a nucleobase, a sugar, and a
polyphosphate portion. The nucleotide analog 140 has a conductivity
label 142 that is attached to the polyphosphate portion of the
nucleotide portion 144 through linker 146.
[0064] In FIG. 1(B) the nucleotide analog 140 is held in the active
site of the polymerase enzyme 110. Due to the orientation of the
enzyme relative to the nanotube, the conductivity label is directed
toward the nanotube to ensure a robust signal at the nanoFET.
Because the nucleotide analog 140 is a cognate nucleotide analog,
it is recognized by the enzyme as such, and is held in the enzyme
longer than will a non-cognate nucleotide. At the time that the
nucleotide analog 140 is associated, its presence is detected by a
change in conductivity of the nanowire or gate, resulting in a
change in electrical signal, e.g. current and/or voltage at the
gate and drain (e.g. electrodes) 102 and 106. Electrodes 102 and
106 are addressed with either direct or alternating current. In
some cases, the electrodes are cycled through a series of
frequencies, either continuously or in steps. The label 142 causes
the characteristics of conductivity or impedance as measured at the
electrodes to change, allowing both its presence and its identity
to be determined.
[0065] When the nucleotide portion of analog 140 is incorporated
into the growing strand as shown in FIG. 1(C), the polymerase
enzyme cleaves the polyphosphate portion of the nucleotide analog.
This cleavage occurs between the alpha and beta phosphates in the
polyphosphate portion which releases the portion of the nucleotide
analog comprising the label 142, which diffuses away from the
substrate. This cleavage and diffusion away of the label ends the
period in which the conductance of the nanowire or gate is affected
by the presence of the label. The change in conductance, then,
provides a measure of the residence time of the nucleotide analog
in the active site prior to incorporation, which can be used to
determine that nucleotide incorporation has occurred.
[0066] The paragraphs above and FIGS. 1A-1C describe the detection
of a nucleotide analog. The approach described can also be applied
to the measurement of the incorporation of more than one type of
analog, for example 2, 3, 4, 5 or more types of analogs. For
example, typically four different types nucleotide analogs
corresponding to either A, G, C, T, for DNA or A, G, C, U for RNA
are used for sequencing. Each of the four types of nucleotide
analogs has different and distinguishable conductance
characteristics, e.g. four different conductivity labels. The
different types of nucleotide analogs can have different magnitudes
of conductance change, different current versus time attributes, or
can have other distinguishable electrical characteristics such as
different current oscillation color or can have any combination of
the above characteristics.
[0067] FIG. 2 shows how the nanowire or gates of the invention can
be used to call a series of bases for sequencing. A graph is shown
indicating the conductivity signal through the nanowire or gate
that is detected. There are four types of nucleotide analogs, each
having a different conductivity label, for example, each with a
different magnitude of current change in the nanowire or gate when
in the vicinity of the nanowire or gate. For example, the voltage
across the two electrodes, the source and the drain can be kept
constant throughout the experiment, and the current that passes
through the nanowire or gate is monitored over time.
[0068] The method is described in FIG. 2 by referring to 5
different time frames. During time frame 1, none of the four
nucleotide analogs is associated with the polymerase enzyme. In
time frame 2, a nucleotide analog corresponding to nucleobase A is
in the active site for a time that is characteristic of
incorporation (e.g. about 10 msec to about 500 msec). During the
time it is in the active site, the measured conductivity rises to a
level characteristic of the label on that nucleotide analog. This
level of conductivity for a residence time corresponding to
incorporation indicates the incorporation of A. When the nucleotide
is incorporated, the conductivity label is cleaved and the
conductivity signal returns to baseline. In time frame 3, as in
time frame 1, no nucleotide analog is in the active site of the
polymerase and the conductivity is at a baseline level. During time
frame 4, a nucleotide analog corresponding to T is incorporated
into the growing strand. The nucleotide analog corresponding to T
is held within the active site for a period of time characteristic
of incorporation. During the time it is held within the enzyme, a
conductivity characteristic of the label on the T nucleotide analog
is seen. When the analog is incorporated, the label is cleaved, and
diffuses away and the conductivity again returns to baseline. In
time frame 5 for a short time, an increase in conductivity (to a
level consistent with the label corresponding G) is detected. The
time of the increased conductivity is too short to be associated
with an incorporation event. This type of feature can be seen, for
example, where a non-cognate nucleotide such as G is sampling the
active site, after which it diffuses from the enzyme, where the
non-cognate nucleotide diffuses near enough to the nanowire to
change its conductance, or where the G nucleotide binds
non-specifically for a short period of time. During the time of the
portion of the experiment shown in FIG. 2, the data indicate that
an A and a T were incorporated, which thus indicates that there is
a T followed by an A in the template nucleic acid. While this
description relates to the incorporation of two nucleotides, this
method can be used to sequence long stretches of nucleic acids from
hundreds to tens of thousands of bases or more.
[0069] The example of FIG. 2 is carried out with four nucleotides,
each having a conductivity label that exhibits a different
magnitude in conductivity of the nanowire or gate. It will be
understood that the same approach described in FIG. 2 can be
applied to cases in which conductivity versus time (dielectric
spectrum) or current oscillation color (also referred to as noise
color, which can be influenced by the type of length and stiffness
of the linker attached to the label, the type of conductance label,
and the diffusion rate of the label) or any combination of the
three is used to identify the incorporated bases.
[0070] Thus, the invention, in some aspects provides a method for
nucleic acid sequencing that includes providing a substrate
comprising an array of nanoFETs. Each nanoFET has a source, a
drain, and a gate. The source and drain are typically
nanoelectrode, and the gate is typically a nanowire or other
nanostructure connecting the source and drain. The gate can be a
doped semiconductor such as doped silicon. The gate can be a carbon
nanotube, either single walled or multi-walled. The carbon nanotube
gate can be modified or doped. A subset of the nanoFETs will have a
single polymerase enzyme complex attached to gate of the nanoFET or
attached to the substrate proximate to the gate of the nanoFET.
Methods are known in the art for creating an attachment site on a
nanowire detector such as the ones used by Sorgenfrei, et al.
(2011) Nature Nanotechnology 6: 126-132 or by Olsen et al. (2013)
J. Am. Chem. Soc. 135(21): 7855-7860, both of which are
incorporated herein by reference in their entireties.
[0071] Processes for forming nanoFET arrays on CMOS sensors are
known in the art, see, for example, U.S. Patent Application No.
2013/0285680, and U.S. Patent Application No. 2015/0093849 which
are incorporated by reference herein for all purposes. Such sensors
can be formed, for example by transferring nanotubes onto a CMOS
integrated circuit (see, Meric et al. "Hybrid carbon
nanotube-silicon complementary metal oxide semiconductor circuits"
Journal of Vacuum Science & Technology B. 2007; 25(6):2577-80.
doi: 10.1116/1.2800322 which is incorporated herein by reference in
its entirety. Techniques such as this help to circumvent the
mismatch between nanotube growth temperatures and the maximum
temperature tolerated by a CMOS device. In some cases, devices of
the invention can made by employing a transfer of arrays of grown
parallel tubes to arbitrary substrates (See , for example Kang et
al. "High-performance electronics using dense, perfectly aligned
arrays of single-walled carbon nanotubes" Nat Nano. 2007;
2(4):230-6) which is incorporated herein by reference in its
entirety.
[0072] One way of having a single complex attached to the gate or
to a region of the substrate proximate to the gate is to attach to
the gate or to the region a binding reagent that binds with the
polymerase enzyme complex, and to expose the substrate to a
solution of polymerase enzyme complex at a concentration whereby a
fraction of the nanoFETs have a polymerase enzyme complex becomes
bound to gates or to nearby regions at a single molecule level. By
selecting the right dilution level, Poisson statistics allows for
up to 36% of the gates with a single complex attached, the rest
having either no complex or multiple complex. Other methods
including using steric interactions and providing highly specific
bonding regions on the gate can provide greater levels of single
complex than predicted by Poisson statistics.
[0073] The substrate is then exposed to a reaction mixture
comprising a plurality of types of nucleotide analogs, each
comprising a different conductivity label attached to the phosphate
portion of the nucleotide analog. The attachment of the label to a
phosphate portion allows for cleavage of the label by the
polymerase as it breaks the polyphosphate strand when incorporating
the nucleotide portion of the nucleotide analog into the growing
strand. The label can be connected to the polyphosphate strand
through a linker.
[0074] A voltage is applied between the source and drain of the
nanoFET, such that, when a nucleotide analog resides in the active
site of the enzyme, the conductivity label on the nucleotide analog
produces a measurable change in the conductivity of the gate. The
voltage can be DC, pseudo DC (where the measurement is essentially
performed with a DC measurement, but the polarity is alternated to
prevent corrosion), or AC. In some cases the frequency across the
source and drain can be varied over time to assist in
distinguishing the identities of different labels. The conductivity
label is typically a charged species whose interaction with the
gate results in a change in the conductivity at the gate. In some
cases, the conductivity label comes into direct contact, e.g.
repeated direct contact, with the gate, and in other cases the
conductivity label may affect the conductivity of the gate by its
proximity. Both the gate and the conductivity label can be made in
a manner to improve the change in conductivity at the gate by the
label. For example, as described in detail below the gate can be
doped at different levels, either p doped or n doped, in order to
tune its response. Conductivity labels can be charged species that
are water soluble. The conductivity labels can have multiple
charges, e.g. from about 2 to about 2,000 charges. The labels can
comprise dendrimers or nanoparticles. Multiple labels can be
employed, each having a different level of charge, in some cases,
with some labels positively charged and some labels negatively
charged.
[0075] During the polymerase enzyme reaction, and while the voltage
is applied, an electrical signal comprising the current and voltage
at the nanoFET over time is monitored. The electrical signal can
indicate that an incorporation event for a specific type of
nucleotide analog has occurred. One indication of an incorporation
event is the length of the signal, since, depending on the kinetics
of the polymerase enzyme used, an incorporation event will occur in
a range of times that is different than a diffusion event, a
non-cognate sampling event, or sticking of labels to the substrate.
Various characteristics of the electrical signal can be used to
determine that a particular nucleotide analog is in the active site
and being incorporated. One characteristic is the amplitude of the
conductivity. For example, four charged labels, each with different
levels of the same type of charge can give four different levels of
conductivity. The conductivity level can be designed to increase or
to decrease in the presence of a given conductivity label, e.g.
using positively charged and negatively charged labels. In addition
to the numbers of charges, the density of the charges on the label
can also affect the signal and the density of charge of the
conductivity label can be controlled in order to control the signal
at the nanoFET. The electric signal characteristics can also be
controlled by controlling the structure of the nucleotide analog to
change its current oscillation color characteristics.
[0076] The electrical signal can thereby provide the information
required for determining the sequence of the template nucleic acid
in the polymerase enzyme complex. Algorithms such as those
described in U.S. Patent Application No. 2011/0256631 filed Oct.
20, 2011, and in U.S. Pat. No. 8,370,079 which are incorporated by
reference herein in their entirety for all purposes.
[0077] Typically, the methods of the invention are carried out with
four types of nucleotide analogs corresponding the natural
nucleotides A, G, C, T, or A, G, C, U, each of the four types of
nucleotide analogs having a different conductivity label. The
nucleobase on the nucleotide analog will typically be the natural
nucleobase, but modified nucleobases can be utilized as long at the
polymerase enzyme that is used can effectively incorporate them
into the growing strand.
[0078] In some aspects the invention provides a chip for sequencing
a plurality of single nucleic acid template molecules. The chip has
a substrate having a plurality of nanoFET devices, typically on its
top surface. Each of the nanoFET devices has a source, a drain and
a gate. Onto the gate of some of the nanoFETs on the substrate is a
single polymerase enzyme complex bound to the gate or bound to the
substrate proximate to the gate of the nanoFET. The polymerase
enzyme complex includes a polymerase enzyme and a template nucleic
acid. The template nucleic acid is typically primed, and ready to
act as a template for nucleic acid synthesis. The substrate is
configured such that the nanoFET device comes into contact with a
sequencing reaction mixture. The substrate will typically have a
well into which the reaction mixture is dispensed, or will have
fluidic conduits or fluidic chambers providing the reaction mixture
into contact with the nanoFET devices on the surface. The reaction
mixture has the reagents required for carrying out nucleic acid
synthesis including a plurality of types of nucleotide analogs. Two
or more of the nucleotide analogs have different conductivity
labels. The conductivity labels interact with the gate to modify
its conductivity as described herein. The chip also has electrical
connection sites for bringing current and voltage to the nanoFETs,
and for receiving electrical signals from the nanoFETs.
[0079] The nanoFET on the chip can be any types of nanoFET,
including the types of nanoFETs described herein, for example
comprising a nanowire and/or comprising doped silicon.
[0080] The chip will typically have multiple nanoFET devices, for
example, greater than 1,000 nanoFET devices, or greater than 10,000
nanoFET devices. The chip can have, for example, about 1,000
nanoFET devices to about 10 million nanoFET devices or about 10,000
nanoFET devices to about 1 million nanoFET devices.
[0081] The chip is typically made using semiconductor processing
techniques, allowing for the inclusion of other functionality on
the chip including electronic elements for one or more of:
providing electrical signals to the nanoFETs, measuring the
electrical signals at the nanoFETs, analog to digital conversion,
signal processing, and data storage. The electrical elements can
be, for example, CMOS elements.
[0082] FIGS. 3A and 3B provide another illustration of how single
molecule nanoFET sequencing is accomplished. FIG. 3(A) shows a
polymerase enzyme complex comprising a polymerase enzyme 301 and a
primed template nucleic acid 302 bound through the polymerase
enzyme (illustrated here as a covalent attachment) to the gate 312
(e.g. carbon nanotube) of a nanoFET. The nanoFET has the gate 312
spanning the source and drain 310 and 311. In the time period
represented by Step 1, differentially labeled nucleotide analogs
304 are diffusing in solution near the nanoFET. FIG. 3(B) shows the
signal at the nanoFET. In Step 1, the nanoFET signal is at
baseline. In Step 2, a nucleotide analog corresponding to the base
A is in the process of being being incorporated into the nascent
strand complementary to the template. During this time, the
conductivity label comes into contact (or close enough proximity)
to increase the conductivity of the gate (represented by the
arrow). FIG. 3(B) shows that in Step 2 there is an increase in
intensity (e.g. an increase in current between the source and the
drain). When the nucleotide analog corresponding to A is
incorporated, the label is released, and the signal intensity
returns to the baseline (Step 3). In Step 4, a nucleotide analog
corresponding to T is being incorporated. This nucleotide analog
has a different conductivity label the nucleotide analog
corresponding to A, which produces a smaller increase in intensity.
This is illustrated by the peak in FIG. 3(B) Step 4. The distance
370 represents a measure of the noise at the top of the peak. In
the illustrated example, the signal to noise is on the order of 20
to 1. The distance 390 is the width of the peak corresponding to
the incorporation of the nucleotide analog T, and represents the
residence time of the nucleotide analog from when it binds to the
polymerase to when the label is cleaved and is released into
solution. In Step 5, the conductivity label is cleaved and
released, and the signal returns to baseline as seen in FIG. 3(B).
The arrow 380 represents the area of a sequencing reaction and is
provided to illustrate that the area of the sequencing reaction can
be relatively small compared to the area required in a
corresponding optical detection method. For example, the area per
sequencing reaction can be on the order of 1.5 microns squared.
Controlling the Location of the Nucleotide Exit Region of the
Polymerase
[0083] As noted above, the instant system has an issue that is not
typically encountered in sequencing methods, which is that at ionic
strengths that are typically used for carrying out nucleic acid
synthesis, charges in solution tend to be screened if they are
farther than, for example, a few nanometers from the nanowire. One
approach we have developed for improved signal in the sequencing
methods of the invention is controlling the orientation of the
polymerase with respect to the nanowire or nanotube. In particular,
the polymerase is attached to the gate of the nanoFET such that the
nucleotide exit region of the polymerase is oriented toward the
nanoFET. The nucleotide exit region is the region of the polymerase
where the phosphate portion of the nucleotide or nucleotide analog
extends out of the polymerase. This is, of course, near the active
site of the polymerase. As nucleotide incorporation proceeds, the
nucleotide is held in the active site of the polymerase where
chemistry occurs. The phosphate portion of the nucleotide extends
out from the active site from a region of the polymerase. For a
nucleoside triphosphate, the last two phosphates are in this
region. As described in more detail herein, the nucleotide analogs
of the invention have conductivity labels that are attached to the
end of this phosphate chain of the nucleotide, therefore these
conductivity labels extend from or exit from this portion of the
polymerase. We have found that by controlling the orientation of
this nucleotide exit region, we can more effectively control the
signal from the conductivity labels on the nucleotide analog. The
polymerase is immobilized on the nanowire in an orientation that
ensures the detectable label is close to the nanowire detector when
the nucleotide is in the active site of the polymerase. In some
cases, this is accomplished with a single attachment between the
polymerase and the nanowire. An exemplary schematic of this
embodiment shown in FIG. 4A in which there is a single attachment
through a linker to a portion of the polymerase near the nucleotide
exit region. Certain DNA polymerases and other nucleic acid
processing enzymes bind nucleotide triphosphates such that the
terminal phosphate has a clear path to the bulk solution outside
the enzyme. In FIG. 4A polymerase enzyme 410 is attached to the
nanowire or nanotube through a linker 430. The nucleotide analog is
440 held within the enzyme in a nucleotide analog binding portion
of the active site of the polymerase. A terminal phosphate label
that is attached to a nucleotide 430 residing in the active site of
the polymerase 410 extends out from that binding site and emerges
from the polymerase enzyme at this location. The polymerase enzyme
410 is as attached to the nanowire or nanotube such that the enzyme
is immobilized in an orientation that ensures or promotes a
configuration in which the labeled portion of the nucleotide analog
extending way from the polymerase is in close proximity to the
nanowire detector. In certain embodiments, "close proximity" means
a distance which is either less than the Debye screening length,
less than the radius of gyration of the terminal phosphate label,
or less than some combination of the Debye length and the radius of
gyration of the label.
[0084] In some cases the polymerase is bound through a residue on
the polymerase enzyme that is on the same side of the enzyme as the
nucleotide exit region of the enzyme. In some cases, the residue is
closer to the nucleotide exit region than a distance equal to one
quarter of the longest distance from the nucleotide exit region
back to the nucleotide exit region across the surface of the
polymerase. In some cases the residue is less than 20%, less than
15%, or less than 10% of such distance relative to the nucleotide
exit region. Having the polymerase bound such that the nucleotide
exit region is oriented toward the substrate can be beneficial in
the instant system, although this is not typically desirable in
other sequencing systems. For example, U.S. Pat. No. 8,936,926
teaches that it is desirable to have the polymerase active site
attached through a domain that is distal to the active site.
[0085] Methods are known in the art for linking a binding group to
a desired position on the surface of a protein such as a
polymerase. In some cases substitutions are made for amino acids at
positions on the surface of the polymerase that do not unduly
affect the activity of the enzyme, for example, with one or more
attachment moieties for connection to the nanowire detector. For
example, cysteine residues can be targeted specifically for
attachment, e.g., in proteins that have a low cysteine density
either overall or on the surface. The protein may be naturally low
in cysteine, or may be engineered to have a reduced cysteine
density. A cysteine residue can be added at a desired position and
subsequently bound to an attachment moiety, e.g., at a residue near
the exit tunnel of the polymerase. Alternatively, a naturally
occurring cysteine residues in the protein can be used as an
attachment point. Naturally occurring cysteine residues in
positions not desired for use as attachment points are optionally
substituted with nonreactive residues, e.g., if their presence
interferes with attachment to the desired site. Further, even where
a cysteine residue is engineered into a protein to serve as an
attachment site, if a small portion of the proteins instead bind
via a native cysteine, this is unlikely to alter the signal enough
to be problematic, so engineering to reduce native cysteines may
not be required. In other embodiments specific residues in a
protein can be replaced with non-natural amino acids by creating a
21.sup.st amino acid codon. In this case the 21.sup.st amino acid
can be a residue that bears an attachment site. Expression of
proteins including unnatural amino acids containing ketone, azide,
alkyne, alkene, and tetrazine side chains that can be used for
attachment has been described, e.g., in Kim et al. "Protein
conjugation with genetically encoded unnatural amino acids" Curr
Opin Chem Biol. 17, 412-9 (2013).
[0086] A large number of suitable polymerases are known in the art,
as detailed herein. In some cases, for example, a Phi29 DNA
polymerase is used. For the sequence of wild-type Phi29 DNA
polymerase, see SEQ ID NO:1 of U.S. Pat. No. 8,906,660, which is
incorporated by reference herein in its entirety for all purposes.
Various useful modified Phi29 polymerases are described
hereinbelow; residue positions in such modified polymerases are
numbered relative to the sequence of the wild-type polymerase. For
Phi29 polymerase enzymes, position 375 is near the nucleotide exit
region where the phosphate portion of the nucleotide extends out of
the polymerase. In some cases, the polymerase is connected near
position 375. For example, an attachment residue is substituted at
or near position 375 so as to provide that the attachment is near
the nucleotide exit region and thus the nucleotide exit region will
be in close proximity to the detection zone of the nanowire. In
some cases, the attachment is within 5 amino acids of position 375.
Position 512 is also close to the exit region of the phi-29
polymerase, and in another preferred example, an attachment site is
positioned at or near position 512. In some cases, the attachment
residue is within 5 amino acids of position 512. In other examples,
an attachment site is positioned at or near position 373, position
387, or position 510. In some cases, the attachment is within 5
amino acids of position 373, position 387, or position 510. In one
exemplary embodiment, a cysteine residue is introduced at one or
more of positions 373, 375, 387, 510, and 512; native cysteines
(e.g., at position 106) are optionally removed, for example, by
mutation to serine. In some cases, the attachment site is a residue
that is less than 50 angstroms, less than 40 angstroms, less than
30 angstroms, less than 20 angstroms, or less than 10 angstroms
from position 373, 375, 387, 510, or 512 (e.g., a residue having a
non-hydrogen atom within the indicated distance from the alpha
carbon of the stated residue in the Phi29 polymerase structure with
PDB ID number 2PYL deposited at the RCSB Protein Data Bank, www
(dot) rcsb (dot) org).
[0087] The position of the nucleotide exit region with respect to
the nanowire can also be controlled using multiple attachments to
the polymerase enzyme. Attachment of the polymerase through
multiple sites can help to hold the enzyme in place by constraining
the rotation of the enzyme. This helps to ensure that the
conductance label is in close proximity to a nanowire detector.
FIG. 4B shows an embodiment having two attachments linking a
polymerase to a nanowire. The polymerase 412 is attached to the
nanowire or nanotube through two linkers 432 and 434, which are
each attached to a different portion of the polymerase 412. The two
attachments are chosen so as to orient the nucleotide exit portion
toward the nanotube or nanowire such that the labeled nucleotide
analog 442 is held in proximity to the nanowire or nanotube 422
while the nucleotide analog is held within the polymerase. In some
cases, one of the attachment sites is on one side of the active
site and the other attachment site is on the other side of the
active site.
[0088] In some embodiments, the polymerase is a Phi29 DNA
polymerase and the linkers are attached at or near two residues
selected from position 373, position 375, position 387, position
510, and position 512. As for the embodiments above, one or both of
the attachment residues are optionally within five amino acids
and/or within 50, 40, 30, 20, or 10 angstroms of one of the noted
residues. In a preferred embodiment, the linkers are attached at or
near both positions 375 and 512, for example one attachment residue
is within 5 amino acids from position 375, and one attachment
residue is within 5 amino acids from position 512. In other
examples, the linkers are attached at or near both positions 373
and 512, positions 373 and 510, or positions 387 and 512. In some
embodiments both of the attachment residues are closer to the
nucleotide exit region or nucleotide exit region than a distance
equal to one quarter the longest distance from the nucleotide exit
region back to the nucleotide exit region (or nucleotide exit
region to nucleotide exit region) across the surface of the
polymerase. In some cases both residues are at a distance less than
20%, less than 15%, or less than 10% of such distance relevant to
the nucleotide exit region or nucleotide exit region. Linking to a
polymerase at multiple points, and in particular linking across the
nucleotide exit region of a polymerase is described, for example in
U.S. Pat. No. 7,745,116 which is incorporated by reference herein.
In other embodiments, more than two attachment sites between the
polymerase and the nanowire or nanotube are used. Methods for
creating attachment sites on a nanotube or nanowire are described
further below.
[0089] In some cases, a polyvalent linker is used that binds to
multiple binding sites on the enzyme, and provides a single binding
site to the nanowire detector. FIG. 4C provides an illustrative
example of a polymerase linked to a trivalent linker molecule at
two positions, where the trivalent linker is attached at only one
position on a nanowire. The polymerase enzyme 416 is attached to
the trivalent linker 436 in two places. The trivalent linker is
attached to the nanotube or nanowire 426 through a single
attachment point. The attachment points of the trivalent linker are
selected such that the labeled nucleotide analog 446 is held in
proximity to the nanowire or nanotube while the nucleotide analog
446 is in the active site of the polymerase 416. In some cases the
two binding sites to the polymerase are on either side of the
active site as described above for where two linkers are used.
Specific examples of polyvalent linkers can be found in U.S. Patent
Publication No. 2015/0011433, which describes polyvalent biotin
binding capability for ensuring oriented binding to an avidin or
streptavidin molecule and is incorporated herein by reference in
its entirety. Polyvalent linkers attached across the active site of
a polymerase are described, for example in U.S. Pat. No. 7,745,116
which is incorporated by reference herein for all purposes. These
binding sites can be located, for example, on either side of the
active site
[0090] The attachment to the nanotube can either be covalent or
non-covalent. In some cases, the linker is covalently bound to the
polymerase, and the linker is bound to a group that has affinity
for the carbon nanotube, such as an aromatic compound or binding
protein. In some cases, engineered protein structures can be used
to attach the polymerase to the nanotube or nanowire. One
functionalization approach is to produce maleimide-modified SWNTs
for polymerase attachment. This approach can take advantage of the
fact that the many carbon nanotuges contain imperfections referred
to as Stone-Wales (or 7-5-5-7) as well as other relatively reactive
defect sites. This allows for carboxyl functionalization via
oxidation by refluxing with mineral acids such as HNO.sub.3. With
carboxyl-SWNTs many options are available for further
functionalization. One potential route is to convert these groups
directly into a maleimide using EDC/sulfo-NHS coupling of
N-(2-aminopropyl)maleimide. The maleimide can then be reacted with
a single cysteine-containing mutant polymerase to yield the
attached complex. Functionalization of nanotubes is known in the
art. See, for example Balasubramanian, K. & Burghard, M.
"Chemically functionalized carbon nanotubes" Small 1, 180-192
(2005); Hu, H. et al. "Determination of the acidic sites of
purified single-walled carbon nanotubes by acid-base titration"
Chemical Physics Letters 345, 25-28 (2001); Zhao, J., Park, H.,
Han, J. & Lu, J. P. "Electronic Properties of Carbon Nanotubes
with Covalent Sidewall Functionalization" The Journal of Physical
Chemistry B 108, 4227-4230 (2004); Chen, J. et al. "Solution
properties of single-walled carbon nanotubes" Science 282, 95-98
(1998); Luong, J. H., Male, K. B., Mahmoud, K. A. & Sheu, F. S.
"Purification, functionalization, and bioconjugation of carbon
nanotubes" Methods Mol Biol 751, 505-532 (2011); Zhang, J. et al.
"Effect of chemical oxidation on the structure of single-walled
carbon nanotubes" The Journal of Physical Chemistry B 107,
3712-3718 (2003); Katz, E. & Willner, I.
"Biomolecule-Functionalized Carbon Nanotubes: Applications in
Nanobioelectronics" Chem Phys Chem 5, 1084-1104 (2004); Kanibera et
al. "Covalently Binding the Photosystem Ito Carbon Nanotubes" AIP
Conf. Proc. 1199, 133 (2010); and Kuzmany, H. et al.
"Functionalization of carbon nanotubes" Synthetic Metals 141,
113-122 (2004) which are incorporated by reference herein for all
purposes. Another functionalization approach is to modify the SiO2
surface of silicon nanowires with reactive groups, e.g., amines, as
described in Bunimovich et al. "Quantitative Real-Time Measurements
of DNA Hybridization with Alkylated Nonoxidized Silicon Nanowires
in Electrolyte Solution" J. Am. Chem. Soc. 128, 16323-16331 (2006),
to which the polymerase can then be attached. Additional details on
functionalizing nanotubes and nanowires are available in the art,
including passivation of nanotube and nanowire surfaces. See, e.g.,
Zhang and Lieber "Nano-Bioelectronics" Chem. Rev. 116, 215-257
(2016) and Gao et al. "General Strategy for Biodetection in High
Ionic Strength Solutions Using Transistor-Based Nanoelectronic
Sensors" Nano Lett. 15, 2143-2148 (2015), which are incorporated by
reference herein for all purposes.
[0091] One non-covalent approach for providing the attachments for
the invention utilizes non-covalent nanotube binding components
attached to the polymerase. In some cases, these non-covalent
nanotube binding components are subsequently cross-linked to
provide an even more robust attachment to the nanotube. In
preferred embodiments, polymers such as proteins (polypeptides) are
used as the non-covalent binding components. These polymeric
components are useful for connecting the polymerase with the
nanotube because a polymeric component can associate with the
nanotube in multiple places. Even if each association of the
polymer provides a weak interaction, the result of the multiple
interactions can be a strong polymerase-nanotube association.
Proteins are particularly preferred polymeric association
compounds, but many other suitable polymers can be used. While the
discussion herein is focused on proteins, it is to be understood
that other suitable polymeric association compounds can be used in
each place that a protein association compound is described. In
some cases, a single subunit protein having both polymerase and
nanotube binding components is employed. The nanotube binding
component can be included with the production of a protein during
cloning. Proteins that provide non-covalent attachment to carbon
nanotubes are known in the art.
[0092] In some embodiments, the non-covalent binding components are
engineered protein structures that wrap around the nanotubes in a
controlled manner. The proteins provide the chemical functionality
to attach to the polymerase and thereby bring the polymerase to the
nanotube, in a controlled and defined manner.
[0093] An advantage of using associated proteins that wrap around
the nanotube for non-covalent attachment of the polymerase is that
these proteins can provide a surface functionalization of the
nanotube in the region of polymerase binding. In some cases, the
associated proteins provide screening of charges from the surface
of the nanotube. For example, the proteins can be engineered such
that they coat the nanotube away from the polymerase, and leave
exposed a region near the polymerase in which the presence of the
nucleotide analog in the active site is measured. In the regions
away from the polymerase, the proteins can be used to reduce the
noise from random ionic motion in the solution. The ability to
prepare proteins with negatively charged, positively charged,
hydrophobic, and hydrophilic amino acids in specific positions
along the associated protein provides for controlling both the
association of the protein with the nanotube and the effect of the
associated protein on the conductivity of the nanotube in ionic
solutions.
[0094] As discussed elsewhere herein, it is desired to have a
single polymerase enzyme on a single nanotube. An aspect of the
instant invention is the use of associated proteins to attach a
single polymerase to a nanotube. One approach of the invention is
to treat a solution of nanotubes with a low concentration of
associating proteins such that a large fraction of the nanotubes
with associated protein only have one protein bound. In some cases,
the nanotubes having bound protein can be separated from the
nanotubes without bound protein.
[0095] In some cases, the nanotubes are first treated with
associated protein, and the polymerase enzyme is subsequently
attached to the protein associated with the nanotube. An associated
protein can be used which has reactive groups that bind reactive
groups on the polymerase. Note that where we describe binding the
polymerase, we also include binding of a polymerase that is
complexed to a target nucleotide template, which is typically a
primed nucleotide template. The polymerase bound to the template is
sometime referred to as the polymerase-template complex or the
polymerase complex. In some cases, it is desired to bind this
complex to the nanotube or to the associated protein on the
nanotube. In other cases, the polymerase without template can be
bound to the nanotube, and the template can be added in a
subsequent step.
[0096] In some cases the protein-polymerase compound or conjugate
is first formed, and this compound or conjugate is added to the
nanotube such that the protein associates with the nanotube.
[0097] The treatment could be carried out either before or after
the nanotubes are attached to the source and drain to form the
FETs. If the treatment is prior to formation of the FET, and if the
associated proteins have an affinity tag such as a his-tag, this
could be used to separate the nanotubes having protein bound from
the naked nanotubes. The associated protein can have binding groups
for the coupling of the polymerase
[0098] Where the polymerase is coupled before the formation of the
FET, then there is the issue of forming highly conductive
attachments of the nanotube with the source and drain electrodes
while maintaining the activity of the polymerase.
[0099] In some cases, two reactive groups are positioned the
desired distance along the nanotube binding protein, and the
polymerase is attached to each of these positions. For example, a
protein can be prepared having two cysteine groups, separated by
the desired spacing distance. These cysteine groups can be used to
react with the polymerase by methods well known in the art.
[0100] The associated proteins tend to wrap around the carbon
nanotube. In some cases, the functional groups on the associated
protein can be spaced such that, due to the wrapping of the
protein, the functional groups are presented on the same side of
the nanotube. The functional groups can be placed on the same side
of the nanotube, for example, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, or more turns from
each other. For example, the phasing of cysteine functionality can
be controlled to ensure that the thiols on the cysteines ended up
on the same side of the nanotube and accessible for reaction with
two regions of a polymerase or with two linker groups extending
from the polymerase.
[0101] One advantage of the associated polymeric compounds of the
invention is that they provide a variety of approaches to result in
the single molecule nanoFET devices of the invention.
[0102] FIG. 6 shows various approaches for attaching the
polymerase-template complex to the nanotube with polymeric
non-covalent binding components such as proteins. The figure
illustrates how the polymeric non-covalent binding components offer
a number of alternative approaches for forming the nanoFET
sequencing devices of the invention. The approach selected will
depend on factors such as engineering considerations, materials,
and process tradeoffs that will influence yield and performance.
The ability to pursue a number of different processing strategies
is an advantage of this method of binding the polymerase to the
nanotube. In FIG. 6, the polymeric binding agent has two strands
interacting with the nanotube such that the polymerase is attached
in a central location and having polymeric binding agent extending
away from it down the nanotube in both directions. This can be
advantageous, as the polymeric binding agent can be used to control
the properties at the surface of the nanotube. In some cases, the
polymeric binding agent can be attached at its end to a single
polymerase binding agent. One of skill can appreciate how this
construct can also be used in each of the approaches shown in FIG.
6. In preferred embodiments, the polymer binding agent comprises a
protein. In some cases, the polymer binding agent is cross-linked
after it is bound to the nanotube to further enhance stability. The
cross-linking reaction can be carried out at any step in the
process after the polymer binding agent associates with the
nanotube. FIG. 6 refers to various numbered steps. It is to be
understood that while labeled as a single step, in some cases the
numbered step involves multiple separate processes. The approaches
are shown using a carbon nanotube, but any suitable nanowire can be
used.
[0103] One approach to producing a nanoFET sequencing device of the
invention follows steps 1, 3, and 6 of FIG. 6. In step 1, a
template complex 610 including polymerase enzyme 614 and template
molecule 612 is coupled to polymeric binding agents 632 and 634.
The coupling of binding agents can be done either covalently or
non-covalently. Selective binding groups such as
biotin/streptavidin can be used for non-covalent coupling.
SpyCatcher/SpyTag-like approaches can be used for selective
covalent coupling. (See, e.g., Zakeri et al. "Peptide tag forming a
rapid covalent bond to a protein, through engineering a bacterial
adhesion" Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2012, 109, E690-E697 for a
description of SpyCatcher/SpyTag coupling). The template molecule
is shown here as a circular template molecule, but any suitable
template molecule including a linear template molecule can be used.
The two polymeric binding agents can be connected, for example,
across the active site of the polymerase enzyme to orient the exit
region of the polymerase toward the nanotube. In step 3, the enzyme
template complex with attached polymer binding agents 620 is then
mixed with carbon nanotubes 640 in solution under conditions in
which the polymeric binding agents complex with the nanotube to
immobilize the complex. The complexation can be carried out under
conditions that promote having a single polymerase complex per
nanotube, for example by providing an excess of carbon nanotubes.
In some cases, after the complexation reaction, purification is
carried out to enrich the sample for the nanotubes having a
polymerase template complex attached. This type of purification can
be carried out using affinity tags on the polymerase or polymer
binding agent. Affinity tags for protein purification, for example
His-tags, are well known in the art. Note that this type of
purification of polymerase-nanotube complex can be carried out at
any suitable step shown in FIG. 6. In step 6, the nanotube having
enzyme-template complex bound is deposited onto a substrate 650,
and source and drain electrodes 652 and 654 are formed to produce a
nanoFET device for sequencing 670.
[0104] An alternative approach is provided by following steps 2, 3,
and 6. Here, the polymerase with attached polymer binding agents
618 is produced and in step 2 is mixed with the template nucleic
acid 612 to form the enzyme-template complex attached to the
polymer binding agents 620. The polymerase with attached polymer
binding agents 618 can be produced by coupling as described above
(e.g., by coupling the agent to a reactive residue in the
polymerase), or the construct 618 can be made directly, for example
by cloning techniques in which the protein binding agents and the
polymerase are expressed as a fusion protein. A polypeptide binding
agent can be expressed as a fusion with the N-terminus of the
polymerase, with the C-terminus of the polymerase, or at an
internal site in the polymerase. For Phi29 DNA polymerase, to
orient the exit region of the polymerase near the nanotube, fusion
is preferably with the N-terminus. After production of 618, steps 3
and 6 are carried out as described above to produce a nanoFET
device for sequencing 670.
[0105] Another approach proceeds through steps 4, 5, and 6. In step
4, polymerase with attached polymer binding agents 618 is mixed
with nanotubes 640 to produce a polymerase bound to the nanotube
through the polymer binding agents. This is added to template 612
in step 5 to form an enzyme-template complex bound to the nanotube.
Step 6 is then carried out as described above to produce a nanoFET
device for sequencing 670. Alternatively, one can proceed from the
polymerase bound to the nanotube through the polymer binding agents
produced in step 4 through steps 7 and 9 to produce a nanoFET
device for sequencing 670. This route allows for adding the
template to form the enzyme complex as the last step to be carried
out on the substrate.
[0106] Steps 10 and 8 provide a route that begins with the carbon
nanotube nanoFET structure 680. In step 10, to the nanoFET
structure 680 is added polymer binding agent 636 having enzyme
coupling group 638 under conditions in which the polymer binding
agent 636 complexes with the nanotube. In step 8, the
enzyme-template complex is coupled to the polymer binding agent on
the nanotube through the enzyme coupling group 638 to produce a
nanoFET device for sequencing 670. An alternative to step 8 is to
perform steps 11 and 9, adding the polymerase first, followed by
complexation with the template.
[0107] In some cases, we start with carbon nanotube nanoFET device
680, and add to it enzyme template complex with attached polymer
binding agents 620 under conditions in which the polymer binding
agents associate with the nanotube to produce a nanoFET device for
sequencing 670.
[0108] For approaches embodied in steps 1-9 of FIG. 6, the
deposition of the nanotubes onto the substrate and the formation of
the source and drain electrodes 652 and 654 is carried out in the
presence of the polymerase enzyme or polymerase enzyme-template
complex. For these approaches, the electrodes must be deposited in
a relatively gentle manner in order to preserve the activity of the
polymerase enzyme. For these approaches, some conventional
electrode deposition steps such as plasma or vacuum evaporation
cannot generally be used. Here, electrodeposition of electrodes
under relatively mild conditions, e.g. near room temperature, near
neutral pH, are used.
[0109] Polymer binding agents such as proteins can be coated onto
the nanotube to control surface properties of the nanotube and
protect the nanotube from direct contact with the solution in
certain regions. Some of the polymer binding proteins can be
attached to the polymerase as shown in FIG. 6. In addition, or
alternatively, the polymer binding agent without polymerase enzyme
can be used to coat other portions of the nanotube to control
nanotube surface properties in that region. By using different
polymer binding agents near the polymerase and away from the
polymerase, properties of different regions of the nanotube can be
controlled. In some cases, polymer binding agents can be produced
that coat substantially all of the nanotube except for a region
near the polymerase. The polymer binding agents could be used to
reduce the noise from random ionic motion in the solution by
providing screening in those areas, while allowing the solution to
freely contact the nanotube in other areas, e.g. the portion of the
nanotube near the polymerase exit region. The ionic makeup,
hydrophobicity, hydrophilicity, etc. of the polymer binding agents,
e.g. proteins, can be designed to control the surface properties of
the nanotube. As noted, the polymer binding agent can be
cross-linked, e.g., to the nanotube or, where multiple copies of
the agent are employed to coat the nanotube, to the other copies to
form a stable shell around the nanotube. Binding agents can also be
employed, e.g., to purify nanotubes with a specific desired
diameter from a heterogeneous mixture, modify solubility of the
nanotubes, modulate nanotube conductivity, and/or control
accessibility of the nanotube surface.
[0110] Polymer binding agents that can be adapted to the practice
of the current invention are known in the art. See, e.g., the
polypeptides described in Grigoryan et al. "Computational Design of
Virus-Like Protein Assemblies on Carbon Nanotube Surfaces" Science
332, 1071-1076 (2011); Calvaresi and Zerbetto "The Devil and Holy
Water: Protein and Carbon Nanotube Hybrids" Acc. Chem. Res. 46,
2454-2463 (2013); Yu et al. "Recognition of Carbon Nanotube
Chirality by Phage Display" RSC Adv. 2, 1466-1476 (2012); and Chiu
et al. "Molecular Dynamics Study of a Carbon Nanotube Binding
Reversible Cyclic Peptide" ACS Nano 4, 2539-2546 (2010), which are
hereby incorporated by reference in their entirety. As additional
examples, the graphene binding peptides described in, e.g., Hughes
and Walsh "What makes a good graphene-binding peptide? Adsorption
of amino acids and peptides at aqueous graphene interfaces" J.
Mater. Chem. B 3, 3211-3221 (2015) and Russell and Claridge
"Peptide interfaces with graphene: an emerging intersection of
analytical chemistry, theory, and materials" Anal Bioanal Chem.
408, 2649-58 (2016) (hereby incorporated in their entirety) can be
coupled to or expressed as a fusion with the polymerase.
Optionally, two or more copies of such polypeptides (e.g., tandem
copies, optionally separated by spacer) are expressed as a fusion
with the polymerase, e.g., with the N-terminus of a Phi29 DNA
polymerase. Affinity of the fusion protein for the nanotube can
readily be modulated by changing the number of repeating units of
the binding peptide and/or by mutation of the binding peptide.
[0111] In other exemplary embodiments in which non-covalent
nanotube binding components are attached to the polymerase,
non-polymeric moieties are employed as the nanotube binding
components. In some embodiments, hydrophobic moieties such as
polycyclic aromatic moieties are used as the non-covalent binding
components. Exemplary polycyclic aromatic groups include, but are
not limited to, naphthalene, anthracene, phenanthrene, tetracene,
chrysene, triphenylene, pyrene, pentacene, benzo[a]pyrene,
corannulene, benzo[ghi]perylene, coronene, ovalene, and
benzo[c]fluorene. In a preferred embodiment, pyrene is used as the
non-covalent binding component. The polycyclic aromatic moiety can
be attached to the polymerase using techniques known in the art,
e.g., via a reactive residue in the polymerase as described above.
A linker is optionally included between the polycyclic aromatic
moiety and the polymerase residue, for example, to achieve the
desired spacing between the nucleotide exit region and the
nanotube. As one example, a pyrene-linked maleimide can be
conjugated to a cysteine residue in the polymerase. See, e.g.,
Olsen et al. "Electronic Measurements of Single-Molecule Processing
by DNA Polymerase I (Klenow Fragment)" J. Am. Chem. Soc. 135,
7855-7860 (2013); Choi et al. "Single Molecule Dynamics of Lysozyme
Processing Distinguishes Linear and Cross-linked Peptidoglycan
Substrates" J Am Chem Soc. 134, 2032-2035 (2012); and Choi et al.
"Single-Molecule Lysozyme Dynamics Monitored by an Electronic
Circuit" Science 335, 319 (2012), which describe such coupling. The
aromatic pyrene group can associate with the nanotube via .pi.-.pi.
interactions. Optionally, washing steps can be employed to yield an
average of one polymerase per nanotube; see, e.g., Choi et al. J Am
Chem Soc. 134, 2032-2035 (2012), hereby incorporated by reference
in its entirety. Suitable residues for attachment of the polycyclic
aromatic moiety in a Phi29 DNA polymerase have been described
above, including position 373, position 375, position 387, position
510, and position 512 or residues within five amino acids and/or
within 50, 40, 30, 20, or 10 angstroms of position 373, position
375, position 387, position 510, or position 512. FIG. 25 shows an
example of a Phi29 polymerase bound to the gate of a nanoFET by a
single attachment through a pyrene linked with a cysteine
introduced by mutation at position 373 of the polymerase. It will
be evident that the polymerase can be attached to the nanotube
through multiple such interactions. For example, pyrene-linked
maleimide can be reacted with a pair of cysteine residues flanking
the exit region as described above. For Phi29 DNA polymerase,
useful pairs of residues include, but are not limited to, two
residues selected from position 373, position 375, position 387,
position 510, and position 512 (or from residues within five amino
acids and/or within 50, 40, 30, 20, or 10 angstroms of one of the
noted residues). In a preferred embodiment, the linkers are
attached at or near both positions 375 and 512; for example, one
attachment residue is within 5 amino acids from position 375, and
one attachment residue is within 5 amino acids from position 512.
In other examples, the linkers are attached at or near positions
373 and 512, positions 373 and 510, or positions 387 and 512.
[0112] Where multiple positions on the polymerase are linked to the
nanowire, multiple binding sites can be engineered into the
nanowire detector. These binding sites are arranged at desired
distances to each other, for example, either using random
functionalization or using a templating molecule such as a DNA
strand or polypeptide that can provide binding sites at defined
positions relative to each other. Where there are two attachments
to the nanowire or nanotube, in some cases, both attachments are
covalent, in some cases, both attachments are non-covalent, and in
some cases, one attachment is covalent and the other is
non-covalent. Where random functionalization of the nanotube is
used, it can be useful to have one attachment be covalent, and
allow the other attachment to be non-covalent.
[0113] In some cases, orienting the nucleotide exit region of the
polymerase toward the gate of the nanoFET involves having the
polymerase attached to the nanoFET through a linker attached near
the nucleotide exit region of the polymerase. In this context, near
means, for example, on the same side of the polymerase. In some
cases the polymerase is attached through a linker to a site that is
less than 50 angstroms, less than 40 angstroms, less than 30
angstroms, less than 20 angstroms, or less than 10 angstroms from
the nucleotide exit region. In some cases the polymerase has two
different attachment points to the nanoFET gate in which at least
one of the attachment points is near the nucleotide exit region of
the polymerase. In some cases, one or both of the attachment points
is less than 50 angstroms, less than 40 angstroms, less than 30
angstroms, less than 20 angstroms, or less than 10 angstroms from
the nucleotide exit region.
[0114] FIG. 5 shows an example of a polymerase enzyme 510 bound to
the gate of a nanoFET by a single attachment where the polymerase
is oriented such that the nucleotide exit region 511 of the
polymerase is oriented toward the gate. The single attachment point
to the polymerase is through linker 502 to carbon nanotube gate
520. In this embodiment the link to the nanotube is covalent, and
the length of the linker 502 is relatively short. For example, in
some cases the linker is between about 1 nm and about 10 nm in
length, about 1 nm to about 5 nm in length, or about 2 nm to about
8 nm in length. While the polymerase has some freedom of motion,
the link maintains the polymerase such that the nucleotide exit
portion of the polymerase 511 is oriented toward the nanotube 520.
This allows for the conductivity label 504 on the nucleotide analog
in the active site of the enzyme to extend, and in some cases, as
the embodiment shown, come into contact with the nanotube while the
enzyme is in the process of incorporating the nucleotide. As can
also be seen in this illustration, orienting the polymerase in this
manner can also have the added benefit keeping the template nucleic
acid away from the nanotube where it might produce background
noise. It can be seen here that both the entering template 530 and
the exiting template 531 are oriented generally away from the
carbon nanotube.
[0115] Another aspect of the invention is the use of non-covalent
transient binding moieties that partition to a nanotube in order to
bias the orientation of the nucleotide exit region towards the
detection zone of the device. For example, in certain embodiments
comprising multiple attachment sites, one of the attachment sites
is modified with a covalent attachment (or a non-covalent tight
binding target such as streptavidin-biotin) and a second binding
site is functionalized with a hydrophobic moiety that is designed
to partition heavily into a bound state with the nanowire detector.
A wide range of binding affinities can be used, so long as the
aggregate kinetics of binding and unbinding are fast compared with
the residence time of a typical terminal phosphate label on a
nucleotide analog that is participating in a binding event. For
example, a significant benefit can come from a binding moiety that
has a 10% or 20% or 50% duty cycle of binding to the nanotube as
long as the off-rate is faster than about 100 per second, or more
preferably faster than 1000 per second. In another mode, moieties
that provide a duty cycle of greater than 95% could be used even
with slower off rates by simply tolerating the sequencing errors
that result from incorporation events that take place while the
enzyme is in the wrong orientation.
[0116] In some embodiments, it is desirable for there to be a
covalent connection between the polymerase enzyme and the gate.
FIG. 7 shows one approach for such a covalent attachment. First a
carboxylic acid is introduced onto the nanotube via oxidation. The
carboxylic acid is derivitized to an N-hydroxy succinimidyl (NHS)
ester. The ester is then extended using a small molecule having an
amine end and an maleimide end. The maleimide group on the nanotube
will react with a thiol group of a cysteine residue on the
polymerase to provide a covalent attachment. By modifying the
polymerase using well known methods, specific cysteine residues can
be introduced (e.g. near the nucleotide exit region), and undesired
cysteine residues can be removed. See, e.g., the positions noted
above. Such covalent attachment to nanotubes is described, for
example in Sorgenfrei, et al. "Label-free single-molecule detection
of DNA-hybridization kinetics with a carbon nanotube field-effect
transistor" Nature Nanotechnology. 2011; 6(2):125-31. doi:
10.1038/nnano.2010.275; Goldsmith et al. "Monitoring
Single-Molecule Reactivity on a Carbon Nanotube" Nano Letters.
2008; 8(1):189-94. doi: 10.1021/nl0724079; and Sorgenfrei et al.
"Debye Screening in Single-Molecule Carbon Nanotube Field-Effect
Sensors" Nano Letters. 2011; 11(9):3739-43. doi: 10.1021/nl201781q,
the disclosures of which are incorporated herein by reference in
their entirety for all purposes.
Polymerase Bound Through Fusion Protein or Particle
[0117] In some aspects of the invention, the sensitivity of the
nanoFET array is enhanced by attaching the biomolecule, e.g.
polymerase enzyme, to the gate of the nanoFET through a fusion
protein that allows the electric field lines to penetrate it,
allowing the gate to be more sensitive to the presence of a
conductivity label such as a charged label in or near the active
site.
[0118] As described above, the presence of ions including
counterions in the solution have the effect of screening or
blocking the penetration of the electric field into the solution.
In certain aspects, the sensitivity of the nanoFET with respect to
a labeled nucleotide is enhanced by displacing solution-phase
counterions using a molecular crowding species, e.g. a dielectric
nanoparticle (e.g., polystyrene spheres, optionally 5 nm in
diameter), a zwitterionic polymer, or other dielectric material
that is placed between the charge of interest and the detection
zone of the nanowire detector. In some embodiments, this material
comprises the enzyme peptide chain itself and/or an additional
polypeptide that is either fused or separate from the enzyme or a
dielectric particle such as polystyrene or silica.
[0119] The space that is occupied by a dielectric medium is not
available to host screening counter-ion charges and thus the
detection range of the nanowire can be extended specifically with
formed dielectric spaces to include the active site. For example,
in some embodiments, the nucleic acid processing enzyme is fused
with a polypeptide whose folding characteristics are engineering to
envelop the nanowire and displace counterions from residing between
the nanowire and the protein. In this mode, electric field lines
originating from the charge of interest will penetrate through the
dielectric portions of one or both of the enzyme or the associated
or fused envelope peptide such that they are able to reach the
detection zone of the FET device, for example, as shown in FIG.
8.
[0120] Examples of fusion proteins comprising a polypeptide, e.g. a
Phi29 polymerase, and another, optionally non-functioning, protein
with a hydrophobic core have been previously described, e.g., in
U.S. Pat. No. 8,323,939 and U.S. Patent Publication No.
2010/0260465, both of which are incorporated herein by reference in
their entireties. This fusion protein creates a zone of further
penetration into the surrounding space and will thus increase
sensitivity. In yet further embodiments, the nanoparticle or other
dielectric material is linked to a nanowire near or on which the
enzyme is positioned to block screening counterion charges and
improve detection.
Assisted Loading of Carbon Nanotubes onto the Chip
[0121] As described above, the instant invention provides a number
of different methods for loading nanotubes onto chips for the
formation of nanoFET devices for single molecule sequencing. In
some cases, the nanotubes are loaded onto the surface, and then a
polymerase enzyme is attached. In other cases, the polymerase is
first attached to the nanotube and the nanotube is subsequently
loaded onto the surface of the chip. In either of these two
approaches, it can be useful to use electric fields to assist in
the loading of the nanotubes onto the chip. Approaches such as
described in Islam et al. "A general approach for high yield
fabrication of CMOS-compatible all-semiconducting carbon nanotube
field effect transistors" Nanotechnology 23 (2012) which is
incorporated by reference herein for all purposes can be used.
[0122] FIG. 9 shows a method of the invention for using electric
field to deposit a nanotube onto the surface of the chip. The chip
920 has an array of sets of electrodes. Each set of nanoscale
electrodes is arranged in a line across the chip within that set of
electrodes. The distance between the first and last electrode in
the line is generally selected to be less than the length of the
nanotubes to be deposited. In FIG. 9, the chip 920 has four
electrodes in a line for each set. The inner electrodes 922 and 924
will become the source and drain of the nanoFET that is formed. The
outer electrodes 932 and 934 are used to provide a field for
attracting, aligning, and depositing the carbon nanotube 910 from
solution. In some cases, the deposition is carried out using only
two electrodes per set, in which the two electrodes are used both
for deposition of the nanotube, and also to act as source and drain
for the nanoFET. An advantage of using 4 electrodes per set as
shown in FIG. 9 is that the outer electrodes 932 and 934 can be
prepared for providing the deposition electric field, while the
inner electrodes 922 and 924 can be prepared for optimal detection
of small current changes as source and drain for the carbon
nanotube nanoFET. For example, the outer electrodes 932 and 934 are
made with the materials and at the dimensions for providing a
higher voltage and higher current for deposition. The deposition
electric field can be a DC field, an AC field, or a combination of
an AC and DC field. The application of an AC field allows for the
use of dielectrophoretic forces for attracting, aligning, and
depositing the carbon nanotubes.
[0123] Typically, after the deposition of the nanotube in FIG. 9 is
completed, conductive material is selectively deposited over the
source and drain electrodes to provide a more robust electrical
connection to the nanotube. This deposition of conductive material
over the source and drain can be carried out in vacuum, e.g. by
vapor or plasma deposition, or in solution e.g. by
electrodeposition. Where vacuum processes are used to deposit the
conductive material over the source and drain the liquid that was
used to deposit the nanotubes must be removed. In some cases the
removal of the liquid layer from the chips can cause damage to the
nanostructures due to surface tension forces during evaporation. In
order to ensure the integrity of the structures, we have found that
fluid exchange can be carried out such that the final evaporation
is performed using a fluid with a relatively low surface tension.
One fluid exchange progression is, for example, water exchanged
with ethanol, and ethanol exchanged with ethyl ether, which is then
evaporated from the chip. Other solvent exchange combinations to
provide evaporation of low surface tension liquids are known in the
art. Where the structures are even more fragile, super-critical
fluid removal can be used. For example, critical point drying of
the carbon nanotube nanoFETs with super-critical CO.sub.2.
[0124] In some cases, the outer electrodes can also be used in the
nanoFET detection, for example by providing a voltage across the
outer electrodes 932 and 934, and measuring a voltage drop across
the inner electrodes 922 and 924 for enhanced nanoFET detection. In
some cases, the outer electrodes 932 and 934 are kept at the same
potential as the inner electrodes 922 and 924 during measurement.
In some cases, the nanotube is selectively cleaved between the
inner and outer electrodes to electronically isolate the inner from
the outer electrodes for nanoFET detection.
[0125] The chips will typically have 1 million, 5 million, 10
million, 15 million, 20 million or more sets of electrodes.
Although the above is described for use in single molecule
sequencing, it will be understood that these deposition methods as
well as other methods described herein that are not limited to
sequencing can be used to produce nanotube nanoFET arrays for any
suitable application.
[0126] FIG. 10 shows a method similar to that shown in FIG. 9, but
in which the polymerase enzyme complex (or polymerase enzyme
without associated template) is deposited onto the chip. While the
methods are described here with respect to an enzyme complex it is
understood that the method can be used with a polymerase enzyme or
other single molecule of interest. As described above, attaching
the polymerase enzyme complex or the polymerase without associated
template allows for purification of the mixture to preferentially
select the nanotubes having a polymerase attached, allowing for a
mixture enriched in nanotubes having a single polymerase complex
attached.
[0127] The chip 1020 has an array of sets of electrodes. Each set
of electrodes is arranged in a line across the chip. The distance
between the first and last electrode in the line is less than the
length of the nanotubes to be deposited. In FIG. 10, the chip 1020
has four electrodes in a line for each set. The inner electrodes
1022 and 1024 will become the source and drain of the nanoFET that
is formed. The outer electrodes 1032 and 1034 are used to provide a
field for attracting, aligning, and depositing the carbon nanotube
1010 having polymerase enzyme complex 1050 from solution. The
polymerase enzyme complex 650 has polymerase enzyme 1052 and
template 1054. In some cases, the deposition can be carried out
using only two electrodes per set, in which these electrodes are
used both for deposition of the nanotube, and also to act as source
and drain for the nanoFET. An advantage of using 4 electrodes per
set is that the outer electrodes 1032 and 1034 can be prepared for
providing the deposition electric field, while the inner electrodes
1022 and 1024 can be prepared for optimal detection of small
current changes as source and drain for the carbon nanotube
nanoFET. For example, the outer electrodes 1032 and 1034 are made
with the materials and at the dimensions for providing a higher
voltage and higher current for deposition. The deposition electric
field can be a DC field, an AC field, or a combination of an AC and
DC field. The application of an AC field allows for the use of
dielectrophoretic forces for attracting, aligning, and depositing
the carbon nanotubes with attached polymerase enzyme complex.
[0128] In some cases, after the deposition of the nanotube in FIG.
10 is completed, conductive material is selectively deposited over
the source and drain electrodes to provide a more robust electrical
connection to the nanotube. Typically, with the enzyme present on
the nanotube, this deposition is carried out in solution, using,
for example, electrodeposition under mild conditions. In some
cases, the outer electrodes can also be used in the nanoFET
detection, for example, providing a voltage across the outer
electrodes 1032 and 1034, and measuring a voltage drop across the
inner electrodes 1022 and 1024 for enhanced nanoFET detection. In
some cases, the outer electrodes 1032 and 1034 are kept at the same
potential as the inner electrodes 1022 and 1024 during measurement.
In some cases, the nanotube is selectively cleaved between the
inner and outer electrodes to electronically isolate the inner from
the outer electrodes for nanoFET detection.
[0129] One attractive approach of the invention is one in which the
polymerase complex-nanotubes are dynamically sampled during
deposition. For example, a polymerase complex nanotube is attracted
down and captured on a source and drain, and while it is held
there, a measurement across the source and drain will determine
whether the polymerase is undergoing sequencing. If it is not, the
potential is changed, e.g. across electrodes 1032 and 1034 to
release the nanotube with bound polymerase complex, making room for
another nanotube-polymerase complex to be captured by the set of
electrodes. This process is repeated until an actively sequencing
complex is detected, after which sequencing information is
continued to be obtained.
[0130] This reversible approach can also be used to select for
polymerase complexes having templates of interest. For example, the
capture is carried out as described above, for example on a library
in which some polymerase-template complexes in solution have a
template with a sequence of interest, and some polymerase complexes
have template with a sequence that is not of interest. After
capture of a nanotube with attached polymerase complex, and an
initial sequence is determined. If it is found that the sequence
belongs to a region of the nucleic acid that is not of interest,
the capture voltage adjusted to release the nanotube, making room
for the capture of another polymerase complex that may have a
desired nucleic acid region. This process is repeated until a
template having the desired sequence is found, at which time the
sequencing of that template is completed.
[0131] In order to carry out this method, we have determined that
in some cases it is desirable to have a relatively high voltage
drop between the one outer capture electrode 1032 and the source
electrode 1022 and between the other capture electrode 1034 and the
drain electrode 1024, but at the same time applying only a small
voltage drop across the source 1022 and the drain1024. This
approach is illustrated in FIG. 10 in which arrows 1082 and 1084
represent the relatively large electric field between electrodes
1022 and 1032 and between electrodes 1024 and 1034 respectively,
and arrow 1086 represents the relatively small electric field
between nanoFET source and drain electrodes 1022 and 1024. In some
cases, the potentials are applied in this manner such that outer
electrode1032 and 1034 are at the same potential, while a
relatively large drop is applied between inner and outer electrodes
(1022-1032, 1024-1034) and a relatively small drop is
simultaneously applied between inner electrodes (1022-1024), which
voltage drop that is for nanoFET measurements carrying out nanoFET
measurements.
[0132] FIG. 11 provides an approach in which a number of
source-drain sets 1142-1144 are arranged in a line across the
surface of the chip 1120. Here, each set of electrodes is a pair of
electrodes, however, the number of electrodes per set for
attracting, aligning, and depositing the carbon nanotubes can be
any suitable number, for example 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 or 8. Here, a
solution of nanotubes 1110, extending over multiple source-drain
pairs is added to the chip. The length of the nanotubes in solution
is selected such that the nanotube extends across multiple source
drain pairs. A voltage drop is provided across each of the
source-drain pairs 1142-1144. The nanotubes are attracted, aligned,
and deposited across multiple source-drain pairs. The set of
source-drain pairs acts together to attract the nanotubes, and
because there are a number of source-drain pairs, the voltage
across any pair can be relatively low. The number of sets of
electrodes, each including a source-drain pair can be, for example,
2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 10, 11, 12 or more sets.
[0133] Subsequent to deposition, conductive material is typically
deposited selectively onto the source electrodes and drain
electrodes as described herein to reduce contact resistance and
provide a robust electrical connection between the electrodes and
nanotube for each nanoFET. In some cases, the nanotube is
selectively cleaved between each set of electrodes to further
electrically isolate the nanoFETs from each other.
Increased Debye Screening Length
[0134] As discussed herein, the nanotube tends to be effective at
detecting ionic changes within the Debye screening length, but
beyond the Debye screening length, ionic changes are not detected.
In some cases, it is useful to provide additives to the sequencing
mixture that have the effect of increasing the Debye screening
length to ensure the detection of the conductivity labels on the
nucleotide analogs. In some cases, these additives are referred to
as crowding agents. These crowding agents displace water and ions
in solution. Suitable crowding agents are polar, non-ionic
compounds. In some cases crowding agents are non-ionic polymeric
compounds. Suitable compounds include non-ionic glucose polymers
including Ficoll, for example Ficol 70. Other suitable crowding
agents include polyethylene glycol (PEG), dextran, or proteins such
as ovalbumin or hemoglobin.
[0135] In alternative embodiments, the concentration of monovalent
and divalent (and polyvalent) ions is reduced and the systems ionic
strength is supplemented with zwitterionic salts whose overall
charge is zero or near zero. These salts can assist with the
solubility of key components of the system while contributing only
minimally to the charge screening. In some cases, a zwitterionic
salt permits a reduction in monovalent salt concentration of 10%,
20%, 30%, 50%, 80%, or more over what would be required without the
zwitterionic salts. The resulting increase in the Debye screening
length can directly result in increased sensitivity of the FET
sensor to charges that are not directly contacting the FET detector
surface. In some embodiments, zwitterionic salts make up more than
30%, more than 40%, more than 50%, more than 60%, more than 70%,
more than 80%, or more than 90% of the ions in the sequencing
reaction mixture.
Surface Treatment of the NanoFET Gate
[0136] In some aspects of the invention, the surface of the
nanotube is modified to enhance the detection capabilities of the
nanoFET. The surface treatments can provide an insulting layer, or
can extend the Debye screening length. The surface treatments can
be used to enhance sensitivity in certain regions of the nanotube
and/or to decrease sensitivity in certain regions of the nanotube.
In some cases both sensitivity enhancing and sensitivity decreasing
treatments can be used to improve the relative sensitivity of the
nanotube in a region of interest, for example near the exit region
of the polymerase, thereby improving the signal to noise ratio of
the measurement. Polymers can be used to bind to and coat the
polymer surface. Suitable polymers include the polymer binding
agents described above for attaching polymerase enzymes to the
nanotubes. The surface treatment agents can be non-ionic or ionic
materials. They can include negatively charged species, positively
charges species, or combinations of both positively charged and
negatively charges species. They can include aromatic units such as
pyrene which tend to bind to the nanotube surfaces by hydrophobic
interactions. Suitable surface treatment agents include nonionic
and ionic surfactants that are well known in the art. In some
cases, a sensitivity decreasing surface treatment is applied over
the majority of the nanotube, and a region of the nanotube near the
polymerase is left exposed, thereby providing enhanced sensitivity
in a region of interest. Copolymers such as block copolymers can be
used. Suitable co-polymers includes, for example,
((PEG)-pyrene).sub.n having alternating pyrene and ethylene glycol
units. The characteristics of this polymer can be tuned by varying
the length of the PEG units, longer PEG regions producing a more
hydrophilic coating. Small molecule such as (PEG)-pyrene can also
be used in which the average number of PEG units is from about 20
to about 120.
[0137] Other aspects of the invention that increase the sensitivity
of a FET sensor include decorating the surface of the FET device
with conductive polymers that extend the zone of sensitivity to the
charge of interest. This allows for detecting a charge that is
further away from the gate of the nanoFET that without having the
conductive polymer present. Materials that are useful include
polymers with high densities of double and single bonds in
resonance. These include, for example, polyacetylene and
polythiophene. In some cases, these polymers are doped, for example
to become n-type or p-type semiconductors. Polymer chains of redox
moieties such as ferrocene can also serve as molecular conductors.
When the nanowire is decorated with such current-carrying
molecules, the polarization caused by the charge of interest can be
communicated though the conductor to the nanowire detector onto
which it is deposited.
[0138] In some embodiments of this method, the conductive polymers
are not covalently attached, but rather allowed to associate
non-covalently via hydrophobic interactions with the gate of the
nanoFET, e.g. nanowire or nanotube. In some cases the conductive
polymer has side groups that promote the water solubility of the
chain. In some cases the conductive polymer molecules have a dual
character, containing regions that are non-soluble and regions that
are soluble, for example, block copolymers. The non-soluble
portions will tend to associate with a hydrophobic nanowire surface
while the soluble portions will explore the space around the charge
of interest. Although described as an alternative to bringing the
charged molecule closer to a nanowire sensor, this strategy can
also be used in combination with a strategy that increases the
proximity of the charged molecule to further increase the
sensitivity.
Reference Nanowire
[0139] Another aspect of the invention provides for positioning a
reference nanowire immediately adjacent to the nanowire bound to
the polymerase. Some noise processes will be correlated between the
two nanowires. Thus, a higher signal-to-noise ratio can be obtained
by using the difference signal or cross-correlation signal between
these two wires than can be obtained with a single nanowire or
nanotube. For example, fluctuations caused by the gyration of a
long strand of DNA being sequenced can be expected to have some
common mode between two adjacent electrodes, and can thus be
mitigated by the presence of the reference. For example, if a long
strand of DNA experiences large fluctuations in position during a
sequencing run, the proximity of large quantities within 100 nm or
even 1000 nm can lead to a temporary increase in the rate of
diffusive contacts between the DNA strand and the nanowire. These
increases will read out at long time-scales as an upward
fluctuation in the current. If two nanowires are very close
together, they would share this increase--it would happen
simultaneously for both wires. Thus where two very closely spaced
wires are used and the polymerase is attached to one but not the
other, the difference in current between the two wires will have
less noise due to DNA template movements as compared the
corresponding measurement using just one electrode. In some cases
the measurement nanowire and the reference nanowire are between 4
nm to 30 nm apart. In some cases the measurement nanowire and the
reference nanowire are between 5 nm to 20 nm apart. In some cases
the measurement nanowire and reference nanowire are parallel to one
another.
Alternative Sequencing Modes
[0140] In alternative sequencing modes of the invention,
unincorporatable (e.g. nonhydrolizable) nucleotides are bound to
the surface of the nanowire with different length linkers for each
base. A schematic representation of such an embodiment is provided
in FIG. 12. A low concentration of free native nucleotide is
provided in solution that allows the system to slowly move forward.
While the polymerase is waiting for each next incorporatable base,
it will repeatedly and unproductively sample against the tethered
nucleotides producing a signal comprising one or more cognate
sampling events. Since the voltage or current will be affected by
the length of the tether used for each base, the signal will be
different for each nonhydrolizable nucleotide during the sampling
events. Typically, multiple sampling events are averaged to
calculate a signal that indicates which nonhydrolizable nucleotide
is being sampled. Other methods for sequencing using polymerase
sampling are also described in U.S. Pat. No. 8,530,164, which is
incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.
NanoFETs within Recessed Regions
[0141] Some aspects of the invention provide arrays of nanoFETs in
which each of the nanoFETs is within a well or a recessed region on
the substrate. In some cases the nanoFETs are in regions recessed
between about 5 nm and about 300 nm into the substrate. In some
cases the nanoFETs are in regions recessed between 10 nm and about
50 nm into the substrate. In some cases, the nanoFETs are recessed
about 10 nm, 20 nm, 30 nm, 40 nm, 50 nm, 80 nm, 100 nm, 200 nm or
300 nm into the substrate. In some cases the recessed regions can
be wells that extend down into the substrate. The wells can
alternatively extend into the substrate from the side (e.g. into a
vertical wall of the substrate) or can extend into the substrate at
any suitable angle. In some cases the recesses or wells are wider
than they are deep, for example with a ratio of depth to width of
about 1:2 to about 1:10, where depth is the direction of the
recess. In some cases the recesses or wells are deeper than they
are wide, for example with a ratio of depth to width from about
1.5:1 to about 5:1.
[0142] We have found that having the nanoFET within a nanoscale
well of the appropriate dimensions provides unexpected benefits.
Where the dimensions are appropriately chosen, the well tends to
pull the nucleic acid associated with the polymerase away from the
nanotube through entropic effects, resulting in less association of
the nucleic acid with the nanotube. The nucleic acid molecules
associated with the polymerase, including the template molecules
and nascent strand molecules, prefer to maximize their entropy, and
when the molecules are within a confined region, portions of the
molecule that are able to will make their way out of the region
where they have more conformational freedom. By constraining the
volume, the nucleic acids will entropically extend away from the
nanotube, and therefore be less likely to create background by
interacting with the nanotube. The confined or recessed region can
be a well, a slit or any other suitable shape. Where the confined
region is a well, it can have a substantially circular profile
(e.g. a cylindrical well). The well can have a larger diameter
opening than the base, or can have a smaller diameter opening than
the diameter of the base. Where the confined region is a well it is
typically desirable that the width of the well is less than about
300 nm, less than about 200 nm, or less than about 100 nm.
[0143] The use of a constrained region to reduce the interaction of
associated nucleic acid molecules with the nanotube nanoFET is
illustrated in FIG. 13. The nanoFET 1310 is disposed at the bottom
of a constrained region 1340 which is formed in the substrate 1330.
The nanoFET has bound to it a single polymerase enzyme 1320, the
activity of which is monitored while nucleic acid synthesis is
occurring. The nucleic acid molecules 1350 associated with the
polymerase enzyme tend to extend out of the constrained volume due
to entropic effects as described herein. The nucleic acid molecules
can include the template nucleic acid and the nascent strand that
is formed during the polymerase reaction. There is a reduction in
interaction of the nucleic acid molecules with the nanotube nanoFET
due to their tendency to extend out of the constrained region,
reducing background noise.
[0144] In order to produce nanoFET devices in wells with such
dimensions, it is sometimes desirable to utilize nanotubes having
lengths less than bout 300 nm, e.g. in the 100 nm to 300 nm length
range. Such nanotubes are known in the art. See for example, J.
Chen, M. A. Hamon, H. Hu, Y. Chen, A. M. Rao, P. C. Eklund, R. C.
Haddon, Science 1998, 282, 95 which is incorporated herein by
reference for all purposes. Nanotubes in this size range are also
available commercially, for example from NanoWerk and at
Nanolntegris companies.
[0145] FIG. 14 provides approaches to forming nanoFETs in confined
regions such as topologically constrained nanowells. In steps 1 and
2, a nanotube nanoFET is formed on the surface of a chip. Methods
for forming these structures are provided herein and in the art. In
the method shown in FIG. 14, in step 1, a nanotube is deposited
onto a substrate 1420 having nanoscale electrodes 1442 and 1444. In
step 2, a conductive material 1450 is deposited onto the nanoscale
electrodes to lower contact resistance at the electrodes and to
provide a robust electrical connection. In step 3, a confined
region such as a nanowells is formed by selectively depositing a
material onto the substrate whereby at least a portion if the
nanoFET remains exposed. In FIG. 3A, a material 1462 is deposited
onto the surface such that the material covers the nanoscale
electrodes 1442 and 1444. This leaves only the carbon nanotube (or
a portion of the carbon nanotube) exposed. This approach can not
only provide a constrained volume as described herein, but also can
be used to reduce background by limiting the portion of the
nanotube that is exposed to the solution during measurement. In an
alternative approach, in step 3B, material 1464 is deposited to
produce a confined volume in which the nanoFET remains fully
exposed. Here, the nanoFET, including its electrodes, will be
completely exposed to the solution during the analysis. In some
cases, as shown here, the material also covers and embeds the
portion of the nanotube that extends beyond the nanoscale
electrodes. In some approaches, an intervening process is used to
remove the portions of the carbon nanotube extending beyond the
nanoscale electrodes prior to deposition of the well-forming
material. The well-forming material can be any suitable material,
many of which are known in the art of semiconductor processing. The
material is typically insulating but could be conductive or
semiconducting in some cases. The material can be organic or
inorganic. The material can be, for example a polymeric material, a
glass, or a metal. The material can be, for example a metal oxide
or metal nitride.
[0146] FIGS. 15A and 15B show a side and top view respectively of a
portion of a chip 1520 having a nanoFET 1540 in a confined volume
that is a trough or trench, long in the direction of the nanotube
and narrower in the direction perpendicular to the nanotube. In
some cases, the chip is produced having such long narrow troughs
with nanoscale electrodes within them. When the nanotubes are
subsequently deposited, the size and aspect ratio of the trough
favors deposition of nanotubes in the desired orientation,
extending across the nanoscale electrodes. After deposition of
carbon nanotubes on the nanoscale electrodes, a conductive material
can be selectively deposited onto the electrodes to provide a
robust attachment of the nanotubes. Structures such as that shown
in FIG. 15B can alternatively be formed by the methods illustrated
in FIG. 14 in which the trough is formed after formation of the
nanoFET device. The methods described herein can also be combined
with those approaches outlined in FIG. 6, for example where the
polymerase is attached to the nanotube prior to deposition. The
approaches that include a long, narrow trough are particularly
useful where it is desired to use relatively long nanotubes (e.g.
greater than 300 nm in length), yet where the desired length of the
nanotube between the nanoscale electrodes is less than half, less
than a third, or less than on quarter of the length of the average
nanotube in the deposition solution. These trough structures can
also be used in conjunction with approaches such as that shown in
FIG. 11 in which there are multiple sets of nanoscale electrode
pairs along a line (e.g. in a line down the long axis of the
trough. This type of structure can be used with or without the use
of electrically assisted loading.
[0147] For example, the long, narrow trough can have a long
dimension between 200 nm and one micron, and the narrow dimension
can be from 10 nm to about 100 nm. In some cases, the aspect ratio
(length to width) of the trough is from about 4:1 to about 100:1.
The depth of the trough is typically from about 20 nm to about 300
nm. Processes for making structures on the size scale of those
described herein are provided, for example, in Lieber et al. Chem.
Rev., 2016, 116 (1), pp 215-257 "Nano-Bioelectronics" and Jeong et
al. J. Mater. Chem., 2011, 21, 14285-14290 "Patterned nano-sized
gold dots within FET channel: from fabrication to alignment of
single walled carbon nanotube networks" which are incorporated by
reference for all purposes herein.
[0148] An approach to inhibit interaction between nucleic acid
molecules associated with the polymerase and the nanotube is to use
structural features, thus structurally biasing these molecules away
from the surface. Long chain molecules experience reduced entropy
when confined in a small space, and when such a molecule traverses
a boundary between a confined and non-confined space the difference
in entropy can lead to a free-energy gradient that produces a
measurable tension in the molecule. Therefore, placing the sensing
region in a recess small enough to reduce entropy of the DNA chain
will not only physically displace most of the DNA molecule away
just by a barrier effect, the presence of the small recess will
also pull those parts of the molecule that are geometrically
constrained to still reside inside constrained region and bias them
away from the active sensing region of the CN-FET which is much
smaller than the recessed zone. Above, we describe the use of wells
and trenches or troughs as confined regions. In some cases
structures other than wells and trenches can be used as long as
they provide the entropic gradient required to pull the nucleic
acids away from the nanoFETs.
[0149] In some cases, the constrained region is a region between
two fluid reservoirs into which the nucleic acids associated with
the polymerase will move due to the volume constraints in the
vicinity of the nanotube nanoFET. FIG. 16 shows an embodiment of
this approach. FIG. 16 shows a cross section of a chip comprising a
substrate 1650. On the substrate is a dielectric layer 1660. The
dielectric layer 1660 has an array of features that produce a
constrained region 1670 in which the nanoFET with attached
polymerase enzyme 1640 is disposed. The constrained region 1670 is
open to both cis reservoir 1622 and trans reservoir 1624. There is
a top fluid manifold 1610 above the dielectric layer that provides
a separation between the cis and trans reservoirs. The nanoFET with
attached polymerase enzyme 1640 is disposed within the constrained
region 1670 such that the nucleic acids associated with the
polymerase extend up into either one or both of the cis reservoir
1622 and trans reservoir 1624. For example, in some cases, the
template nucleic acid will tend to extend into the cis reservoir
1622, and the nascent strand nucleic acid will tend to extend into
the trans region 1624 as it is produced. As described above for the
simpler well or trough constrained regions, here, the nucleic acids
associated with the polymerase 1630 tend to work their way out of
the constrained regions, away from the nanoFET, resulting in a more
reliable signal due to reduction in the background from
interactions of the nucleic acids with the nanotube nanoFET.
Capacitive Filters for Improving Signal to Noise
[0150] In one aspect, the invention provides for improving the
signal to noise of a device comprising an array on nanoFETs by
including capacitive filters. The capacitive filters are provided
as structures in solution above each nanoFET. For example, a
capacitive filter can be a layer of conductive material that is
above the nanoFET, and is typically electrically and/or physically
connected to the substrate on which the nanoFET is disposed. The
conductive material can be, for example a planar electrode that is
typically above the nanoFET with its planar surface parallel to the
substrate. The dimensions of the planar electrode are typically
large relative to the area of the nanoFET. In some cases, the area
of the electrode is 10 times, 100 times or 100 times larger than
the area of the nanoFET. The area of the electrode can be, for
example, between 4 nm squared to 500 nm squared, or from about 10
nm squared to about 100 nm squared.
[0151] In large CMOS arrays only a small fraction of the total time
of one sampling cycle can be allocated to each individual device.
This is the case even when there is a separate amplifier for each
row, since a thousand or more devices may be served by just one
amplifier and ADC. This means that the duty cycle of each device
may be 0.001 or lower. In current or voltage sampling applications
such as are used with addressing nanoFETs, the noise is generally
inversely related the square root of the total sampling time. So,
if the duration of a sample is increased 4-fold, the noise level
will be cut in half. Therefore the noise levels at a duty cycle of
0.001 could be 30 times higher than if the amplifier were
[0152] In optical sensing applications, this issue can be managed
by creating a floating diffusion that acts as a reservoir to store
charge from incoming photons while the device waits for readout,
thus escaping this scaling rule. Ironically, in devices with a very
high intrinsic signal level, such as nanoFETs, it is difficult to
use this approach because the amount of charge produced during one
cycle can be very large--too large for the same kind of
architecture used in light-sensing applications.
[0153] This invention provides a solution to this problem. The
solution is to use an RC electronic filter which acts as a charge
reservoir and "stores" charges between sampling events. This RC
electronic filter can shift the noise scaling curve, but requires a
relatively large capacitor to create longer RC time constants.
There is limited real-estate within the chip itself for
constructing this capacitor structure due to the large demands of
the active electronics. The invention provides for introducing
these capacitive structures towards the bulk solution above the
chip rather than in the substrate of the chip itself. This solution
is enhanced by the fact that there is a large reservoir of
conductive solution that can act as an alternate ground-plane.
Thus, the invention provides relatively large-area structures
placed vertically above the nanoFET devices. With appropriate
selection of materials, the electrical double layer can be made
non-conductive, and a relatively large capacitor area can be
created with either patterned or rough side-walls. For this
invention, the fluid is in-effect a self-patterning
counter-electrode to the nanoFET array and provides a uniform,
large area capacitor layer. These structures provide for nanoFET
arrays having higher signal to noise than devices without the
capacitive structures.
NanoFET Arrays
[0154] Methods for making and addressing nanoFETs including
nanoFETs comprising nanowires are known in the art. See, for
example, Choi et al. "Single-Molecule Lysozyme Dynamics Monitored
by an Electronic Circuit" Science 335, 319 (2012), and Patolsky et
al., "Electrical Detection of Viruses", PNAS, 101(39), 14017, 2004
which are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety for
all purposes.
[0155] The polymerase complex may be positioned relative to the
nanoscale wire to cause a detectable change in the nanoscale wire.
In some cases, the polymerase complex may be positioned within
about 100 nm of the nanoscale wire, within about 75 nm of the nano
scale wire, within about 50 nm of the nanoscale wire, within about
20 nm of the nanoscale wire, within about 15 nm of the nanoscale
wire, or within about 10 nm of the nanoscale wire. The actual
proximity can be determined by those of ordinary skill in the art.
In some cases, the polymerase complex is positioned less than about
5 nm from the nanoscale wire. In other cases, the polymerase
complex is positioned within about 4 nm, within about 3 nm, within
about 2 nm, or within about 1 nm of the nanoscale wire.
[0156] In some embodiments, the polymerase complex is fastened to
or directly bonded (e.g., covalently) to the nanowire (nanoscale
wire) or gate, e.g., as further described herein. However, in other
embodiments, the polymerase complex is not directly bonded to the
nanoscale wire, but is otherwise immobilized relative to the
nanowire, i.e., the polymerase complex is indirectly immobilized
relative to the nanowire. For instance, the polymerase complex may
be attached to the nanowire through a linker, i.e., a species (or
plurality of species) to which the polymerase complex and the
nanoscale wire are each immobilized relative thereto, e.g.,
covalently or non-covalently bound to. As an example, a linker may
be directly bonded to the nanoscale wire, and the polymerase
complex may be directly bonded to the linker, or the polymerase
complex may not be directly bonded to the linker, but immobilized
relative to the linker, e.g., through the use of non-covalent bonds
such as hydrogen bonding (e.g., as in complementary nucleic
acid-nucleic acid interactions), hydrophobic interactions (e.g.,
between hydrocarbon chains), entropic interactions, or the like.
The linker may or may not be directly bonded (e.g., covalently) to
the nanoscale wire.
[0157] Many nanowires as used in accordance with the present
invention are individual nanowires. As used herein, "individual
nanowire" means a nanowire free of contact with another nanowire
(but not excluding contact of a type that may be desired between
individual nanowires, e.g., as in a crossbar array). For example,
an "individual" or a "free-standing" article may, at some point in
its life, not be attached to another article, for example, with
another nanowire, or the to free-standing article may be in
solution. An "individual" or a "free-standing" article is one that
can be (but need not be) removed from the location where it is
made, as an individual article, and transported to a different
location and combined with different components to make a
functional device such as those described herein and those that
would be contemplated by those of ordinary skill in the art upon
reading this disclosure.
[0158] In another set of embodiments, the nanowire (or other
nanostructured material) may include additional materials, such as
semiconductor materials, dopants, organic compounds, inorganic
compounds, etc. The following are non-limiting examples of
materials that may be used as dopants within the nanowire. The
dopant may be an elemental semiconductor, for example, silicon,
germanium, tin, selenium, tellurium, boron, diamond, or
phosphorous. The dopant may also be a solid solution of various
elemental semiconductors. Examples include a mixture of boron and
carbon, a mixture of boron and P(BP6), a mixture of boron and
silicon, a mixture of silicon and carbon, a mixture of silicon and
germanium, a mixture of silicon and tin, a mixture of germanium and
tin, etc. In some embodiments, the dopant may include mixtures of
Group IV elements, for example, a mixture of silicon and carbon, or
a mixture of silicon and germanium. In other embodiments, the
dopant may include mixtures of Group III and Group V elements, for
example, BN, BP, BAs, AN, AlP, AlAs, AlSb, GaN, GaP, GaAs, GaSb,
InN, InP, InAs, or InSb. Mixtures of these combinations may also be
used, for example, a mixture of BN/BP/BAs, or BN/AlP. In other
embodiments, the dopants may include mixtures of Group III and
Group V elements. For example, the mixtures may include AlGaN,
GaPAs, InPAs, GaInN, AlGaInN, GaInAsP, or the like. In other
embodiments, the dopants may also include mixtures of Group II and
Group VI elements. For example, the dopant may include mixtures of
ZnO, ZnS, ZnSe, ZnTe, CdS, CdSe, CdTe, HgS, HgSe, HgTe, BeS, BeSe,
BeTe, MgS, MgSe, or the like. Alloys or mixtures of these dopants
are also be possible, to for example, ZnCd Se, or ZnSSe or the
like. Additionally, mixtures of different groups of semiconductors
may also be possible, for example, combinations of Group II-Group
VI and Group III-Group V elements, such as (GaAs)x(ZnS)1-x. Other
non-limiting examples of dopants may include mixtures of Group IV
and Group VI elements, for example GeS, GeSe, GeTe, SnS, SnSe,
SnTe, PbO, PbS, PbSe, PbTe, etc. Other dopant mixtures may include
mixtures of Group I elements and Group VII elements, such as CuF,
CuCl, CuBr, Cul, AgF, AgCl, AgBr, AgI, or the like. Other dopant
mixtures may include different mixtures of these elements, such as
BeSiN2, CaCN2, ZnGeP2, CdSnAs2, ZnSnSb2, CuGeP3, CuSi2P3, Si3N4,
Ge3N4, Al2O3, (Al, Ga, In)2(S, Se, Te)3, Al2CO, (Cu, Ag)(Al, Ga,
In, Tl, Fe)(S, Se, Te)2 or the like.
[0159] As a non-limiting example, a p-type dopant may be selected
from Group III, and an n-type dopant may be selected from Group V.
For instance, a p-type dopant may include at least one of B, Al and
In, and an n-type dopant may include at least one of P, As and Sb.
For Group III-Group V mixtures, a p-type dopant may be selected
from Group II, including one or more of Mg, Zn, Cd and Hg, or Group
IV, including one or more of C and Si. An n-type dopant may be
selected from at least one of Si, Ge, Sn, S, Se and Te. It will be
understood that the invention is not limited to these dopants, but
may include other elements, alloys, or mixtures as well.
[0160] As used herein, the term "Group," with reference to the
Periodic Table, is given its usual definition as understood by one
of ordinary skill in the art. For instance, the Group II elements
include Mg and Ca, as well as the Group II transition elements,
such as Zn, Cd, and Hg. Similarly, the Group III elements include
B, Al, Ga, In and Tl; the Group IV elements include C, Si, Ge, Sn,
and Pb; the Group V elements include N, P, As, Sb and Bi; and the
Group VI elements include O, S, Se, Te and Po. Combinations
involving more than one element from each Group are also possible.
For example, a Group II-VI material may include at least one
element from Group II and at least one element from Group VI, e.g.,
ZnS, ZnSe, ZnSSe, ZnCdS, CdS, or CdSe. Similarly, a Group III-V
material may include at least one element from Group III and at
least one element from Group V, for example GaAs, GaP, GaAsP, InAs,
InP, AlGaAs, or InAsP. Other dopants may also be included with
these materials and combinations thereof, for example, transition
metals such as Fe, Co, Te, Au, and the like. The nanoscale wire of
the present invention may further include, in some cases, any
organic or inorganic to molecules. In some cases, the organic or
inorganic molecules are polarizable and/or have multiple charge
states.
[0161] In some embodiments, at least a portion of a nanowire may be
a bulk-doped semiconductor. As used herein, a "bulk-doped" article
(e.g. an article, or a section or region of an article) is an
article for which a dopant is incorporated substantially throughout
the crystalline lattice of the article. For example, some articles
such as carbon nanotubes are typically doped after the base
material is grown, and thus the dopant only extends a finite
distance from the surface or exterior into the interior of the
crystalline lattice. In some embodiments, a bulk-doped
semiconductor may comprise two or more bulk-doped regions. Thus, as
used herein to describe nanowires, "doped" refers to bulk-doped
nanowires, and, accordingly, a "doped nanoscopic (or nanoscale)
wire" is a bulk-doped nanowire. "Heavily doped" and "lightly doped"
are terms the meanings of which are understood by those of ordinary
skill in the art.
[0162] In certain embodiments, a carbon nanowire can be
functionalized with a thin layer that results in an affinity to the
labels that increases partitioning of the current modulating label
in the detection layer. In examples above hydrophobicity of a
nanotube can serve the purpose of providing an attractive force
that can be used to recruit conductivity-modulating labels close to
the nanowire, but other interactions can be used. Optionally,
pi-stacking can be used. For example, molecules with lots of pi
electrons such as certain fluorescent labels will have a high
affinity for a carbon nanotube beyond just what is due to the
hydrophobic interaction. Further, a nanowire can be coated with
charged groups to increase affinity to the conductance labels on
the anologs. Yet further, the surface charge can be modified to
affect the partitioning of the label.
[0163] In one set of embodiments, the invention includes a
nanoscale wire (or other nanostructured material) that is a single
crystal. As used herein, a "single crystal" item (e.g., a
semiconductor) is an item that has covalent bonding, ionic bonding,
or a combination thereof throughout the item. Such a single-crystal
item may include defects in the crystal.
[0164] In yet another set of embodiments, the nanoscale wire (or
other nanostructured material) may comprise two or more regions
having different compositions. Each region of the nanoscale wire
may have any shape or dimension, and these can be the same or
different between regions. For example, a region may have a
smallest dimension of less than 1 micron, less than 100 nm, less
than 10 nm, or less than 1 nm. In some cases, one or more regions
may be a single monolayer of atoms (i.e., "delta-doping"). In
certain cases, the region may be less than a single monolayer thick
(for example, if some of the atoms within the monolayer are
absent).
[0165] In still another set of embodiments, a nanoscale wire may be
positioned proximate the surface of a substrate, i.e., the
nanoscale wire may be positioned within about 50 nm, about 25 nm,
about 10 nm, or about 5 nm of the substrate. In some cases, the
proximate nanoscale wire may contact at least a portion of the
substrate. In one embodiment, the substrate comprises a
semiconductor and/or a metal. Non-limiting examples include Si, Ge,
GaAs, etc. Other suitable semiconductors and/or metals are to
described above with reference to nano scale wires. In certain
embodiments, the substrate may comprise a nonmetal/nonsemiconductor
material, for example, a glass, a plastic or a polymer, a gel, a
thin film, etc. Non-limiting examples of suitable polymers that may
form or be included in the substrate include polyethylene,
polypropylene, poly(ethylene terephthalate), polydimethylsiloxane,
or the like.
[0166] A nanowire, nanoscopic wire or nanoscale wire is generally a
wire, that at any point along its length, has at least one
cross-sectional dimension and, in some embodiments, two orthogonal
cross-sectional dimensions less than about 200 nm, less than about
150 nm, less than about 100 nm, less than about 70, less than about
50 nm, less than about 20 nm, less than about 10 nm, or less than
about 5 nm. In other embodiments, the cross-sectional dimension can
be less than 2 nm or 1 nm. In one set of embodiments, the nanoscale
wire has at least one cross-sectional dimension ranging from 0.5 nm
to 100 nm or 200 nm. In some cases, the nanoscale wire is
electrically conductive. Where nanoscale wires are described
having, for example, a core and an outer region, the above
dimensions generally relate to those of the core. The cross-section
of a nanoscopic wire may be of any arbitrary shape, including, but
not limited to, circular, square, rectangular, annular, polygonal,
or elliptical, and may be a regular or an irregular shape. The
nanoscale wire may be solid or hollow. A non-limiting list of
examples of materials to from which nanoscale wires of the
invention can be made appears below. Any nanoscale wire can be used
in any of the embodiments described herein, including carbon
nanotubes, molecular wires (i.e., wires formed of a single
molecule), nanorods, nanowires, nanowhiskers, organic or inorganic
conductive or semiconducting polymers, and the like, unless
otherwise specified. Other conductive or semiconducting elements
that may not be molecular wires, but are of various small
nanoscopic-scale dimensions, can also be used in some instances,
e.g. inorganic structures such as main group and metal atom-based
wire-like silicon, transition metal-containing wires, gallium
arsenide, gallium nitride, indium phosphide, germanium, cadmium
selenide, etc.
[0167] A wide variety of these and other nanoscale wires can be
grown on and/or applied to surfaces in patterns useful for
electronic devices in a manner similar to techniques described
herein involving the specific nanoscale wires used as examples,
without undue experimentation. The nanoscale wires, in some cases,
may be formed having dimensions of at least about 1 micron, at
least about 3 microns, at least about 5 microns, or at least about
10 microns or about 20 microns in length, and can be less than
about 100 nm, less than about 80 nm, less than about 60 nm, less
than about 40 nm, less than about 20 nm, less than about 10 nm, or
less than about 5 nm in thickness (height and width). The nanoscale
wires may have an aspect ratio (length to thickness) of greater
than about 2:1, greater than about 3:1, greater than about 4:1,
greater than about 5:1, greater than about 10:1, greater than about
25:1, greater than about 50:1, greater than about 75:1, greater
than about 100:1, greater than about 150:1, greater than about
250:1, greater than about 500:1, greater than about 750:1, or
greater than about 1000:1 or more in some cases. The nanowires of
the invention include wires that are solid, and may be elongated in
some cases. In some cases, a nanowire is an elongated
semiconductor, i.e., a nanoscale semiconductor.
[0168] A "nanotube" (e.g. a carbon nanotube) is typically a
nanoscopic wire that is hollow, or that has a hollowed-out core,
including those nanotubes known to those of ordinary skill in the
art. Nanotubes are used as one example of small wires for use in
the invention and, in certain embodiments, devices of the invention
include wires of scale commensurate with nanotubes. Examples of
nanotubes that may be used in the present invention include, but
are not limited to, single-walled nanotubes (SWNTs). Structurally,
SWNTs are formed of a single graphene sheet rolled into a seamless
tube. Depending on the diameter and helicity, SWNTs can behave as
one-dimensional metals and/or semiconductors. Methods of
manufacture of nanotubes, including SWNTs, and characterization are
known. Methods of selective functionalization on the ends and/or
sides of nanotubes also are known, and the present invention makes
use of these capabilities for molecular electronics in certain
embodiments. Multi-walled nanotubes are well known, and can be used
as well.
[0169] Another aspect of the invention is a hidden-Markov model
(HMM) data analysis method in which the voltage transitions are
explained by a hidden state (the sequence) through a 10-base
context-dependent allosteric lookup table which produces about
4,000,000 different voltage levels, but each base position is
interrogated 10 times by the progressing polymerase, so the
sequence can be resolved by looking at the complete set of voltage
transitions. One novel aspect of this approach is the recognition
that the kinetics being impacted by 10 bases of context likely
means that the allosteric interactions will also be strongly
influenced by 10 bases of context. These effects can be as strong
as the analog structure impact on the observed voltage
change--meaning that the same analog in the same polymerase in one
context could produce a positive change while in another context it
could produce a negative change. In certain embodiments, the same
DNA is sequenced with different enzymes to help resolve
singularities in the HMM model that mean that errors will always
occur in the same contexts. Where the 10-base context table is
different for different enzymes or for different analogs used with
those enzymes, the systematic errors that would normally result
from ambiguous 10-base stretches will be removed.
[0170] One or more of the analogs (e.g., via the conductance label,
nucleobase, phosphate chain, sugar, other modification, or a
combination thereof) can produce a positive change and the other
analogs produce a negative change. For example, if two produce a
positive change and two produce a negative change, only two
amplitudes of voltage on either side of the quiescent state voltage
would be required to discern the order of base incorporation into
the nascent strand.
[0171] The nanoFET chips can also have other incorporated
components. Since the devices can be made by semiconductor
processing techniques, it is straightforward to include other
components such as resistors, capacitors, amplifiers, memory
circuits, A/D converters, logic circuits, and the like. The
circuits can provide the functions of amplification, analog to
digital conversion, signal processing, memory, and data output. By
having components such as CMOS processors included in the device
addresses the issue of monitoring multiple events simultaneously.
Rather than having at least one pair of wires bringing signals out
from the chip, the inclusion of these components allows for a
multiplexed output or an addressable output such as used in a DRAM
chip. Where the number of devices is large, there tends to be more
of a demand for building in extra circuitry onto the chip. This
allows for carrying out partial analysis on the chip in a way that
can significantly reduce the need for the amount of electrical
signals that have to go to and from the chip.
[0172] The electrodes used in the devices including the source and
the drain can be made of any suitable conducting material. They are
typically made of a conductive metal that is amenable to
semiconductor processing. Metals include aluminum, silver, gold,
and platinum. The electrodes are fabricated to be on the order of
nanometers in at least one dimension, at least two dimensions, or
three dimensions. The size of the electrode is dependent on various
design parameters. When discussing the size of the electrodes in
this application, we are generally referring to the portion of the
electrode which is exposed to the fluid sequencing mixture. In many
cases, the size of the conductive portions not in contact with the
solution are made larger in size to increase conductivity.
[0173] FIG. 17 illustrates an array of nanoFET devices in two
dimensions on a chip. A semiconductor surface can be patterned to
produce an array of nanoFET devices. The interconnects to connect
the nanoFETs to the electrical inputs and outputs can be provided
by dropping through vias to lower layers. The electrical
connections to the chip are typically made to the sides or to the
bottom of the chip.
Conductivity Labels
[0174] The labels of the invention are moieties that can cause a
change in the electric properties of the gate of a nanoFET, e.g. a
nanowire or nanotube. The labels are referred to herein as
conductance labels, conductivity labels, impedance labels and the
like. It is understood by those of skill in the art that the
electronic changes in the gate can be due to changes in the
electric field surrounding the gate, or, for example, changes in
the conductivity of the nanowire or nanotube. In some cases, the
change at the gate can be due to the displacement of charges in
solution that are surrounding the gate. Often, the electrical
signal at the gate is measured by putting a voltage across the
source and drain of the nanoFET, and monitoring the current through
the gate. Any such change in electrical property can be used to
detect a conductivity label. In some cases, the conductivity label
comes into contact (possibly repeated contact) with the gate, and
in other cases, the conductivity label comes within a distance of
the nanotube such that its presence is detected by the gate. The
conductivity labels are often charged species. They can be
positively charged, negatively charged or have both negative and
positive charge. In some cases, the label can cause an increase in
conductivity at the gate, and in some cases, the label can case a
decrease in conductivity at the gate. In some cases, then nanoFET
can be considered an ion sensitive FET or ISFET. Conductivity
labels can be charged species that are water soluble. The
conductivity labels can have multiple charges, e.g. from about 2 to
about 2,000 charges. The labels can comprise dendrimers or
nanoparticles. Multiple labels can be employed, each having a
different level of charge, in some cases, with some labels
positively charged and some labels negatively charged.
[0175] In some cases, the labels can comprise moieties that
interact with the nanotube surface, thereby displacing species such
as ionic species from the nanotube surface.
[0176] The conductance label is selected such that when the
nucleotide analog to which it is attached is within the active site
of the enzyme, the label produces a change in conductivity of the
nanowire to which the polymerase is attached or to which the
polymerase enzyme is proximal. The change can be a positive change
or a negative change, and where multiple conductance labels are
used in a single reaction mixture, one subset may produce positive
changes while another subset produces negative changes. Different
types of conductance labels are contemplated for use with the
methods provided herein. In general, conductance labels include
conductance affecting groups, i.e., groups that enhance or diminish
impedance or conductance of the composition, and are useful in
applications where incorporation is detected by changes in
impedance or conductance at or near the synthesis complex. Examples
of conductance-impacting functional groups include, e.g., long
alkane chains which optionally include solubility enhancing groups,
such as amido substitutions; long polyethylene glycol chains;
polysaccharides; particles, such as latex, silica, polystyrene,
metal, semiconductor, or dendrimeric particles; branched polymers,
such as branched alkanes, branched polysaccharides, branched aryl
chains. Conductance labels may additionally or alternatively
include electrochemical groups that detectably alter the charge of
the molecule and may be detected or otherwise exploited for their
electrochemical properties, such as their overall electric charge.
For example, one may include highly charged groups as the
functional group, like additional phosphate groups, sulfate
group(s), amino acid groups or chains, e.g., polylysine,
polyarginine, etc. Likewise, one may include redox active groups,
such as redox active compounds, e.g., heme, or redox active
enzymes. Other conductance labels may include, e.g.,
electrochemical labels, magnetic particles, beads, semiconductor
nanocrystals or quantum dots, metal nanoparticles (e.g., gold,
silver, platinum, cobalt, or the like), mass labels, e.g., particle
or other large moieties. A wide variety of conductance labels are
generally commercially available (See, e.g., the Molecular Probes
Handbook, available at online at probes.invitrogen.com/handbook/),
incorporated herein by reference. In some cases, nanoparticles are
used as labels. For example, nanoparticles of metals,
seimconductors, glasses, oxides, carbon, silicon, protein,
polymers, ionic materials, can be used.
[0177] In some cases the conductivity labels comprise beads, for
example beads comprising multiple nucleotides attached via their
polyphosphate portion. Such analogs are described, for example in
U.S. Pat. No. 8,367,813 which is incorporated by reference herein
in its entirety for all purposes. The beads can be coated with
charged functional groups, anionic, cationic, or a combination of
anionic and cationic groups. The amount of charge on the bead can
be controlled in order to control the electrical signal at the gate
of the nanoFET. The beads can have any usable size range, for
example, between about 2 nm and about 50 nm in size. The shapes of
the beads can be spherical, elongated, or other effective shape for
controlling the current at the gate of the nanoFET.
[0178] While the labels that interact with the gate are referred to
conductivity labels, the measured signal can be from a change in
any suitable electrical property of the nanoscale wire, such as
voltage, current, conductivity, resistivity, inductance, impedance,
electrical change, an electromagnetic change, etc. The signal may
further include various aspects of the kinetics of the reaction,
e.g., on/off rates, incorporation rates, and rates of
conformational changes in the enzyme. Yet further, the kinetics can
be influenced experimentally to enhance kinetic signals, e.g., by
changing the ionic strength or types of ions present in the
reaction mixture or the concentrations of various components, e.g.,
nucleotides, salts, etc., or the types/lengths of the linkers
attaching the labels to the nucleotide analogs, where those changes
impact the kinetics of the reaction. In yet further embodiments,
enzymes can be used that have more distinct, and therefore more
detectable, conformational changes. These and other methods of
changing the kinetics of a reaction that can be used with the
methods described herein are further described in the art, e.g., in
U.S. Pat. Nos. 8,133,672, 8,986,930, 8,999,676, and U.S. Patent
Publication No. 2014/0206550, all of which are incorporated herein
by reference in their entireties.
[0179] As described herein, for a label to be detected at the gate
of the nanoFET, it typically must be at least close enough to the
nanowire to be within the Debye screening length. Thus, the length
or size of the nucleotide analog, linker, and label must be
sufficient to extend between the active site of the polymerase and
the gate (e.g. nanowire or nanotube). In some cases, this can be
accomplished by employing a long linker. In some cases this can be
accomplished using a relatively large charge label. This
conductivity label can be, for example, a protein. In some cases,
the protein has a size on the same order of the polymerase enzyme.
For example, the protein conductivity label can have a molecular
weight from about 1/10 of the weight of the polymerase to about 3
times the molecular weight of the polymerase, or from about 1/5 of
the molecular weight of the polymerase to about 2 times the
molecular weight of the polymerase. The polymerase can be, for
example a phi29 DNA polymerase. An example of a nucleotide analog
having a protein conductivity label having a size on the order of
the polymerase enzyme is shown in FIG. 18. Polymerase enzyme 1801
is attached to a nanotube 1802 which is the gate of a nanoFET via
linker 1803, for example through a covalent bond. The polymerase
enzyme 1801 is carrying out template directed nucleic acid
synthesis on nucleic acid template 1804. A nucleotide analog 1810
that has the correct (cognate) base for incorporation is held
within the active site of the enzyme, and the phosphate portion of
the nucleotide analog is extending out of the polymerase. Attached
to the phosphate portion of the nucleotide analog through linker
1812 is conductivity label 1811. As can be seen in the figure, the
conductivity label 1811 has a size that is on the order of the size
of the polymerase enzyme. Because of the selection of size of the
charge label, and the lengths of nucleotide analog linker 1812 and
polymerase to nanotube linker 1803, the charge label is in the
position to product a change in electric signal at the nanotube
1802. It would be understood by those of skill in the art that the
sizes and lengths of the components described can be selected in
order to control the signal that is detected at the gate. Proteins
that can be used as conductivity labels are described, for example
in U.S. Patent Application No. 2013/0316912, which is incorporated
herein by reference, where such proteins are used as shields in
nucleotide analogs. The protein conductivity labels can be mutated
by known methods described elsewhere herein for polymerase enzymes
to modify the charge and solubility characteristics of the protein
conductivity label for control of signal measured at the nanoFET
gate.
[0180] FIG. 19 illustrates how a long chain conductivity label can
be used to provide effective signal at the gate of the nanoFET. The
length of the label can be controlled to obtain the desired level
of contact of the conductivity label with the nanotube or nanowire
while the labeled nucleotide analog is in the active site of the
polymerase. For example, in the embodiment shown in FIG. 19, a
long-chain conductivity label is linked to a nucleotide in the
active site of a polymerase, where the polymerase is attached to a
nanowire or nanotube via a first linker. The label is linked to the
terminal phosphate of the nucleotide and has a length sufficient to
produce a radius of gyration that will include the surface of the
nanowire detector even from the position of the active site of the
polymerase. For this purpose, molecules of about 1 nm to about 3 nm
are typically used for ensuring the occasional visitation of
charged portions of the labeled molecule within range of the
nanowire detector, although longer molecules, up to 5, 10, 20, 40,
or even 100 nm in length can also be useful. Note that the long
chain is described herein as part of the conductivity label. It
would be understood that in some cases, some of the length could be
in the linker within the nucleotide analog.
[0181] In a related embodiment, a terminal phosphate conductivity
label contains a block co-polymer or other polymer such that the
label includes a hydrophobic or other non-covalent moiety that has
affinity for the nanotube. This label can be charged or uncharged.
The affinity of the polymer for the nanotube results in the polymer
and therefore the label spending more time within the detection
region near the nanotube. That is, the polymer will be gyrating
over time, and its affinity for the nanotube will allow for it to
partition towards the surface (and hence the detection region) of
the nanotube. In a preferred embodiment of this strategy, the off
rate of the non-covalent binding moiety is greater than 10 times
the incorporation rate of the polymerase or more preferably more
than 100 times the incorporation rate of the polymerase, or even
more preferably more than 500 times the incorporation rate of the
polymerase. In some embodiments, the duty cycle of association with
the nanowire is 50% higher than without the moiety or 100% higher
or 300% higher or 1000% higher that without the moiety or
greater.
Distinguishing Labels--Calling Bases
[0182] In the sequencing methods of the invention, there are
usually two or more different types of labeled nucleotide analogs,
and typically there are four different types of nucleotide analog.
There are various approaches to distinguish the various types of
bases. The discussion will generally involve distinguishing four
bases but it is understood that the same approaches can be used to
distinguish, two, three, five or more types of nucleotide
analogs.
[0183] One example of such a set of four differently labeled
nucleotide analogs is shown in FIG. 20. Each of four different
nucleotide types carries a distinguishable charge label, with 3, 6,
9 or 18 negative charges. There are four different nucleotide
analogs. The analogs correspond to analogs for DNA synthesis
corresponding to the natural bases C, G, A, and T. In each of the
analogs, the polyphosphate chain has 6 phosphates. Here the charged
conductivity labels are connected through a relatively short linker
of a few carbons. One of skill will appreciate that this is an
illustrative set of nucleotide analogs, and that changes in the
nucleotide portion, the number of phosphates in the polyphosphate
change, the length and chemical structure of the linker and the
relative number of charges can be changed in order to select the
desired level of signal at the nanoFET for the sequencing system of
interest.
[0184] One example of such a set of four differently labeled
nucleotide analogs is shown in FIG. 21. Each of the analogs has a
nucleotide portion comprising a hexaphosphate, a deoxy ribose, and
a nucleobase. Attached to the terminal phosphate of the nucleotide
moiety is a polyethylene glycol (PEG) linker. The PEG linker has 77
PEG units and is connected to the conductivity label. Attached to
each of the nucleotide analogs is a sphere of a different size. In
this example, polystyrene spheres are used. In other examples, for
example, titanium dioxide, or gold spheres are used. The nucleotide
analog corresponding to G has a polystyrene sphere with diameter of
about 15 nm. The nucleotide analog corresponding to A has a
polystyrene sphere with diameter of about 25 nm. The nucleotide
analog corresponding to T has a polystyrene sphere with diameter of
about 5 nm, and the nucleotide analog corresponding to C has a
polystyrene sphere with diameter of about 10 nm. This is just one
of many sets of four different nucleotide analogs that can be used
for sequencing. In some cases, rather than four different sized
nanoparticles, the four different nucleotides can each have the
same type and size of nanoparticle, but each having a different
type of linker.
[0185] Distinguishing nucleotide types is done, for example, using
the characteristics of magnitude of impedance, impedance versus
frequency, and impedance current versus time characteristics
(current oscillation color) measured at the gate of the nanoFET.
Combinations of the above can also be useful; for example by using
two labels and two amplitudes; two types of impedance versus
frequency, and two types of current oscillation color, etc. For
example, controlling the number, density, and type of charge, and
the use of macromolecular charged labels can be useful for either
type of electrical detection.
[0186] Labels that can provide differences in gate conductivity are
known in the art. In some cases, small molecules can be used. In
some case a particle, such as a nanoparticle is used as the
conductivity label. The characteristics of the nanoparticle can be
varied in order to produce different electrical signals at the gate
of the nanoFET. The size of the nanoparticle can influence the
capacitance of the particle, as well as the chemical structure.
Nanoparticles of metals, semiconductors, glasses, oxides, carbon,
silicon, protein, polymers, ionic materials, can be used and can be
produced to have widely different gate conductivity magnitude and
gate conductivity versus frequency characteristics. The size of the
particles can be varied over a wide range, for example from about 2
nanometers to about 50 nanometers in diameter. One contributor to
the electrical signal change near an electrode is the capacitance
characteristics of the nanoFET and associated nanowires. However,
it is to be understood that the impedance that is being measured is
that of the region around the electrode, and not just that of the
label. For example, a nanoparticle label will displace the solution
near the electrode, such that the measured electrical signal at the
gate will include that change. Thus, a label near the gate of the
nanoFET can result in the conductivity either going up or going
down as compared to the conductivity when the label is not
present.
[0187] Differentiating nucleotide analogs based on the magnitude
conductivity change can be carried out, for example, by providing a
conductivity label having multiple conductive moieties on a
nucleotide analog. Nucleotide analog structures including those
having multivalent scaffolds and nucleotides having multiple
moieties can be prepared as described, for example, in US Patent
Application 20120058473 Molecular Adaptors for Dye Conjugates, and
US Patent Application 20120077189 Scaffold-Based Polymerase Enzyme
Substrates, which are incorporated herein by reference for all
purposes. While these references generally describe a fluorescent
label, it is to be understood in conjunction with the teachings of
this application that a suitable conductivity label connected by a
suitable linker as described herein can be substituted for the
fluorescent label.
[0188] The terms impedance, conductivity, and capacitance are used
herein to describe electrical characteristics, for example measured
at the gate of a nanoFET. It is to be understood that impedance is
a more general term, and that impedance typically has both
capacitive and resistive (conductivity) components. For example,
for a given system, current flow at low frequencies is dominated by
the level of conductivity or resistivity, while the current flow at
high frequencies is dominated by the level of capacitance. In some
cases frequencies are on the order of tens of kilohertz or greater.
At these frequencies, for the geometries and materials described,
the impedance is predominated by capacitive rather than resistive
components. In some cases, low frequencies including DC can be used
in which resistivity (conductivity) is the dominant component.
While the impedance in each case may be dominated by one component,
either capacitance or resistivity, it is will be understood by
those of skill in the art that in some cases a combination of these
components is present and those of skill in the art will understand
the meanings of the terms by their context herein.
[0189] Nucleotide analogs can also be differentiated by their
impedance versus frequency characteristics. The measured impedance
of a label will also be highly dependent on the frequency. It is
well known that the components that contribute to impedance in a
given system can vary significantly with frequency, for example
ionic motion can predominate at some frequencies and dipolar
contributions can predominate at other frequencies. Measurements of
this type are sometimes referred to as impedance spectroscopy or
dielectric spectroscopy measurements. See e.g. Barsoukov, et al.
"Impedance Spectroscopy: Theory, Experiment, and Applications",
Wiley, 2005, and Kremer et al. "Broadband dielectric spectroscopy",
Springer, 2003, the contents of which are incorporated herein by
reference for all purposes. Different labels exhibit different
impedance versus frequency characteristics, and these
characteristics can be used to provide distinct labels and to
increase the confidence in base calling.
[0190] The impedance of a label can also vary with the amplitude of
the voltage applied to the nanoscale electrode at a given
frequency. The voltage applied can be adjusted to obtain the best
distinction between the various labels. In some cases, the voltage
can be varied instead of or in addition to varying the frequency as
described above, allowing labels to be distinguished, at least in
part, by their impedance versus electrode voltage
characteristics.
[0191] The current versus time characteristics can be referred to
as current oscillation color. For example, two nucleotide analogs,
each having the same conductivity label but having different length
linkers can exhibit different electrical signal versus time
characteristics. Current oscillation color can be used for nanoFET
devices. The nucleotide with the longer linker, may, for example,
diffuse differently and thus exhibit a different impedance over
time characteristics than the nucleotide analog with the shorter
linker. This difference in frequency of current oscillation can be
used to determine which of the nucleotide analogs is associated
with the enzyme. In addition to linker length, the current
oscillation color can be influenced by other characteristics of the
linker such as its spring constant. The current oscillation color
will depend on the characteristics of the measurement system such
as electrode geometry and polymerase complex attachment. These
factors can be chosen to control differences in current oscillation
color to enhance the determination of which nucleotide is
incorporated.
[0192] Nucleotides or analogs that can thus be identified by the
spectrum of the electrical oscillation they produce. In some cases,
oscillations looks like noise, but with reproducible and
identifiable characteristics including the frequency and the
magnitude of the signal. These different types of oscillations can
be used like different colored dyes are used to differentiate
between different nucleotide analogs in optical systems, thus, we
refer herein to a distinguishable type of current oscillation as a
current oscillation color.
[0193] One aspect of the invention is the utilization of additional
parameters beyond just the impedance change and the impedance
spectrum of a label to classify the species associated with the
enzyme. Such parameters are measurable over the duration of a
pulse. Two general categories of measurement scenarios are:
quasi-equilibrium measurement and non-equilibrium measurement.
[0194] In quasi-equilibrium measurement, there is some static
constraints that remains in place over the duration of the event,
and that the removal of that constraint effectively determines the
end of the event (except for a negligibly short interval at the end
while the detectable object clears the electrode). Though the
constraint is fixed, the rest of the components of the system are
free to move, and this leads to fluctuations in the signal. For
example, diffusion (or equivalently Brownian motion) will cause
movement of the label. Under most circumstances, that motion will
be correlated with changes in the current across the nanotube, and
thus the voltages that might be measured elsewhere in the system.
Because of this, aspects of the detectable moiety such as the
submolecular diffusion constant (the diffusibility of just that
part of the molecule, even when another part of the molecule is
constrained) will change the speed of those motions and thus the
characteristic frequencies with which the observed voltages or
currents will change. For example, a fast diffuser will generally
have a whiter noise spectrum, while a slower diffuser will tend to
produce a pinker current oscillation spectrum.
[0195] The current oscillation color can be used as the basis for a
discriminator, for example, by 1) taking the current oscillation
signature over a region of interest (e.g. over the duration of the
event), 2) performing a Fourier transform analysis or an
autocorrelation analysis, and examine the spectrum of the current
oscillation over the range of frequencies available (e.g. from
f=1/T where T is the duration of the pulse, up to the cutoff
frequency of the amplifier system, or somewhat beyond the cutoff).
This process will result in a digitally sampled current oscillation
amplitude as a function of frequency. This could be represented by
as few as two samples (a low frequency region and a high frequency
region), 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 16, 32, 64, 128, 256,
512, 1024 or more bins. The values in these bins could be discrete
samples of a function or they represent integrals over a region of
interest of the idealized continuous function. This set of discrete
values can be represented as a vector that can be classified by one
of many machine learning systems such as k-means clustering, SVM,
CART or boosted CART, PCA and many others. Thus, as described
herein, current oscillation color can be used to discriminate
detectable moieties. Detection systems that are based on current
oscillation color can be referred to as "current oscillation color
identification systems", and when moieties engineered for producing
different current oscillation color are used, they are referred to
as "current oscillation color tags". In a sequencing system, when
nucleotide base sequence is identified on this basis it can be
referred to as a current oscillation color sequencing system
(whether the current oscillation color is intrinsic to the bases or
the result of current oscillation color tags).
[0196] Other aspects besides the diffusion constant can affect the
current oscillation color of the signal. For example, in the
embodiments that use linkers with different elastic constants, this
will affect the magnitude of these diffusive fluctuations, which
will then affect the current oscillation signal (not to be confused
with the amplitude of the DC current during the event--this is
referring to the RMS noise of the signal over the duration of the
event.). In analogy with color systems that have RGB, or HSV, color
can be generalized to include the "brightness" of the color. In the
above-mentioned spectrum analysis model, this would result in the
values in the vector being larger for moieties capable of larger
excursions, and lower values for moieties that are more constrained
in position. Some or all of these signals can be exploited in the
machine learning paradigm indicated above. There are many aspects
that can affect the size of the excursions.
[0197] The nanoscale electrodes used to connect the nanoFETs or
that are part of the nanoFET, e.g. the source and the drain are
typically prepared such that the electrodes have low capacitance in
order to allow for rapidly changing the voltage on the electrodes
to carry out the sequencing methods described herein. The
resistance and capacitance are kept low by the selection of
materials and by the geometry of the electrodes and the spacing of
the electrodes. One of the considerations is keeping the RC time
constant of each capacitive device low enough to allow for changing
the voltage on the electrodes to carry out the methods described
herein. In some cases, the RC time constant for the electrode is
less than 100 microseconds, less than 10 microseconds, less than 1
microsecond, less than 0.1 microseconds, or less than 0.01
microseconds. In some cases, the RC time constant is between 0.01
microseconds and 100 microseconds. In order to keep the RC time
constant low, the electrodes and the interconnects that carry
current to and from the electrodes are formed from a material
having an electrical conductivity of greater than 106 S/m. Suitable
materials include copper, silver, gold, platinum, and aluminum. In
order to keep the capacitance low, the dimensions of the electrodes
are also generally small--on the nanometer scale. In addition,
where there are two electrodes near each other as in the two
electrode configuration, while the electrode portions exposed to
the surface are close together, the electrodes are configured not
to have large portions where the two electrodes are within a few
nanometers. It is also an aspect of the invention to minimize the
area of electrodes that is in contact with conductive liquid so as
to control the capacitance of the system. Similarly it is an aspect
of the invention to use insulating layers to increase the distance
to ground planes, other electrodes, or any other conductor which
could produce stray capacitance.
[0198] The ability to electrically address the small devices of the
instant invention quickly due to the low RC time constant of the
structures is useful for carrying out the invention as it allows
for sampling multiple frequency regimes to identify the identity of
the different components that are present.
[0199] The methods described herein provide for identifying the
nucleotide analogs that are incorporated in to a growing nucleic
acid strand as they are incorporated in the bound
polymerase-template complex. The presence and identity of the bases
is measured by measuring electrical signals in the nanoFET
proximate to the bound polymerase-template complex. As described
above, the presence of a conductivity label corresponding to a
particular base proximate to a nanoFET for a period of time
corresponding to the time for base incorporation indicates that
that base has been incorporated. The incorporation of that base
into the growing strand indicates the presence of the complementary
base in the template strand, providing sequence information about
the template. The calling of bases is done using software that
takes the current versus time information, and in some cases other
information in order to call the base that has been
incorporated.
[0200] An exemplary process for pulse recognition is as follows.
Once the current traces have been generated for a given nanoFET
device for a certain time period, the current traces are subjected
to a pulse recognition process. In the initial step, a baseline is
established for the trace. Typically, the baseline may comprise
signal contributions from a number of background sources (depending
on the details of the spectral and trace extraction steps). For
example, such noise can include, e.g., global background (e.g.
large scale spatial cross-talk) and diffusion background. These
backgrounds are generally stable on the timescales of pulses, but
still may vary slowly over longer timescales. Baseline removal
comprises any number of techniques, ranging from, e.g.: a median of
the trace, running lowest-percentile with bias correction,
polynomial and/or exponential fits, or low-pass filtering with an
FFT. Generally these methods will attempt to be robust to the
presence of pulses in the trace and may actually be derived at
through iterative methods that make multiple passes at identifying
pulses and removing them from consideration of baseline estimation.
In certain preferred embodiments, a baseline or background model is
computed for each trace channel, e.g., to set the scale for
threshold-based event detection.
[0201] Other baselining functions include correction for drift or
decay of overall signal levels. For example, global background
decay is sometimes observed. This global background decay is
present on portions of the substrate at which there is no enzyme
bound proximate to nanoFETs, thus allowing the traces derived from
these locations to be used in combination with the two dimensional
global background image to estimate the contribution of this signal
to every trace/channel across the chip. This component of
variability can then be subtracted from each trace and is usually
very effective at removing this decay. Typically, this is carried
out prior to the baselining processes.
[0202] Following establishment of the baseline the traces are
subjected to noise suppression filtering to maximize pulse
detection. In particularly preferred aspects, the noise filter is a
`matched filter` that has the width and shape of the pulse of
interest. While current pulse timescales (and thus, pulse widths)
are expected to vary among different capacitive labeled
nucleotides, the preferred filters will typically look for pulses
that have a characteristic shape with varying overall duration. For
example, a boxcar filter that looks for a current pulse of
prolonged duration, e.g., from about 10 ms to 100 or more ms,
provides a suitable filter. This filtering is generally performed
in the time-domain through convolution or low-pass frequency domain
filtering. Other filtering techniques include: median filtering
(which has the additional effect of removing short timescale pulses
completely from the trace depending on the timescale used), and
Savitsky-Golay filtering which tends to preserve the shape of the
pulse--again depending on the parameters used in the filter).
[0203] Although described in terms of a generic filtering process
across the various traces, it will be appreciated that different
pulses may have different characteristics, and thus may be
subjected to trace specific filtering protocols. For example, in
some cases, a given labeled analog (e.g., A) may have a different
pulse duration for an incorporation event than another different
labeled analog (e.g., T). As such, the filtering process for the
spectral trace corresponding to the A analog will have different
filtering metrics on the longer duration pulses, than for the trace
corresponding to the T analog incorporation. In general, such
filters (e.g., multi-scale filters) enhance the signal-to-noise
ratio for enhanced detection sensitivity. Even within the same
channel there may be a range of pulse widths. Therefore typically a
bank of these filters is used in order to maximize sensitivity to
pulses at a range of timescales within the same channel.
[0204] In identifying pulses on a filtered trace, a number of
different criteria can be used. For example, one can use absolute
current amplitude, either with or without normalization.
Alternatively, one can identify pulses from the pulse to diffusion
background ratio as a metric for identifying the pulse. In still
other methods, one may use statistical significance tests to
identify likely pulses over the background noise levels that exist
in a given analysis. The latter method is particularly preferred as
it allows for variation in potential pulse intensities, and reduces
the level of false positives called from noise in the baseline.
[0205] As noted previously, a number of signal parameters including
amplitude of capacitance change, impedance versus frequency,
residence time, and current oscillation color may be and generally
are used in pulse identification (as well as in pulse
classification). For purposes of illustration, the discussion below
primarily on the use of two pulse metrics, namely pulse intensity
and pulse width. As will be appreciated, the process may generally
include any one or more of the various pulse metric comparisons set
forth elsewhere herein.
[0206] As such, following filtering, standard deviation of the
baselines (noise and current pulses) and determination of pulse
detection thresholds are carried out. Preferred methods for
determining the standard deviation of a trace include robust
standard deviation determinations including, e.g., being based upon
the median absolute difference about the baseline, a Gaussian or
Poisson fit to the histogram of baselined intensities, or an
iterative sigma-clip estimate in which extreme outliers are
excluded. Once determined for each trace, a pulse is identified if
it exceeds some preset number of standard deviations from the
baseline. The number of standard deviations that constitute a
significant pulse can vary depending upon a number of factors,
including, for example, the desired degree of confidence in
identification or classification of significant pulses, the signal
to noise ratio for the system, the amount of other noise
contributions to the system, and the like. In a preferred aspect,
the up-threshold for an incorporation event, e.g., at the
initiation of a pulse in the trace, is set at about 5 standard
deviations or greater, while the down-threshold (the point at which
the pulse is determined to have ended) is set at 1.25 standard
deviations. Up thresholds can be used as low as 3.75 standard
deviations and as high as the signal-to-noise ratio will allow--up
to 7, 10, 20 or 50 standard deviations. The down threshold can be
set anywhere from minus 1 standard deviation up to the up
threshold. Alternatively, the down threshold can be computed from
the mean and standard deviation of the up signal, in which case it
could be set between minus 3 standard deviations to minus 6
standard deviations. If the signal-to-noise ratio is sufficiently
high it could be set to minus 7, 10, 20 or 50 standard deviations.
The pulse width is then determined from the time between the
triggering of the up and down thresholds. Once significant pulses
are initially identified, they are subjected to further processing
to determine whether the pulse can be called as a particular base
incorporation. Alternatively the signals can be filtered ahead of
time to eliminate frequency components that correspond to
timescales not likely to correspond to true incorporation events,
in which case the further processing steps are optional.
[0207] In some cases, multiple passes are made through traces
examining pulses at different timescales, from which a list of
non-redundant pulses detected at such different time thresholds may
be created. This typically includes analysis of unfiltered traces
in order to minimize potential pulse overlap in time, thereby
maximizing sensitivity to pulses with width at or near the highest
frame rate of the camera. This allows the application of current
oscillation color or other metrics to current pulses that
inherently operate on different timescale. In particular, an
analysis at longer timescales may establish trends not identifiable
at shorter timescales, for example, identifying multiple short
timescale pulses actually correspond to a single longer, discrete
pulse.
[0208] In addition, some pulses may be removed from
consideration/evaluation, where they may have been identified as
the result of systematic errors, such as through spatial cross-talk
of adjacent devices, or cross-talk between detection channels (to
the extent such issues have not been resolved in a calibration
processes). Typically, the calibration process will identify
cross-talk coefficients for each device, and thus allow such
components to be corrected.
[0209] In certain embodiments, a trace-file comprises
L-weighted-sum (LWS) traces, where trace is optimized to have
maximum pulse detection sensitivity to an individual label in the
reaction mixture. This is not a deconvolved or multicomponent trace
representation, and suffers from spectral cross-talk.
[0210] Classification of an extracted pulse into one of the 4 (or
N) labels is then carried out by comparing the extracted spectrum
to the spectra of the labels sets established in a calibration
process. A number of comparative methods may be used to generate a
comparative metric for this process. For example, in some aspects,
a .chi.2 test is used to establish the goodness of fit of the
comparison. A suitable .PHI.2 test is described, for example, in
U.S. Patent Application 20120015825, incorporated herein by
reference for all purposes.
[0211] Once the pulse spectrum is classified as corresponding to a
particular label spectrum, that correlation is then used to assign
a base classification to the pulse. As noted above, the base
classification or "calling" may be configured to identify directly
the labeled base added to the extended primer sequence in the
reaction, or it may be set to call the complementary base to that
added (and for which the pulse spectrum best matches the label
spectrum). In either case, the output will be the assignment of a
base classification to each recognized and classified pulse. For
example, a base classification may be assignment of a particular
base to the pulse, or identification of the pulse as an insertion
or deletion event.
[0212] In an ideal situation, once a pulse is identified as
significant and its spectrum is definitively identified, a base is
simply called on the basis of that information. However, as noted
above, in typical sequencing runs, signal traces can include signal
noise, such as missing pulses (e.g., points at which no pulse was
found to be significant, but that correspond to an incorporation
event) false positive pulses, e.g., resulting from nonspecifically
adsorbed analogs or labels, or the like. Accordingly, pulse
classification (also termed base classification) can in many cases
involve a more complex analysis. As with pulse identification,
above, base classification typically relies upon a plurality of
different signal characteristics in assigning a base to a
particular identified significant pulse. In many cases, two, three,
five, ten or more different signal characteristics may be compared
in order to call a base from a given significant pulse. Such
characteristics include those used in identifying significant
pulses as described above, such as pulse width or derivative
thereof (e.g., smooth pulse width estimate, cognate residence time,
or non-cognate residence time), pulse intensity, pulse channel,
estimated average current amplitude of pulse, median current
amplitude of all pulses in the trace corresponding to the same
channel, background and/or baseline level of channel matching pulse
identity, signal to noise ratio (e.g., signal to noise ratio of
pulses in matching channel, and/or signal to noise ratio of each
different channel), power to noise ratio, integrated counts in
pulse peak, maximum signal value across pulse, pulse density over
time (e.g., over at least about 1, 2, 5, 10, 15, 20, or 30 second
window), shape of and distance/time to neighboring pulses (e.g.,
interpulse distance), channel of neighboring pulses (e.g., channel
of previous 1, 2, 3, or 4 pulses and/or channel of following 1, 2,
3, or 4 pulses), similarity of pulse channel to the channel of one
or more neighboring pulses, signal to noise ratio for neighboring
pulses; spectral signature of the pulse, pulse centroid location,
and the like, and combinations thereof. Typically, such comparison
will be based upon standard pattern recognition of the metrics used
as compared to patterns of known base classifications, yielding
base calls for the closest pattern fit between the significant
pulse and the pattern of the standard base profile.
[0213] Comparison of pulse metrics against representative metrics
from pulses associated with a known base identity will typically
employ predictive or machine learning processes. In particular, a
"training" database of "N previously solved cases" is created that
includes the various metrics set forth above. For example, a vector
of features is analyzed for each pulse, and values for those
features are measured and used to determine the classification for
the pulse, e.g., an event corresponding to the pulse, e.g., an
incorporation, deletion, or insertion event. As used herein, an
incorporation event refers to an incorporation of a nucleotide
complementary to a template strand, a deletion event corresponds to
a missing pulse resulting in a one position gap in the observed
sequence read, and an insertion event corresponds to an extra pulse
resulting in detection of a base in the absence of incorporation.
For example, an extra pulse can be detected when a polymerase binds
a cognate or noncognate nucleotide but the nucleotide is released
without incorporation into a growing polynucleotide strand. From
that database, a learning procedure is applied to the data in order
to extract a predicting function from the data. A wide variety of
learning procedures are known in the art and are readily applicable
to the database of pulse metrics. These include, for example,
linear/logistic regression algorithms, neural networks, kernel
methods, decision trees, multivariate splines (MARS), multiple
additive regression trees (MART.TM.), support vector machines.
[0214] In addition to calling bases at pulses identified as
significant, the present methods also allow for modeling missing
pulses. For example, conditional random fields (CRF) are
probabilistic models that can be used to in pulse classification
(see, e.g., Lafferty, et al. (2001) Proc.Intl. Conf. on Machine
Learning 01, pgs 282-289, incorporated herein by reference in its
entirety for all purposes). A CRF can also be conceptualized as a
generalized Hidden Markov Model (HMM), some examples of which are
described elsewhere herein and are well known in the art. The
present invention includes the use of CRFs to model missing bases
in an observed pulse trace. In addition to base calling, algorithms
for consensus generation and sequence alignment can be used to
obtain further information from the sequencing methods described
herein.
[0215] Methods for calling bases, consensus generation, and
sequence alignment are described, for example, in the following
patents and applications, which are incorporated herein for all
purposes: U.S. Pat. No. 7,995,202 "Methods and Systems for
Simultaneous real-time monitoring of optical signals from multiple
sources"; U.S. Pat. No. 7,626,704 "Methods and systems for
simultaneous real-time monitoring of optical signals from multiple
sources"; U.S. Pat. No. 8,182,993 "Methods and Processes for
Calling Bases in Sequence by Incorporation Methods"; U.S. Ser. No.
13/468,347 filed May 10, 2012, "Algorithms for Sequence
Determination"; US 20120015825 "Analytical Systems and Methods with
Software Mask"; US 20110257889 "Sequence Assembly and Consensus
Sequence Determination"; US 20120052490 "Methods and Systems for
Monitoring Reactions"; US 20100169026 "Algorithms for Sequence
Determination Processing". While the base identification and base
calling algorithms in the above documents are typically described
referring to optical systems, in light of the current
specification, one of ordinary skill in the art would understand
how to bring such methods to bear in the nanoFET sequencing systems
and methods of the present invention.
Polymerase-Nucleic Acid Complex
[0216] The polymerase-enzyme complex of the invention comprises a
nucleic acid polymerase enzyme associated with a template molecule.
The template also typically has a primer hybridized to it, while
some polymerase enzymes can initiate nucleic acid synthesis without
the addition of an external primer. While many enzyme-substrate
interactions are transient, some polymerase enzymes can form
relatively stable complexes with nucleic acids that can be
manipulated, purified, and then subsequently used to carry out
nucleic acid synthesis. For example, DNA polymerases having
relatively high processivity can have strong associations with
template nucleic acid molecules. An exemplary DNA Polymerase is
phi-29 DNA polymerase. Methods for forming and manipulating
polymerase-nucleic acid complexes are described, for example in
copending U.S. Patent Application entitled Purified Extended
Polymerase/Template Complex for Sequencing" 61/385,376, filed Sep.
22, 2010 and U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/427,725 filed Mar.
22, 2012 entitled "Isolation of Polymerase-Nucleic Acid Complexes"
which is incorporated by reference herein in its entirety for all
purposes.
[0217] The polymerase-nucleic acid complex will typically comprise
a polymerase and a nucleic acid having a double stranded region.
The polymerase-nucleic acid complex will generally have a primer
from which a nascent nucleic acid strand will be produced
complementary to a template strand of the nucleic acid. The primer
is usually a short oligonucleotide that is complementary to a
portion of the template nucleic acid. The primers of the invention
can comprise naturally occurring RNA or DNA oligonucleotides. The
primers of the invention may also be synthetic analogs. The primers
may have alternative backbones as described above for the nucleic
acids of the invention. The primer may also have other
modifications, such as the inclusion of heteroatoms, the attachment
of labels, or substitution with functional groups which will still
allow for base pairing and for recognition by the enzyme. Primers
can select tighter binding primer sequences, e.g., GC-rich
sequences, as well as employ primers that include within their
structure non-natural nucleotides or nucleotide analogs, e.g.,
peptide nucleic acids (PNAs) or locked nucleic acids (LNAs), that
can demonstrate higher affinity pairing with the template. In some
cases, the primer is added as a separate component to form the
complex; in other cases, the primer can be part of the nucleic acid
that used. For example, in some cases priming can begin at a nick
or a gap in one strand of a double-stranded nucleic acid.
[0218] The template nucleic acid can be derived from any suitable
natural or synthetic source. In preferred embodiments, the template
comprises double stranded DNA, but in some circumstances
double-stranded RNA or RNA-DNA heteroduplexes can be used. The
template nucleic acid can be genomic DNA from eukaryotes, bacteria,
or archaea. The template nucleic acid can be cDNA derived from any
suitable source including messenger RNA. The template nucleic acid
can comprise a library of double stranded segments of DNA. The
template nucleic acid can be linear or circular. For example, the
nucleic acid can be topologically circular and have a linear double
stranded region. A circular nucleic acid can be, for example, a
gapped plasmid. In some embodiments the nucleic acid is a double
stranded linear DNA having a gap in one of the strands. The gap
provides a site for attachment of the polymerase enzyme for nucleic
acid synthesis. The linear double stranded DNA having a
double-stranded DNA adaptor can be made by ligation of DNA fragment
to an adaptor through blunt end-ligation or sticky end ligation.
The ligation produces a linear DNA having a gap close to the 5' end
of one or both of the strands. The gap can be any suitable width.
For example, the gap can be from 1 to 50 bases, from 2 to 30 bases,
or from 3 to 12 bases.
[0219] The terms "nucleic acid" or "oligonucleotide" or grammatical
equivalents herein mean at least two nucleotides covalently linked
together. A nucleic acid of the present invention will generally
contain phosphodiester bonds, although in some cases, nucleotide
analogs are included that may have alternate backbones, comprising,
for example, phosphoramide, phosphorothioate, phosphorodithioate,
and peptide nucleic acid backbones and linkages. Other analog
nucleic acids include those with positive backbones, non-ionic
backbones, and non-ribose backbones, including those described in
U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,235,033 and 5,034,506. The template nucleic acid
may also have other modifications, such as the inclusion of
heteroatoms, the attachment of labels, or substitution with
functional groups which will still allow for base pairing and for
recognition by the enzyme.
[0220] The template sequence may be provided in any of a number of
different format types depending upon the desired application. The
template may be provided as a circular or functionally circular
construct that allows redundant processing of the same nucleic acid
sequence by the synthesis complex. Use of such circular constructs
has been described in, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 7,315,019 and U.S.
patent application Ser. No. 12/220,674, filed Jul. 25, 2008.
Alternate functional circular constructs are also described in U.S.
patent application Ser. No. 12/383,855, filed Mar. 27, 2009, and
U.S. Pat. No. 8,153,375 Compositions and Methods for Nucleic Acid
Sequencing; U.S. Pat. No. 8,003,330 Error-Free Amplification of DNA
for Clonal Sequencing; and Ser. No. 13/363,066 filed Jan. 31, 2012
Methods and Compositions for Nucleic Acid Sample Preparation, the
full disclosures of each of which are incorporated herein by
reference in their entirety for all purposes.
[0221] Briefly, such alternate constructs include template
sequences that possess a central double stranded portion that is
linked at each end by an appropriate linking oligonucleotide, such
as a hairpin loop segment. Such structures not only provide the
ability to repeatedly replicate a single molecule (and thus
sequence that molecule), but also provide for additional redundancy
by replicating both the sense and antisense portions of the double
stranded portion. In the context of sequencing applications, such
redundant sequencing provides great advantages in terms of sequence
accuracy.
[0222] The nucleic acids can comprise a population of nucleic acids
having universal sequence regions that are common to all of the
nucleic acids in the population and also have specific regions that
are different in the different members of the population. The
current invention allows for capturing and isolating
polymerase-nucleic acid complexes using either the universal or the
specific regions.
[0223] While in many cases nucleic acid synthesis is describe
herein as extending from a primer, it is to be understood that some
polymerases do not require an added external primer, and can be
initiated using terminal protein. Polymerases that can be initiated
using terminal protein include phi-29 polymerase.
Polymerase Enzymes
[0224] Polymerase enzymes useful in this invention can include any
suitable nucleic acid polymerase. Types of polymerases that can be
used are described in more detail herein.
DNA Polymerases
[0225] DNA polymerases are sometimes classified into six main
groups based upon various phylogenetic relationships, e.g., with E.
coli Pol I (class A), E. coli Pol II (class B), E. coli Pol III
(class C), Euryarchaeotic Pol II (class D), human Pol beta (class
X), and E. coli UmuC/DinB and eukaryotic RAD30/xeroderma
pigmentosum variant (class Y) which are incorporated by reference
herein for all purposes. For a review of recent nomenclature, see,
e.g., Burgers et al. (2001) "Eukaryotic DNA polymerases: proposal
for a revised nomenclature" J Biol Chem. 276(47):43487-90. For a
review of polymerases, see, e.g., Hubscher et al. (2002)
"Eukaryotic DNA Polymerases" Annual Review of Biochemistry Vol. 71:
133-163; Alba (2001) "Protein Family Review: Replicative DNA
Polymerases" Genome Biology 2(1):reviews 3002.1-3002.4; and Steitz
(1999) "DNA polymerases: structural diversity and common
mechanisms" J Biol Chem 274:17395-17398, which are incorporated by
reference herein for all purposes. The basic mechanisms of action
for many polymerases have been determined. The sequences of
literally hundreds of polymerases are publicly available, and the
crystal structures for many of these have been determined, or can
be inferred based upon similarity to solved crystal structures of
homologous polymerases. For example, the crystal structure of
.PHI.29, a preferred type of parental enzyme to be modified
according to the invention, is available.
[0226] In addition to wild-type polymerases, chimeric polymerases
made from a mosaic of different sources can be used. For example,
.PHI.29 polymerases made by taking sequences from more than one
parental polymerase into account can be used as a starting point
for mutation to produce the polymerases of the invention. Chimeras
can be produced, e.g., using consideration of similarity regions
between the polymerases to define consensus sequences that are used
in the chimera, or using gene shuffling technologies in which
multiple .PHI.29-related polymerases are randomly or semi-randomly
shuffled via available gene shuffling techniques (e.g., via "family
gene shuffling"; see Crameri et al. (1998) "DNA shuffling of a
family of genes from diverse species accelerates directed
evolution" Nature 391:288-291; Clackson et al. (1991) "Making
antibody fragments using phage display libraries" Nature
352:624-628; Gibbs et al. (2001) "Degenerate oligonucleotide gene
shuffling (DOGS): a method for enhancing the frequency of
recombination with family shuffling" Gene 271:13-20; and Hiraga and
Arnold (2003) "General method for sequence-independent
site-directed chimeragenesis: J. Mol. Biol. 330:287-296) which are
incorporated by reference herein for all purposes. In these
methods, the recombination points can be predetermined such that
the gene fragments assemble in the correct order. However, the
combinations, e.g., chimeras, can be formed at random. For example,
using methods described in Clarkson et al., five gene chimeras,
e.g., comprising segments of a Phi29 polymerase, a PZA polymerase,
an M2 polymerase, a B103 polymerase, and a GA-1 polymerase, can be
generated. Appropriate mutations to enhance performance with
nucleotide analogs, increase readlength, improve thermostability,
alter reaction rate constants, and/or alter another desirable
property as described herein can be introduced into the
chimeras.
[0227] Available DNA polymerase enzymes have also been modified in
any of a variety of ways, e.g., to reduce or eliminate exonuclease
activities (many native DNA polymerases have a proof-reading
exonuclease function that interferes with, e.g., sequencing
applications), to simplify production by making protease digested
enzyme fragments such as the Klenow fragment recombinant, etc. As
noted, polymerases have also been modified to confer improvements
in specificity, processivity, and improved retention time of
labeled nucleotides in polymerase-DNA-nucleotide complexes (e.g.,
WO 2007/076057 POLYMERASES FOR NUCLEOTIDE ANALOGUE INCORPORATION by
Hanzel et al. and WO 2008/051530 POLYMERASE ENZYMES AND REAGENTS
FOR ENHANCED NUCLEIC ACID SEQUENCING by Rank et al.), to alter
branching fraction and translocation (e.g., US patent application
publication 2010-0075332 by Pranav Patel et al. entitled
"ENGINEERING POLYMERASES AND REACTION CONDITIONS FOR MODIFIED
INCORPORATION PROPERTIES"), to increase photostability (e.g., US
patent application publication 2010-0093555 by Keith Bjornson et
al. entitled "Enzymes Resistant to Photodamage" and US patent
application publication 2013-0217007 by Satwik Kamtekar et al.
entitled "Recombinant Polymerases with Increased Phototolerance"),
to slow one or more catalytic steps during the polymerase kinetic
cycle, increase closed complex stability, decrease branching
fraction, alter cofactor selectivity, and increase yield,
thermostability, accuracy, speed, and readlength (e.g., US patent
application publication 2010-0112645 "Generation of Modified
Polymerases for Improved Accuracy in Single Molecule Sequencing" by
Sonya Clark et al., US patent application publication 2011-0189659
"Generation of Modified Polymerases for Improved Accuracy in Single
Molecule Sequencing" by Sonya Clark et al., and US patent
application publication 2012-0034602 "Recombinant Polymerases For
Improved Single Molecule Sequencing" by Robin Emig et al.), and to
improve surface-immobilized enzyme activities (e.g., WO 2007/075987
ACTIVE SURFACE COUPLED POLYMERASES by Hanzel et al. and WO
2007/076057 PROTEIN ENGINEERING STRATEGIES TO OPTIMIZE ACTIVITY OF
SURFACE ATTACHED PROTEINS by Hanzel et al.), which are incorporated
by reference herein for all purposes. Any of these available
polymerases can be modified in accordance with the invention.
[0228] Many such polymerases that are suitable for modification are
available, e.g., for use in sequencing, labeling and amplification
technologies. For example, human DNA Polymerase Beta is available
from R&D systems. DNA polymerase I is available from Epicenter,
GE Health Care, Invitrogen, New England Biolabs, Promega, Roche
Applied Science, Sigma Aldrich and many others. The Klenow fragment
of DNA Polymerase I is available in both recombinant and protease
digested versions, from, e.g., Ambion, Chimerx, eEnzyme LLC, GE
Health Care, Invitrogen, New England Biolabs, Promega, Roche
Applied Science, Sigma Aldrich and many others. .PHI.29 DNA
polymerase is available from e.g., Epicentre. Poly A polymerase,
reverse transcriptase, Sequenase, SP6 DNA polymerase, T4 DNA
polymerase, T7 DNA polymerase, and a variety of thermostable DNA
polymerases (Taq, hot start, titanium Taq, etc.) are available from
a variety of these and other sources. Recent commercial DNA
polymerases include Phusion.TM. High-Fidelity DNA Polymerase,
available from New England Biolabs; GoTaq.RTM. Flexi DNA
Polymerase, available from Promega; RepliPHI.TM. .PHI.29 DNA
Polymerase, available from Epicentre Biotechnologies; PfuUltra.TM.
Hotstart DNA Polymerase, available from Stratagene; KOD HiFi DNA
Polymerase, available from Novagen; and many others.
Biocompare(dot)com provides comparisons of many different
commercially available polymerases.
[0229] DNA polymerases that are preferred substrates for mutation
to enhance performance with nucleotide analogs, increase
readlength, improve thermostability, improve detection of base
modifications, increase phototolerance, alter reaction rates,
reduce or eliminate exonuclease activity, alter metal cofactor
selectivity, and/or alter one or more other property described
herein include Taq polymerases, exonuclease deficient Taq
polymerases, E. coli DNA Polymerase 1, Klenow fragment, reverse
transcriptases, .PHI.29-related polymerases including wild type
.PHI.29 polymerase and derivatives of such polymerases such as
exonuclease deficient forms, T7 DNA polymerase, T5 DNA polymerase,
an RB69 polymerase, etc.
[0230] In one aspect, the polymerase that is modified is a
.PHI.29-type DNA polymerase. For example, the modified recombinant
DNA polymerase can be homologous to a wild-type or exonuclease
deficient .PHI.29 DNA polymerase, e.g., as described in U.S. Pat.
Nos. 5,001,050, 5,198,543, or 5,576,204 which are incorporated by
reference herein for all purposes. Alternately, the modified
recombinant DNA polymerase can be homologous to other .PHI.29-type
DNA polymerases, such as B103, GA-1, PZA, .PHI.15, BS32, M2Y, Nf,
G1, Cp-1, PRD1, PZE, SF5, Cp-5, Cp-7, PR4, PR5, PR722, L17,
.PHI.21, or the like. For nomenclature, see also, Meijer et al.
(2001) ".PHI.29 Family of Phages" Microbiology and Molecular
Biology Reviews, 65(2):261-287. Polymerase enzymes useful in the
invention include polymerases mutated to have desirable properties
for sequencing. Suitable polymerases are described, for example, in
US patent application publications 2007-0196846, 2008-0108082,
2010-0075332, 2010-0093555, 2010-0112645, 2011-0059505,
2011-0189659, 2012-0034602, 2013-0217007, 2014-0094374, and
2014-0094375, all of which are incorporated by reference herein for
all purposes. Similarly, the modified polymerases described herein
can be employed in combination with other strategies to improve
polymerase performance, for example, reaction conditions for
controlling polymerase rate constants such as taught in US patent
application publication 2009-0286245 entitled "Two slow-step
polymerase enzyme systems and methods," incorporated herein by
reference in its entirety for all purposes.
[0231] The polymerase enzymes used in the invention will generally
have strand-displacement activity. In some cases, strand
displacement is part of the polymerase enzyme itself. In other
cases, other cofactors or co-enzymes can be added to provide the
strand displacement capability.
RNA Dependent RNA Polymerases
[0232] In some embodiments, the polymerase enzyme that is used for
sequencing is an RNA polymerase. Any suitable RNA polymerase (RNAP)
can be used including RNA polymerases from bacteria, eukaryotes,
viruses, or archea. Suitable RNA polymerases include RNA PoI I, RNA
PoI II, RNA PoI III, RNA PoI IV, RNA PoI V, T7 RNA polymerase, T3
RNA polymerase or SP6 RNA polymerase. The use of RNA polymerases
allows for the direct sequencing of messenger RNA, transfer RNA,
non-coding RNA, ribosomal RNA, micro RNA or catalytic RNA. Where
RNA polymerases are used, the polymerizing reagents will generally
include NTPs or their analogs rather than the dNTPs used for DNA
synthesis. In addition, RNA polymerases can be used with specific
cofactors. There are many proteins that can bind to RNAP and modify
its behavior. For instance, GreA and GreB from E. coli and in most
other prokaryotes can enhance the ability of RNAP to cleave the RNA
template near the growing end of the chain. This cleavage can
rescue a stalled polymerase molecule, and is likely involved in
proofreading the occasional mistakes made by RNAP. A separate
cofactor, Mfd, is involved in transcription-coupled repair, the
process in which RNAP recognizes damaged bases in the DNA template
and recruits enzymes to restore the DNA. Other cofactors are known
to play regulatory roles; i.e., they help RNAP choose whether or
not to express certain genes. RNA dependent RNA polymerases (RNA
replicases) may also be used including viral RNA polymerases: e.g.
polioviral 3Dpol, vesicular stomatitis virus L, and hepatitis C
virus NS5b protein; and eukaryotic RNA replicases which are known
to amplify microRNAs and small temporal RNAs and produce
double-stranded RNA using small interfering RNAs as primers.
Reverse Transcriptases
[0233] The polymerase enzyme used in the methods or compositions of
the invention includes RNA dependent DNA polymerases or reverse
transcriptases. Suitable reverse transcriptase enzymes include
HIV-1, M-MLV, AMV, and Telomere Reverse Transcriptase. Reverse
transcriptases also allow for the direct sequencing of RNA
substrates such as messenger RNA, transfer RNA, non-coding RNA,
ribosomal RNA, micro RNA or catalytic RNA.
[0234] Thus, any suitable polymerase enzyme can be used in the
systems and methods of the invention. Suitable polymerases include
DNA dependent DNA polymerases, DNA dependent RNA polymerases, RNA
dependent DNA polymerases (reverse transcriptases), and RNA
dependent RNA polymerases.
Immobilization of the Polymerase-Template Complex
[0235] The polymerase-template complex can be attached to a surface
such as to the gate of the nanoFET or to a region of the substrate
proximate to the nanoFET. Such attachment is typically by binding
the polymerase itself, but in some cases can be accomplished by
binding the template nucleic acid, or a primer. The binding can be
either covalent or non-covalent. In some cases, covalent
attachment, for example, covalent attachment to a carbon nanotube
is preferred. It is known that in some cases such covalent
attachment can result to a single-walled carbon nanotube can result
in an enhanced ability to detect molecular changes near the point
of covalent attachment. See for example US20130285680, which is
incorporated herein by reference. In some cases, an SiO.sub.2
region of the surface can be selectively functionalized to bind the
polymerase complex. The selective functionalization of SiO.sub.2
can be carried out, for example, using silane chemistry. For
example, the SiO.sub.2 portion of the surface can be selectively
treated with a biotin functionalized silane, and the surface can be
treated with an enzyme complex attached to streptavidin. The
streptavidin-polymerase-template complex will bind specifically to
the biotin on the SiO.sub.2 portions of the surface providing
selective binding. See e.g. U.S. Pat. No. 8,193,123 which is
incorporated herein by reference for all purposes. In some cases,
small regions, e.g. balls, islands, or pits can be made on the
surface that allow only a small number, and in some cases allow
only a single polymerase enzyme to bind. The creation of regions to
bind a single polymerase enzyme complex are described, for example
in U.S. Patent Application 20100009872 Single Molecule Loading
Methods and Compositions; and U.S. Patent Application 20110257040
Nanoscale Apertures Having Islands of Functionality which are
incorporated herein by reference for all purposes. DNA molecules
typically possess a strong negative charge and can thus be directed
using electric fields in aqueous solution. Because the devices of
the instant invention contemplate arrays of electrodes with means
of applying electric potentials and simultaneously measuring
currents from proximate labels, the capability exists to use the
potential-setting capacity to attract polymerases bound to DNA
molecules to the electrode region and then either simultaneously or
in alternating periods check to see if a polymerase has bound the
system. In this way each active device can be loaded with a single
polymerase by ceasing the attractive potential when the binding of
a DNA-Polymerase complex is detected.
[0236] The immobilization of a component of an analytical reaction
can be engineered in various ways. For example, an enzyme (e.g.,
polymerase, reverse transcriptase, kinase, etc.) may be attached to
the substrate at a reaction site, e.g., proximate to a nanoscale
electrode. In other embodiments, a substrate in an analytical
reaction (for example, a nucleic acid template, e.g., DNA, RNA, or
hybrids, analogs, and mimetics thereof, or a target molecule for a
kinase) may be attached to the substrate at a reaction site.
Certain embodiments of template immobilization are provided, e.g.,
in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/562,690, filed Sep. 18, 2009
and incorporated herein by reference in its entirety for all
purposes. One skilled in the art will appreciate that there are
many ways of immobilizing nucleic acids and proteins, whether
covalently or non-covalently, via a linker moiety, or tethering
them to an immobilized moiety. These methods are well known in the
field of solid phase synthesis and micro-arrays (Beier et al.,
Nucleic Acids Res. 27:1970-1-977 (1999)). Non-limiting exemplary
binding moieties for attaching either nucleic acids or polymerases
to a solid support include streptavidin or avidin/biotin linkages,
carbamate linkages, ester linkages, amide, thiolester,
(N)-functionalized thiourea, functionalized maleimide, amino,
disulfide, amide, hydrazone linkages, among others. Antibodies that
specifically bind to one or more reaction components can also be
employed as the binding moieties. In addition, a silyl moiety can
be attached to a nucleic acid directly to a substrate such as glass
using methods known in the art.
[0237] In some embodiments, a nucleic acid template is immobilized
onto a reaction site (e.g., proximate to a nanoFET) by attaching a
primer comprising a complementary region at the reaction site that
is capable of hybridizing with the template, thereby immobilizing
it in a position suitable for monitoring. In certain embodiments,
an enzyme complex is assembled, e.g., by first immobilizing an
enzyme component. In other embodiments, an enzyme complex is
assembled in solution prior to immobilization. Where desired, an
enzyme or other protein reaction component to be immobilized may be
modified to contain one or more epitopes for which specific
antibodies are commercially available. In addition, proteins can be
modified to contain heterologous domains such as glutathione
S-transferase (GST), maltose-binding protein (MBP), specific
binding peptide regions (see e.g., U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,723,584,
5,874,239 and 5,932,433), or the Fc portion of an immunoglobulin.
The respective binding agents for these domains, namely
glutathione, maltose, and antibodies directed to the Fc portion of
an immunoglobulin, are available and can be used to coat the
surface of a device of the present invention. The binding moieties
or agents of the reaction components they immobilize can be applied
to a support by conventional chemical techniques which are well
known in the art. In general, these procedures can involve standard
chemical surface modifications of a support, incubation of the
support at different temperature levels in different media
comprising the binding moieties or agents, and possible subsequent
steps of washing and cleaning.
[0238] The various components of the surface of the devices can be
selectively treated in order to bind the polymerase-template
complex to a specific portion of the substrate. Selective treatment
and immobilization is described, for example, in U.S. Pat. Nos.
5,624,711; 5,919,523; Hong et al., (2003) Langmuir 2357-2365; U.S.
Pat. Nos. 5,143,854; 5,424,186; 8,137,942; 7,993,891 Reactive
surfaces, substrates and methods of producing and using same; U.S.
Pat. Nos. 7,935,310; 7,932,035 7,931,867 Uniform surfaces for
hybrid material substrates and methods of making and using same;
and U.S. Pat. No. 8,193,123 Articles having localized molecules
disposed thereon and methods of producing same, all of which are
incorporated herein by reference for all purposes.
[0239] The polymerase complex is typically attached directly to the
gate of the nanoFET (e.g. the nanowire or carbon nanotube), but in
some cases the polymerase complex is attached proximate to the
gate. Such an attachment is made close enough to the nanoFET that
the conductive label on a nucleotide analog held in the active site
of the enzyme can extend close enough to the electrode to allow for
detection. The polymerase complex can be attached for example from
about 1 nm to about 100 nm from the gate of a nanoFET, from about 2
nm to about 50 nm from the gate of a nanoFET, or from about 4 nm to
about 20 nm from the gate of a nanoFET.
Conditions for Nucleic Acid Synthesis
[0240] The conditions required for nucleic acid synthesis are well
known in the art. The polymerase reaction conditions include the
type and concentration of buffer, the pH of the reaction, the
temperature, the type and concentration of salts, the presence of
particular additives that influence the kinetics of the enzyme, and
the type, concentration, and relative amounts of various cofactors,
including metal cofactors. For carrying out the methods of the
instant invention, the conditions for polymerase mediated nucleic
acid synthesis must also be compatible with conditions for
measuring electrical signals at the nanoFET. One aspect of carrying
out electrical measurements in solution is controlling the ionic
strength of the medium. It is know that polymerase enzymes can
effectively operate over a range of ionic strengths, and that the
ionic strength can be varied by changing the levels of monovalent
ions such as Li+, Na+, K+, Rb+, or Cs+. As has been shown, the
amount of one or more of these cations can have an effect on the
kinetics of the polymerase, and that the kinetic behavior can be
tuned by varying the relative amounts of these ions. Using
combinations of these ions, conditions can be chosen where both the
kinetic parameters of the enzyme, and the ionic strength for
electrical detection can be useful for the instant methods. See,
e.g. U.S. Patent Application 20120009567 which is incorporated
herein by reference for all purposes.
[0241] Enzymatic reactions are often run in the presence of a
buffer, which is used, in part, to control the pH of the reaction
mixture. Buffers suitable for the invention include, for example,
TAPS (3-{[tris(hydroxymethyl)methyl]amino}propanesulfonic acid),
Bicine (N,N-bis(2-hydroxyethyl)glycine), TRIS
(tris(hydroxymethyl)methylamine), ACES
(N-(2-Acetamido)-2-aminoethanesulfonic acid), Tricine
(N-tris(hydroxymethyl)methylglycine), HEPES
4-2-hydroxyethyl-1-piperazineethanesulfonic acid), TES
(2-{[tris(hydroxymethyl)methyl]amino}ethanesulfonic acid), MOPS
(3-(N-morpholino)propanesulfonic acid), PIPES
(piperazine-N,N'-bis(2-ethanesulfonic acid)), and MES
(2-(N-morpholino)ethanesulfonic acid).
[0242] The pH of the reaction can influence the rate of the
polymerase reaction. The temperature of the reaction can be
adjusted to enhance the performance of the system. The reaction
temperature may depend upon the type of polymerase which is
employed.
Nucleotide Analogs
[0243] Nucleotide analogs comprising conductivity labels will
typically be larger, i.e. have a larger molecular weight than
natural nucleotides. These analogs can include, for example,
nucleotide analogs describe in U.S. patent application Ser. No.
13/767,619 entitled Polymerase Enzyme Substrates with Protein
Shield, filed Feb. 14, 2013, and in U.S. Patent Application
61/862,502, entitled Protected Fluorescent Reagent Compounds, which
are incorporated herein by reference for all purposes.
[0244] Components of the sequencing reaction mixture include
nucleotides or nucleotide analogs. For the methods of the instant
invention, at least some of the nucleotide analogs have
conductivity labels attached to them. The nucleotide analogs
comprising conductivity labels are generally constructed in order
to enhance the electrical signal at the nanoFET when the label is
in the enzyme active site.
[0245] Typically the nucleotide analogs of the invention have the
following structure: [0246] Base-Sugar-PP-Linker-Label
[0247] wherein Base is a nucleobase, Sugar is a sugar such as
ribose or deoxyribose, PP is a polyphosphate moiety, Linker is a
linking group, and the Label is a group that is detectable by the
nanoFET. The label can be for example, a conductivity label as
described herein.
[0248] Typically there are four nucleotides in a sequencing
reaction mixture corresponding to A, G, T, and C for DNA and A, G,
C, U for RNA. In some cases, a 5.sup.th, 6.sup.th, or more base is
included. In some cases all of the nucleotide analogs have a
conductivity label, in other cases, fewer than all of the
nucleotides will have a conductivity label. In still other cases
all of the different nucleotide analog types will carry a
conductivity label, but a particular conductivity label will be
assigned to more than one base type. Typically each of the types of
nucleotide will have a nucleotide that is different and can be
distinguished from the other nucleotides, for example the other
three nucleotides. As described herein, the different nucleotides
can exhibit different impedance intensities, different impedance
versus frequency characteristics, different current versus time
characteristics (current oscillation color), or different
combinations of two or more of the above.
[0249] The Base is a nucleobase which can be one of the natural
bases, a modified natural base or a synthetic base. The Base will
selectively associate with its complementary base on the template
nucleic acid such that it will be inserted across from its
complementary base. The sugar is a group that connects the base to
the polyphosphate group. It is typically either ribose or
deoxyribose, but can be any sugar or other group that allows for
the complexation and incorporation of the nucleotide analog into
the growing strand. PP is a polyphosphate group generally from 2 to
20 phosphates in length, typically from 3 to 12 phosphates in
length, and in some preferred embodiments from 4 to 10 phosphates
in length. The nucleotide analog can have for example 4, 5, 6, 7 or
more phosphate groups. Such nucleotides have been described, for
example, in U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,936,702 and 7,041,812, which are
incorporated herein by reference for all purposes. Together, the
Base, Sugar and PP portion of the nucleotide analog is sometimes
referred to as the nucleotide portion or nucleoside phosphate
portion.
[0250] As used in the art, the term nucleotide refers both to the
nucleoside triphosphates that are added to a growing nucleic acid
chain in the polymerase reaction, or can refer to the individual
units of a nucleic acid molecule, for example the units of DNA and
RNA. Herein, the term nucleotide is used consistently with its use
in the art. Whether the term nucleotide refers to the substrate
molecule to be added to the growing nucleic acid or to the units in
the nucleic acid chain can be derived from the context in which the
term is used.
[0251] The Linker is a linking group that connects the label to the
nucleotide portion of the nucleotide analog. The linker can be long
linear or branched moiety whose length and flexibility is used to
control the diffusion of the nucleotide analog that is held within
the polymerase enzyme while it is being incorporated. The length of
the linker is, for example, from between 2 nm and 200 nm when fully
extended. It is understood that a long molecule such as a polymer
will not spend much time, if any, in its fully extended
configuration. The linker can be made up of groups including
alkanes, ethers, alcohols, amines, acids, sulfates, sulfonates,
phosphates, phosphonates, amides, esters, peptides, and sugars. The
groups on the linker can be neutral, positively charged, or
negatively charged. In some cases, the linker comprises
polyethylene glycol (PEG). It is desirable that the linker have a
fixed length (i.e. not be polydisperse) such that the size of any
analog molecule in the population will be the same. It is generally
desirable that the linker be water compatible. In some cases the
linker can include one or more macromolecules, such as proteins, or
one or more nanoparticles.
[0252] In some, the covalent attachment site is far from the active
site, but the linker is long, e.g., more than 5 nm, or more than 10
nm or more than 20 nm, allowing the active site to spend some
amount of time in proximity to the detection zone. When a long
linker is used, rotational freedom of the polymerase permits the
active site to enter the detection zone of the nanotube. In one
preferred example of this method, a covalent attachment is provide
at a location on the enzyme surface that is convenient (for example
the c or n terminus) and an affinity label is engineered into a
residue near the active site (375, 512 or near as before) to bias
the orientation. This strategy provides a degree of freedom in the
construction of the enzyme.
[0253] The length or size of the linker can be chosen for
performance with the particular geometry of the nanoFET device that
is used. The conductivity label is tethered to the the nucleotide
analog (comprising the linker), the enzyme and the attachment
moiety. The length of this complete tether and the distance of the
polymerase complex from the nanoFET can be used in order to select
the appropriate linker.
[0254] The conductivity label is attached to the nucleotide portion
of the nucleotide analog through the linker and phosphate. The
linker is typically attached to the terminal phosphate in the
polyphosphate moiety, but in some cases can be connected to a
phosphate in the polyphosphate chain that is not the terminal
phosphate. The linker is typically attached to a phosphate that is
cleaved on the act of the polymerase enzyme of nucleotide
incorporation. The polymerase enzyme cleaves the polyphosphate
between the alpha and beta phosphates, thus, the linker should be
connected to the beta (second) phosphate or greater.
[0255] The impedance label may be made up of one or more moieties
that provide a measurable electrical signal at the gate of the
nanoFET. Acceptable labels or moieties can comprise organic
compounds, organometallic compounds, nanoparticles, metals, or
other suitable substituent.
[0256] In some embodiments, a nanotube binding component is
attached to the nucleotide analog. Exemplary useful nanotube
binding components are described hereinabove and include, e.g., a
polymeric agent (e.g., a protein) or non-polymeric component (e.g.,
a polycyclic aromatic moiety such as naphthalene). Nanotube binding
components with a wide range of binding affinities can be used, so
long as the aggregate kinetics of binding and unbinding are fast
compared with the residence time of a typical terminal phosphate
label on a nucleotide analog that is participating in a nucleotide
incorporation event. Typically, however, components with a
relatively low affinity for the nanotube are preferred, to minimize
background from interaction with the nanotube alone rather than
with both the polymerase and nanotube. When present, the nanotube
binding component can, e.g., be incorporated in a linker between
the polyphosphate and the label, within the label moiety, or
terminal to the label.
Kinetic Measurements--Modified Base Detection
[0257] The methods of the invention provide for measuring the
incorporation of nucleotides into a growing chain in real time. The
real time measurements allow for the determination of enzyme
kinetics, which are can be sensitive to template characteristics
such as secondary structure, and modified bases. The ability to
detect modifications within nucleic acid sequences is useful for
mapping such modifications in various types and/or sets of nucleic
acid sequences, e.g., across a set of mRNA transcripts, across a
chromosomal region of interest, or across an entire genome. The
modifications so mapped can then be related to transcriptional
activity, secondary structure of the nucleic acid, siRNA activity,
mRNA translation dynamics, kinetics and/or affinities of DNA- and
RNA-binding proteins, and other aspects of nucleic acid (e.g., DNA
and/or RNA) metabolism.
[0258] In certain aspects of the invention, methods are provided
for identification of a modification in a nucleic acid molecule
using real time nanoFET sequencing. In general, a template nucleic
acid comprising the modification and an enzyme capable of
processing the template are provided. The template nucleic acid is
contacted with the enzyme, and the subsequent processing of the
template by the enzyme is monitored. A change in the processing is
detected, and this change is indicative of the presence of the
modification in the template. Exemplary modifications that can be
detected by the methods of the invention include, but are not
limited to methylated bases (e.g., 5-methylcytosine,
N6-methyladenosine, etc.), pseudouridine bases,
7,8-dihydro-8-oxoguanine bases, 2'-O-methyl derivative bases,
nicks, apurinic sites, apyrimidic sites, pyrimidine dimers, a
cis-platen crosslinking products, oxidation damage, hydrolysis
damage, bulky base adducts, thymine dimers, photochemistry reaction
products, interstrand crosslinking products, mismatched bases,
secondary structures, and bound agents. In preferred embodiments,
nucleotides or analogs thereof that are incorporated into a nascent
strand synthesized by the enzyme are distinctly labeled to allow
identification of a sequence of specific nucleotides or nucleotide
analogs so incorporated. Labels are linked to nucleotides or
nucleotide analogs through a phosphate group, e.g., a phosphate
group other than the alpha phosphate group. As such, the labels are
removed from the nucleotide or nucleotide analog upon incorporation
into the nascent strand. Techniques for kinetically identifying
modified bases are described, for example in U.S. Patent
Application 20110183320 Classification of Nucleic Acid Templates
which is incorporated herein by reference for all purposes.
[0259] The term "modification" as used herein is intended to refer
not only to a chemical modification of a nucleic acids, but also to
a variation in nucleic acid conformation or composition,
interaction of an agent with a nucleic acid (e.g., bound to the
nucleic acid), and other perturbations associated with the nucleic
acid. As such, a location or position of a modification is a locus
(e.g., a single nucleotide or multiple contiguous or noncontiguous
nucleotides) at which such modification occurs within the nucleic
acid. For a double-stranded template, such a modification may occur
in the strand complementary to a nascent strand synthesized by a
polymerase processing the template, or may occur in the displaced
strand. Although certain specific embodiments of the invention are
described in terms of 5-methylcytosine detection, detection of
other types of modified nucleotides (e.g., N.sup.6-methyladenosine,
N.sup.3-methyladenosine, N.sup.7-methylguanosine,
5-hydroxymethylcytosine, other methylated nucleotides,
pseudouridine, thiouridine, isoguanosine, isocytosine,
dihydrouridine, queuosine, wyosine, inosine, triazole,
diaminopurine, .beta.-D-glucopyranosyloxymethyluracil (a.k.a.,
.beta.-D-glucosyl-HOMedU, .beta.-glucosyl-hydroxymethyluracil,
"dJ," or "base J"), 8-oxoguanosine, and 2'-O-methyl derivatives of
adenosine, cytidine, guanosine, and uridine) are also contemplated.
Further, although described primarily in terms of DNA templates,
such modified bases can be modified RNA bases and can be detected
in RNA (or primarily RNA) templates. These and other modifications
are known to those of ordinary skill in the art and are further
described, e.g., in Narayan P, et al. (1987) Mol Cell Biol
7(4):1572-5; Horowitz S, et al. (1984) Proc Natl Acad Sci U.S.A.
81(18):5667-71; "RNA's Outfits: The nucleic acid has dozens of
chemical costumes," (2009) C&EN; 87(36):65-68; Kriaucionis, et
al. (2009) Science 324 (5929): 929-30; and Tahiliani, et al. (2009)
Science 324 (5929): 930-35; Matray, et al. (1999) Nature
399(6737):704-8; Ooi, et al. (2008) Cell 133: 1145-8; Petersson, et
al. (2005) J Am Chem Soc. 127(5):1424-30; Johnson, et al. (2004)
32(6):1937-41; Kimoto, et al. (2007) Nucleic Acids Res.
35(16):5360-9; Ahle, et al. (2005) Nucleic Acids Res 33(10):3176;
Krueger, et al., Curr Opinions in Chem Biology 2007, 11(6):588);
Krueger, et al. (2009) Chemistry & Biology 16(3):242;
McCullough, et al. (1999) Annual Rev of Biochem 68:255; Liu, et al.
(2003) Science 302(5646):868-71; Limbach, et al. (1994) Nucl. Acids
Res. 22(12):2183-2196; Wyatt, et al. (1953) Biochem. J. 55:774-782;
Josse, et al. (1962) J. Biol. Chem. 237:1968-1976; Lariviere, et
al. (2004) J. Biol. Chem. 279:34715-34720; and in International
Application Publication No. WO/2009/037473, the disclosures of
which are incorporated herein by reference in their entireties for
all purposes. Modifications further include the presence of
non-natural base pairs in the template nucleic acid, including but
not limited to hydroxypyridone and pyridopurine homo- and
hetero-base pairs, pyridine-2,6-dicarboxylate and pyridine
metallo-base pairs, pyridine-2,6-dicarboxamide and a pyridine
metallo-base pairs, metal-mediated pyrimidine base pairs T-Hg(II)-T
and C-Ag(I)-C, and metallo-homo-basepairs of
2,6-bis(ethylthiomethyl)pyridine nucleobases Spy, and alkyne-,
enamine-, alcohol-, imidazole-, guanidine-, and
pyridyl-substitutions to the purine or pyridimine base (Wettig, et
al. (2003) J Inorg Biochem 94:94-99; Clever, et al. (2005) Angew
Chem Int Ed 117:7370-7374; Schlegel, et al. (2009) Org Biomol Chem
7(3):476-82; Zimmerman, et al. (2004) Bioorg Chem 32(1):13-25;
Yanagida, et al. (2007) Nucleic Acids Symp Ser (Oxf) 51:179-80;
Zimmerman (2002) J Am Chem Soc 124(46):13684-5; Buncel, et al.
(1985) Inorg Biochem 25:61-73; Ono, et al. (2004) Angew Chem
43:4300-4302; Lee, et al. (1993) Biochem Cell Biol 71:162-168;
Loakes, et al. (2009), Chem Commun 4619-4631; and Seo, et al.
(2009) J Am Chem Soc 131:3246-3252, all incorporated herein by
reference in their entireties for all purposes). Other types of
modifications include, e.g, a nick, a missing base (e.g., apurinic
or apyridinic sites), a ribonucleoside (or modified ribonucleoside)
within a deoxyribonucleoside-based nucleic acid, a
deoxyribonucleoside (or modified deoxyribonucleoside) within a
ribonucleoside-based nucleic acid, a pyrimidine dimer (e.g.,
thymine dimer or cyclobutane pyrimidine dimer), a cis-platin
crosslinking, oxidation damage, hydrolysis damage, other methylated
bases, bulky DNA or RNA base adducts, photochemistry reaction
products, interstrand crosslinking products, mismatched bases, and
other types of "damage" to the nucleic acid. As such, certain
embodiments described herein refer to "damage" and such damage is
also considered a modification of the nucleic acid in accordance
with the present invention. Modified nucleotides can be caused by
exposure of the DNA to radiation (e.g., UV), carcinogenic
chemicals, crosslinking agents (e.g., formaldehyde), certain
enzymes (e.g., nickases, glycosylases, exonucleases, methylases,
other nucleases, glucosyltransferases, etc.), viruses, toxins and
other chemicals, thermal disruptions, and the like. In vivo, DNA
damage is a major source of mutations leading to various diseases
including cancer, cardiovascular disease, and nervous system
diseases (see, e.g., Lindahl, T. (1993) Nature 362(6422): 709-15,
which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety for all
purposes). The methods and systems provided herein can also be used
to detect various conformations of DNA, in particular, secondary
structure forms such as hairpin loops, stem-loops, internal loops,
bulges, pseudoknots, base-triples, supercoiling, internal
hybridization, and the like; and are also useful for detection of
agents interacting with the nucleic acid, e.g., bound proteins or
other moieties.
[0260] In some embodiments, five color DNA sequencing can be
carried out by the sequencing methods of the invention. Five color
sequencing generally utilizes a nucleotide analog having a base
that preferentially associates with a fifth base in the template or
an abasic site. Such five color sequencing is described for example
in U.S. Patent Application 20110183320, which is incorporated
herein by reference in its entirety for all purposes.
[0261] It will be apparent to the ordinary artisan that although
various strategies herein are described independently, they can
also be used in combination in certain embodiments. For example, as
noted above, a strategy for extend the zone of sensitivity to the
charge of interest can be combined with a strategy for bringing the
charge of interest to the nanowire. Further, an embodiment can
include a reference nanowire as well as an attachment that
positions an active site of a polymerase proximal to a nanowire.
Different types of conductance labels can be combined with
different types of protein immobilization strategies. As such,
combinations of the strategies are contemplated and within the
scope of the invention.
Monitoring Biological Reactions
[0262] While the nanoscale devices and systems of the invention are
described throughout most of this application for use in nucleic
acid sequencing, it is to be understood that the devices and
systems can also find use in other analytical reactions including
monitoring biological reactions in real time, in particular
monitoring the interactions of biological molecules at the single
molecule level. The ability to analyze such reactions provides an
opportunity to study those reactions as well as to potentially
identify factors and/or approaches for impacting such reactions,
e.g., to stimulate, enhance, or inhibit such reactions.
[0263] The invention provides for observation of the interaction of
two or more specifically interacting reactants at the single
molecule (or single molecular complex) level in order to monitor
the progress of the interaction separately from other interactions.
In other words, a single immobilized reaction component can be
monitored at a single reaction site on a support such that
electrical signals received from that reaction site are resolvable
from other immobilized reaction components at other reaction sites
on that support. In preferred embodiments, the methods monitor
labels with a nanoFET device, such that a single reactant
comprising a label is distinguishable from a different single
reactant comprising a different label. A plurality of analytical
reactions may also be carried out in an array of nanoFET devices.
Analytical reactions in an array of nanoFET devices can be carried
out simultaneously, and may or may not be synchronized with one
another. In such an array, multiple reactions can therefore be
monitored simultaneously and independently.
[0264] The monitoring typically comprises providing the interaction
with one or more signaling events that are indicative of one or
more characteristics of that interaction. Such signaling events may
comprise the retention of a labeled reactant proximate to a given
nanoFET device. For example, in some embodiments, the labels
provide electrical signals that are detected by a detection system
operably linked to a reaction site at which the analytical reaction
is taking place. As used herein, a reaction site is a location on
or adjacent to a substrate at which an analytical reaction is
monitored, and may refer to, e.g., a position on the substrate at
which one or more components of an analytical reaction are
immobilized or to a "detection volume" within which an analytical
reaction is monitored. The detected signals are analyzed to
determine one or more characteristics of the analytical reaction,
e.g., initiation, termination, affinity, biochemical event (e.g.,
binding, bond cleavage, conformational change, etc.), substrate
utilization, product formation, kinetics of the reaction (e.g.,
rate, time between subsequent biochemical events, time between the
beginning/end of subsequent biochemical events, processivity, error
profile, etc.), and the like.
[0265] These characteristics may generally be broken into two
categories: reactant characteristic(s) and interaction
characteristic(s). Reactant characteristic(s) includes
characteristics of a particular reactant, e.g., type/identity of
reactant, concentration of the reactant, a label on the reactant,
etc. Interaction characteristic(s) includes characteristics of a
given interaction between multiple reactants, e.g., rates,
constants, affinities, etc., and is typically determined based on
reaction data gathered during such an interaction. For example,
some characteristics of a polymerization reaction include the
identity of a monomer incorporated into a growing polymer, the rate
of incorporation, length of time the polymerase is associated with
the template, and the length of the polymer synthesized. In some
embodiments, various different components of an analytical reaction
(e.g., different types of monomers) are differentially labeled to
allow each labeled component to be distinguished from other labeled
components during the course of the reaction. For example,
incorporation of monomer A into a polymer can be distinguished from
incorporation of monomer B.
[0266] In certain preferred embodiments, multiple characteristics
of a reaction are monitored and/or determined. For example, these
may be multiple characteristics of one or more reaction components
(e.g., identity, concentration, etc.; "reactant
characteristic(s)"), one or more characteristics of an interaction
between two or more reaction components (e.g., related to product
formation, kinetics of the reaction, binding or dissociation
constants, etc.; "interaction characteristic(s)"), or, preferably,
a combination reactant characteristic(s) and interaction
characteristic(s).
[0267] In some embodiments, a reaction mixture comprises a
plurality of types of non-immobilized binding partners, and a
characteristic determined is the particular type of one of the
non-immobilized binding partners, e.g., that associates with a
particular reaction site. Typically, the conductivity label is
attached to the non-immobilized binding partner through a linking
group as described herein such that the label on the
non-immobilized binding partner will be sensed when it is
interacting with the immobilized binding partner that is
immobilized proximate to a nanoscale electrode or electrodes. In
some embodiments, an array of reaction sites comprises a plurality
of types of immobilized binding partners, each at a different
reaction site, and a characteristic is determined that identifies
which type of immobilized binding partner is located at each of the
different reaction sites. In some embodiments, an array of reaction
sites comprising a plurality of types of immobilized binding
partners, each at a different reaction site, is contacted with a
reaction mixture comprising a plurality of types of non-immobilized
binding partners; characteristics determined during the reaction
serve to both identify which of the types of immobilized binding
partners is located at each reaction site and which of the types of
non-immobilized binding partners associate with the immobilized
binding partners. In some cases, the specificity of the interaction
between the non-immobilized and immobilized binding partners is
high enough that detection of a label on a non-immobilized binding
partner residing at a particular reaction site is sufficient to
identify the immobilized binding partner at that reaction site. In
some embodiments, a characteristic is determined that quantifies a
particular aspect of an interaction between reaction components,
e.g., affinity between an immobilized binding partner and a
non-immobilized binding partner, a rate of catalysis of a reaction,
or other aspects of the interaction. In some cases, different
electronic signaling events (e.g., different labels on one or more
reaction components) are used to monitor or determine different
characteristics of a reaction under observation, but in some
embodiments a single electrical signaling event can provide more
than one type of characteristic information. For example, if a
non-immobilized binding partner has a label that not only
identifies it from a plurality of different non-immobilized binding
partners, but also provides kinetic information about the reaction
based on various parameters monitored in real time, e.g., the time
it takes for binding to occur, the time it remains associated with
the reaction site, the on/off rate, etc.
[0268] In some embodiments, multiple different interactions or
reactions can occur and be monitored simultaneously or
sequentially, where each individual interaction is monitored
separately from every other, e.g. in an electronic element such as
a nanoFET, such that there is resolution between different
interactions under observation. For example, multiple different
non-immobilized reaction components may simultaneously or
sequentially interact with an immobilized reaction component; e.g.,
the multiple different non-immobilized reaction components can be
different non-immobilized binding partners for an immobilized
binding partner, or different agents that may alter an interaction
between two reaction components, or different monomers for
incorporation into a polymer being synthesized at the reaction
site. In other embodiments, an interaction between a
non-immobilized reaction component and a product of a synthesis
reaction occurs during the synthesis reaction, e.g., once the
product is suitable for such interaction. For example, the product
may need to be of a certain length, or in a certain conformation
(e.g., in a particular higher-order structure) to be suitable for
interaction with the non-immobilized reaction component.
Alternatively, a synthesis reaction can be performed at a reaction
site, and subsequently exposed to a reaction mixture comprising
non-immobilized reaction components that can then interact with the
product of the synthesis reaction, which is preferably immobilized
at the reaction site. In preferred embodiments, the synthesis
reaction is monitored to determine characteristics of the product
(e.g., length, chemical composition, etc.) being synthesized.
Knowledge of characteristics of the product of synthesis combined
with the detection of an interaction with a particular reaction
component provides additional characteristics, e.g., the binding
site for the particular reaction component. Examples of biological
interactions that can be measured with the nanoFET devices and
systems of the invention are described, for example, in U.S.
2010/0323912 Patent Application Real-Time Analytical Methods and
Systems which is incorporated herein by reference for all
purposes.
Systems
[0269] In some aspects, the invention provides a system for
sequencing template nucleic acids that has a housing with housing
electrical connection sites. The housing electrical connection
sites are made to connect with electrical connections on the chip
for providing electrical signals to the chip and for receiving
electrical signals from the chip. There is a chip that reversibly
mates with the housing. The chip is a nanoFET chip as described
herein. The system includes an electronic control system
electrically connected to the nanoFET devices through the
electrical connections to apply desired electrical signals to the
nanoFETs and for receiving electrical signals from the nanoFET
devices. The system typically has a computer that receives
information on the electrical signals at the nanoFETs over time and
uses such information to identify a sequence of the template
nucleic acid. The computer can also control the performance of the
chip, for example, by providing a sequence of electrical signals to
the nanoFETs on the chip.
[0270] In some aspects, the invention provides systems for carrying
out real time single molecule electronic sequencing using nanoFET
devices. A nanoFET measuring system is used to monitor the nanoFET
over time, allowing for the determination of whether a nucleotide
analog having a conductivity label is associating with the enzyme.
That is, the nanoFET element and enzyme are configured such that
the freely diffusing conductivity labeled nucleotide analogs in the
solution are not substantially detected at the nanoFET. Only when a
label is brought into the vicinity of the nanoFET due to its
association with the polymerase enzyme is the label detected and
identified as an incorporated nucleotide. One distinction between
the freely diffusing nucleotide analogs and an analog in the active
site of the enzyme is the amount of time spent proximate to the
nanoFET. Diffusing nucleotide analogs will be quickly diffusing in
and out of the vicinity of the nanoscale electrode, while the
nucleotide analog to be incorporated will spend a longer amount of
time, for example on the order of milliseconds proximate to the
nanoscale electrode. Thus, the nanoFET measuring system will detect
the presence of a nucleotide analog which is to be incorporated
into the growing nucleic acid chain while it is in the active site
of the enzyme. When the nucleotide is incorporated into the growing
strand, the label, which is attached to the phosphate portion of
the nucleotide analog is cleaved and diffuses away from the enzyme
and the electrode. Thus, the system determines the presence of the
analog in the active site prior to incorporation. In addition, the
identity of the distinct label is determined, e.g. by the magnitude
of a change in an electrical property at the gate of the electrode.
As the polymerase reaction continues and is monitored by the
nanoFET measuring system, the sequence of the template nucleic acid
can be determined by the time sequence of incorporation of the
complementary nucleotide analog into the growing nucleic acid
strand.
[0271] The systems of the invention include a chip comprising an
array of nanoFETs as described herein that is reversibly mated with
other system components. The chip with array of nanoFET devices can
be a single use chip or the chip can be used multiple times. The
system typically has a housing into which the chip is placed. The
housing has electrical connectors that provide reversible
connections to the electrical connections on the chip. Sockets that
provide reliable reversible electrical connections to chips
inserted into the socket are well known. Electrical connections to
the top, sides, bottom, or a combination of these sides can be
used.
[0272] When the chip is inserted into the housing, the system
provides a fluid reservoir to which fluid comprising the sequencing
reaction mixture is added. In some cases, the fluid reservoir is
included as part of the chip. In some cases, part of the fluid
reservoir is associated with the housing, such that the insertion
of the chip forms the reservoir. The fluid reservoir can be, for
example a well or a chamber into which fluid can be introduced. The
introduced fluid sequencing reaction mixture comes into contact
with the nanoFET devices on the surface of the chip. The system
will typically include environmental control components including
temperature control and control of a vapor phase above the fluid.
The chemical makeup and the temperature of the vapor can be
controlled, for example by providing a flow of inert gas over the
reaction mixture to minimize oxidation of the sample. In some cases
the system can have fluid handling systems for delivering and
removing components to the fluid reservoir before, during, or after
performing the sequencing reaction.
[0273] In some cases the fluid reservoir will also provide contact
of the sequencing reaction mixture with the either or both of a
reference electrode or counter electrode. As described above, in
order to carry out the method, in some cases a reference electrode,
a counter electrode, or both are used. In some one or more of these
electrodes are on the chip. Where the reference electrode and/or
counter electrode are used, and not on the chip, they are brought
into contact with the sequencing reaction mixture in the fluid
reservoir.
[0274] Connected to the chip through the connectors on the housing
are the electronics for providing voltage to the nanoFET and for
measuring the electronic signals at the gate, for example, a
current/voltage source and a meter. For example, the source can
provide the current and voltage to bring the electrodes to a proper
alternating current signal over time to carry out the methods of
the invention. The meter can be used to measure the electrical
signals. In some cases, the source and meter are combined into a
single unit. In some cases each of the electronic elements in the
array on the chip are addressed by a separate source and separate
meter component within the system. In some cases, multiplexing is
used so a single source can drive multiple electronic elements. In
some cases a single source will drive all of the electronic
elements on a chip, while each of the electronic elements is
measured with a separate meter component. Any suitable combination
of sources and meters can be used.
[0275] A computer control and analysis system is typically used to
control both the input voltages and currents and to provide
computer-implemented control functions, e.g., controlling robotics,
environmental conditions, and the state of various components of
the system. The computer control system also includes components
for computational data analysis (e.g., for single molecule
sequencing applications, determining and characterizing nucleotide
incorporation events). As described above, in some cases, some of
the control functions can be implemented on the chip, in particular
controlling source wave functions, or handling electrical signals
from the nanoFET devices on the chip. In some cases the computer
control and analysis system provides substantially all of the
control of the signals to and from the chip, and the chip simple
acts as an electronic element from which information related to the
electronic signal is extracted. In some cases, the chip can take on
some of the functionality of control and analysis. The chip can
process the analog data from the electronic elements. The chip can
also have analog to digital components, and can perform analysis
and storage functions for the digital signals. The decision on how
much functionality is implemented on the chip and how much is
retained with the computer control and analysis system can be made
based on the relative functionality gained versus the cost of
adding the functionality.
[0276] Also provided is a user interface operatively coupled to the
components for computational data, permitting a user of the system
to initiate and terminate an analysis, control various parameters
(e.g., with respect to analysis conditions, sequencing reaction
mixture environment, etc.), and manage/receive data (e.g., nucleic
acid sequence data) obtained by the system. In some aspects, the
user interface is attached the computer control and analysis
system. Additionally, remote user interfaces can be provided that
are in communication with the overall system via a wireless
network. Such user input devices may include other purposed
devices, such as notepad computers, e.g., Apple iPad, or
smartphones running a user interface application. Optionally, the
user interface includes a component, e.g., a data port, from which
the user can receive data obtained by the analysis system to a
portable electronic storage medium for use at location other than
the location of the substrate analysis system.
[0277] Aspects of the present invention are directed to machine or
computer implemented processes, and/or software incorporated onto a
computer readable medium instructing such processes. As such,
signal data generated by the reactions and systems described above,
is input or otherwise received into a computer or other data
processor, and subjected to one or more of the various process
steps or components set forth herein. Once these processes are
carried out, the resulting output of the computer implemented
processes may be produced in a tangible or observable format, e.g.,
printed in a user readable report, displayed upon a computer
display, or it may be stored in one or more databases for later
evaluation, processing, reporting or the like, or it may be
retained by the computer or transmitted to a different computer for
use in configuring subsequent reactions or data processes.
[0278] Computers for use in carrying out the processes of the
invention can range from personal computers such as PC or
Macintosh.RTM. type computers running Intel Pentium or DuoCore
processors, to workstations, laboratory equipment, or high speed
servers, running UNIX, LINUX, Windows.RTM., or other systems. Logic
processing of the invention may be performed entirely by general
purposes logic processors (such as CPU's) executing software and/or
firmware logic instructions; or entirely by special purposes logic
processing circuits (such as ASICs) incorporated into laboratory or
diagnostic systems or camera systems which may also include
software or firmware elements; or by a combination of general
purpose and special purpose logic circuits. Data formats for the
signal data may comprise any convenient format, including digital
image based data formats, such as JPEG, GIF, BMP, TIFF, or other
convenient formats, while video based formats, such as avi, mpeg,
mov, rmv, or other video formats may be employed. The software
processes of the invention may generally be programmed in a variety
of programming languages including, e.g., Matlab, C, C++, C#, NET,
Visual Basic, Python, JAVA, CGI, and the like.
Use of Allosteric Signal for Sequence Reads
[0279] The polymerase enzyme attached to the nanotube undergo
regular repeated motions during the sequencing process. It has been
shown that allosteric motions of enzymes can be detected in
nanotube to which the enzymes are attached, see U.S. Pat. No.
9,164,053 and U.S. Patent Application No. 2013/0078622 which are
incorporated by reference herein for all purposes. The motions of a
polymerase enzyme are characteristic of the polymerase activity of
incorporating nucleic acid analogs. An aspect of the instant
invention is the use these allosteric signals of enzyme movement
during nucleic acid polymerization as a measure of nucleotide
incorporation events. This incorporation event detection can be
used in conjunction with the signal from the conductivity label to
provide a more accurate measure of the sequence of the template
nucleic acid. For example, in some cases it can be difficult to
know if a conductivity label signal corresponds to a single
incorporation of a nucleotide, or corresponds to multiple
nucleotide incorporations in a row. By providing an independent
measure of nucleotide incorporation events, the allosteric signal
provides a means to determine how many incorporation events have
occurred, providing greater accuracy.
[0280] These methods are particularly useful for sequencing
homopolymer regions, for which knowing whether a single nucleotide
or multiple nucleotides have been incorporated is important and
sometimes challenging. In some cases, the allosteric signal
corresponds to a translocation step of the polymerase enzyme. In
some cases, this signal occurs primarily during an incorporation
event. In some cases, the signal occurs primarily between
incorporation events. In some cases, the signal occurs primarily
from signal observed during both the pulse and the time between
pulses. In some cases, it is not the characteristics of a
particular step in the enzyme catalytic cycle, but a characteristic
set of signals as the enzyme cycles through the various
conformations that is used to determine that an incorporation
reaction has occurred. Signal deconvolution can be used to separate
this periodic nucleotide incorporation signature from random noise
and from conductivity label signals.
[0281] In some cases, different nucleotide analogs that produce
varying degrees of base-specific allosteric shifts in the structure
of the polymerase are chosen and used as sequencing substrates the
enzyme will use to synthesize a nascent strand. The difference in
the allosteric shifts for the different nucleotide analogs can then
be used to distinguish between the different bases for base
calling.
[0282] In some cases, the detection of incorporation is reliable
enough to provide for three base sequencing in which the detection
of an incorporation event without a conductivity label signal is
known to correspond to the incorporation of the fourth, unlabeled
nucleotide.
[0283] Polymerase enzyme engineering approaches known in the art
and described herein can be used to enhance and optimize the
allosteric signal. For example, positive and/or negative charges
can be incorporated onto the surface of the polymerase enzyme to
increase the electrical field change in the vicinity of the
nanotube surface.
Lowered Background Noise--Tangential Field
[0284] In some cases, the nucleic acid associated with the
polymerase interacts with the nanotube creating background noise.
The nucleic acid associated with the polymerase includes both the
template strand and nascent strand. The nucleic acid associated
with the polymerase will be moving around as a polymeric molecule
do in the liquid (solvated) state. As the nucleic acid is moving
around it can enter into the vicinity of or come into contact with
the nanotube, potentially producing a change in conductivity that
can be confused with the signal from conductivity labels.
[0285] We have found that providing a field that extends the
nucleic acid away from the nanotube can be useful in reducing this
noise. The field can be provided in any suitable orientation. We
have found that in some preferred embodiments, the field is
provided substantially tangential or parallel to the surface on
which the nanoFETs reside. The tangential field pulls the nucleic
acid away from the nanotube across the surface of the chip. The
field can be any suitable field that results in the elongation of
the nucleic acid away from the nanotube. Suitable fields include
electric fields and fluid flow fields.
[0286] FIG. 22 shows an embodiment of providing a tangential flow
field to pull the nucleic acid associated with the polymerase away
from the nanotube to reduce background noise. FIG. 22 is a view
from above the surface of a chip showing one nanoFET device 2210 on
the chip. The nanoFET has a nanotube 2216 connected to source and
drain electrodes 2212 and 2214. A single polymerase enzyme 2220 is
attached to the nanotube 2216. The single polymerase enzyme 2220 is
complexed with a template nucleic acid 2230, and is actively
synthesizing nascent nucleic acid strand 2240. The template strand
2230 shown here is circular, but in some cases linear template
strands can be used. The field 2280 is applied substantially
tangential to the surface of the chip. In some cases, as shown
here, the field 2280 is also applied substantially perpendicular to
the carbon nanotube 2216. The nucleic acid molecules 2230 and 2240
elongate in the field, minimizing the amount that the motions of
the nucleic acid molecules will cause the nucleic acids interact
with the surface of the nanotube, causing background. The field is
preferably an electric field. The field can be produced by
appropriately oriented electrodes. In some cases, the electrodes
that provide the orientation field are also on the chip.
[0287] In some cases, the electrical field can extend the nucleic
acid molecules far enough away from a nanoFET on the surface that
the molecules will interfere with an adjacent nanoFET. One approach
to this issue is to stagger the nanoFETs in each row, such that
there is no nanoFET in the next row in the region where the field
will pull the nucleic acid strands. In some cases, surface
structures can be provided to the chip that divert the extended
nucleic acid from interaction with nearby nanoFET structures. FIG.
23 shows one use of such surface structures on the chip. Here,
walls are erected between rows of nanoFET devices. The walls have
dimensions such that any nucleic acid aligned in the flow field
will extend above the nearby nanoFET, minimizing any interaction
between the extended nucleic acid and the nanoFET neighbor. FIG. 23
shows a cross section of a chip that show three rows of nanoFETs.
The nanotubes are oriented into the page, so are not seen in the
figure. For example, they extend down into the page from electrode
2310. The nanoFETs have two electrodes connected by a nanotube,
there is one single polymerase enzyme 2320 attached to the
nanotube. Template nucleic acid 2330 and nascent strand 2340 are
complexed with the polymerase enzyme 2320. During sequencing, the
polymerase enzyme 2320 is actively adding nucleotides and extending
nascent strand 2340. A field 2380, such as an electric field, is
provided substantially tangential to the surface of the chip. Here,
the field is also substantially perpendicular to the nanotubes. As
the field elongates the nucleic acid molecules, they extend over
the top of the walls 2360. The walls have dimensions such that the
interaction of the elongated nucleic acid molecules with
neighboring nanoFETs is minimized.
[0288] The walls can be made with any suitable shape. In some
cases, the shapes of the walls are designed to re-direct the
nucleic acid molecules from neighboring nanoFETs. FIG. 24 shows an
example of walls having shapes that divert the nucleic acids from
neighboring nanoFET devices. FIG. 24 provides a view looking down
on the surface of a chip having an array of nanoFET devices 2410.
The chip has walls 2460 that are arranged and shaped to allow for
the nucleic acid strands 2450 from a neighboring nanoFET that is
extended in the field 2480 to be diverted, and therefore not to
interfere with the nanoFET that is located "down field" from that
nanoFET. These walls can have any suitable shape, for example
semicircular, V-shaped, or curved V-shaped as shown in FIG. 24.
Thus, the walls of the invention can prevent interference with
neighboring nanoFETs either by providing dimensions such that the
nucleic acids extend over the wall, or by providing dimensions and
shapes whereby the nucleic acids are diverted along the surface of
the chip. The use and dimensions of the walls will be driven, in
part, by the density of nanoFETs on a surface. In some cases, walls
are implemented when the spacing between nanoFETs is less than
about 500 nm, less than about 1 micron, less than about 2 microns,
less than about 5 microns, or less than about 10 microns.
[0289] One issue we have found with respect to providing the
tangential electric field across the device is that nanoFETs at
different parts of the chip can reside at different potentials. To
the extent that the field linearly drops across the device, we have
addressed this issue by setting the potential of each row along the
field to a different potential to compensate for the voltage drop,
thus keeping each nanoFET at about the same potential with respect
to its surrounding fluid. In some cases, however, the field drop is
not linear across the device. For this situation we have found that
it can be advantageous to provide a step in which the ground
potential of each device is established independently. Thus, a
potential measurement is carried out across the device at each
nanoFET while the tangential electric field is applied, this is
used to set the baseline potential at each nanoFET. In some cases,
the potential across the chip varies over time, even if the same
voltages are applied to the filed generating electrodes. This
change can be slow over time, for example due to changes in local
ionic content, or it can be intermittent, for example due to the
flow of molecules or particles over the surface. For these cases,
the step of establishing the baseline potentials of the nanoFETs is
repeated over time, in some cases during the sequencing process in
order to ensure a proper baseline potential for each nanoFET.
[0290] In some cases, a fluid flow field is used to tangentially
pull the nucleic acid strands away from nanotube nanoFET. For
example, microfluidic region is provided on the top of the chip to
force fluid flow across the top of the chip to orient the nucleic
acid molecules associated with the polymerase enzyme. We have
determined that with nucleic acid molecules having a length of
1,000 bases to 30,000 bases or more, nucleic acid orientation can
be obtained at relatively low flow rates. In some cases, where flow
is used for nucleic acid orientation, reagents are recycled through
the microfluidic region in order to avoid wasting reagents. This
approach is particularly advantageous where reagent cost is a
significant factor in the cost of sequencing.
[0291] In some cases, a region of the chip near the nanoFET is
treated with reagents to which the nucleic acids are attracted or
to which the nucleic acids tend to associate. The region of the
chip can be a raised region. The region can be provided by a rod,
puck, or particle that is bound to the surface near the nanoFET. In
other cases, the rod, puck, or particle is not bound to the surface
but will tend to pull the nucleic acid away from the polymerase as
it is suspended in solution. The surface, rod, puck, or bead can
be, for example, is passivated or coated with polycations such as
polylysine. Other nucleic acid and DNA binding reagents that are
known in the art can be used, for example, immobilized amine
containing polymers and proteins such as single stranded binding
proteins. The level of affinity of interaction is typically
selected such that the affinity is strong enough that nucleic acids
are held away from the nanotubes, but the affinity is not so strong
that the nucleic acid is pulled out of the polymerase active site.
The enzyme-nucleic acid interaction strength is also typically
selected to be relatively strong to keep the nucleic acids from
being pulled from the polymerase enzyme. In some cases, a
topological tether is used to more securely hold the polymerase
enzyme to the template nucleic acid. Such constructs are described,
for example in U.S. Patent Application US 2015/0086994 which is
incorporated herein by reference for all purposes. These constructs
are useful for resisting DNA dissociation and for allowing for a
wider range of binding affinities.
Lowered Background Noise--Nucleic Acid Binding Agents
[0292] One aspect of the invention is a method of lowering the
background by providing agents that bind the template and nascent
strand nucleic acid molecules associated with the polymerase. These
nucleic acid binding molecules can associate with the nucleic acids
in a way which pulls the nucleic acid molecules away from the
nanotube of the nanoFET. One aspect of this binding is
consolidation of the nucleic acids, lowering the range of motion of
the nucleic acid molecules in a way that minimizes their
interaction with the nanotube.
[0293] In some cases, the nucleic acid binding agents proteins such
as single stranded DNA binding multimers. In some cases, these
binding agents can be made using repeating protein units such as
those found in transcription activator-like effector (TALE) binding
domains. For example, TAL effectors are proteins that are secreted
by Xanthomonas bacteria when they infect plants. The DNA binding
domain in these proteins typically contains a repeated highly
conserved 33-34 amino acid sequence with divergent 12th and 13th
amino acids. These two positions, referred to as the Repeat
Variable Diresidue (RVD), are highly variable and show a strong
correlation with specific nucleotide recognition. This
straightforward relationship between amino acid sequence and DNA
recognition has allowed for the engineering of specific DNA-binding
domains by selecting a combination of repeat segments containing
the appropriate RVDs. These types of TALE proteins can be used to
surround the nucleic acids associated with the polymerase enzyme
effectively moving the nucleic acids beyond the Debye screening
length.
[0294] Another approach to preventing the nucleic acids associated
with the polymerase enzyme from interacting with the nanotube is to
associate a virus particle to the polymerase such that the virus
particle extends away from the nanotube. The nucleic acid molecules
associated with the polymerase will tend to associate with the
virus particle rather than to associate with the nanotube. For
example, an M13 virus particle can be produced that coat protein
pIII has affinity tags to attach it to the polymerase enzyme on the
nanotube, and the coat protein pVIII interacts with the nucleic
acid molecules.
Lowered Background Noise--Nascent Strand Cleavage
[0295] In some cases, the background is lowered by selectively
degrading the nascent strand as it is formed. This can be done, for
example, with nuclease enzymes. In some cases, an exonuclease is
used that selectively degrades the nascent strand. For example,
sequencing is carried out with a circular template molecule. An
exonuclease is present that cleaves only nucleic acids having a
free end, e.g. a 3' end. The exonuclease will cleave the nascent
strand is it is produced without cleaving the circular
template.
[0296] Another method of selective nascent strand cleavage uses
nucleotides including dU analogs. A nascent strand comprising dU
nucleotides is produced. A mixture of enzymes comprising an
exonuclease that cleaves at dU sites is added during the sequencing
reaction to selectively cleave the nascent strand at the dU sites,
preventing it from extending and interacting with then nanotube and
producing background. Such enzymes are known in the art. For
example, a mixture of enzymes can be obtained from New England
Biosciences that has Uracil DNA glycosylase (UDG) and a DNA
glycosylase-lyase, Endonuclease VIII. UDG catalyzes the excision of
a uracil base, forming an abasic (apyrimidinic) site while leaving
the phosphodiester backbone intact. The lyase activity of
Endonuclease VIII subsequently breaks the phosphodiester backbone
at the 3' and 5' sides of the abasic site so that base-free
deoxyribose is released.
Intentional Lowering of Debye Screening Length
[0297] As described herein, in some cases, it is useful to increase
the Debye screening length near the nanotube in order to enhance
the sensitivity of the nanotube to conductive labels. We have
unexpectedly found that in some cases, it can be useful to
intentionally lower the Debye screening length. While lowering the
Debye screening length can make the nanotube less sensitive to
labels, it also can make the nanotube less sensitive to ionic
fluctuations in solution, lowering the background noise. If a
conductivity label is chosen that interacts effectively and closely
with the nanotube, the label can still be detected by the nanotube,
but in a lower background environment.
[0298] The Debye screening length can be lowered by the addition of
salt to the solution, increasing its ionic strength. In some cases,
salt is added to lower the Debye screening length to about 2 nm, to
about 1 nm, or to about 0.5 nm and still be able to detect the
conductivity label, thus improving signal to noise.
Sparse Amplifier Array
[0299] The methods and systems of the invention can be carried out
using any suitable array of nanoFET devices. In some aspects,
sparse amplifier arrays are used wherein, in operation, only a
small percentage of nanoFETs are addressed, and the remainder are
not used. Such arrays are described in more detail in U.S. Patent
Application entitled "SYSTEMS AND METHODS FOR SELECTIVELY
ADDRESSING SPARSELY ARRANGED NANO-ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENT DEVICES"
filed on Aug. 3, 2016, which is incorporated herein by reference
for all purposes. In some cases, the percentage of nanoFETs
addressed is less than 5%, less than 2%, less than 1%, less than
0.5%, or less than 0.2% of the total number of nanoFETs produced in
the array. This aspect of the invention can be accomplished by the
structure of the chip, the methods of addressing the chip, the
methods of analyzing the chip, and combinations of any of these. In
some cases, active switching assort amplifiers are used to
selectively address productive nanoFETs having a single nanotube
and single biomolecule (e.g. polymerase complex). In some preferred
aspects, nanoFETs of the invention are produced using carbon
nanotubes in combination with CMOS electronics.
[0300] For example, in some aspects the invention provides a method
of addressing and analyzing a nanoFET chip wherein after the
nanoFET array is produced, and after the biological molecule of
interest such as the polymerase enzyme complex is attached, the
chip is probed electrically to determine which of the nanoFETs have
a single nanotube and a single biomolecule such as a polymerase.
Then, during the measurement phase, for example, nucleic acid
sequencing, only the nanoFETs having both a single nanotube and a
single biomolecule (the productive nanoFETs) are addressed and
analyzed. In a preferred method, the signals to the chip are
re-configured such that the non-productive nanoFETs are completely
bypassed. While it may seem counterintuitive to produce an array
where only a small fraction of devices are used, we have found that
unlike other uses of transistor arrays, the requirement of a single
nanotube with a single polymerase will typically result in only a
small number of the nanoFETs being used. With the devices and
methods of the invention, we have developed a way of producing
effective devices by actively using only the devices that are
productive. In some cases, a device is produced having 100 million
or more nanoFET devices, and when in use, for example nucleic acid
sequencing, 2 million or fewer nanoFET devices are addressed and
measured. This approach saves electronic and memory resources, and
can provide higher quality information than for a device where all
or a majority of the nanoFETs was addressed and measured.
[0301] For example say there are 1.7M devices in an array, this
mean 1.7 M pairs of electrodes that could be bridged by zero, one,
two or more nanotubes. We can typically only use those nanoFETs
that have a single tube bridging. Even if we model the system that
100% of the tubes we transfer are potentially active (not
multi-walled, not too big, etc) we can only get 37% of the
electrode pairs to be useful if we use single entity loading based
on Poisson statistics. If there is contamination of non-useful, for
example, short-circuit producing nanotubes, this fraction will get
directly multiplied by the efficiency above, so if there are 50%
quality nanotubes we will get 18% active device fraction, and if
there are 10% quality nanotubes we will get 3.7% active device
fraction. In addition, where these nanotubes are subsequently
derivitized, e.g. with a carboxylate moiety, if the derivitization
is controlled by Poisson statistics, only 37% of these will be
useful.
[0302] At this stage we would attach the biomolecule to the
derivitized nanotubes, for example, the attachment of the
polymerase sequencing complex. This reaction will have a yield,
which will be affected, for example by the fraction of polymerase
enzyme that is active. It is expected that this step can also
result in a significant loss of yield of productive nanoFETs. Thus,
even for a relatively well developed protocol, the yield of
productive nanoFETs having a single nanotube and single polymerase
will be relatively small in the range, for example of between 2% to
0.2%.
[0303] A solution provided as part of this invention is to make a
chip with a vast over-supply of nanoFETs, but use an amplifier
architecture that can handle only small fraction of that output.
For example, we put 200,000,000 pixels onto a single die, then with
0.5% useful fraction this is yields 1,000,000 active useful
devices. The output amplifier is produced such that even if a
larger fraction were useful it would never have the capacity to
read them all out.
[0304] In some aspects, the sparse amplifier comprises a chip that
is able to simultaneously read out from multiple rows independently
at the same time. In some embodiments the invention comprises an
imaging chip such as a CMOS chip where each row of the imaging chip
has a separate shift register. The following describes a
non-limiting embodiment to illustrate this aspect of the
invention.
[0305] The sparse amplifier can have e.g. 2000 columns.times.2000
rows or 3600 columns.times.3600 rows. As described above, only a
fraction of the nanoFETs will be productive devices. Here, the
productive device fraction is around 1.5% (due to various stages of
yield and Poisson loading losses described above). There is an
amplifier associated with each row, so in the second example, there
are 3600 amplifiers. Instead of the typical row/column addressing
that is used in CMOS imagers, here, there is a separate shift
register for each row, or 3600 separate shift registers running
alongside the switching transistors that are used to "electrify"
the nanoFET devices when they are to be probed.
[0306] A key difference between this embodiment of the sparse chip
and a conventional chip is that this chip is capable of
simultaneously reading out from the chip sequencing data from a
polymerase, for example, in column 1, row 16; and column 2, row 8;
and column 3, row 22. In order to accomplish this, shift registers
are provided for each row, allowing us to read independently from
these different rows at the same time.
[0307] The operation of the shift register is illustrated by the
following example. At the start of one "frame" of data collection
(which would happen, for example, 1000 times per second), a "1"
would be loaded in the first slot of every shift register and the
rest of the values set to zero. Then a series of integers would be
loaded into 3600 registers at the base of each column. The shift
registers would then be pulsed N times if the integer is N . . .
So, when the column receives a "15" it pulses its shift register 15
times. This has the effect of moving the "1" up to the 16.sup.th
row where it stops. Now the switches are driven from the value in
shift register; so where it is a "0" then the switch remains off,
and where it is a "1" then it links it with the amplifier. For this
example we count on reading from the 50 best sensors in each row,
so after 25 microseconds another integer is loaded, and the shift
register is again pulsed N times followed by the acquisition of 25
microseconds more data. In implementing this approach, the number
of bits used to represent the number is chosen to balance the
requirements of the system. For example, more bits will result in
more data that needs to be processed, but could provide more
precision. In some cases, the system is designed such that some
precision is lost at the benefit of easier data handling. For
example, in the description above the device would bump each column
about 50 times for each "frame" generating a significant amount of
data.
[0308] The following documents provide teachings of various aspects
of carrying out the instant invention. These documents are
incorporated by reference herein in their entirety for all
purposes.
[0309] 1. Rosenblatt S, Yaish Y, Park J, Gore J, Sazonova V, McEuen
P L. High performance electrolyte gated carbon nanotube
transistors. Nano Letters. 2002; 2(8):869-72. doi: Doi
10.1021/Nl025639a. PubMed PMID: ISI:000177485500016.
[0310] 2. Star A, Tu E, Niemann J, Gabriel J-C P, Joiner C S,
Valcke C. Label-free detection of DNA hybridization using carbon
nanotube network field-effect transistors. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA.
2006; 103(4):921-6. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0504146103.
[0311] 3. Besteman K, Lee J-O, Wiertz F G M, Heering H A, Dekker C.
Enzyme-Coated Carbon Nanotubes as Single-Molecule Biosensors. Nano
Letters. 2003; 3(6):727-30. doi: 10.1021/nl034139u.
[0312] 4. Heller I, Janssens A M, Mannik J, Minot E D, Lemay S G,
Dekker C. Identifying the mechanism of biosensing with carbon
nanotube transistors. Nano Letters. 2008; 8(2):591-5. Epub Dec. 29,
2007. doi: 10.1021/nl072996i. PubMed PMID: 18162002.
[0313] 5. Sorgenfrei S, Chiu C Y, Gonzalez R L, Yu Y J, Kim P,
Nuckolls C, et al. Label-free single-molecule detection of
DNA-hybridization kinetics with a carbon nanotube field-effect
transistor. Nature Nanotechnology. 2011; 6(2):125-31. doi:
10.1038/nnano.2010.275. PubMed PMID: ISI:000286968500015.
[0314] 6. Goldsmith B R, Coroneus J G, Kane A A, Weiss G A, Collins
P G. Monitoring Single-Molecule Reactivity on a Carbon Nanotube.
Nano Letters. 2008; 8(1):189-94. doi: 10.1021/nl0724079.
[0315] 7. Sorgenfrei S, Chiu C-y, Johnston M, Nuckolls C, Shepard K
L. Debye Screening in Single-Molecule Carbon Nanotube Field-Effect
Sensors. Nano Letters. 2011; 11(9):3739-43. doi:
10.1021/nl201781q.
[0316] 8. Goldsmith B R, Coroneus J G, Khalap V R, Kane A A, Weiss
G A, Collins P G. Conductance-Controlled Point Functionalization of
Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes. Science. 2007; 315(5808):77-81.
doi: 10.1126/science.1135303.
[0317] 9. Rothberg J M, Hinz W, Rearick T M, Schultz J, Mileski W,
Davey M, et al. An integrated semiconductor device enabling
non-optical genome sequencing. Nature. 2011; 475(7356):348-52.
doi:
[0318] 10. Huang T c D, Sorgenfrei S, Gong P, Levicky R, Shepard K
L. A 0.18-um CMOS Array Sensor for Integrated Time-Resolved
Fluorescence Detection. Solid-State Circuits, IEEE Journal of.
2009; 44(5):1644-54.
[0319] 11. Huang T-C D, Paul S, Gong P, Levicky R, Kymissis J,
Amundson S A, et al. Gene expression analysis with an integrated
CMOS microarray by time-resolved fluorescence detection. Biosensors
and Bioelectronics. 2011; 26(5):2660-5. doi:
10.1016/j.bios.2010.03.001.
[0320] 12. Johnston M L, Kymissis I, Shepard K L. FBAR-CMOS
Oscillator Array for Mass-Sensing Applications. Sensors Journal,
IEEE. 2010; 10(6):1042-7.
[0321] 13. Lei N, Ramakrishnan S, Shi P, Orcutt J S, Yuste R, Kam L
C, et al. High-resolution extracellular stimulation of dispersed
hippocampal culture with high-density CMOS multielectrode array
based on non-Faradaic electrodes. Journal of neural engineering.
2011; 8(4):044003. Epub Jul. 5, 2011. doi:
10.1088/1741-2560/8/4/044003. PubMed PMID: 21725154.
[0322] 14. Levine P M, Gong P, Levicky R, Shepard K L. Real-time,
multiplexed electrochemical DNA detection using an active
complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor biosensor array with
integrated sensor electronics. Biosensors and Bioelectronics. 2009;
24(7):1995-2001.
[0323] 15. Levine P M, Ping G, Levicky R, Shepard K L. Active CMOS
Sensor Array for Electrochemical Biomolecular Detection.
Solid-State Circuits, IEEE Journal of. 2008; 43(8):1859-71.
[0324] 16. Patounakis G, Shepard K L, Revicky R. Active CMOS array
sensor for time-resolved fluorescence detection. IEEE Journal of
Solid-State Circuits. 2006; 41(11):2521-30.
[0325] 17. Rosenstein J K, Wanunu M, Merchant C A, Drndic M,
Shepard K L. Integrated nanopore sensing platform with
sub-microsecond temporal resolution. Nat Meth. 2012;
9(5):487-92.
[0326] 18. Schwartz D, Gong P, Shepard K L. Time-resolved
Forster-resonance-energy-transfer DNA assay on an active CMOS
microarray. Biosensors and Bioelectronics. 2008; 24(3):383-90.
[0327] 19. Bronson J E, Fei J, Hofman J M, Gonzalez Jr R L, Wiggins
C H. Learning Rates and States from Biophysical Time Series: A
Bayesian Approach to Model Selection and Single-Molecule FRET Data.
Biophys J. 2009; 97(12):3196-205. doi: DOI:
10.1016/j.bpj.2009.09.031.
[0328] 20. Fei J, Bronson J E, Hofman J M, Srinivas R L, Wiggins C
H, Gonzalez R L. Allosteric collaboration between elongation factor
G and the ribosomal Ll stalk directs tRNA movements during
translation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 2009;
106(37):15702-7. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0908077106.
[0329] 21. Lu H P, Xun L, Xie X S. Single-Molecule Enzymatic
Dynamics. Science. 1998; 282(5395):1877-82. doi:
10.1126/science.282.5395.1877.
[0330] 22. van Oijen A M, Blainey P C, Crampton D J, Richardson C
C, Ellenberger T, Xie X S. Single-Molecule Kinetics of .lamda.
Exonuclease Reveal Base Dependence and Dynamic Disorder. Science.
2003; 301(5637):1235-8. doi: 10.1126/science.1084387.
[0331] 23. Meric I, Caruso V, Caldwell R, Hone J, Shepard K L, Wind
S J. Hybrid carbon nanotube-silicon complementary metal oxide
semiconductor circuits. Journal of Vacuum Science & Technology
B. 2007; 25(6):2577-80. doi: 10.1116/1.2800322. PubMed PMID:
ISI:000251611900161.
[0332] 24. Kang S J, Kocabas C, Ozel T, Shim M, Pimparkar N, Alam M
A, et al. High-performance electronics using dense, perfectly
aligned arrays of single-walled carbon nanotubes. Nat Nano. 2007;
2(4):230-6.
[0333] 25. Polk B J, Stelzenmuller A, Mijares G, MacCrehan W,
Gaitan M. Ag/AgCl microelectrodes with improved stability for
microfluidics. Sensors and Actuators B: Chemical. 2006;
114(1):239-47. doi: 10.1016/j.snb.2005.03.121.
[0334] 26. Wang L, Meric I, Huang P Y, Gao Q, Gao Y, Tran H, et al.
One-Dimensional Electrical Contact to a Two-Dimensional Material.
Science. 2013; 342(6158):614-7. doi: 10.1126/science.1244358.
PubMed PMID: WOS:000326334300047.
[0335] While the foregoing invention has been described in some
detail for purposes of clarity and understanding, it will be clear
to one skilled in the art from a reading of this disclosure that
various changes in form and detail can be made without departing
from the true scope of the invention. For example, all the
techniques and apparatus described above can be used in various
combinations. All publications, patents, patent applications,
and/or other documents cited in this application are incorporated
by reference in their entirety for all purposes to the same extent
as if each individual publication, patent, patent application,
and/or other document were individually and separately indicated to
be incorporated by reference for all purposes.
* * * * *