U.S. patent application number 16/604434 was filed with the patent office on 2020-05-14 for distributed active mechanical waveguide sensor with damping.
The applicant listed for this patent is Etegent Technologies LTD.. Invention is credited to Oleg Lobkis, Richard A. Roth, II, Stuart J. Shelley, Kevin Sigmund.
Application Number | 20200149980 16/604434 |
Document ID | / |
Family ID | 63793557 |
Filed Date | 2020-05-14 |
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United States Patent
Application |
20200149980 |
Kind Code |
A1 |
Roth, II; Richard A. ; et
al. |
May 14, 2020 |
DISTRIBUTED ACTIVE MECHANICAL WAVEGUIDE SENSOR WITH DAMPING
Abstract
An active mechanical waveguide including an
ultrasonically-transmissive material and a plurality of reflection
points defined along a length of the waveguide may be dampened
using a damping device on a plurality of support members for the
waveguide and/or using a damping device on the waveguide itself,
and variable spacing of support members and/or constant tensioning
of the waveguide may also be used.
Inventors: |
Roth, II; Richard A.;
(Goshen, OH) ; Shelley; Stuart J.; (Cincinnati,
OH) ; Sigmund; Kevin; (Newtown, OH) ; Lobkis;
Oleg; (Mason, OH) |
|
Applicant: |
Name |
City |
State |
Country |
Type |
Etegent Technologies LTD. |
Cincinnati |
OH |
US |
|
|
Family ID: |
63793557 |
Appl. No.: |
16/604434 |
Filed: |
April 10, 2018 |
PCT Filed: |
April 10, 2018 |
PCT NO: |
PCT/US2018/026940 |
371 Date: |
October 10, 2019 |
Related U.S. Patent Documents
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Application
Number |
Filing Date |
Patent Number |
|
|
62483763 |
Apr 10, 2017 |
|
|
|
Current U.S.
Class: |
1/1 |
Current CPC
Class: |
G01L 1/10 20130101; G01L
11/06 20130101; H01P 3/10 20130101; G01N 2291/044 20130101; G01N
29/44 20130101; G01K 11/24 20130101; G10K 11/24 20130101; G01N
29/075 20130101 |
International
Class: |
G01K 11/24 20060101
G01K011/24 |
Goverment Interests
GOVERNMENT RIGHTS
[0001] Certain aspects of this invention were made with government
support under Grant/Contract No. N68335-11-C-0385 awarded by the
Naval Air Warfare Center (NAVAIR). The U.S. Government may have
certain rights in the invention.
Claims
1. A sensor for sensing an environmental condition in an
environment, comprising: an active mechanical waveguide including
an ultrasonically-transmissive material and a plurality of
reflection points defined along a length of the waveguide to define
a plurality of sensing regions along the waveguide; a plurality of
support members supporting the waveguide along at least a portion
of the length of the waveguide; and a damping device disposed
between the waveguide and each of the plurality of support members
to dampen environment-induced vibrations of the waveguide.
2. The sensor of claim 1, wherein the environment is disposed
within a gas turbine engine, and wherein the environment-induced
vibrations include vibrations of the gas turbine engine, vibrations
induced by rotation of a blade within the gas turbine engine and/or
vibration due to excitation within the gas turbine engine.
3. The sensor of claim 1, further comprising: an ultrasonic
transducer coupled to the waveguide and configured to propagate
ultrasonic stress waves through the waveguide; and control logic
coupled to the ultrasonic transducer and configured to determine a
value of an environmental condition for each of the plurality of
sensing regions based upon an ultrasonic signal propagated through
the waveguide in response to the ultrasonic stress waves generated
by the ultrasonic transducer.
4. The sensor of claim 1, wherein the damping device includes a
viscoelastic material.
5. The sensor of claim 4, wherein each of the plurality of support
members is cantilevered and extends generally transverse to a
portion of the waveguide, and wherein the damping device includes a
bushing disposed on each of the plurality of support members and
through which the waveguide projects.
6. The sensor of claim 5, wherein the plurality of support members
support the waveguide in a generally arcuate shape.
7. The sensor of claim 6, wherein the environment is a generally
cylindrical region of a gas turbine engine defined by inner and
outer walls, and wherein the plurality of support members extend
inwardly from the outer wall or outwardly from the inner wall to
support the waveguide in the generally arcuate shape within the
generally cylindrical region.
8. The sensor of claim 7, wherein the waveguide is a first
waveguide extending along a first arcuate segment of the generally
cylindrical region and generally transverse to a longitudinal axis
of the gas turbine engine, wherein the plurality of support members
is a first plurality of support members, and wherein the sensor
further comprises: a second active mechanical waveguide including
an ultrasonically-transmissive material and a plurality of
reflection points defined along a length of the second waveguide;
and a second plurality of support members extending inwardly from
the outer wall or outwardly from the inner wall of the generally
cylindrical region to support the second waveguide in a generally
arcuate shape along a second arcuate segment of the generally
cylindrical region and generally transverse to the longitudinal
axis of the gas turbine engine.
9. The sensor of claim 5, wherein the environment is a gas turbine
engine, and wherein the plurality of support members are arranged
and configured to support the waveguide such that the waveguide
extends along a direction generally parallel to a direction of
fluid flow in the gas turbine engine.
10. The sensor of claim 1, wherein the damping device includes a
friction damping material.
11. The sensor of claim 1, wherein at least one of the plurality of
reflection points is defined at a support point defined by one of
the plurality of support points.
12. The sensor of claim 1, wherein the environmental condition is
temperature.
13. The sensor of claim 1, further comprising a second damping
device circumscribing at least a portion of the waveguide and
within each of the plurality of sensing regions to dampen
environment-induced vibrations of the waveguide.
14. The sensor of claim 1, wherein each of the plurality of support
members supports the waveguide at a respective support point, and
wherein portions of the waveguide between adjacent support points
are unsupported.
15. The sensor of claim 14, wherein the plurality of support
members are arranged and configured to provide irregular spacing
between adjacent support points and thereby spread natural
resonances in the waveguide to reduce environment-induced
sympathetic resonant excitation of the waveguide.
16. The sensor of claim 14, further comprising a tension device
coupled to the waveguide and configured to maintain a substantially
constant tension in the waveguide over a range of temperatures in
the environment and thereby compensate for thermal expansion of the
waveguide.
17. A sensor for sensing an environmental condition in an
environment, comprising: an active mechanical waveguide including
an ultrasonically-transmissive material and a plurality of
reflection points defined along a length of the waveguide to define
a plurality of sensing regions along the waveguide, and a damping
device circumscribing at least a portion of the waveguide and
within each of the plurality of sensing regions to dampen
environment-induced vibrations of the waveguide.
18. The sensor of claim 17, wherein the environment is disposed
within a gas turbine engine, and wherein the environment-induced
vibrations include vibrations of the gas turbine engine, vibrations
induced by blade rotation within the gas turbine engine and/or
vibration due to aerodynamic self-excitation within the gas turbine
engine.
19. The sensor of claim 17, further comprising: an ultrasonic
transducer coupled to the waveguide and configured to propagate
ultrasonic stress waves through the waveguide; and control logic
coupled to the ultrasonic transducer and configured to determine a
value of an environmental condition for each of the plurality of
sensing regions based upon an ultrasonic signal propagated through
the waveguide in response to the ultrasonic stress waves generated
by the ultrasonic transducer.
20. The sensor of claim 17, wherein the waveguide includes a wire,
and wherein the damping device includes a braided over-braid
circumscribing the wire.
21. The sensor of claim 20, wherein the braided over braid includes
a braided steel over braid.
22. The sensor of claim 20, further comprising an intermediate
material interposed between the wire and the braided over braid,
the intermediate material having low ultrasonic absorption.
23. The sensor of claim 17, further comprising a substantially
concentric tube circumscribing the damping device.
24. The sensor of claim 23, wherein the waveguide includes a wire
filament or a tube circumscribed by the damping device.
25. The sensor of claim 24, wherein the damping device includes a
plurality of O-rings spaced along the length of the waveguide
within a space defined between the wire filament or tube and the
substantially concentric tube.
26. The sensor of claim 24, wherein the damping device
substantially fills a space defined between the wire filament or
tube and the substantially concentric tube.
27. The sensor of claim 24, wherein the damping device defines a
plurality of voids along the length of the waveguide within a space
defined between the wire filament or tube and the substantially
concentric tube.
28. The sensor of claim 24, wherein the damping device includes a
spring disposed within a space defined between the wire filament or
tube and the substantially concentric tube.
29. The sensor of claim 28, wherein the spring includes a
corrugated spring.
30. The sensor of claim 23, wherein the substantially concentric
tube is a first substantially concentric tube, the sensor further
comprising a second substantially concentric tube circumscribing
the first substantially concentric tube.
31. The sensor of claim 30, wherein the damping device includes a
viscoelastic material, and wherein the sensor further comprises a
friction damping device disposed within a space defined between the
first and second substantially concentric tubes.
32. The sensor of claim 31, wherein the friction damping device
includes a corrugated spring.
33. The sensor of claim 23, further comprising one or more ports
defined in the substantially concentric tube to expose the
waveguide to the environmental condition.
34. The sensor of claim 17, wherein the damping device includes a
plurality of masses disposed along the length of the waveguide.
35. The sensor of claim 17, wherein the environmental condition is
temperature.
36. A sensor for sensing an environmental condition in an
environment, comprising: an active mechanical waveguide including
an ultrasonically-transmissive material and a plurality of
reflection points defined along a length of the waveguide to define
a plurality of sensing regions along the waveguide; and a plurality
of support members supporting the waveguide along at least a
portion of the length of the waveguide, each of the plurality of
support members supporting the waveguide at a respective support
point, wherein portions of the waveguide between adjacent support
points are unsupported, and wherein the plurality of support
members are arranged and configured to provide irregular spacing
between adjacent support points and thereby spread natural
resonances in the waveguide to reduce environment-induced
sympathetic resonant excitation of the waveguide.
37. The sensor of claim 36, wherein the environment is disposed
within a gas turbine engine, and wherein the waveguide is subject
to environment-induced vibrations of the gas turbine engine,
vibrations induced by blade rotation within the gas turbine engine
and/or vibration due to aerodynamic self-excitation within the gas
turbine engine.
38. The sensor of claim 36, further comprising: an ultrasonic
transducer coupled to the waveguide and configured to propagate
ultrasonic stress waves through the waveguide; and control logic
coupled to the ultrasonic transducer and configured to determine a
value of an environmental condition for each of the plurality of
sensing regions based upon an ultrasonic signal propagated through
the waveguide in response to the ultrasonic stress waves generated
by the ultrasonic transducer.
39. The sensor of claim 36, further comprising a damping device
disposed between the waveguide and each of the plurality of support
members to dampen environment-induced vibrations of the
waveguide.
40. The sensor of claim 36, wherein the environment is a generally
cylindrical region of a gas turbine engine defined by inner and
outer walls, wherein each of the plurality of support members is
cantilevered inwardly from the outer wall of the generally
cylindrical region or outwardly from the inner wall of the
generally cylindrical region and extends generally transverse to a
portion of the waveguide, wherein the plurality of support members
support the waveguide in a generally arcuate shape within the
generally cylindrical region.
41. The sensor of claim 36, wherein at least one of the plurality
of reflection points is defined at a support point defined by one
of the plurality of support points.
42. The sensor of claim 36, wherein the environmental condition is
temperature.
43. A sensor for sensing an environmental condition in an
environment, comprising: an active mechanical waveguide including
an ultrasonically-transmissive material and a plurality of
reflection points defined along a length of the waveguide to define
a plurality of sensing regions along the waveguide; a plurality of
support members supporting the waveguide along at least a portion
of the length of the waveguide, each of the plurality of support
members supporting the waveguide at a respective support point,
wherein portions of the waveguide between adjacent support points
are unsupported; and a tension device coupled to the waveguide and
configured to maintain a substantially constant tension in the
waveguide over a range of temperatures in the environment and
thereby compensate for thermal expansion of the waveguide.
44. The sensor of claim 43, further comprising: an ultrasonic
transducer coupled to the waveguide and configured to propagate
ultrasonic stress waves through the waveguide; and control logic
coupled to the ultrasonic transducer and configured to determine a
value of an environmental condition for each of the plurality of
sensing regions based upon an ultrasonic signal propagated through
the waveguide in response to the ultrasonic stress waves generated
by the ultrasonic transducer.
45. The sensor of claim 43, wherein the waveguide is anchored
proximate a first end thereof, and wherein the tension device is
coupled to the waveguide at an intermediate portion of the
waveguide.
46. The sensor of claim 45, wherein the environment is a generally
cylindrical region of a gas turbine engine defined by inner and
outer walls, wherein each of the plurality of support members is
cantilevered inwardly from the outer wall of the generally
cylindrical region or outwardly from the inner wall of the
generally cylindrical region and extends generally transverse to a
portion of the waveguide, wherein the plurality of support members
support the waveguide in a generally arcuate shape within the
generally cylindrical region.
47. The sensor of claim 46, wherein the tension device includes a
spring member extending between the waveguide and the inner or
outer wall of the generally cylindrical region of the gas turbine
engine.
48. The sensor of claim 43, wherein at least a subset of the
plurality of support members are configured to allow for linear
movement of the active mechanical waveguide.
49. The sensor of claim 43, wherein the environmental condition is
temperature.
Description
FIELD OF THE INVENTION
[0002] The present invention relates to ultrasonic sensing
technology, and more particularly to sensors and sensing methods
using active mechanical waveguides.
BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION
[0003] Many conventional mechanical systems are monitored to
determine operating conditions such as pressure, temperature,
vibrations, etc. However, in many systems it is desirable to
monitor and measure operating conditions at locations in the system
where it is extremely difficult to do so. For example, the
measurement environment may be a harsh environment in which sensors
are unable to operate reliably. For example, monitoring an aero gas
turbine engine presents unique challenges due to the harsh
environmental conditions of the engine, i.e., high temperatures,
high pressures, and high vibrations a sensor is subjected to during
operation of the engine. In mechanical systems, conventional
sensors used to monitor operating conditions in harsh environments
often fail at an extremely high rate and lead to high maintenance
costs in maintaining the mechanical system due to limits associated
with the materials required to construct the sensors. In addition,
conventional sensors typically require a variety of materials to be
bonded together, which can complicate sensor design due to the
varying environmental condition limits of these materials and
different coefficients of thermal expansion that can result in high
thermal stresses, and which can lead to increased failure rates or
lower performance due to some required materials having low
environmental condition limits.
[0004] Conventional methods of dealing with the above issues
typically involve acknowledging the limits associated with a
sensor, the lifetime of the sensor, and that its lifetime and
measurement capabilities are limited by the environment within
which it is configured. In some systems, conventional methods of
dealing with the above issues typically involve installing a sensor
in a location remote from the desired sensing location and
estimating operating conditions at the desired sensing location
based on the data collected from the remote position.
[0005] Sensors have also been developed utilizing a single material
to minimize thermal strains and the challenges associated with
bonding dissimilar materials, as well as one or more wires coupled
to and/or integrated with the sensors and functioning as active
waveguides through which ultrasonic signals may be propagated and
sensed to measure the environmental conditions, e.g., pressure,
force, strain, temperature, etc., to which the sensors are
subjected. In some instances, the wires may be tensioned and/or
coupled to one or more diaphragms such that pressure differences or
other forces deflect the diaphragms and induce varying tension
and/or elongation of the wires, which in turn vary the ultrasonic
signal transmission characteristics of the wires in a measurable
manner.
[0006] Nonetheless, in some instances, various environmental
conditions can contribute to the ultrasonic signal transmission
characteristics of the wires used as active waveguides, resulting
in a need to compensate for or otherwise minimize the effects of
some environmental conditions when attempting to measure other
environmental conditions.
[0007] In addition, in some instances, generating and detecting
ultrasonic energy in the wires used as active waveguides, and in
particular, transmitting ultrasonic energy to an active waveguide
wire from a transducer and/or receiving ultrasonic energy from an
active waveguide wire with a receiver can be subject to energy
losses and unwanted reflections that reduce signal strength and
signal to noise ratio.
[0008] Consequently, there is a continuing need for improved
sensors and sensing methods to address these and other difficulties
with conventional sensor technology.
SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION
[0009] Embodiments of the invention are generally directed to
various improvements in the excitation and/or compensation in an
active mechanical waveguide, e.g., as used with sensors that
measure environmental conditions using ultrasonic energy, generally
in the form of mechanical stress waves propagated through a
waveguide formed on an ultrasonically-transmissive material.
[0010] Therefore, consistent with one aspect of the invention, a
sensor for sensing an environmental condition in an environment may
include an active mechanical waveguide including an
ultrasonically-transmissive material and a plurality of reflection
points defined along a length of the waveguide to define a
plurality of sensing regions along the waveguide, a plurality of
support members supporting the waveguide along at least a portion
of the length of the waveguide, and a damping device disposed
between the waveguide and each of the plurality of support members
to dampen environment-induced vibrations of the waveguide.
[0011] In some embodiments, the environment is disposed within a
gas turbine engine, and the environment-induced vibrations include
vibrations of the gas turbine engine, vibrations induced by
rotation of a blade within the gas turbine engine and/or vibration
due to excitation within the gas turbine engine.
[0012] In addition, some embodiments may further include an
ultrasonic transducer coupled to the waveguide and configured to
propagate ultrasonic stress waves through the waveguide, and
control logic coupled to the ultrasonic transducer and configured
to determine a value of an environmental condition for each of the
plurality of sensing regions based upon an ultrasonic signal
propagated through the waveguide in response to the ultrasonic
stress waves generated by the ultrasonic transducer.
[0013] Also, in some embodiments, the damping device includes a
viscoelastic material. Further, in some embodiments, each of the
plurality of support members is cantilevered and extends generally
transverse to a portion of the waveguide, and the damping device
includes a bushing disposed on each of the plurality of support
members and through which the waveguide projects.
[0014] In some embodiments, the plurality of support members
support the waveguide in a generally arcuate shape. In addition, in
some embodiments, the environment is a generally cylindrical region
of a gas turbine engine defined by inner and outer walls, and the
plurality of support members extend inwardly from the outer wall or
outwardly from the inner wall to support the waveguide in the
generally arcuate shape within the generally cylindrical
region.
[0015] In some embodiments, the waveguide is a first waveguide
extending along a first arcuate segment of the generally
cylindrical region and generally transverse to a longitudinal axis
of the gas turbine engine, the plurality of support members is a
first plurality of support members, and the sensor further includes
a second active mechanical waveguide including an
ultrasonically-transmissive material and a plurality of reflection
points defined along a length of the second waveguide, and a second
plurality of support members extending inwardly from the outer wall
or outwardly from the inner wall of the generally cylindrical
region to support the second waveguide in a generally arcuate shape
along a second arcuate segment of the generally cylindrical region
and generally transverse to the longitudinal axis of the gas
turbine engine.
[0016] In addition, in some embodiments, the environment is a gas
turbine engine, and the plurality of support members are arranged
and configured to support the waveguide such that the waveguide
extends along a direction generally parallel to a direction of
fluid flow in the gas turbine engine.
[0017] Moreover, in some embodiments, the damping device includes a
friction damping material. In some embodiments, at least one of the
plurality of reflection points is defined at a support point
defined by one of the plurality of support points. Moreover, in
some embodiments, the environmental condition is temperature.
[0018] Some embodiments may also include a second damping device
circumscribing at least a portion of the waveguide and within each
of the plurality of sensing regions to dampen environment-induced
vibrations of the waveguide. In some embodiments, each of the
plurality of support members supports the waveguide at a respective
support point, and portions of the waveguide between adjacent
support points are unsupported. In addition, in some embodiments,
the plurality of support members are arranged and configured to
provide irregular spacing between adjacent support points and
thereby spread natural resonances in the waveguide to reduce
environment-induced sympathetic resonant excitation of the
waveguide.
[0019] Some embodiments may also include a tension device coupled
to the waveguide and configured to maintain a substantially
constant tension in the waveguide over a range of temperatures in
the environment and thereby compensate for thermal expansion of the
waveguide.
[0020] Consistent with another aspect of the invention, a sensor
for sensing an environmental condition in an environment may
include an active mechanical waveguide including an
ultrasonically-transmissive material and a plurality of reflection
points defined along a length of the waveguide to define a
plurality of sensing regions along the waveguide, and a damping
device circumscribing at least a portion of the waveguide and
within each of the plurality of sensing regions to dampen
environment-induced vibrations of the waveguide.
[0021] Moreover, in some embodiments, the environment is disposed
within a gas turbine engine, and the environment-induced vibrations
include vibrations of the gas turbine engine, vibrations induced by
blade rotation within the gas turbine engine and/or vibration due
to aerodynamic self-excitation within the gas turbine engine. In
addition, some embodiments may further include an ultrasonic
transducer coupled to the waveguide and configured to propagate
ultrasonic stress waves through the waveguide, and control logic
coupled to the ultrasonic transducer and configured to determine a
value of an environmental condition for each of the plurality of
sensing regions based upon an ultrasonic signal propagated through
the waveguide in response to the ultrasonic stress waves generated
by the ultrasonic transducer.
[0022] In some embodiments, the waveguide includes a wire, and the
damping device includes a braided over-braid circumscribing the
wire. In addition, in some embodiments, the braided over braid
includes a braided steel over braid. In addition, some embodiments
may further include an intermediate material interposed between the
wire and the braided over braid, the intermediate material having
low ultrasonic absorption. Some embodiments may further include a
substantially concentric tube circumscribing the damping device.
Also, in some embodiments, the waveguide includes a wire filament
or a tube circumscribed by the damping device.
[0023] Further, in some embodiments, the damping device includes a
plurality of O-rings spaced along the length of the waveguide
within a space defined between the wire filament or tube and the
substantially concentric tube. In some embodiments, the damping
device substantially fills a space defined between the wire
filament or tube and the substantially concentric tube.
[0024] Also, in some embodiments, the damping device defines a
plurality of voids along the length of the waveguide within a space
defined between the wire filament or tube and the substantially
concentric tube. In some embodiments, the damping device includes a
spring disposed within a space defined between the wire filament or
tube and the substantially concentric tube. Further, in some
embodiments, the spring includes a corrugated spring.
[0025] In some embodiments, the substantially concentric tube is a
first substantially concentric tube, the sensor further including a
second substantially concentric tube circumscribing the first
substantially concentric tube. Further, in some embodiments, the
damping device includes a viscoelastic material, and the sensor
further includes a friction damping device disposed within a space
defined between the first and second substantially concentric
tubes. Also, in some embodiments, the friction damping device
includes a corrugated spring. In addition, some embodiments may
also include one or more ports defined in the substantially
concentric tube to expose the waveguide to the environmental
condition.
[0026] In some embodiments, the damping device includes a plurality
of masses disposed along the length of the waveguide. In addition,
in some embodiments, the environmental condition is
temperature.
[0027] Consistent with another aspect of the invention, a sensor
for sensing an environmental condition in an environment may
include an active mechanical waveguide including an
ultrasonically-transmissive material and a plurality of reflection
points defined along a length of the waveguide to define a
plurality of sensing regions along the waveguide, and a plurality
of support members supporting the waveguide along at least a
portion of the length of the waveguide, each of the plurality of
support members supporting the waveguide at a respective support
point, where portions of the waveguide between adjacent support
points are unsupported, and where the plurality of support members
are arranged and configured to provide irregular spacing between
adjacent support points and thereby spread natural resonances in
the waveguide to reduce environment-induced sympathetic resonant
excitation of the waveguide.
[0028] Also, in some embodiments, the environment is disposed
within a gas turbine engine, and the waveguide is subject to
environment-induced vibrations of the gas turbine engine,
vibrations induced by blade rotation within the gas turbine engine
and/or vibration due to aerodynamic self-excitation within the gas
turbine engine. In addition, some embodiments may also include an
ultrasonic transducer coupled to the waveguide and configured to
propagate ultrasonic stress waves through the waveguide, and
control logic coupled to the ultrasonic transducer and configured
to determine a value of an environmental condition for each of the
plurality of sensing regions based upon an ultrasonic signal
propagated through the waveguide in response to the ultrasonic
stress waves generated by the ultrasonic transducer. Some
embodiments may also include a damping device disposed between the
waveguide and each of the plurality of support members to dampen
environment-induced vibrations of the waveguide.
[0029] Further, in some embodiments, the environment is a generally
cylindrical region of a gas turbine engine defined by inner and
outer walls, where each of the plurality of support members is
cantilevered inwardly from the outer wall of the generally
cylindrical region or outwardly from the inner wall of the
generally cylindrical region and extends generally transverse to a
portion of the waveguide, and the plurality of support members
support the waveguide in a generally arcuate shape within the
generally cylindrical region.
[0030] In addition, in some embodiments, at least one of the
plurality of reflection points is defined at a support point
defined by one of the plurality of support points. Further, in some
embodiments, the environmental condition is temperature.
[0031] Consistent with another aspect of the invention, a sensor
for sensing an environmental condition in an environment may
include an active mechanical waveguide including an
ultrasonically-transmissive material and a plurality of reflection
points defined along a length of the waveguide to define a
plurality of sensing regions along the waveguide, a plurality of
support members supporting the waveguide along at least a portion
of the length of the waveguide, each of the plurality of support
members supporting the waveguide at a respective support point,
where portions of the waveguide between adjacent support points are
unsupported, and a tension device coupled to the waveguide and
configured to maintain a substantially constant tension in the
waveguide over a range of temperatures in the environment and
thereby compensate for thermal expansion of the waveguide.
[0032] Some embodiments may further include an ultrasonic
transducer coupled to the waveguide and configured to propagate
ultrasonic stress waves through the waveguide, and control logic
coupled to the ultrasonic transducer and configured to determine a
value of an environmental condition for each of the plurality of
sensing regions based upon an ultrasonic signal propagated through
the waveguide in response to the ultrasonic stress waves generated
by the ultrasonic transducer.
[0033] Further, in some embodiments, the waveguide is anchored
proximate a first end thereof, and the tension device is coupled to
the waveguide at an intermediate portion of the waveguide. In some
embodiments, the environment is a generally cylindrical region of a
gas turbine engine defined by inner and outer walls, each of the
plurality of support members is cantilevered inwardly from the
outer wall of the generally cylindrical region or outwardly from
the inner wall of the generally cylindrical region and extends
generally transverse to a portion of the waveguide, and the
plurality of support members support the waveguide in a generally
arcuate shape within the generally cylindrical region. Moreover, in
some embodiments, the tension device includes a spring member
extending between the waveguide and the inner or outer wall of the
generally cylindrical region of the gas turbine engine. Further, in
some embodiments, at least a subset of the plurality of support
members are configured to allow for linear movement of the active
mechanical waveguide. In addition, in some embodiments, the
environmental condition is temperature.
[0034] These and other advantages and features, which characterize
the invention, are set forth in the claims annexed hereto and
forming a further part hereof. However, for a better understanding
of the invention, and of the advantages and objectives attained
through its use, reference should be made to the Drawings, and to
the accompanying descriptive matter, in which there is described
exemplary embodiments of the invention.
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS
[0035] FIG. 1 is an illustration of an example distributed active
mechanical waveguide sensor consistent with some embodiments of the
invention.
[0036] FIG. 2 is a block diagram of one embodiment of an apparatus
including an active mechanical waveguide consistent with some
embodiments of the invention.
[0037] FIG. 3 is a block diagram of another embodiment of an
apparatus including an active mechanical waveguide consistent with
some embodiments of the invention.
[0038] FIG. 4A illustrates the propagation and reflection of an
ultrasonic pulse in an example distributed active mechanical
waveguide temperature sensor consistent with some embodiments of
the invention,
[0039] FIG. 4B illustrates the effect of heat applied to a sensing
region of the active mechanical waveguide temperature sensor of
FIG. 4A.
[0040] FIG. 5 is a functional side elevational view of an example
gas turbine engine within which a distributed active mechanical
waveguide sensor consistent with the invention may be used.
[0041] FIGS. 6A-6D are functional axial cross-sectional views taken
through the example gas turbine engine of FIG. 5, and illustrating
various example implementations of a distributed active mechanical
waveguide sensor.
[0042] FIG. 6E is a functional lengthwise cross-sectional view of a
portion of an example gas turbine engine and illustrating another
example distributed active mechanical waveguide sensor consistent
with some embodiments of the invention.
[0043] FIG. 7 is a functional view of an example mounting structure
for a distributed active mechanical waveguide sensor consistent
with some embodiments of the invention, and with a portion of one
support member cut away.
[0044] FIG. 8 is a lengthwise cross-sectional view of a portion of
an example active mechanical waveguide incorporating a braided
damping configuration.
[0045] FIG. 9 is an axial cross-sectional view of another example
active mechanical waveguide incorporating a tubular damping
configuration.
[0046] FIG. 10 is an axial cross-sectional view of another example
active mechanical waveguide incorporating a concentric damping
configuration with a tubular waveguide.
[0047] FIG. 11 is a lengthwise cross-sectional view of another
example active mechanical waveguide incorporating ports and
O-rings.
[0048] FIG. 12 is a lengthwise cross-sectional view of another
example active mechanical waveguide incorporating dual concentric
tubes.
[0049] FIG. 13 is a functional axial cross-sectional view of
another example gas turbine engine, and illustrating
irregularly-spaced supports for a distributed active mechanical
waveguide sensor.
[0050] FIG. 14 is a functional view of another example mounting
structure for a distributed active mechanical waveguide sensor
consistent with some embodiments of the invention and including a
tensioning device.
[0051] FIG. 15 is a flowchart illustrating an example sequence of
operations for monitoring a sensor consistent with the
invention.
[0052] FIG. 16 is a flowchart illustrating an example damage
assessment analysis capable of being applied in the sensor
monitoring sequence of operations of FIG. 15.
[0053] FIG. 17 is a flowchart illustrating an example sequence of
operations for generating a sensor baseline signature consistent
with the invention.
[0054] FIG. 18 illustrates an example sensor baseline signature
captured for an illustrative active mechanical waveguide
sensor.
[0055] FIGS. 19 and 20 illustrate various fault-related deviations
from the example sensor baseline signature of FIG. 18.
[0056] FIG. 21 is a functional block diagram of a distributed
active mechanical waveguide sensor consistent with the invention
and incorporating a positive feedback loop.
[0057] FIG. 22 is a functional block diagram of another distributed
active mechanical waveguide sensor consistent with the invention
and incorporating separate transducers disposed in the same
housing.
[0058] FIG. 23 illustrates reflection propagation in step up and
step down discontinuities in a waveguide.
[0059] FIG. 24 illustrates phases of reflected signals from a
medium-layer-air system versus a normalized propagating phase
inside layer.
[0060] FIG. 25 illustrates phase derivatives of the reflected
signals represented in FIG. 24.
[0061] FIG. 26 illustrates phases of reflected signals from step up
and step down waveguide discontinuities versus a normalized
propagating phase inside layer.
[0062] FIG. 27 illustrates phase derivatives of the reflected
signals represented in FIG. 26.
[0063] FIG. 28 illustrates reflection propagation in a three
waveguide connection.
[0064] FIGS. 29A-29F illustrate six example discontinuity
variations for forming a frequency-dependent reflector.
[0065] FIG. 30 illustrates reflection amplitude over a range of
frequencies for an example frequency-dependent reflector.
[0066] FIG. 31 illustrates an example joint reflector.
[0067] FIG. 32 illustrates an example support or seal
reflector.
[0068] FIG. 33 is a flowchart illustrating an example sequence of
operations for monitoring a sensor with frequency-dependent
reflectors consistent with the invention.
[0069] FIG. 34 is a flowchart illustrating another example sequence
of operations for monitoring a sensor with frequency-dependent
reflectors consistent with the invention.
[0070] FIG. 35 is an illustration of an example active mechanical
waveguide sensor with a flexible lead consistent with some
embodiments of the invention.
DETAILED DESCRIPTION
[0071] Embodiments of the invention are generally directed to
various improvements related to an active mechanical waveguide
sensor and a sensing method, in which signals communicated over a
waveguide formed of an ultrasonically-transmissive material such as
one or more wires are monitored such that environmental conditions
may be measured based at least in part on characteristics of the
communicated signals, where the environmental conditions include
conditions such as pressure, force, temperature, acceleration,
strain, and/or vibration. Further details regarding various
waveguide sensor designs and techniques that may utilize the
herein-described improvements are described in U.S. Pat. No.
9,048,521 to Larsen et al., U.S. Pat. No. 9,182,306 to Roth, I I et
al., U.S. Patent Publication Nos. 201610294033 and 2016/0273973 by
Larsen et at, and U.S. Patent Publication No. 2017/0030871 by
Lobkis et al., all of which are assigned to Etegent Technologies
Ltd. (the same assignee as the present application), and which are
incorporated by reference herein in their entirety.
[0072] Sensors consistent with some embodiments of the invention
may be constructed of a single material, thereby minimizing thermal
strains and challenges associated with bonding dissimilar
materials. Moreover, some embodiments of the invention may be
constructed using a variety of materials, thereby allowing
selection of one or more construction materials based on material
properties. An ultrasonically-transmissive material used in a
waveguide consistent with some embodiments may include one or more
wires of varying dimensions and/or cross-sections, which wires may
be flexible in some embodiments or rigid (e.g., configured as rods)
in other embodiments. Such wires may be plastically deformed or
bent in some embodiments, and in some embodiments may be smaller
gauges (e.g., configured as wire filaments).
[0073] Suitable ultrasonically-transmissive materials for use as
wires or otherwise in a waveguide include, for example, metals and
alloys such as steel, stainless steel alloys, titanium and titanium
alloys, nickel and nickel alloys, cobalt alloys, super-alloys (e.g.
Inconel.RTM. variations, Hastelloy.RTM. variations or Hayes.RTM.
variations), refractory metals such as tungsten, platinum and
iridium and their alloys, ceramics such as aluminum oxide,
zirconium oxide, and silicon carbide, crystalline materials such as
sapphire, and other materials, and which may or may not be suitable
for use in harsh environments (i.e. high temperature, high
pressure, and/or high vibration environments, or based on
causticity, erosiveness, corrosiveness, oxidation, etc.). Selection
of such materials may be based, for example, based upon the manner
in which ultrasonic energy (e.g., in the form of stress waves)
propagates through the materials.
[0074] Furthermore, while some embodiments of a waveguide include
wires comprising a uniform construction, other embodiments may
include wires advantageously comprising braided constructions,
where braided constructions may provide higher tensile strengths,
more flexibility or preferential damping at high frequencies in
some embodiments. Uniformly constructed and braided wires
comprising diameters between about 0.001 inches and 0.50 inches, or
more particularly diameters between 0.005 inches and 0.25 inches
may be used in some embodiments. In addition, the cross-sectional
shapes of wires may vary in different embodiments, although in many
embodiments, the cross-sectional shapes in many embodiments may
include shapes that may be configured to transmit ultrasonic
signals consistent with embodiments of the invention, including,
for example substantially circular cross-sectional wires,
substantially rectangular cross-sectional wires, substantially
ribbon cross-sectional wires, aerodynamic cross-sections, etc.
[0075] Some sensors may also include additional structure,
including, for example, support members, housings, diaphragms,
attachment plates, sealing plates, etc., and such additional
structure may be formed of various materials and/or combinations of
materials including, for example, metals and alloys such as steel,
stainless steel alloys, titanium and titanium alloys, nickel and
nickel alloys, cobalt alloys, super-alloys (e.g. Inconel.RTM.
variations, Hastelloy.RTM. variations or Hayes.RTM. variations),
refractory metals such as tungsten, platinum and iridium and their
alloys, ceramics such as aluminum oxide, zirconium oxide, and
silicon carbide, crystalline materials, and other materials, and
which may or may not be suitable for use in harsh environments
(i.e. high temperature, high pressure, and/or high vibration
environments, or based on causticity, erosiveness, corrosiveness,
oxidation, etc.). It will be appreciated that housings, diaphragms,
attachment plates and wires in a single sensor design may all be
constructed of the same material in some embodiments, while in
other embodiments, heterogeneous materials may be used for some of
these components.
[0076] Embodiments consistent with the present invention may
utilize ultrasonic signals, e.g., in the form of ultrasonic stress
waves, and measure environmental conditions based at least in part
on the ultrasonic signals. Ultrasonic signals may generally be
transmitted over a large distance, which enables equipment
associated with an ultrasonic sensor to be located remote from the
desired sensing location, while still being able to measure
environmental conditions at the desired sensing location by
utilizing sensors consistent with embodiments of the invention
positioned in the desired sensing location. In some embodiments
(referred to herein as "active" sensors), the ultrasonic signals
may be propagated through a waveguide in response to ultrasonic
stress waves generated by an ultrasonic transducer, e.g., a
piezoelectric element, while in other embodiments (referred to
herein as "passive" sensors), the ultrasonic signals may be
generated by the environment and propagated along the waveguide for
sensing.
[0077] In some embodiments of the invention, for example, a sensor
may be configured such that a sensing portion of the sensor extends
into or otherwise within an environment subjected to an
environmental condition to be measured. In one embodiment, for
example, a sensor may be used to measure temperature in a gas
turbine engine using a sensor portion formed of a wire that extends
through an interior region (e.g., a generally cylindrical region
within the engine) of the gas turbine engine. The speed of sound in
any medium is generally temperature dependent due to changing
elastic modulus; therefore, the measurement of ultrasonic velocity
between two points may be used as a temperature measurement with
appropriate calibration. Furthermore, temperature changes may also
cause expansion or contraction of a waveguide and thereby
effectively alter the length of a waveguide between the two points
in addition to a change in the modus of the material. In some
embodiments, for example, a difference in propagation time between
two ultrasonic reflections, e.g., as may be generated at the end of
a sensor portion and at a notch formed in the sensor portion (as
the end of the sensor portion will also generally operate as a
reflection point), or otherwise generated at two reflection points
formed in a waveguide, may be used to determine (with the
appropriate calibration) an average temperature between the
reflection points, and generally such a measurement is insensitive
to the temperature anywhere else along a waveguide.
[0078] Further, in some embodiments multiple reflection points may
be defined along the length of a waveguide to define multiple
sensing regions along the waveguide, with pairs of reflection
points defining different sensing regions such that the difference
in propagation time between ultrasonic reflections generated at the
reflection points bounding a particular sensing region may be used
to determine temperature or another environmental condition for
that particular sensing region.
[0079] Systems and methods consistent with various aspects of the
invention may be utilized to transmit and sense ultrasonic signals.
In some embodiments, an ultrasonic signal may be transmitted
through a waveguide, and the sensed ultrasonic signal may include a
reflection or echo of the transmitted ultrasonic signal. In some
embodiments, an ultrasonic signal may be transmitted through a
waveguide, and the sensed ultrasonic signal may include a portion
of the transmitted ultrasonic signal. In some embodiments, an
ultrasonic signal may be transmitted through a waveguide, and the
sensed ultrasonic signal may be a modification of the transmitted
ultrasonic signal. In other embodiments, a waveguide may have a
first end and a second end, and an ultrasonic signal may be
transmitted through the waveguide at the first end, and an
ultrasonic signal may be sensed through the waveguide at a second
end, and the sensed ultrasonic signal may be based at least in part
on the transmitted ultrasonic signal, while in other embodiments,
both the transmission of an ultrasonic signal and the sensing of an
ultrasonic signal may be performed proximate the same end a
waveguide. The frequency of a transmitted ultrasonic signal may
vary in different embodiments, although in many embodiments, a
transmitted ultrasonic signal of between about 100 KHz and about 50
MHz, or more particularly a signal of less than about 1 MHz, may be
used.
[0080] Turning to the drawings, where like numbers denote like
parts throughout the several views, FIG. 1 illustrates an example
distributed active mechanical waveguide sensor 10 suitable for use
in connection with various of the embodiments discussed herein.
Sensor 10 in this embodiment includes a mechanical waveguide 12,
e.g., implemented as a wire, which is coupled to an ultrasonic
transducer 14 controlled by control logic 16 to both propagate
ultrasonic stress waves along mechanical waveguide 12 and sense or
receive an ultrasonic signal generated in response to the
ultrasonic mechanical stress waves. It will be appreciated,
however, that in other embodiments, separate transducers may be
used to generate the ultrasonic mechanical stress waves and sense
or receive the ultrasonic signals responsive thereto.
[0081] Waveguide wire 20 also includes a plurality of reflection
points 18A-18E formed along the length of the waveguide wire, and
defining a number of sensing regions 20A-20D therebetween. Of note,
reflection points 18A-18D are specifically formed along the
waveguide wire, while reflection point 18E represents the end of
the waveguide wire. A reflection point defining a sensing region
may be created by introducing a notch on the sensor, adding a
sleeve, stepping up/down in cross-section, or otherwise modifying
the geometry and/or material properties in the waveguide wire in
some way such that a change in acoustic impedance occurs and an
ultrasonic stress wave is both reflected and transmitted from this
point. As such, it will be appreciated that multiple sensing
regions 20A-20D may be created on the same sensor "network,"
allowing multiple regions to be sensed simultaneously. In addition,
it will be appreciated that in some embodiments the end of
waveguide wire 20 may be configured to dampen or otherwise reduce
reflections from the end of the waveguide wire, such that no
sensing region is defined between the end of the waveguide wire and
the last reflection point.
[0082] In embodiments including a common transmitting and receiving
end, such as the sensor shown in FIG. 1, a pulse/echo transmitting
and sensing method may be utilized. In these embodiments, an
ultrasonic signal, in the form of mechanical stress waves, may be
transmitted through waveguide wire 12, and an ultrasonic signal may
be sensed and received from waveguide wire 12, where the sensed
ultrasonic signal may comprise an echo of the transmitted
ultrasonic signal, and including multiple reflections returned by
the various reflection points 18A-18E. As will become more apparent
below, analysis of the reflections in the sensed ultrasonic signal
may be used to determine environmental conditions for some or all
of the sensing regions 20A-200.
[0083] Sensor 10 is specifically configured as a temperature
sensor; however, it will be appreciated that a distributed active
mechanical waveguide sensor consistent with the invention may be
used to measure other environmental conditions, including for
example, heat flux, strain, pressure, force, acceleration, etc.,
and further, may sense different environmental conditions for
different sensing regions such that multiple environmental
conditions may be measured by the same sensor.
[0084] FIG. 2 illustrates an example apparatus 30 consistent with
embodiments of the invention and to measure an environmental
condition in a sensing location, which may or may not be in a harsh
environment. Apparatus 30 may include an active mechanical
waveguide 32 coupled to a controller 34. In this embodiment,
controller 34 includes separate transmission and receiver logic 36,
40, as well as separate transmitting and receiving transducers 38,
42, e.g., coupled to opposite ends of waveguide 32. Thus, unlike
sensor 10 of FIG. 1, ultrasonic energy is introduced at one end of
waveguide 32 and sensed at the other end thereof, and a
transmission characteristic such as propagation delay, time of
flight between pulses, etc., may be used to sense an environmental
condition. In this embodiment, transmission logic 36 generates an
ultrasonic excitation signal that is received by transmitting
transducer 38 and used by transducer 38 coupled to one end of wire
34 to impart ultrasonic energy in the form of ultrasonic mechanical
stress waves corresponding to the excitation signal to the
waveguide. Receiving transducer 42 coupled to the other end of the
waveguide demodulates the ultrasonic energy propagated through the
waveguide and generates a return signal that is transmitted to
receiver logic 40, which then processes the return signal to
determine the environmental condition.
[0085] FIG. 3 illustrates an alternate apparatus 50 consistent with
other embodiments of the invention and to measure an environmental
condition in a sensing location using an active mechanical
waveguide 52 coupled to a computer 54 including
transceiver/transducer logic 56, a central processing unit 58
including at least one processor, and a memory 60 within which is
stored a control program 62 that, when executed, both generates a
signal that causes excitation of waveguide 52 with ultrasonic
energy as well as processes a return signal that is representative
of the propagated ultrasonic signal to determine the environmental
condition.
[0086] As should be apparent from FIGS. 2-3, various hardware
and/or software configurations may be utilized to implement the
herein-described functionality, and may include dedicated hardware
logic disposed in one or more electronic circuits and/or integrated
circuits, and/or programmable logic and/or a programmable
electronic device such as a computer that executes program code. In
addition, in some embodiments, processing may be implemented using
approaches other than a computer, such as analog preprocessing and
a timer. Furthermore, it should be appreciated that the
functionality associated with generating an excitation signal,
exciting a wire to impart ultrasonic energy and stress waves to the
wire in response to such an excitation signal, receiving, detecting
or sensing the propagated ultrasonic energy (whether transmitted or
reflected), generating a return signal representative of such
propagated ultrasonic energy, and processing the return signal to
calculate a measurement for an environmental condition, and
compensate for other environmental conditions and effects may be
combined or separated in various embodiments consistent with the
invention.
[0087] In addition, any software routines executed to implement the
embodiments disclosed herein, whether implemented as part of an
operating system or a specific application, component, program,
object, module or sequence of instructions, or even a subset
thereof, will be referred to herein as "computer program code," or
simply "program code." Program code typically comprises one or more
instructions that are resident at various times in various memory
and storage devices in a computer, embedded hardware, etc., and
that, when read and executed by one or more processors in a
computer, cause that computer to perform the steps necessary to
execute steps or elements embodying desired functionality.
Moreover, while some embodiments have and hereinafter will be
described in the context of fully functioning computers and
computer systems, those skilled in the art will appreciate that
some embodiments are capable of being distributed as a program
product in a variety of forms, and that the invention applies
equally regardless of the particular type of computer readable
media used to actually carry out the distribution, including, for
example, computer readable storage media, which is non-transitory
in nature, and may include volatile and non-volatile, and removable
and non-removable media implemented in any method or technology for
storage of information, such as computer-readable instructions,
data structures, program modules or other data. Computer readable
storage media may further include RAM, ROM, erasable programmable
read-only memory (EPROM), electrically erasable programmable
read-only memory (EEPROM), flash memory or other solid state memory
technology, CD-ROM. DVD, or other optical storage, magnetic
cassettes, magnetic tape, magnetic disk storage or other magnetic
storage devices, or any other medium that can be used to store the
desired information and which can be accessed by a computer.
Communication media may embody computer readable instructions, data
structures or other program modules. By way of example, and not
limitation, communication media may include wired media such as a
wired network or direct-wired connection, and wireless media such
as acoustic. RF, infrared and other wireless media. Combinations of
any of the above may also be included within the scope of computer
readable media.
[0088] Various program code described hereinafter may be identified
based upon the application within which it is implemented in a
specific embodiment of the invention. However, it should be
appreciated that any particular program nomenclature that follows
is used merely for convenience, and thus the invention should not
be limited to use solely in any specific application identified
and/or implied by such nomenclature. Furthermore, given the
typically endless number of manners in which computer programs may
be organized into routines, procedures, methods, modules, objects,
and the like, as well as the various manners in which program
functionality may be allocated among various software layers that
are resident within a typical computer (e.g., operating systems,
libraries, API's, applications, applets, etc.), it should be
appreciated that the invention is not limited to the specific
organization and allocation of program functionality described
herein.
[0089] In addition, as is generally known in the field, signal
processing methods including filtering, demodulation, and Hilbert
transform processing methods may be used to determine one or more
ultrasonic signal transmission characteristics. In some
embodiments, an apparatus may perform one or more signal processing
operations on the ultrasonic signal sensed on a wire to determine
one or more ultrasonic signal transmission characteristics of the
wire as well as the variance of one or more ultrasonic signal
transmission characteristics of the wire.
[0090] Those skilled in the art will recognize that the example
environments illustrated in FIGS. 1-3 are not intended to limit the
invention. Indeed, other modifications that may be made to the
aforementioned embodiments, e.g., as described in the
aforementioned publications incorporated by reference herein, will
be apparent to one of ordinary skill in the art having the benefit
of the instant disclosure.
Distributed Active Mechanical Waveguide Temperature Sensor
[0091] For the purposes of distributed temperature sensing, an
ultrasonic thermography approach may be utilized. In particular,
the change in elastic modulus and the thermal expansion of a
material responsive to changes in temperature effect the
propagation time of ultrasonic stress waves between points in the
material, and can be used to infer temperature change from change
in ultrasonic velocity. These effects are shown graphically in
FIGS. 4A and 4B. As shown in FIG. 4A, for example, a distributed
active mechanical waveguide 70 may include a plurality of
reflection points 72A-72E (reflection point 72E represents the end
of the waveguide), with a plurality of sensing regions 74A-74D
defined between pairs of adjacent reflection points. An ultrasonic
pulse 76 may be propagated along the waveguide 70, and a portion of
the ultrasonic pulse is reflected from each reflection point
72A-72E, e.g., as illustrated by ultrasonic signal 78, which
includes a series of reflection pulses 80 corresponding to each
reflection point 72A-72E. The time of flight differences between
adjacent reflection pulses are represented by
.DELTA.t.sub.A-.DELTA.t.sub.D, and it will be appreciated that
these time of flight differences are associated with the ultrasonic
velocity of the ultrasonic pulse through the waveguide. The change
in the difference in the arrival time of each pair of adjacent
pulses is proportional to the change in temperature of the
waveguide between the reflection points associated with those
pulses, and thus by measuring the change in difference in arrival
time, a temperature may be determined for the sensing region
between the adjacent reflection points. This is illustrated
graphically by FIG. 4B, whereby heat is applied to waveguide 70 in
sensing region 74G defined between reflection points 72C and 72D,
resulting in change in the difference in arrival time of the pulses
associated with these reflection points equal to
.DELTA.t.sub.C+.delta., where .delta. is effectively proportional
to temperature in the sensing region. It should be noted that this
arrival time difference depends only on the temperature of the
waveguide bounded by the two reflection points and is substantially
insensitive to the temperature of any other portion of the
waveguide. Any temperature change in any other sensing region of
the waveguide will effectively shift both reflected pulses an equal
amount and will not change the relative time between the two
reflected pulses. As such, despite the heat applied to sensing
region 74C, the time of flight differences for sensing regions 74A,
74B and 74D generally are unchanged.
[0092] Therefore, in some embodiments, temperature may be sensed by
measuring time of flight differences between adjacent reflected
pulses corresponding to the adjacent reflection points defining a
sensing region. However, as will also be discussed below, in some
instances the arrival time differences between reflected pulses may
be small enough that pulse reflections overlap in the time domain,
and an alternate frequency domain phase interference approach may
be used to determine the differential time shift between pulses, as
a frequency domain phase interference "pattern" occurs in the
spectrum of overlapped pulses, and the shift in frequency of
features in this phase pattern is generally proportional to the
temperature change in the associated sensing region.
[0093] It will also be appreciated that the time between reflected
pulses, when scaled by a calibration factor, effectively depends on
the average temperature between the associated reflection points.
As such, the time of flight differences between non-adjacent
reflection points may also be used to measure an average
temperature over multiple sensing regions. Thus, for example, the
average temperature over the entire waveguide 70 may be determined
via determining the time between the first reflection pulse and the
last reflection pulse in the ultrasonic signal 78.
[0094] Furthermore, the discussion above notably does not take into
account multi-bounce reflections. For example, when an incident
pulse reflects off a downstream reflection point and travels back
to the beginning of the waveguide, some of the reflected pulse will
generally reflect off one or more upstream reflection points and
travel back towards the end of the waveguide. As each reflection
point only transmits part of the incident signal, some energy will
generally be reflected multiple times. These additional reflections
will generally be of smaller amplitude than the primary
reflections; however, they are superfluous and may interfere with
the desired primary reflections in some embodiments. As the
additional reflections generally decrease in amplitude, only the
larger reflections (lower order) are generally considered. Also, it
should be noted that as more reflection points are included in a
waveguide, and each reflection point transmits only a portion of
the ultrasonic energy, only a fraction of the initial ultrasonic
energy will reach the end of the waveguide. Therefore, it will be
appreciated that the amplitude of the initial ultrasonic pulse and
the reflection coefficients of the reflection points may be
tailored to ensure that the received ultrasonic signal is suitable
for analysis. In some embodiments, for example, reflection
coefficients may be configured to increase with waveguide length
(e.g., so that the first few reflection points transmit more energy
than they reflect) since less energy is generally required to be
reflected for sufficient signal amplitude at the beginning of the
waveguide. In an example embodiment, the reflection coefficient can
be linearly increased along the waveguide up to about 0.5 for the
last reflection point on the waveguide.
[0095] Furthermore, it is generally desirable in some embodiments
to configure or space reflection points such that the reflections
generated thereby are generally out of phase with one another, or
otherwise configured such that secondary, tertiary, etc.
reflections do not overlap with primary reflections.
[0096] It will also be appreciated that the foregoing techniques
may be used for sensing other environmental conditions beyond
temperature, e.g., strain, pressure, vibrations, acceleration,
force, etc., so a distributed active mechanical environmental
sensor may be used in some embodiments to measure other
environmental conditions. Furthermore, different sensing regions
may be configured to sense different environmental conditions such
that multiple environmental conditions may be sensed with the same
sensor or sensor network. Other variations will become more
apparent below and will be apparent to those of ordinary skill
having the benefit of the instant disclosure.
Active Mechanical Waveguide Sensor for Gas Turbine Engine
Applications
[0097] Among other applications, an active mechanical waveguide
sensor may be used in gas turbine engine applications, e.g., within
a chamber, port, or other suitable environment within a gas turbine
engine and subjected to an environmental condition. FIG. 5, for
example, illustrates an example gas turbine engine 100 including a
housing 104, a rotor 102 and an environment 106 disposed
therein.
[0098] For example, in order to measure temperature at multiple
locations within environment 106, a distributed active mechanical
waveguide sensor may be used to provide multiple sensing regions
for the multiple locations. FIG. 6A, for example, illustrates a
cross-section of a gas turbine engine 110 having an environment or
chamber 112 bounded by outer and inner walls 114, 116. A waveguide
118 (e.g., configured as a wire, curved rod or ring) may serve as a
temperature sensing element and may circumscribe at least a portion
of chamber 112, with reflection points 120 disposed approximately
at 90 degree intervals to define (along with the end of the
waveguide) four quadrants A-D for the purposes of sensing
temperature or another environmental condition in chamber 112.
Moreover, temperature over the entire length of the waveguide wire
or between two non-adjacent reflection points may also be sensed. A
piezoelectric transducer (not shown) may be mounted externally to
the engine and coupled to the waveguide to both transmit and
receive ultrasonic signals, or separate transducers may be disposed
at each end of the waveguide, with either one configured for
transmitting and the other for receiving, or with both configured
for both functions to improve reliability and robustness.
[0099] Waveguide 118 may be mounted in chamber 112 in various
manners, e.g., using a series of cantilevered support members 122
projecting inwardly from the outer wall 114 and generally
transverse to the portion of the waveguide 118 supported thereby,
and collectively supporting the waveguide in an arcuate or ring
configuration. It will be appreciated that the end of the waveguide
may be free and cantilevered from the last support member in some
embodiments, whereas in other embodiments the end of the waveguide
may be supported. Furthermore, in some embodiments reflection
points may be formed at the support members, while in other
embodiments, the waveguide may be supported such that no reflection
points are defined at the points at which the waveguide is
supported.
[0100] Alternatively, as illustrated in FIG. 6B, a waveguide may be
mounted using support members coupled to an inner wall.
Specifically, FIG. 6B illustrates a gas turbine engine 130
including a chamber 132 having outer and inner walls 134, 136, and
with a waveguide 138 supported by a series of support members 142
extending outwardly from inner wall 136.
[0101] It will be appreciated that the inner and outer walls
illustrated in FIGS. 6A and 6B are illustrated as circular in
cross-section. In practice, however, the inner and outer walls can
have different configurations and geometries, and moreover, a
waveguide may be supported on different structures as may be
appropriate for the application. In some embodiments, for example,
support members may extend across multiple components (e.g.,
between the inner and outer walls) such that both ends of the
support members are supported. Therefore, the use of support
members cantilevered from inner or outer walls of a gas turbine
engine chamber is not required.
[0102] In addition, while gas turbine engine 110 of FIG. 6A is
illustrated with a single waveguide 118, gas turbine engine 130 of
FIG. 6B includes two waveguides 138, 140, illustrating the fact
that multiple waveguides may be used in some applications.
Furthermore, waveguides 138, 140 may include reflection points to
provide multiple sensing regions, such that the total number of
sensing regions is the sum of the sensing regions used for the
waveguides in a particular application.
[0103] Furthermore, while a ring or arcuate waveguide configuration
is illustrated in FIGS. 6A and 6B, one or more waveguides may be
oriented differently in other applications to provide alternative
sensing arrangements. FIG. 6C, for example, illustrates a gas
turbine engine 150 where a waveguide 152 is oriented in a star
configuration with portions extending between inner and outer walls
of a chamber. Similarly, FIG. 60 illustrates a gas turbine engine
160 where three waveguides 162, 164, 166 are used for three
different sensing zones and have multiple segments disposed at
different radii from the cross-sectional center of the engine.
Either configuration would enable environmental conditions to be
measured at different radii and thereby provide sensing throughout
a two dimensional region.
[0104] Furthermore, while FIGS. 6A-6D orient waveguides in plane
that is transverse to a longitudinal axis of a gas turbine engine,
the invention is not so limited. FIG. 6E, for example, illustrates
a gas turbine engine 170 including a chamber 172 defined by outer
and inner walls 174, 176, and including two waveguides 178, 180
that extend longitudinally along the chamber 172, and that include
reflection points to provide sensing regions at different points
along the longitudinal axis of the engine, e.g., to capture a
temperature gradient in a direction generally parallel to a
direction of fluid flow through the chamber. Moreover, in other
embodiments these concepts may be combined such that sensing
regions are dispersed throughout a three dimensional area in a
chamber, e.g., to enable temperature gradients to be measured along
multiple paths within a chamber.
[0105] Therefore, through the use of one or more waveguides, each
with one or more sensing regions defined thereon, environmental
conditions such as temperature may be sensed at multiple locations
within an environment, e.g., a chamber of a gas turbine engine.
Active Waveguide Damping
[0106] Now turning to FIG. 7, it will be appreciated that in some
applications, including, for example, gas turbine engine
applications such as described above, a waveguide may be subject to
other environmental conditions beyond that being sensed. For
example, in a gas turbine engine, a waveguide may be subject to
vibrations of the gas turbine engine, vibrations induced by
rotation of a blade or other rotating structure within the gas
turbine engine, and/or vibrations due to excitation (e.g.,
aerodynamic self-excitation) within the gas turbine engine, among
other environmental effects. Therefore, it may be desirable in some
applications to attempt to dampen or otherwise mitigate the effects
of these environmental effects. Damping materials and/or
configurations (hereinafter referred to collectively as "damping
devices") may be selected in some embodiments to damp at lower
mechanical frequencies consistent with environment vibrations while
minimizing damping of ultrasonic frequencies.
[0107] FIG. 7, for example, illustrates at 200 a support structure
for a portion of a waveguide 202, including a pair of support
members 204A, 204B. In some embodiments, it may be desirable to
utilize a damping device 206 between waveguide 202 and each support
member 204A, 204B to dampen environment-induced vibrations of the
waveguide. The damping device 206 may include a viscoelastic
material, and may be configured as a bushing in some embodiments
such that the waveguide extends through the bushing, although the
invention is not so limited. Frictional damping may also be used
for damping device 206 in some embodiments. Any material suitable
for the environment and capable of damping vibrations or forces in
the environment and reducing the amount of such effects on a
waveguide may be used in other embodiments.
[0108] Also, in some embodiments, reduction in vibration may be
provided by incorporating one or more masses 208 on the waveguide
202 in order to alter the frequency response of the portion of the
waveguide 202 suspended between support members 204A, 204B, It will
be appreciated that in environments such as gas turbine engines,
vibrations and/or forces at different frequencies may be produced,
and incorporation of such masses may alter the frequency response
of a waveguide to minimize the amount of sympathetic vibrations in
the waveguide for a given application.
[0109] Further, in some embodiments, one or more support members
204A, 204B may themselves incorporate damping, e.g., as illustrated
at 209 on support member 2048, to further isolate waveguide 202
from environmental effects. Viscoelastic materials, frictional
damping, and other configurations (e.g., shock absorber-like
structures) may be used to minimize the communication of vibrations
and other environmental effects from the environment to the support
members, and thereafter the waveguide itself.
[0110] It will be appreciated that while FIG. 7 illustrates the use
of bushings 206, masses 208 and support member damping 209 in the
same application, any of these techniques may be used individually
or in different combinations. Therefore, the invention is not
limited to this particular combination of damping techniques.
[0111] In addition, as illustrated by FIGS. 8-12, damping may be
applied directly to a waveguide in some embodiments. For example,
FIG. 8 illustrates a cross section of a portion of an example
waveguide 210 including a waveguide wire 212 (which may be
flexible, e.g., as a filament, or rigid, e.g., as a rod, in
different embodiments) circumscribed by a damping device 214, e.g.,
a braided steel over braid. In such configurations, it may also be
desirable in some embodiments to incorporate an intermediate
material 216 having low ultrasonic absorption (e.g., asbestos) to
allow for relative movement between wire 212 and over braid
214.
[0112] Various damping devices may be used on a waveguide in other
embodiments. Damping devices may include, for example, various
viscoelastic or other vibration damping materials, sliding,
fretting and rubbing, among others.
[0113] In other embodiments, and as illustrated in FIG. 9, a
waveguide 220 may circumscribe a waveguide wire 222 with a
substantially concentric tube 224 (e.g., a steel tube), and with a
damping device 226 disposed within the space defined between the
wire and the tube. The tube 224 may be formed of steel or another
rigid material, and the damping device may be a viscoelastic
material in some embodiments that completely fills the space
between the wire and the tube.
[0114] In addition, as illustrated in FIG. 10, a waveguide 230 may
include, instead of a wire, a tubular waveguide element 232, such
that a concentric tube arrangement is formed between waveguide
element 232 and a circumscribing tube 234, with a damping device
236 disposed within the space between these concentric tubes 232,
234.
[0115] As noted above, a damping device may completely fill the
space between a tube and a waveguide wire or tube. In other
embodiments, e.g., as illustrated by waveguide 240 in FIG. 11, a
damping device may not completely fill this space, e.g., to reduce
damping of desired ultrasonic energy propagated through the
waveguide. Waveguide 240, in particular, is illustrated including a
waveguide wire 242 circumscribed by a tube 244 and including
spaced-apart O-rings or bushings 246 disposed along the length of
the waveguide and supporting wire 242 within tube 244. As an
alternative to bushings 246, voids may be formed between areas of
damping devices (e.g., where damping devices are injected into the
space, rather than being formed of distinct bushings or other
elements).
[0116] In addition, as illustrated by ports 248, it may be
desirable in some embodiments to provide ports along an outer tube
of a waveguide, e.g., to expose the waveguide wire or tube to
environmental conditions to be sensed, e.g., temperature, and
thereby provide faster thermodynamic response. In some embodiments,
a waveguide wire may be relatively thicker than in other
applications (e.g., 1/8-1/4 inch or more in diameter), whereby it
may be desirable to incorporate ports to compensate for the greater
relative mass of the waveguide wire.
[0117] In addition to and/or in lieu of viscoelastic damping
material, frictional damping may be used in some embodiments. FIG.
12, for example, illustrates a waveguide 250 including a waveguide
wire 252 circumscribed by a pair of concentric tubes 254, 256.
Damping devices, e.g., viscoelastic O-rings or bushings 258, may
support wire 252 within inner tube 256, while frictional damping,
e.g., in the form of a corrugated spring member 260, may be
disposed between tubes 254, 256. Other frictional damping
configurations may be used in other embodiments, and it will be
appreciated that other combinations of frictional damping and/or
viscoelastic damping may be used in other embodiments.
[0118] Now turning to FIG. 13, an additional approach for damping
environmental effects that may be used in some embodiments is to
provide irregular support spacing for a waveguide. FIG. 13, in
particular, illustrates a gas turbine engine 280 including an
arcuate waveguide 282 supported between outer and inner walls 284,
286 of a generally cylindrical region or chamber and by a plurality
of cantilevered support members 288. Notably, waveguide 282 is
unsupported between support members 288, and the support members
are spaced apart from one another to provide irregular spacing
between adjacent support points for the waveguide lengths
L.sub.A-L.sub.F differ from one another). Doing so spreads out the
natural resonances in the waveguide (i.e., such that the resonances
do not align with one another and/or with their harmonics) and
thereby reduces environment-induced sympathetic resonant excitation
of the waveguide.
Thermal Expansion Compensation
[0119] It may also be desirable in some embodiments to compensate
for thermal expansion of a waveguide for some applications. For
example, FIG. 14 illustrates an example waveguide 300 in which a
waveguide wire 302 is supported between a pair of support members
304 but is otherwise unsupported between the support members.
Damping devices, e.g., bushings 306, support wire 302 in each
support member 304, but allow for linear movement or sliding of the
waveguide wire within each bushing. Wire 302 is anchored at one end
as illustrated at 308, and a tension device 310, e.g., including an
anchored spring member and pulley (e.g., anchored to an inner or
outer wall of a cylindrical chamber in a gas turbine engine), is
used to maintain a substantially constant tension in the wire 302
over a range of temperatures in the environment and thereby
compensate for thermal expansion of the waveguide. Tension device
310 is coupled to wire 302 intermediate the ends of the wire, and
as the temperature in the environment changes, changes in wire
tension (which might otherwise change the ultrasonic propagation
characteristics of the wire) may be minimized.
[0120] It will be appreciated that various tensioning devices may
be used in other embodiments, based, for example, on environmental
resistance considerations. A tensioning device may also be disposed
at different locations relative to a waveguide and/or anchored at
different locations either within an environment or external to an
environment (e.g., outside of a harsh environment, but nonetheless
maintaining a substantially constant tension in the waveguide.
Other variations will be apparent to those of ordinary skill having
the benefit of the instant disclosure.
Damage Detection
[0121] In some embodiments, an active mechanical waveguide sensor
may incorporate damage detection, as reflected ultrasonic pulses
measured by a sensor may effectively provide a signature of the
mechanical state of a waveguide along its entire length, in
addition to the transduction electronics and transducers that
generate an ultrasonic signal and record the reflections. A chip or
notch on a waveguide, as well as plastic deformation (collectively
referred to as deformations) can be detected, for example, by
identifying the appearance of a reflection in a non-standard or
unexpected location in an ultrasonic signal. A more severe fault
such as a complete break in the waveguide will generally result in
a drastic change in the end reflection and/or missing reflections.
In addition, abrasions and other losses of material on a waveguide
due to fretting or erosion may also detectable. In some
embodiments, faults in various components, e.g., transducers,
analog to digital (ADC) converters, digital to analog (DAC)
converters, amplifiers, filters, control logic, and other
electronic components may be detected. In addition, in some
embodiments, faults external to a sensor may be detected, e.g.,
where some component is pushing on or otherwise contacting a
waveguide.
[0122] Early identification of notching or chipping of an active
mechanical waveguide may be useful for detecting ongoing
degradation that may later lead to failure, even if a sensor is
currently operating normally. Such defects will generally reflect
ultrasonic energy, resulting in the appearance of detectable
reflections in portions of a reflection time history where
reflections are not expected, and may further be detectable based
upon differences in amplitude relative to other, expected
reflections. The amplitude and time of arrival of a "rogue"
reflection, for example, may be used to determine one or both of a
location and a severity of a fault. Similarly, plastic deformation
of a waveguide can eventually lead to structural failure of the
material, and can be detected in a similar manner to detection of
notching. Further in either case, where a notch or deformation
occurs relatively close to reflection points (e.g., between two
reflection points), the resulting ultrasonic response may
effectively "smear" the reflected pulses together.
[0123] Further, complete breaks of a waveguide may also be detected
in some embodiments based upon the reflection signature, as the
reflection signature will be missing reflections and/or the
characteristics of the end reflection (e.g., amplitude) will
generally differ from the baseline signature. Operation of a
waveguide sensor in a caustic and/or erosive environment may also
cause waveguide material loss, and may be detectable based upon
variations from the expected baseline signature for the sensor.
[0124] The ability to accurately detect the location and extent of
geometry or material characteristic changes to a waveguide enables
not only damage and degradation detection, but enables
intentionally created waveguide perturbations to be measured in
some embodiments of the invention. For example, varying the
distance from an ultrasonic transducer to each of multiple main
reflection points on a waveguide may enable a serial numbering
system to be implemented based on these distances. More complicated
identification codes could be created utilizing, for instance, a
series of small notches or diameter reductions in a waveguide at an
appropriate location. Thus, in some embodiments, an identifier for
a waveguide or sensor may be determined during operation based upon
a received ultrasonic signal, e.g., based on times of arrival for
one or more reflection pulses corresponding to identifier
reflection points in the waveguide. The identifier reflection
points may be dedicated to identification in some embodiments, or
may be reflection points associated with different sensing regions.
Furthermore, it will be appreciated that a serial number of
identifier may be used to customize the operation of a sensor,
e.g., to retrieve a baseline signature that has been associated
with a particular serial number or other identification.
[0125] Furthermore, in some embodiments the location of a
perturbation or other defect in a waveguide may be sensed depending
upon the distance resolution of a sensor. In some embodiments, the
position of a perturbation in a waveguide may be related to the
frequency resolution of a data acquisition system used and the
duration and frequency of an excitation pulse, and may enable
precise location resolution to be achieved. For example, with a
digitizer having a sampling rate of about 180 megasamples per
second, the minimum measureable time difference is about 5.5
nanoseconds, and assuming a longitudinal velocity of approximately
5 mm/.mu.s (for steel), the resolution of a reflection location
would be about 27.5 .mu.m. Further, in such embodiments, serial
numbering could be implemented by positioning each portion of a
serial number dictated by an individual reflection point by a
difference of 0.05 mm in that reflection's distance from the
transducer. Arbitrarily picking a maximum variation in the location
of each reflection point to be 1 mm, and assuming an example
waveguide including three reflection points, it would be possible
to implement 8000 unique serial numbers by slightly varying the
location of each of three reflection points.
[0126] Thus, in some embodiments, an active mechanical waveguide
sensor may be capable of performing self-diagnosis with relatively
simple data processing techniques that can detect and monitor
several types of damage or defects. Monitoring the time domain
reflection signature for changes can detect and characterize
material loss, plastic deformation, notching, bending or a complete
break. Erosion can also be detected by monitoring all reflections
from the waveguide for time shifts that would indicate a change in
ultrasonic velocity caused by a diameter change. Each of these
types of damage can also be localized to a specific location on the
waveguide, and self-identification could be supported by varying
the distances of various reflection points along a waveguide.
[0127] FIG. 15, for example, illustrates an example monitor sensor
routine 320 that may be implemented in connection with an active
mechanical waveguide sensor in some embodiments, e.g., performed by
control logic associated with such a sensor, or external thereto.
Routine 320 may be configured to operate periodically or otherwise
from time to time during the operation of the sensor, and thus
block 322 waits for a next monitor interval. At that next monitor
interval, control passes to block 324 to generate a test ultrasonic
signal and propagate that signal through the waveguide. Block 326
then captures or receives a responsive ultrasonic signal from the
waveguide, and block 328 optionally determines a sensor serial
number or other identifier from the received ultrasonic signal
(e.g., based on times of arrival of one or more expected reflection
pulses that have been used to define the serial number for the
waveguide) and retrieves a baseline signature for the sensor,
representing the "expected" response to the test signal. In other
embodiments, however, no identification may be sensed, and a
baseline signature associated with the sensor, and generated, for
example, in the manner discussed below in connection with FIG. 17,
may be retrieved.
[0128] Block 330 next compares the received ultrasonic signal to
the baseline signature for the sensor, and block 332 determines
whether a mismatch exists, e.g., due to the presence of unexpected
reflection pulses, lack of expected reflection pulses, amplitude
differences, smearing of expected pulses, or other differences in
the respective waveforms, which may be in the frequency and/or time
domains.
[0129] If no mismatch has been detected, control passes to block
322 to wait for the next monitoring interval. Otherwise, control
passes to block 334 to analyze the received ultrasonic signal to
identify the source (e.g., the waveguide, DAC, ADC, or other
electronics), location (e.g., position along waveguide and/or
position relative to reflection points and/or other components of
the sensor) and/or type (e.g., deformation, abrasion, break,
electronics failure, etc.) of fault. Block 336 then generates a
notification of the fault, e.g., one or more of a break,
deformation, abrasion of the waveguide; a DAC fault, an ADS fault,
an amplifier or other electronic component faults, etc., and
control returns to block 322. Various notifications may be
generated, e.g., interrupt signals, fault messages, fault logs,
etc., and it will also be appreciated that the detection of a
failure may result in various recovery operations.
[0130] While routine 320 is used for periodic monitoring, it will
be appreciated that the routine may be used in other scenarios,
e.g., during initialization of a sensor, prior to any sensing
operation, on demand, etc.
[0131] Now turning to FIG. 16, this figure illustrates an example
damage assessment analysis routine 340 that may be implemented, for
example, in block 334 of FIG. 15. Other damage assessment
approaches may be used in other embodiments, however, so routine
340 may not be used in other embodiments. Block 342 first
determines whether a new or unexpected reflection has appeared in
the received ultrasonic signal. If not, block 344 determines
whether any of the reflections have changed shape or amplitude
significantly. If not, the waveguide may be assumed to be in good
condition, and control passes to block 346 to return this
result.
[0132] Returning to block 344, if any reflections have changed
shape or amplitude it may be assumed that there is corrosion,
abrasion or buildup on the reflector or waveguide that has changed
the reflected pulse. Accordingly, control passes to block 348 to
return a fault associated with corrosion, abrasion or buildup on
the waveguide.
[0133] Returning to block 342, if a new reflection has appeared in
the ultrasonic signal, control passes to block 350 to determine
whether the new reflection occurs before the waveguide attachment,
i.e., before the first attachment point for the waveguide. It is
assumed for the purposes of this example that the first attachment
point is also the first reflection point, so in other embodiments
where the first reflection point occurs before the first attachment
point, or where the first attachment point does not also form a
first reflection point, the first reflection point may be used in
block 350.
[0134] If so, and as indicated in block 352, the defect is likely
in the waveguide wire prior to the attachment point, and block 354
next determines if the attachment reflection is still visible in
the received ultrasonic signal. If so, control passes to block 356
to return a fault indicating plastic deformation or material loss
(notching) has occurred before the attachment location. If not, the
reflection is missing, and control instead passes to block 358 to
return a fault indicating that a complete break has occurred before
the attachment location.
[0135] Returning to block 350, if the new reflection point occurs
after the attachment point, this is indicated in block 362, and
block 364 next determines if the end reflection (i.e., the last
reflection corresponding to the end of the waveguide wire) is still
visible in the received ultrasonic signal. If so, control passes to
block 364 to return a fault indicating plastic deformation or
material loss (notching) has occurred after the attachment
location. If not, control instead passes to block 366 to return a
fault indicating that a complete break has occurred after the
attachment location.
[0136] It will also be appreciated that routine 340 can be extended
to detect other faults, e.g., to detect breaks and/or plastic
deformation between reflection points. e.g., by searching for
reflections corresponding to expected reflection points and
identifying when unexpected reflection points exist or expected
reflection points are missing.
[0137] As noted above, monitoring may be based on a comparison with
a baseline signature for a sensor, FIG. 17, for example,
illustrates an example routine 380 suitable for generating a
baseline signature for a sensor. Routine 380 may be performed, for
example, in control logic for a sensor or by another computer or
other electronic device, and may be performed at various times,
e.g., during manufacture, testing, installation or initial setup of
the sensor. In other embodiments, a baseline signature may be
generated during operation of the sensor, and may be dynamically
adjusted over time, e.g., by averaging signatures over time. In
still other embodiments, a baseline signature may be developed
analytically, e.g., during development of a sensor, and may not be
based on empirical testing or signal capture of a sensor.
[0138] Routine 380 begins in block 382 by generating a test
ultrasonic signal and propagating the test ultrasonic signal
through the waveguide, e.g., one or more test pulses. Block 384
then captures or receives the ultrasonic signal generated in
response to the test ultrasonic signal, which in some embodiments
forms a pulse echo response for the waveguide, and block 386
analyzes the received ultrasonic signal to identify various
characteristics or features of the signal, e.g., reflections, times
of arrival of such reflections, amplitudes of reflections, and
shapes of reflections, among others. Block 388 then stores this
baseline signature for later retrieval and comparison during
monitoring. It will be appreciated that a baseline signature may be
represented in a wide variety of manners, e.g., identifying
expected reflections and their associated amplitudes and/or times
of arrival. In other embodiments, no analysis may occur and a
received ultrasonic signal may simply be digitized and stored for
use in a direct waveform comparison. Time domain and/or frequency
domain information may be stored in some embodiments, and in some
embodiments, the test ultrasonic signal may consist of pulses
having various characteristics. Some embodiments, for example, may
communicate relatively simple pulses such as square or sine pulses,
while other embodiments may communicate more complex pulses have
characteristics suitable for performing more detailed analysis of a
pulse echo response generated in response to a test ultrasonic
signal. Other variations will be apparent to those of ordinary
skill having the benefit of the instant disclosure.
[0139] As a further illustration of damage detection consistent
with the invention, FIG. 18 illustrates an example baseline
signature for a sensor including a waveguide having three
intermediate reflection points (RP1-RP3) along the length of the
waveguide, along with a fourth reflection point (RP4) representing
the end of the waveguide. FIG. 19 illustrates a scenario where the
received ultrasonic signal during monitoring indicates a potential
deformation of the waveguide between reflection points RP2 and RP3
due to the presence of an unexpected reflection pulse, along with a
possible abrasion (or the start of some deformation) on the
waveguide prior to reflection point RP2 due to the presence of a
low amplitude noise or pulsing between the reflections
corresponding to reflection points RP1 and RP2. FIG. 20 illustrates
a scenario where a possible break has occurred after the first
reflection point RP1, due to the presence of an unexpected
reflection pulse prior to the expected RP2 reflection pulse, along
with no further reflection points. It will be appreciated that in
the occurrence of a break, a new "end" of the waveguide is
effectively formed at the break, so some reflection pulse (which
may be degraded relative to expected reflection pulses) will
generally be returned whenever a break does occur.
Frequency Domain Feedback Drive System
[0140] In order to increase accuracy and minimize issues caused by
spurious reflections a frequency feedback based measurement
approach may be used in some embodiments in connection with a
distributed active mechanical waveguide sensor. This approach
capitalizes on the fact that multiple reflections created in a
waveguide by a pair of reflection points produces standing waves,
and the phase of the transmitted energy is a function of frequency
and waveguide length. The wavelength (.lamda.) for a signal in a
material is generally given by: .lamda.=c/f, where c is the
material specific wave propagation velocity and f is the frequency.
For a pair of reflection points, the maximum transmission will
occur when these reflections are in phase, and this occurs at
frequencies that are functions of the stress wave velocity, the
distance between reflection points and the reflection coefficients
of the reflection points. For reflection points consisting of a
short section of waveguide with increased diameter these
frequencies are fn=c/(4I)*(1+2n), n=0, 1, 2 . . . . This means that
if broadband ultrasound is driven into the waveguide, the dominant
response will be this fundamental frequency and its harmonics. At
these frequencies the guided wave bounces between reflection points
many times and sensitivity to temperature and other environmental
condition changes increases at this location in comparison to other
places. If the response is low-pass or band-pass filtered for the
fundamental frequency and then used as the driving signal, the
system will drive this resonant frequency. If the region between a
pair of reflections is heated, its resonant frequency will change,
and the feedback-drive system will naturally follow it. This
technique has several advantages: first, as long as each
measurement point has a unique fundamental natural frequency, many
temperature sensing regions can be tracked simultaneously without
any need to separate the signals in the time domain, which is some
instances reduces the complexity that would otherwise be needed for
performing time-domain interpretation for a large number of sensing
regions. Second, since only the resonant frequencies are driven,
power requirements are generally low.
[0141] FIG. 21, for example, illustrates an example distributed
active mechanical waveguide temperature sensor 400 including a
waveguide wire 402 including multiple reflection points 404 that
define a plurality of sensing regions 406. In this embodiment,
separate transmit and receive transducers 408, 410 are coupled to
opposite ends of the waveguide wire 402, and an analog filter 412
(e.g., a low pass or band pass filter), an amplitude/phase
controller 414 (e.g., a proportional integral derivative (PID)
controller) and amplifier 416 couple the output of the receive
transducer 410 to the input of the transmit transducer 408 to form
a positive feedback loop. Frequency tracking logic 418 tracks the
resonant frequencies in the feedback loop, and a calibration is
applied in block 420 to generate output temperatures proportional
to the tracked resonant frequencies, which are then output by block
422.
[0142] Various manners of driving multiple resonant frequencies may
be used in various embodiments. For example, broadband noise can be
driven into a waveguide and the resonant frequencies measured by a
transducer may be tracked open-loop. In addition, such an approach
can also be used for initial self-calibration in order to locate
the resonant frequencies to be tracked. Lock-in amplifiers,
phase-locked loops, and adaptive gain control feedback drive
systems, among others, are other approaches that may be used in
some embodiments to control waveguide excitation and feedback at
multiple resonant frequencies.
[0143] In some embodiments, undesired environmental effects may
also be tracked and compensated in such a frequency tracking
approach. For example, a second (higher-frequency) mode may be
intentionally driven off-resonance (e.g., proximate a point of
maximum slope in amplitude) and at a fixed amplitude for comparison
against a primary mode for normalization purposes (e.g., to remove
effects of transducer amplitude changes). These amplitude changes
may then be used to drive another control loop, where the notional
time delay for group delay compensation for a primary mode is the
control variable, such that in response to amplitude changes the
time delay may be adjusted until a desired notional amplitude is
achieved. In other embodiments, several tones may be driven near a
resonance frequency to detect drift off the resonance and correct
the time delay, or to better fit the "true" resonance frequency,
and ignore the fact that a drift off of the peak has occurred.
[0144] In addition, in some embodiments, while the transmit and
receive transducers may be disposed at opposite ends of a waveguide
wire, both transducers can be packaged together by routing the
waveguide as a loop, as shown in FIG. 22, where a sensor 430
includes a looped waveguide wire 432 including reflection points
434 and with both ends coupled to transducers/control logic 436 in
the same package. Such an embodiment has several advantages: no
extra wiring need be run for the receive transducer and if the
waveguide were to be damaged somewhere along its length, the system
could switch to a time-domain model with one of the transducers
repurposed to operate as both transmitter and receiver.
[0145] It will be appreciated that each sensing region of a
distributed active mechanical waveguide sensor may be tuned to have
a different baseline resonant frequency (e.g., a resonant frequency
at room temperature) from the other sensing regions.
Reflection/transmission coefficients, lengths of sensing regions
(i.e., distances between adjacent reflection points), damping
and/or waveguide material or geometry-related properties that
affect velocity may be varied to tune different sensing regions. It
may be desirable, for example, to configure each sensing region
such that the baseline resonant frequency of each sensing region is
non-harmonic relative to the other sensing regions. Moreover, in
some embodiments different environmental conditions may be sensed
within the same sensing region and different resonant frequencies
may be associated with each environmental condition.
[0146] It has been found, for example, that in an example titanium
waveguide resonant frequency temperature sensor, the frequency
shift per degree Fahrenheit is about 150 Hz, which provides
approximately 100 kHz of frequency shift for a 700.degree. F.
measurement range. To have twenty independent sensing regions on
one waveguide would therefore require about 2 MHz of usable
bandwidth. In another example distributed active mechanical
waveguide temperature sensor, the waveguide wire was approximately
three meters long with two sensing regions and constructed from
0.022'' steel wire. Two different temperature measurements regions
were placed along the waveguide, with the first sensing region made
by creating two reflection points spaced about 6 mm apart, which
resulted in a resonant frequency of fn=567 kHz, and with the second
sensing region made by creating two reflection points spaced about
9 mm apart, which resulted in a resonant frequency of fn=435 kHz.
Heat applied to either sensing region altered the resonant
frequency of that sensing region, and the resonant frequency of the
other sensing region remained substantially stable.
[0147] As noted above, different sensing regions may be configured
to sense different environmental conditions, e.g., where a first
sensing region senses temperature and a second sensing region
senses pressure. In some embodiments, however, multiple
environmental conditions may be sensed within the same sensing
region, e.g., by tuning the response of the sensing region to
provide one resonant frequency response for one environmental
condition and another resonant frequency response for another
environmental condition.
Phase Change Tracking
[0148] In some embodiments, phase change tracking may be used to
sense temperature and other environmental effects in one or more
sensing regions of an active mechanical waveguide. Phase change
tracking therefore may be used, for example, in connection with
distributed active mechanical waveguide sensors including multiple
sensing regions, as well as in connection with active mechanical
waveguide sensors including only a single sensing region.
[0149] Phase change tracking may include in part tracking a phase
derivative of an ultrasonic signal propagated through a waveguide
in response to active excitation of the waveguide with ultrasonic
energy, e.g., ultrasonic stress waves. In some embodiments, for
example, a phase inflection point frequency may be determined from
a tracked phase derivative, and a value for an environmental
condition such as temperature may be determined based upon the
determined phase inflection point frequency.
[0150] For the purposes of explanation, assume that a reflection
point in a waveguide is implemented as a step on a cylindrical
waveguide, as is illustrated on the right of FIG. 23 with both a
step down (wide to narrow, top right) and a step up (narrow to
wide, bottom right). Generally, the reflection of an ultrasonic
wave on a step in cylindrical waveguide cannot be described exactly
analytically, e.g., as compared to layers that are infinite in a
lateral direction, as represented on the left of FIG. 23, which
illustrates two media layers (medium 1 and medium 2), along with an
air-backed layer bounding medium 2. For the purposes of this
illustration, Z.sub.1 and Z.sub.2 are the impedances of medium 1
and medium 2, respectively, and R.sub.12 is the reflection
coefficient for the step corresponding to the boundary between
medium 1 and medium 2, and it will be appreciated that a step down
(top right of FIG. 23) corresponds to a negative reflection
coefficient R.sub.12 and the impedance of medium 1 being greater
than that of medium 2, while a step up (bottom right of FIG. 23)
corresponds to a positive reflection coefficient R.sub.12 and the
impedance of medium 1 being less than that of medium 2.
[0151] Assume first a layer bounded between two unbounded media
(e.g., where medium 2 was bounded by a medium 3 rather than an
air-backed layer). From the perspective of wave propagation,
Incident, reflected (in medium 1) and transmitted (in medium 3)
waves would present a wave pattern presenting a standing wave as a
result of reflections between layer boundaries.
[0152] The normal incidence reflection coefficient R for such a
system can be presented as equation (1):
R = R 12 + R 23 exp ( 2 i .PHI. ) 1 + R 12 R 23 exp ( 2 i .PHI. ) (
1 ) ##EQU00001##
where R.sub.12=(Z.sub.2-Z.sub.1)/(Z.sub.2+Z.sub.1) and
R.sub.23=(Z.sub.3-Z.sub.2)/(Z.sub.3+Z.sub.2) are the reflection
coefficients on the boundaries 1-2 and 2-3. The acoustic impedances
Z.sub.i=.rho..sub.i.nu..sub.i present the products of medium
densities .rho..sub.i to their longitudinal ultrasonic velocities
.nu..sub.i. The propagating phase inside layer is .phi.=kl, where l
is the layer thickness and k=2.pi./.lamda.=2.pi.f/.nu..sub.2 is the
longitudinal wavenumber in the layer (f is ultrasonic frequency and
.lamda. is the wavelength inside layer). Depending on frequency (or
propagating phase) the reflection coefficient (1) varies with
frequency and the behavior allows ones to connect it with the layer
parameters (its thickness l and the ultrasonic velocity .nu..sub.2
inside layer). The amplitude of the reflection coefficient |R| and
its phase P can be written separately as:
R = R 12 2 + 2 R 12 R 23 cos 2 .PHI. + R 23 2 1 + 2 R 12 R 23 cos 2
.PHI. + R 12 2 R 23 2 and ( 2 ) P = arctan ( R 23 ( 1 - R 12 2 )
sin 2 .PHI. R 12 ( 1 + R 23 2 ) + R 23 ( 1 + R 12 2 ) cos 2 .PHI. )
( 3 ) ##EQU00002##
[0153] The amplitude and phase are function of relative properties
of the three media, and if it is assumed that the third layer is
replaced with air (or a vacuum), it can be assumed that no
ultrasonic wave can propagate below it, and the structure of the
resonances inside the layer will change. The acoustic impedance of
air Z.sub.3.apprxeq.0 and the reflection coefficient on the
boundary 2-3 is equal to R.sub.23=-1. Substituting these values
into equation (1) for reflection coefficient results in:
R = R 12 - exp ( 2 i .PHI. ) 1 - R 12 exp ( 2 i .PHI. ) and ( 4 ) R
= 1 and ( 5 ) P = atan ( - ( 1 - R 12 2 ) sin 2 .PHI. 2 R 12 - ( 1
+ R 12 2 ) cos 2 .PHI. ) ( 6 ) ##EQU00003##
[0154] The magnitude of the reflection coefficient is equal to one,
and it is clear from an energy conservation point of view because
the energy returns back to medium 1 (without attenuation). The
properties of the layer or its changes generally cannot be measured
in the same manner as for the symmetrical case (minima of the
reflection coefficient) because of |R|=1. So, in order to obtain
the layer properties and their changes the phase of reflection
coefficient features may be used. The phase of the wave reflected
from the air-backed layer is presented in FIG. 24 for two different
situations. Curve 440 presents the hard-soft-air case when the
medium 1 acoustic impedance is larger than the medium 2 layer,
Z.sub.1>Z.sub.2, Z.sub.1/Z.sub.2=5, R.sub.12=0.67<0, and
curve 442 presents the opposite soft-hard-air case when the medium
1 acoustic impedance is lower than the medium 2 layer,
Z.sub.1<Z.sub.2, Z.sub.2/Z.sub.1=5, R.sub.12=+0.67>0. It
should be noted that both curves have no discontinuity points where
the phase jumps. At the same time the curves change their
curvatures from concave to convex in inflection points (e.g.,
inflection point 444), which means that at those points the second
derivative
d 2 P d .PHI. 2 = 0 ##EQU00004##
or the first derivatives have maxima or minima. Taking the
derivatives of equation (6) results in:
dP d .PHI. = 2 ( 1 - R 12 2 ) 1 + R 12 2 - 2 R 12 cos 2 .PHI. = 2 (
1 - R 12 2 ) ( 1 - R 12 ) 2 cos 2 .PHI. + ( 1 + R 12 ) 2 sin 2
.PHI. ( 7 ) and d 2 P d .PHI. 2 = - 8 R 12 ( 1 - R 12 2 ) sin 2
.PHI. ( 1 + R 12 2 - 2 R 12 cos 2 .PHI. ) 2 ( 8 ) ##EQU00005##
[0155] The phase inflection points (or max and min of its
derivative) are determined by sin 2.phi.=0 or .phi./.pi.=n/2 for
both cases Z.sub.1 Z.sub.2 Structure of the maxima and minima of
dP/d.phi. is different. If the maximum peaks are sharp then the
minima ones are flat. Changing of the layer properties (for
example, due to temperature) causes shifts in the frequency of the
peaks. It is clear that sharper peaks assist with detecting changes
due to the difficulty in determining exact peak position if a peak
is relatively flat, particularly small changes of peak position due
to temperature. The phase derivative graphs for the two
aforementioned cases are presented in FIG. 25 for the same
parameters Z.sub.1, Z.sub.2 and R.sub.12, and it can be seen that
useful phase peak positions are:
.PHI. n = 1 2 + n , n = 0 , 1 , ; for Z 1 > Z 2 , R 12 < 0 ;
( 9 ) and .PHI. n = 1 + n , n = 0 , 1 , ; for Z 1 < Z 2 , R 12
> 0 ; ( 10 ) ##EQU00006##
[0156] In the frequency domain this corresponds to:
f n = v 2 l ( 1 2 + n ) , n = 0 , 1 , ; for Z 1 > Z 2 , R 12
< 0 ; ( 11 ) and f n = v 2 l ( 1 + n ) , n = 0 , 1 , ; for Z 1
< Z 2 , R 12 > 0 ; ( 12 ) ##EQU00007##
[0157] Another parameter is the variation with frequency of the
amplitude of P/d.phi., and the higher this amplitude and the
sharper the appropriate peaks, the more accurately the position of
these peaks can be determined. Substituting maximum and minimum of
dP/d.phi. from equation (7) results in:
.DELTA. ( dP d .PHI. ) = ( dP d .PHI. ) ma x - ( dP d .PHI. ) m i n
= 8 R 12 1 - R 12 2 = 2 Z 2 Z 1 - Z 1 Z 2 ( 13 ) ##EQU00008##
[0158] As such, the larger reflection coefficient causes higher
amplitude variations and sharper peaks in the phase derivative. A
larger reflection coefficient means a larger impedance ratio
between Z.sub.2 and Z.sub.1, and equation (13) is symmetrical with
respect to the ratio.
[0159] Some observations for the air-backed layer are as follows.
The phase P of the reflection coefficient has no discontinuity.
Further, there are inflection points on the phase dependence
(where
d 2 P d .PHI. 2 = 0 ##EQU00009##
or minima and maxima of the phase derivative dP/d.phi.) that depend
on layer thickness and velocity in each layer. These points can be
used for temperature measurements because both the layer
thicknesses and velocities in the layers are functions of
temperature. Moreover, the higher the difference between medium and
layer acoustic impedances, the sharper the peaks are for phase
derivative dependence.
[0160] Now returning to FIG. 23, reflection of an ultrasonic wave
from a step in a cylindrical waveguide generally cannot be
described exactly analytically, as it has been done for the
aforementioned layer configurations that are infinite in the
lateral direction. On the other hand, there is some correspondence
between these two cases. The reflection coefficient of the step
(R.sub.12), for example, can be introduced in the same form as for
the medium 1 layer above:
R .apprxeq. R 12 - exp ( 2 i .PHI. ) 1 - R 12 exp ( 2 i .PHI. ) ; R
= 1 ( 14 ) ##EQU00010##
where R.sub.12 is the reflection coefficient of the step (at the
position of the cross-section change) and .phi.=kl is the
propagating phase in the shoulder of length l. The "diameter step"
reflection coefficient R.sub.12 can be estimated approximately. For
example, in a 1D model of discontinuity it can be presented as
follows:
R 12 .apprxeq. S 2 - S 1 S 2 + S 1 = r 2 2 - r 1 2 r 2 2 + r 1 2 (
15 ) ##EQU00011##
where S.sub.1 is the initial waveguide cross-section area and
S.sub.2 is the shoulder cross-section area and r.sub.1,2 are
correspondent radii. For a wide-to-narrow (thick-to-thin) step
(S.sub.1>S.sub.2) the reflection coefficient R.sub.12<0, and
for a narrow-to-wide (thin-to-thick) step (S.sub.1<S.sub.2) it
is R.sub.12>0. So the thick-to-thin step corresponds to
air-backed layer with Z.sub.1<Z.sub.2 and the thin-to-thick step
corresponds to the case Z.sub.1>Z.sub.2. The magnitude of the
reflection coefficient may also be considered to be equal to one,
as from an energy conservation point of view the imparted energy
ultimately returns back (without attenuation).
[0161] The phase P of the reflection coefficient is:
P = atan ( - ( 1 - R 12 2 ) sin 2 .PHI. 2 R 12 - ( 1 + R 12 2 ) cos
2 .PHI. ) ( 16 ) ##EQU00012##
[0162] As a further illustration, FIG. 26 illustrates the phases of
waves reflected from a step for the thick-thin case, or
Z.sub.1>Z.sub.2. Curve 450 represents a larger acoustic
impedance ratio Z.sub.2/Z.sub.1=0.1, R.sub.12=-0.82 and curve 452
represents a smaller acoustic impedance ratio Z.sub.2/Z.sub.1=0.5,
R.sub.12=-0.33. The correspondent phase derivatives dP/d.phi. for
these parameters are presented in FIG. 27. It should be noted that
both curves have no discontinuity points where the phase jumps, and
at the same time the curves change their curvatures from concave to
convex in inflection points (e.g., inflection point 454), whereby
at such points the second derivative
d 2 P d .PHI. 2 = 0 ##EQU00013##
or the first derivatives have maxima or minima.
[0163] The phase derivative peak positions are:
.PHI. n = 1 2 + n , n = 0 , 1 , ; for Z 1 > Z 2 , R 12 < 0 ;
( 17 ) ##EQU00014##
and in the frequency domain this corresponds to:
f n = v 2 l ( 1 2 + n ) , n = 0 , 1 , ; for Z 1 > Z 2 , R 12
< 0 ; ( 18 ) ##EQU00015##
[0164] Because both the ultrasonic velocity .nu. and the step
length l are functions of temperature the resonance frequencies
f.sub.n depend on temperature as well, and can thereby be used for
temperature measurements. An advantage of such an approach is that
it allows to make the step length, as well as the distance between
adjacent reflection points, much shorter in comparison with a time
domain-based approach where pulse reflections may overlap one
another if spaced too closely.
[0165] Thus, in some embodiments, environmental condition
measurements may be based on the phase of a reflected ultrasonic
signal in an active mechanical waveguide. In particular, the phase
inflection point frequencies (minima or maxima of the phase
derivative) are sensitive to environmental conditions such as
temperature and can be used for measurement of such conditions.
[0166] Furthermore, while the above analysis applies to steps, it
will be appreciated that the analysis applies more generally to any
reflection points formed along the length of a waveguide. For
example, in the case of diameter discontinuities in the middle of a
waveguide (e.g., a bump comprising a step up followed by a step
down or a channel comprising a step down followed by a step up),
the geometry is similar to the case of a layer between two
identical media. For a symmetrical bump, R.sub.12>0,
R.sub.23<0, R.sub.12=-R.sub.23 and for a channel discontinuity
R.sub.12<0, R.sub.23>0, R.sub.12=-R.sub.23, so for both
geometries the reflection coefficient is equal to:
R .apprxeq. R 12 ( 1 - exp ( 2 i .PHI. ) ) 1 - R 12 2 exp ( 2 i
.PHI. ) ( 19 ) ##EQU00016##
with different sign of R.sub.12 for the bump and the channel
geometries.
Frequency-Dependent Reflectors
[0167] It may also be desirable in some embodiments to incorporate
frequency-dependent reflectors into an active mechanical waveguide
to enable the reflection characteristics of such reflectors to be
varied based upon one or more drive frequencies of a signal used to
drive an ultrasonic transducer that propagates ultrasonic stress
waves through the waveguide. In some instances, for example, a
drive frequency may be selected to render a reflector substantially
transparent in some situations such that the reflector does not
generate reflections (or in the least, generates reflections of
minimal amplitude) in response to an ultrasonic input to the
waveguide.
[0168] For the purposes of explanation, consider the general
example of three waveguide portions, WG1-WG3, illustrated in FIG.
28, where an incident wave propagates in infinite WG1, then
reflects and transmits in finite WG2 (having a geometry defined by
a length l.sub.2 and diameter d.sub.2), and exits the connection
through infinite WG3. The waveguide portions WG1-WG3 have
increasing diameters and define first and second steps
therebetween, with WG2 being referred to as an intermediate member
for the purposes of this discussion. Such a system may be modeled
using thin rod theory for compressional waves, which is applicable
if the ultrasonic wavelength is much greater than the waveguide
diameter.
[0169] The reflection coefficient R for such a system may be
presented using equation (1) above, where in this case
R.sub.12=(Z.sub.2-Z.sub.1)/(Z.sub.2+Z.sub.1) and
R.sub.23=(Z.sub.3-Z.sub.2)/(Z.sub.3+Z.sub.2) are the reflection
coefficients on the boundaries 1-2 and 2-3. The acoustic impedances
Z.sub.i=.rho..sub.i.nu..sub.iS.sub.i present the products of medium
densities .rho..sub.i to their longitudinal ultrasonic velocities
.nu..sub.i and cross-sectional areas S.sub.i. The propagating phase
inside WG2 is .phi.=k.sub.2l.sub.2, where l.sub.2 is the WG2 length
and k.sub.2=2.pi./.lamda..sub.2=2.pi./.nu..sub.2 is the
longitudinal wavenumber in WG2 (f is ultrasonic frequency and
.lamda..sub.2 is the wavelength inside WG2). The reflection
coefficient varies with frequency and this behavior allows one to
construct the