U.S. patent application number 16/403442 was filed with the patent office on 2020-11-05 for radio frequency to optical transmitter.
The applicant listed for this patent is RAYTHEON COMPANY. Invention is credited to Harry B. Marr, Aleksandr S. Radunsky, Daniel Thompson.
Application Number | 20200350933 16/403442 |
Document ID | / |
Family ID | 1000005162534 |
Filed Date | 2020-11-05 |
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United States Patent
Application |
20200350933 |
Kind Code |
A1 |
Marr; Harry B. ; et
al. |
November 5, 2020 |
RADIO FREQUENCY TO OPTICAL TRANSMITTER
Abstract
A transmitter. In some embodiments, the transmitter has an
electrical input and an optical output. The transmitter may include
a light source; an optical amplitude modulator having an optical
input connected to the light source, a modulation input connected
to the electrical input, and an output; and a first gated optical
comparator, having a sampling clock input, an analog input
connected to the output of the optical amplitude modulator, and an
output. The first gated optical comparator may be configured to
generate, for each cycle of an optical sampling clock signal
received at the sampling clock input, a one-bit digital
representation of an analog optical signal received at the analog
input.
Inventors: |
Marr; Harry B.; (Manhattan
Beach, CA) ; Thompson; Daniel; (Hermosa Beach,
CA) ; Radunsky; Aleksandr S.; (Lawndale, CA) |
|
Applicant: |
Name |
City |
State |
Country |
Type |
RAYTHEON COMPANY |
Waltham |
MA |
US |
|
|
Family ID: |
1000005162534 |
Appl. No.: |
16/403442 |
Filed: |
May 3, 2019 |
Current U.S.
Class: |
1/1 |
Current CPC
Class: |
H04B 1/03 20130101; H04B
1/04 20130101; H04B 10/516 20130101 |
International
Class: |
H04B 1/04 20060101
H04B001/04; H04B 1/03 20060101 H04B001/03; H04B 10/516 20060101
H04B010/516 |
Claims
1. A transmitter, having an electrical input and an optical output,
the transmitter comprising: a light source; an optical amplitude
modulator configured to receive an optical input from the light
source and a modulation input from the electrical input; and a
first gated optical comparator configured to receive an optical
sampling clock signal and an output from the optical amplitude
modulator, the first gated optical comparator being further
configured to generate as the optical output, for each cycle of the
optical sampling clock signal, a one-bit digital representation of
an analog optical signal received from the optical amplitude
modulator.
2. The transmitter of claim 1, wherein the light source is a
semiconductor laser.
3. The transmitter of claim 1, wherein the first gated optical
comparator is configured to produce: an output signal determined by
whether an optical power level at an analog input of the first
gated optical comparator is above a first threshold, when a
sampling clock input is in an enabled state, and a fixed output
when the sampling clock input is in a disabled state.
4. The transmitter of claim 3, wherein the sampling clock input is
in an enabled state when an optical signal received at the sampling
clock input has a power level exceeding a second threshold.
5. The transmitter of claim 4, wherein the output signal has an
optical power greater than a first power value when the analog
input of the first gated optical comparator is above the first
threshold, and the output signal has an optical power less than a
second power value when the analog input of the first gated optical
comparator is not above the first threshold, the second power value
being less than the first power value.
6. The transmitter of claim 4, wherein the output signal has an
optical power greater than a first power value when the analog
input of the first gated optical comparator is not above the first
threshold, and the output signal has an optical power less than a
second power value when the analog input of the first gated optical
comparator is above the first threshold, the second power value
being less than the first power value.
7. The transmitter of claim 1, wherein the first gated optical
comparator is an optical NAND gate.
8. The transmitter of claim 7, wherein the optical NAND gate
comprises a continuous wave light source for emitting light at a
first wavelength, a semiconductor optical amplifier, and a band
pass filter.
9. The transmitter of claim 8, wherein: the band pass filter is
configured to pass light at the first wavelength; and the
semiconductor optical amplifier is configured to: receive light
from: the continuous wave light source of the optical NAND gate, a
sampling clock input of the first gated optical comparator, an
analog input of the first gated optical comparator, and transmit
the light from the continuous wave light source when either light
from the sampling clock input of the first gated optical
comparator, or light from the analog input of the first gated
optical comparator is not present, and attenuate, as a result of
four-wave mixing in the semiconductor optical amplifier, the light
from the continuous wave light source when both light from the
sampling clock input of the first gated optical comparator, and
light from the analog input of the first gated optical comparator
are present.
10. The transmitter of claim 7, wherein the optical NAND gate
comprises a nonlinear optical crystal and a band pass filter.
11. The transmitter of claim 10, wherein the nonlinear optical
crystal is a periodically poled lithium niobate crystal.
12. The transmitter of claim 1, further comprising a first optical
amplifier, wherein an analog input of the first gated optical
comparator is connected to the output of the optical amplitude
modulator through the first optical amplifier.
13. The transmitter of claim 12, wherein the light source is a
laser with an operating wavelength between 1540 nm and 1560 nm, and
the first optical amplifier is an erbium doped fiber amplifier.
14. The transmitter of claim 13, further comprising a second
optical amplifier, wherein the optical input of the optical
amplitude modulator is connected to the light source through the
second optical amplifier.
15. The transmitter of claim 1, further comprising an optical noise
source, wherein an analog input of the first gated optical
comparator is connected to the output of the optical amplitude
modulator through the optical noise source.
16. The transmitter of claim 15, wherein the optical noise source
comprises an electrical noise source and a second optical amplitude
modulator, a modulation input of the second optical amplitude
modulator being connected to an output of the electrical noise
source.
17. The transmitter of claim 1, wherein the optical amplitude
modulator is a Mach-Zehnder modulator.
18. The transmitter of claim 1, wherein the optical amplitude
modulator is an electro-absorption modulator.
19. The transmitter of claim 1, further comprising: an optical
power splitter, connected between the light source and the optical
amplitude modulator; an optical channelizer, having: a signal
input, a local oscillator input, and a plurality of outputs
including a first output and a second output; and a second gated
optical comparator, having: a sampling clock input, and an analog
input, the first output of the optical channelizer being connected
to the analog input of the first gated optical comparator, and the
second output of the optical channelizer being connected to the
analog input of the second gated optical comparator.
20. The transmitter of claim 19, further comprising an optical
multiplexer having: a first input, a second input, and an output,
the first input being connected to the output of the first gated
optical comparator, and the second input being connected to the
output of the second gated optical comparator.
Description
FIELD
[0001] One or more aspects of embodiments according to the present
invention relate to signal transmission, and more particularly to a
transmitter for transmitting, in digital optical form, signals
received in electrical form by the transmitter.
BACKGROUND
[0002] In various commercial systems (e.g., mobile communications
systems) and in military systems such as radars, there may be a
need to transport radio frequency signals over some distance, e.g.,
a few meters, from an antenna to a processing system, or from a
processing system to an antenna. Transmitting such signals using
coaxial cables may be costly and may result in high system mass, as
a result of the high mass of a coaxial cable relative to the
bandwidth such a cable is capable of transmitting. Moreover, at
high frequencies the loss in coaxial cables may be unacceptable
except at very short lengths.
[0003] Thus, there is a need for an improved system for
transmitting data.
SUMMARY
[0004] In some embodiments of the present disclosure, there is
provided a transmitter, having an electrical input and an optical
output, the transmitter including: a light source; an optical
amplitude modulator configured to receive an optical input from the
light source and a modulation input from the electrical input; and
a first gated optical comparator configured to receive an optical
sampling clock signal and an output from the optical amplitude
modulator, the first gated optical comparator being further
configured to generate as the optical output, for each cycle of the
optical sampling clock signal, a one-bit digital representation of
an analog optical signal received from the optical amplitude
modulator.
[0005] In some embodiments, the light source is a semiconductor
laser.
[0006] In some embodiments, the first gated optical comparator is
configured to produce: an output signal determined by whether an
optical power level at an analog input of the first gated optical
comparator is above a first threshold, when a sampling clock input
is in an enabled state, and a fixed output when the sampling clock
input is in a disabled state.
[0007] In some embodiments, the sampling clock input is in an
enabled state when an optical signal received at the sampling clock
input has a power level exceeding a second threshold.
[0008] In some embodiments, the output signal has an optical power
greater than a first power value when the analog input of the first
gated optical comparator is above the first threshold, and the
output signal has an optical power less than a second power value
when the analog input of the first gated optical comparator is not
above the first threshold, the second power value being less than
the first power value.
[0009] In some embodiments, the output signal has an optical power
greater than a first power value when the analog input of the first
gated optical comparator is not above the first threshold, and the
output signal has an optical power less than a second power value
when the analog input of the first gated optical comparator is
above the first threshold, the second power value being less than
the first power value.
[0010] In some embodiments, the first gated optical comparator is
an optical NAND gate.
[0011] In some embodiments, the optical NAND gate includes a
continuous wave light source for emitting light at a first
wavelength, a semiconductor optical amplifier, and a band pass
filter.
[0012] In some embodiments: the band pass filter is configured to
pass light at the first wavelength; and the semiconductor optical
amplifier is configured to: receive light from: the continuous wave
light source of the optical NAND gate, a sampling clock input of
the first gated optical comparator, an analog input of the first
gated optical comparator, and transmit the light from the
continuous wave light source when either light from the sampling
clock input of the first gated optical comparator, or light from
the analog input of the first gated optical comparator is not
present, and
[0013] attenuate, as a result of four-wave mixing in the
semiconductor optical amplifier, the light from the continuous wave
light source when both light from the sampling clock input of the
first gated optical comparator, and light from the analog input of
the first gated optical comparator are present.
[0014] In some embodiments, the optical NAND gate includes a
nonlinear optical crystal and a band pass filter.
[0015] In some embodiments, the nonlinear optical crystal is a
periodically poled lithium niobate crystal.
[0016] In some embodiments, the transmitter further includes a
first optical amplifier, wherein the analog input of the first
gated optical comparator is connected to the output of the optical
amplitude modulator through the first optical amplifier.
[0017] In some embodiments, the light source is a laser with an
operating wavelength between 1540 nm and 1560 nm, and the first
optical amplifier is an erbium doped fiber amplifier.
[0018] In some embodiments, the transmitter further includes a
second optical amplifier, wherein the optical input of the optical
amplitude modulator is connected to the light source through the
second optical amplifier.
[0019] In some embodiments, the transmitter further includes an
optical noise source, wherein the analog input of the first gated
optical comparator is connected to the output of the optical
amplitude modulator through the optical noise source.
[0020] In some embodiments, the optical noise source includes an
electrical noise source and an optical amplitude modulator, a
modulation input of the optical amplitude modulator of the optical
noise source being connected to an output of the electrical noise
source.
[0021] In some embodiments, the optical amplitude modulator is a
Mach-Zehnder modulator.
[0022] In some embodiments, the optical amplitude modulator is an
electro-absorption modulator.
[0023] In some embodiments, the transmitter further includes: an
optical power splitter, connected between the light source and the
optical amplitude modulator; an optical channelizer, having: a
signal input, a local oscillator input, and a plurality of outputs
including a first output and a second output; and a second gated
optical comparator, having: a sampling clock input, and an analog
input, the first output of the optical channelizer being connected
to the analog input of the first gated optical comparator, and the
second output of the optical channelizer being connected to the
analog input of the second gated optical comparator.
[0024] In some embodiments, the transmitter further includes an
optical multiplexer having: a first input, a second input, and an
output, the first input being connected to the output of the first
gated optical comparator, and the second input being connected to
the output of the second gated optical comparator.
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS
[0025] Features, aspects, and embodiments are described in
conjunction with the attached drawings, in which:
[0026] FIG. 1 is a block diagram of a system for signal
transmission, according to an embodiment of the present
invention;
[0027] FIG. 2 is a block diagram of a gated optical comparator,
according to an embodiment of the present invention;
[0028] FIG. 3A is a block diagram of a portion of a gated optical
comparator, according to an embodiment of the present
invention;
[0029] FIG. 3B is a block diagram of a gated optical comparator,
according to an embodiment of the present invention;
[0030] FIG. 4 is a block diagram of a system for signal
transmission, according to an embodiment of the present invention;
and
[0031] FIG. 5 is a block diagram of a system for signal
transmission, according to an embodiment of the present
invention.
DETAILED DESCRIPTION
[0032] The detailed description set forth below in connection with
the appended drawings is intended as a description of exemplary
embodiments of a radio frequency (RF) to optical transmitter
provided in accordance with the present invention and is not
intended to represent the only forms in which the present invention
may be constructed or utilized. The description sets forth the
features of the present invention in connection with the
illustrated embodiments. It is to be understood, however, that the
same or equivalent functions and structures may be accomplished by
different embodiments that are also intended to be encompassed
within the scope of the invention. As denoted elsewhere herein,
like element numbers are intended to indicate like elements or
features.
[0033] In various commercial systems (e.g., mobile communications
systems) and in military systems such as radars, there may be a
need to transport RF signals over some distance, e.g., a few
meters, from an antenna to a processing system, or from a
processing system to an antenna. For high frequencies or
bandwidths, transmitting the signals in electrical form may result
in unacceptable loss (e.g., loss in coaxial cables) and it may
therefore be advantageous to convert the signals to optical form
(e.g., to amplitude modulated light, at 1310 nm or at 1550 nm) to
transmit them over one or more optical fibers (e.g., single mode
fibers). Related art systems for performing such a conversion from
RF signals to optical signals may include one or more analog to
digital converters for converting the RF signals to a plurality of
digital data streams, and one or more modulators for modulating
light (e.g., light from a continuous wave source, such as an
unmodulated semiconductor laser) with the digital data produced by
the analog to digital converters. For example, related art radar
systems may digitize RF signals from an antenna using one or more
analog to digital converters, digitally preprocess the data (e.g.,
beamforming, equalization, etc.), then transfer the data to another
downstream digital processor (e.g., modes). To keep up with the
rising data throughputs (i.e., up to many gigabits per second),
some such systems may use optical interconnect technologies such as
40 and 100 gigabit Ethernet standards to interface to the back end.
Such systems may have significant mass (which may be
disadvantageous, for example, in an aircraft) and may have high
power consumption, e.g., they may consume about 20 W to convert a
radio frequency signal with a bandwidth of 20 GHz to an optical
signal.
[0034] In some embodiments, considerable power savings are possible
by performing monobit analog to digital conversion in the optical
domain. Referring to FIG. 1, in some embodiments, a RF to optical
transmitter 100 is configured to receive, at an electrical input, a
radio frequency signal from a signal source 105 (e.g., from an
antenna). The RF to optical transmitter 100 includes an optical
amplitude modulator 110 having an optical input connected to a
continuous wave light source 115, and a modulation input connected
to the electrical input (which is connected to the signal source
105). The light source 115 may be an unmodulated semiconductor
laser emitting light at 1550 nm.
[0035] The optical amplitude modulator 110 modulates (e.g., applies
amplitude modulation to) the light it receives from the light
source 115. The modulation it applies corresponds to the signal
received, at a modulation input of the optical amplitude modulator
110, from the signal source 105. The output of the optical
amplitude modulator 110 transmits the modulated light, through a
first optical amplifier 120 (which may be an erbium-doped fiber
amplifier (EDFA)), to a gated optical comparator 125. A second
optical amplifier 130 (which may be an erbium-doped fiber amplifier
(EDFA)) may amplify the output of the light source 115. The optical
amplitude modulator 110 may be any suitable optical amplitude
modulator, such as a Mach-Zehnder modulator or an
electro-absorption modulator. A bias tee 145 may be used to apply a
bias (e.g., from a DC bias source 150) to the optical amplitude
modulator 110; in the case of a Mach-Zehnder modulator this bias
may be selected so that the DC operating point is one at which the
optical signals combined by the power combiner of the Mach-Zehnder
modulator are 90 degrees out of phase, and the output power is one
half of the maximum output power. The amplitude of the modulating
signal at the modulation input of the optical amplitude modulator
110 may be selected (e.g., by amplifying or attenuating the signal
produced by the signal source 105) such that the optical amplitude
modulator 110 produces substantially linear amplitude modulation of
the light from the light source 115, thereby generating an optical
signal carrying an analog representation of the signal produced by
the signal source 105.
[0036] The gated optical comparator 125 may, as suggested by the
symbol used to represent it in FIG. 1, be an optical NAND gate. The
output of the gated optical comparator 125 (which, in the
embodiment of FIG. 1, is the output of the radio frequency to
optical transmitter 100) is transmitted through a channel 135
(e.g., a single-mode optical fiber), to a receiver 140, which
converts the optical signal received from the radio frequency to
optical transmitter 100 to a digital electrical signal
corresponding to the signal from the signal source 105.
[0037] The gated optical comparator 125 has (i) an analog input
connected to the output of the optical amplifier 120 and (ii) a
sampling clock input 155. In operation, the gated optical
comparator 125 receives an optical sampling clock signal at the
sampling clock input 155, and acts as a monobit (i.e., one-bit)
optical analog to digital converter (or "digitizer"), converting,
once per cycle of the optical sampling clock signal, an analog
signal received at the analog input of the gated optical comparator
125 to a digital optical signal at the output of the gated optical
comparator 125.
[0038] The optical signal at the sampling clock input 155 of the
gated optical comparator 125 may be digital optical signal, which,
in operation, represents one of two states, a digital "high" (or
binary one) state in which the optical power exceeds a high
threshold (e.g., 8 mW) and a digital "low" (or binary zero) state
in which the optical power is less than a low threshold (e.g., 0.5
mW). When the optical sampling clock signal is high, the gated
optical comparator 125 may be enabled (or the sampling clock input
155 of the gated optical comparator 125 may be said to be in an
enabled state) in the sense that, in this state, the output of the
gated optical comparator 125 may be affected by the signal at the
analog input of the gated optical comparator 125.
[0039] The output of the gated optical comparator 125 may similarly
be a digital optical signal, i.e., a signal which, in operation,
represents one of two states, e.g., one of the same two states (the
digital high state and the digital low state) which the optical
signal at the sampling clock input 155 of the gated optical
comparator 125 may represent. When the gated optical comparator 125
is in the enabled state, the output may be high when the signal at
the analog input of the gated optical comparator 125 is below the
comparator threshold of the gated optical comparator 125 (e.g.,
when the optical power of the signal at the analog input is below 5
mW), and the output may be low when the signal at the analog input
of the gated optical comparator 125 is above the comparator
threshold.
[0040] When the gated optical comparator 125 is disabled (i.e., not
enabled), i.e., when the sampling clock input 155 of the gated
optical comparator 125 is low, the output of the gated optical
comparator 125 may be high.
[0041] In such an embodiment, the operation of the gated optical
comparator 125 may approximate that of an optical NAND gate, in the
sense that the output of the gated optical comparator 125 may be
high except when (i) the gated optical comparator 125 is enabled,
i.e., the sampling clock input 155 of the gated optical comparator
125 is high, and (ii) the signal at the analog input of the gated
optical comparator 125 exceeds the comparator threshold.
[0042] In some embodiments, referring to FIG. 2, a gated optical
comparator 125 in the form of an optical NAND gate may be
constructed from a nonlinear optical element (e.g., a semiconductor
optical amplifier (SOA)) 205, a band pass filter 210, and a
continuous wave light source (e.g., an unmodulated semiconductor
laser) 215, having a wavelength within the pass band of the band
pass filter 210. Light from the sampling clock input 155 of the
gated optical comparator 125, from the analog input of the gated
optical comparator 125, and from the continuous wave light source
215 may be fed into the nonlinear optical element 205 (e.g., after
being combined into a single mode using a suitable single mode
power combiner (not shown)). If the signals received at the two
inputs to the gated optical comparator 125 are at different
wavelengths and if the wavelength of the continuous wave light
source 215 of the gated optical comparator 125 is at a third
wavelength, then when either of the inputs of the gated optical
comparator 125 (i.e., either one of (i) the sampling clock input
155 of the gated optical comparator 125 and (ii) the analog input
of the gated optical comparator 125) are low (i.e., both are
receiving no optical power or power that is less than a respective
threshold), light from the continuous wave light source 215 of the
gated optical comparator 125 may be transmitted through the band
pass filter 210 to the output of the gated optical comparator 125,
so that the output is high. When both of the inputs of the gated
optical comparator 125 are high (i.e., each of these inputs is
receiving power above a respective threshold), then four-wave
mixing in the nonlinear optical element 205 may attenuate the light
from the continuous wave light source 215 (by coupling the optical
power into light at a fourth wavelength), so that the output of the
gated optical comparator 125 is low. In some embodiments, the gated
optical comparator 125 is constructed as an optical NAND gate in
accordance with the disclosure of A. Saharia et al., "An approach
for Realization of all optical NAND gate using Nonlinear Effect in
SOA", published in NNGT Int. J. on Signal Processing and Imaging
Engineering, Vol. 1, July 2014.
[0043] In some embodiments a periodically poled lithium niobate
(PPLN) crystal may be used to construct the gated optical
comparator 125, which, in such an embodiment, may operate as an AND
gate. Referring to FIGS. 3A and 3B, in some embodiments, a PPLN
crystal 305 receives light from each of the two inputs of the gated
optical comparator 125, at a first wavelength and a second
wavelength, respectively. It also receives light at a third
wavelength from a pump laser 315, and generates, at its output,
light at a fourth wavelength, which is within the pass band of a
band pass filter 310, when light above a respective threshold power
level is present at each of the two inputs of the gated optical
comparator 125. When light at a power level exceeding the
respective threshold power level is not present at one or the other
of the inputs of the gated optical comparator 125, then light at
the fourth wavelength is not generated, or is generated only
weakly, so that the gated optical comparator 125 in this embodiment
operates as an optical AND gate. The AND gate may operate as a
gated optical comparator 125 in the same manner as a NAND gate,
except that its output may be inverted relative to the output that
would be produced by a NAND gate. In some embodiments, a PPLN is
used to implement a NAND gate, to similar effect, with the NAND
gate operating as the gated optical comparator 125.
[0044] The sample clock may be square-wave modulated optical
signal, generated by any suitable method including direct
modulation of a semiconductor laser (e.g., modulation of the drive
current of the semiconductor laser) or external modulation (e.g.,
using a Mach-Zehnder modulator or an electro-absorption modulator).
The receiver 140 (FIG. 1) may be synchronized to the transmitter by
any of several methods, such as transmitting the sample clock
(e.g., a portion of the sample clock signal, split off by a
suitable optical power splitter) to the receiver on a separate
fiber as a forwarded clock, or such as using a clock and data
recovery circuit in the receiver to recover the embedded clock from
the signal, after it is converted from an optical signal to an
electrical signal (e.g., by a photodetector).
[0045] Referring to FIG. 4, in some embodiments, the RF to optical
transmitter 100 further includes an optical noise source, that may
include, as shown, an amplitude modulator 405 and an electrical
noise source 410 connected to the modulation input of the amplitude
modulator 405. The optical noise source may be employed to add
amplitude noise (or "dither") to the optical signal prior to the
performing of the monobit digitization by the gated optical
comparator 125; such noise may improve the linearity and effective
resolution of the monobit digitization.
[0046] Referring to FIG. 5, in some embodiments, the optical signal
(after analog amplitude modulation is applied by the optical
amplitude modulator 110) is separated into a plurality of channels
by an optical channelizer 505, each of the channels corresponding
to a respective frequency range (or, equivalently, a respective
wavelength range) and forming an input to respective gated optical
comparators 125. The channels may be at different wavelengths and
may be combined onto a single fiber using a suitable multiplexer
160 (such as an N-to-1 optical power combiner, or an arrayed
waveguide grating (AWG)). The multiplexer 160 may be any device
suitable for combining the channels into a single channel. In the
receiver 140, the channels may be separated (e.g., using an AWG)
before the signals are converted from optical signals to electrical
signals.
[0047] Because In the embodiment of FIG. 5, the optical channelizer
505 splits the spectrum of the optical signal into a number of
channels, each channelizer output may have a correspondingly
smaller bandwidth, and the sampling clock signal fed to the
sampling clock input of each of the gated optical comparators 125
may have a correspondingly lower frequency (i.e., the optical
digitization rate of each of the gated optical comparators 125 may
be lower than in an otherwise similar transmitter 100 constructed
according to FIG. 1).
[0048] In some embodiments, the optical channelizer 505 is
constructed in accordance with the disclosure of W. Wang et al.,
"Characterization of a Coherent Optical RF Channelizer Based on a
Diffraction Grating", published in IEEE Transactions on Microwave
Theory and Techniques, Vol. 49, No. 10, October 2001. In such an
embodiment, a power splitter 510 may be used to split off a portion
of the light produced by the light source 115; this portion may be
used to seed (e.g., by injection locking) a mode-locked laser which
generates the local oscillator frequency comb in the optical
channelizer 505.
[0049] Although limited embodiments of a radio frequency to optical
transmitter have been specifically described and illustrated
herein, many modifications and variations will be apparent to those
skilled in the art. Accordingly, it is to be understood that a
radio frequency to optical transmitter employed according to
principles of this invention may be embodied other than as
specifically described herein. The invention is also defined in the
following claims, and equivalents thereof.
* * * * *