U.S. patent application number 15/783676 was filed with the patent office on 2018-09-06 for serotonin transporter gene and treatment of alcoholism.
The applicant listed for this patent is University of Virginia Patent Foundation. Invention is credited to Bankole A. Johnson.
Application Number | 20180251840 15/783676 |
Document ID | / |
Family ID | 41016720 |
Filed Date | 2018-09-06 |
United States Patent
Application |
20180251840 |
Kind Code |
A1 |
Johnson; Bankole A. |
September 6, 2018 |
SEROTONIN TRANSPORTER GENE AND TREATMENT OF ALCOHOLISM
Abstract
The gene responsible for encoding SERT has a functional
polymorphism at the 5'-regulatory promoter region, which results in
two forms, long (L) and short (S). The LL-genotype is hypothesized
to play a key role in the early onset of alcohol use. The present
invention discloses the differences in treatment and diagnosis
based on the L or short genotypes as well as on a single nucleotide
polymorphism of the SERT gene, the 3' UTR SNP rs1042173. The
present invention demonstrates the efficacy of using the drug
ondansetron and similar drugs for treatment based on variations in
the polymorphisms of the SERT gene as well as methods for
diagnosing susceptibility to abuse of alcohol and other
addiction-related diseases and disorders.
Inventors: |
Johnson; Bankole A.;
(Charlottesville, VA) |
|
Applicant: |
Name |
City |
State |
Country |
Type |
University of Virginia Patent Foundation |
Charlottesville |
VA |
US |
|
|
Family ID: |
41016720 |
Appl. No.: |
15/783676 |
Filed: |
October 13, 2017 |
Related U.S. Patent Documents
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Application
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Patent Number |
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15417933 |
Jan 27, 2017 |
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15783676 |
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15243682 |
Aug 22, 2016 |
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15417933 |
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14886691 |
Oct 19, 2015 |
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15243682 |
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14189746 |
Feb 25, 2014 |
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14886691 |
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12919905 |
Jan 11, 2011 |
8697361 |
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PCT/US2009/035420 |
Feb 27, 2009 |
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14189746 |
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61032263 |
Feb 28, 2008 |
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61059301 |
Jun 6, 2008 |
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61146440 |
Jan 22, 2009 |
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Current U.S.
Class: |
1/1 |
Current CPC
Class: |
G01N 33/6872 20130101;
G01N 33/942 20130101; C12Q 2600/158 20130101; C12Q 2600/118
20130101; A61K 45/06 20130101; C12Q 2600/106 20130101; C12Q
2600/156 20130101; C12Q 1/6883 20130101; A61K 31/4178 20130101;
G01N 2800/307 20130101; A61P 25/30 20180101; G01N 2800/50 20130101;
A61P 25/32 20180101 |
International
Class: |
C12Q 1/6883 20060101
C12Q001/6883; A61K 31/4178 20060101 A61K031/4178; G01N 33/94
20060101 G01N033/94 |
Goverment Interests
STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH OR DEVELOPMENT
[0002] This invention was made in part with United States
Government support under Grant Nos. U10 AA011776-10, 1 N01
AA001016-000, 7 R01 AA010522-12, 5 R01 AA012964-06, 5 K23
AA000329-06, 3 R01 DA012844 and 5 R01 DA013783 awarded by the
National Institutes of Health. The United States Government
therefore has certain rights in the invention.
Claims
1. A method of predicting a predisposition to developing an
addictive disease or disorder in a test subject, said method
comprising: obtaining a biological sample from the test subject;
measuring the level of expression of the serotonin transporter gene
SLC6A4 in the sample from the test subject and comparing the level
of expression with the level of expression of the serotonin
transporter gene SLC6A4 in a sample obtained from a control subject
or with a standard sample comprising a known level of expression of
the serotonin transporter gene SLC6A4; wherein a higher or lower
level of expression of the serotonin transporter gene SLC6A4 in the
sample obtained from the test subject compared with the level of
expression in the sample obtained from the control subject or the
standard sample is an indication of a predisposition to developing
an addictive disease or disorder; thereby predicting a
predisposition to developing an addictive disease or disorder in a
subject.
Description
CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS
[0001] This application is entitled to priority pursuant to 35
U.S.C. .sctn. 119(e) to U.S. provisional patent application Nos.
61/032,263, filed on Feb. 28, 2008, 61/059,301, filed on Jun. 6,
2008, and 61/146,440, filed on Jan. 22, 2009. The entire
disclosures of the afore-mentioned provisional patent applications
are incorporated herein by reference.
FIELD OF INVENTION
[0003] This invention relates generally to the field of diagnosing
the susceptibility to addiction-related diseases and disorders and
impulse control disorders, particularly alcohol-related diseases
and disorders, as well as monitoring and treating the same.
BACKGROUND
[0004] Vulnerability to alcohol dependence is heritable, with a
rate ranging from 0.52 to 0.64 (Kendler, 2001). Despite this high
heritability rate, only one marker allele (alcohol-metabolizing
aldehyde dehydrogenase genes) has been identified consistently to
be associated with alcoholism (Kranzler et al, 2002). Of the
various neurotransmitter systems through which alcohol mediates its
effects, the serotonergic system has been shown to play an
important role in alcohol preference and consumption (Johnson,
2004). Synaptic serotonergic neurotransmission is terminated when
serotonin (5-HT) is transported back into pre-synaptic neurons by
5-HT transporters (5-HTTs) (Talvenheimo and Rudnick, 1980).
Therefore, a major part of the functional capacity of the
serotonergic system is regulated by the 5-HTT. Heavy episodic
drinking is associated with numerous psychiatric and general
medical conditions causing a major public health burden (Gargiulo,
2007). Several studies have reported a dose-response relationship
between the extent of heavy drinking and the risk of alcohol
related morbidity and mortality among heavy drinkers (Makela and
Mustonen, 2007; Gastfriend et al., 2007). Consequently, reduction
of heavy drinking is used as an indicator of treatment response in
clinical trials aimed at treating alcohol dependence.
[0005] Of the various neurotransmitter systems through which
alcohol mediates its effects, the serotonergic system has been
shown to play an important role in alcohol preference and
consumption (Johnson, 2004). Synaptic serotonergic
neurotransmission is terminated when serotonin (5-HT) is
transported back into pre-synaptic neurons by 5-HT transporters
(5-HTTs) (Talvenheimo and Rudnick, 1980) and the degree of 5-HT
reuptake depends on the density of 5-HTTs on presynaptic surface.
The selective 5-HT reuptake inhibitors that act directly on 5-HTTs
have been shown to reduce alcohol consumption in rats (Gill and
Amit, 1989). However, in humans SSRIs have been effective at
reducing heavy drinking only among some subtypes of alcoholics,
more specifically in type A alcoholics but not in type B alcoholics
(Dundon et al., 2004; Pettinati et al., 2000) who are considered to
be more biologically predisposed to develop alcohol dependence.
Therefore, it is reasonable to propose that allelic variations
which alter expression levels of SLC6A4 gene can be expected to
have an important effect on drinking intensity.
[0006] The human 5-HTT is encoded by a single gene (SLC6A4) mapped
on chromosome 17q11.1-q12 (Ramamoorthy et al., 1993). The SLC6A4
gene spans .about.35 kb and has 14 exons. The protein encoded by
this gene, the 5-HTT, is a trans-membrane protein containing 630
amino acids (Heils et al., 1996). The expression level of SLC6A4 is
regulated by at least three mechanisms: transcription regulatory
elements in the promoter (Ramamoorthy et al., 1993), differential
splicing (Bradley and Blakely, 1997), and the use of different 3'
polyadenylation sites (Battersby et al., 1999). Furthermore,
several other polymorphisms that change amino acid sequence
(Thr4Ala, Gly56Ala, Glu215Lys, Lys605Asn and Pro612Ser) of 5-HTT
have been shown to affect 5-HT uptake function in cell cultures
(Prasad et al., 2003).
[0007] Although the long (L) and short (S) polymorphism at 5-HTT
linked polymorphic region (5-HTTLPR) of SLC6A4 has been extensively
studied in the literature, the results are inconclusive. For
example, in a meta-analysis of 17 studies, Feinn et al. (2005)
showed that S allele was significantly associated with alcohol
dependence in subjects with co-occurring serotonergic abnormalities
while several other studies reported an association of alcohol
dependence with the L (Kweon et al., 2005, Hu et al., 2005). On the
other hand, numerous studies including the report by our group
reveal a differential association between chronic problem-drinking
and the density and function of serotonin transporters in alcoholic
subjects carrying L and S variants of SLC6A4 (Little et al., 1998,
Javors et al., 2005, Johnson et al., 2008). Located in the gene's
transcriptional control region, 5-HTTLPR contains 16 tandem repeats
of a 20 to 23 bp (G+C)-rich sequence between bp -1376 and bp -1027.
Two common forms of this transcriptional control region have been
found: a long 528 bp allele (L) with 16 repeats and a short 484 bp
allele (S) with a deletion of
[0008] 44 bp extending from bp -1255 to bp -1212.
[0009] Serotonin (5-HT) function has been implicated in the
regulation of mood, impulsivity, and alcohol use that includes
variation in the age of onset of drinking and onset of alcohol use
disorders. The 5-HT system, originating in the raphe nuclei and
projecting to cortex, hippocampus, and subcortical brain regions,
is thought to influence drinking behavior directly in
alcohol-use-disordered individuals by modulating the reinforcing
effects of alcohol and/or indirectly by processes regulating
impulsivity and affect. Findings from animal studies have shown
that pharmacological enhancement of 5-HT activity inhibits alcohol
intake. Human studies have shown that low 5-HT turnover is
associated with impulsivity], as well as alcohol-seeking behavior
and alcoholism. Lower central 5-HT turnover (e.g., 5-hydroxy indole
acetic acid in cerebrospinal fluid) has been reported in
early-onset alcohol-dependent (EOA) adults compared to late-onset
alcohol dependent adults (LOA) and the lowest central 5-HT turnover
occurs in EOA adults when both parents have alcohol dependence.
Together, these findings support the hypothesis that 5-HT
availability and function regulate drinking-related behaviors and
drinking history.
[0010] Scientific frustration has been promulgated by failures to
demonstrate clinical efficacy for selective serotonin reuptake
inhibitors (SSRIs) in treating alcoholism. Animal studies show
consistently that SSRIs reduce alcohol consumption in various
models and across species (for a review, see Johnson and Ait-Daoud
2000). SSRIs augment central serotonergic function and, by tonic
inhibition, decrease mesocorticolimbic dopamine (DA) release. DA
activation mediates alcohol's rewarding effects; hence, its
diminution should be associated with decreased abuse liability.
Moreover, in humans, there is solid evidence that individuals with
the highest biological predisposition to alcoholism, typically by
having an early disease onset, family history, or both, have
reduced serotonergic function (Buydens-Branchey et al. 1989;
Pits-Aime et al 1996; LeMarquand et al 1994a; LeMarquand et al
1994b; Swann et al 1999). It was, therefore, tempting to predict
that alcoholics would benefit from SSRI treatment, and that those
with an early onset and/or family history would benefit the most
because the SSRI would presumably ameliorate the existing
disequilibrium in serotonergic function.
[0011] Despite the encouraging results of earlier studies, more
rigorous, well controlled, state-of-the-art trials have generally
failed to find a therapeutic effect for SSRIs in treating
alcoholism (Gorelick and Paredes 1992; Kranzler et al 1996).
[0012] In humans, functional control of the serotonergic system
also seems to be regulated by genetic differences in SERT
expression (Meltzer and Arora 1988). The SERT possesses the only
known functional polymorphism regulating the serotonin system
(Hells et al 1997; Heils et al 1996; Lesch et al 1997). Basically,
the polymorphism of the SERT 5' regulatory promoter region
(5'-HTTLPR) on chromosome 17p12 consists of two types (Heils et al
1997; Heils et al 1996; Lesch et al 1997). The long (LL) variant,
compared with the short (SS) or heterozygous (SL) form, is
associated with three times greater 5-HT uptake from platelets
(Greenberg et al 1999) and in lymphoblasts (Lesch et al 1996).
Hence, individuals with the LL variant of 5'-HTTLPR can be expected
to have increased SERT number and function and reduced levels of
intrasynaptic 5-HT.
[0013] Recent scientific evidence would support the hypothesis of
LL variant of 5'-HTTLPR predominance among EOA (Ishiguro et al
1999; Schuckit et al 1999). Turker et al. (1998) suggested that
high ethanol tolerance may be associated with the SS/SL form of
5'-HTTLPR, but their rather informal criteria and the use of
controls from a blood bank with uncertain alcohol histories may
make their conclusions difficult to substantiate. Furthermore, a
study by Sander et al. (1998) did not find a significant
relationship (p=0.09) between SS/SL genotype and alcoholics with
dissocial personality disorder. Finally, there are conflicting data
on the relationship between the SS/SL form of 5'-HTTLPR and
alcoholism in general (Edenberg et al. 1998; Hammou et al. 1999;
Jorm et al. 1998; Sander et al. 1997); however, these studies
contain no subtyping information. Moreover, it is difficult to
compare these epidemiologic genotyping studies because of differing
diagnostic criteria between the studies and different population
frequencies across ethnic groups for the allelic forms. Perhaps
most importantly, none of these studies have taken into account
that it may be the interaction between these subtypes and alcohol
consumption which is critical. That is, even though these allelic
forms of the SERT may not determine vulnerability to alcoholism per
se, the interaction between the allelic forms and alcohol
consumption may determine treatment response, particularly to a
selective serotonergic agent.
[0014] Reduced 5-HT neurotransmission has been reported in those
with an increased propensity for drinking and in alcoholics who
exhibit antisocial behaviors (i.e., EOA) (LeMarquand et al 1994a;
LeMarquand et al 1994b). These results are consistent with: 1) the
demonstration of increased 5-HT uptake into presynaptic
serotonergic neurons in the brain, in lymphocytes, and in platelets
of alcoholics and their descendants (Boismare et al 1987; Ernouf et
al 1993; Farai et al 1997) and 2) SPECT studies in nonhuman
primates that had undergone early environmental stress, showing
that increased binding of serotonin transporters is associated with
greater aggressiveness and reduced sensitivity to ethanol
intoxication (Heinz et al 1998). It would, therefore, be tempting
to speculate that this hypo-serotonergic state could render
individuals more vulnerable to experimentation with alcohol early
in life.
[0015] Although acute alcohol intake may initially produce some
temporary relief by increasing brain 5-HT levels, the residual
effect is to reduce serotonin function, thereby setting up a
vicious cycle (for a review see LeMarquand et al. (LeMarquand et al
1994a; LeMarquand et al 1994b)). Chronic excessive drinking does
not result in sustained increases in 5-HT neurotransmission
(Branchey et al 1981; Ledig et al 1982; Pohorecky et al 1978).
Reduced SERT density in the raphe nuclei is associated with an
early alcoholism onset in violent offenders (Tiihonen et al 1997)
and with the combination of having the LL variant of 5'-HTTLPR and
chronic drinking in both postmortem brains (Little et al 1998) and
living individuals (Heinz et al 2000). The study of Heinz and
colleagues (Heinz et al 2000) showed that individuals with the LL
form of 5'-HTTLPR are more vulnerable to chronic alcohol-induced
reductions in SERT density, but their study requires validation in
an adequately powered prospective study that contains an equal
number of individuals with the LL and SS/SL variants of 5'-HTTLPR.
This would enable confirmation of the differential phenotypic
expression of these allelic forms. Although it may, at first, seem
paradoxical (i.e., for those with the LL variant of 5'-HTTLPR to
have both reduced SERT density and decreased serotonergic
function), it is notable that the SERTs in the raphe are associated
with the regulation of cell firing rates.
[0016] There is a long felt need in the art for compositions and
methods useful for diagnosing, treating, and monitoring alcohol
disorders and susceptibility to alcohol disorders. The present
invention satisfies these needs.
SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION
[0017] The present invention discloses several methods and assays
useful for determining whether a subject has a predisposition to
developing an addictive disease or disorder, determining whether a
subject will be responsive to particular treatments, and
compositions and methods useful for treating a subject in need of
treatment. For example, the present invention encompasses
compositions and methods, and combinations thereof, useful for
predicting subjects susceptible to increased intensity of drinking
and useful for predicting useful treatments.
[0018] The present invention encompasses compositions and methods
useful for treating subjects who abuse alcohol based on
identification of genetic markers indicative of a subject being
predisposed to severe drinking or being more susceptible to
alcoholism and problem drinking. The assays center on the serotonin
system, particularly the serotonin transporter gene SLC6A4, its
expression, and various polymorphisms of that gene. In one aspect,
the marker is based on measurement of nucleotide polymorphisms. In
one aspect, the polymorphism is a single nucleotide polymorphism
(SNP). The invention further provides for the use of combinations
of assays to help further predict a predisposition to developing an
addictive disease or disorder and to help predict treatments based
on the results of the assays. In one aspect, at least one drug
which regulates part of the serotonin system is administered to the
subject. In another aspect, combination therapy can be used by
administering additional drugs.
[0019] Subjects comprising the G allele of SNP polymorphism
rs1042173 of the serotonin transporter gene SLC6A4 were found
herein to be associated with significantly lower drinking intensity
compared to subjects homozygous for the T allele. This was true for
whites but not Hispanics. Additionally, the present application
discloses that cells transfected with the G allele of SNP
polymorphism rs1042173 of the serotonin transporter gene SLC6A4 had
significantly higher levels of both the mRNA and the serotonin
transporter protein compared with cells transfected with the T
allele. Even among alcohol-dependent G allele carriers for
rs1042173, there was less intensity of drinking of compared with
alcohol-dependent subject who were homozygous for the T allele. The
present application further discloses that alcohol-dependent
subjects with the TT genotype respond better to ondansetron
treatment than similar subjects with the TG/GG genotype. Therefore,
the present invention provides compositions and methods useful for
predicting a predisposition to an addictive disease or disorder and
the severity of that disorder, as well a compositions and methods
useful for predicting suitable treatments and treatment regimens
for those subjects. The present invention provides that for those
homozygous for T, treatment may be customized to increase
expression of the SLC6A4 gene or its protein, or their levels or
activity, and that treatments further include compositions and
methods useful for decreasing serotonin levels or activity.
[0020] The present application discloses that youths with the LL
genotype of the functional polymorphism for the 5'-regulatory
promoter region of the SERT gene (5-HTTLPR) had higher levels of
SERT, as measured by .sup.3H-paroxetine binding and had a
significantly earlier age of onset of drinking. The present
invention therefore encompasses a method of predicting subjects
with a predisposition to early onset of drinking as well as methods
of treating these subjects, including treatments to reduce
expression of SERT and it activity.
[0021] The present application further discloses that the
"interaction" of treatment (with ondansetron) and genotype (LS vs.
LS/SS) is highly significant and that there is a significant effect
of age of onset of drinking. The application discloses a
significantly higher paroxetine binding (density of SERT) in
LL-genotype vs. S-carriers (SS or SL genotypes). The present
further application discloses that the LL group had a significantly
earlier age of onset of drinking and a longer duration of drinking.
These promising data provide the first evidence that alcoholics
with the LL genotype, compared with their LS/SS counterparts,
experience significantly greater reduction in the severity of
drinking following ondansetron treatment.
[0022] In one embodiment, the present invention provides for
treating alcoholics, as well as subjects with other addictive
diseases and disorders, with at least one drug. In one aspect, the
subject has the genotype LL. In one aspect, the at least one drug
is ondansetron. In one aspect, the treatment reduces DDD. The
present invention further encompasses the use of multiple drugs and
combinations of drugs for treating subjects described herein.
[0023] Furthermore, the present invention provides for the use of
combinations of assays to better predict or diagnose a
susceptibility to developing an addictive disease or disorder as
well as methods of predicting a personalized treatment based on the
use of one or more predictive assays. Based on the results of one
or more of the assays in a subject, treatments can be designed
specifically for that subject.
[0024] The present invention encompasses an approach that combines
drugs for the treatment or prevention of addictive disorders such
as alcohol dependence. Because the reinforcing effects of most
abused drugs are also mediated by CMDA neurons, the present
invention provides combination therapy with drugs such as
topiramate, ondansetron, and naltrexone as efficacious treatments
for addictive disorders including (but not limited to) alcohol,
eating, cocaine, methamphetamine, marihuana, tobacco abuse and
addiction, and other addictive behaviors, including, but not
limited to, gambling and sex. Based on the unexpected discoveries
described herein, one of ordinary skill in the art will now
appreciate that the compounds of the invention useful for
combination drug therapy can in some instances be used singly
instead of as part of a combination. Additionally, based on the
present application, one of ordinary skill in the art will also
appreciate that the compounds of the invention useful for
combination drug therapy can in some instances be used in any
combination.
[0025] In one embodiment, the present invention provides
compositions and methods for treating or preventing an
alcohol-related disease or disorder comprising administering to a
subject a therapeutically effective amount of at least two
anti-alcohol agents or compounds, and optionally other therapeutic
agents. Preferably, at least three anti-alcohol agents or compounds
are used in the combination therapy. The present invention further
encompasses the adjunctive use of psychosocial management
techniques. In one aspect, the drug combination therapy is more
effective alone than when combined with psychosocial management
techniques. In another aspect, the drug combination therapy
combined with psychosocial management techniques is more effective
than drug combination therapy alone. In one aspect, the present
invention provides methods for treating or preventing an
alcohol-related disease or disorder in a subject comprising
administering an effective amount of at least two compounds, or
preferably at least three compounds, or analogs, homologs,
derivatives, modifications, and pharmaceutically acceptable salts
thereof, selected from the group consisting of serotonergic agents,
serotonin antagonists, selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitors,
serotonin receptor antagonists, opioid antagonists, dopaminergic
agents, dopamine release inhibitors, dopamine antagonists,
norepinephrine antagonists, GABA agonists, GABA inhibitors, GABA
receptor antagonists, GABA channel antagonists, glutamate agonists,
glutamate antagonists, glutamine agonists, glutamine antagonists,
anti-convulsant agents, NMDA-blocking agents, calcium channel
antagonists, carbonic anhydrase inhibitors, neurokinins, small
molecules, peptides, vitamins, co-factors, anti-orexin agents,
regulators of cannabinoid receptor-1, and Corticosteroid Releasing
Factor antagonists. In one aspect, the neurokinin is NPY. The
present invention further encompasses administering other small
molecules and peptides.
[0026] In one embodiment, the alcohol-related disease or disorder
being treated includes, but is not limited to, early-onset
alcoholic, late-onset alcoholic, alcohol-induced psychotic disorder
with delusions, alcohol abuse, excessive drinking, heavy drinking,
problem drinking, alcohol intoxication, alcohol withdrawal, alcohol
intoxication delirium, alcohol withdrawal delirium, alcohol-induced
persisting dementia, alcohol-induced persisting amnestic disorder,
alcohol dependence, alcohol-induced psychotic disorder with
hallucinations, alcohol-induced mood disorder, alcohol-induced or
associated bipolar disorder, alcohol-induced or associated
posttraumatic stress disorder, alcohol-induced anxiety disorder,
alcohol-induced sexual dysfunction, alcohol-induced sleep disorder,
alcohol-induced or associated gambling disorder, alcohol-induced or
associated sexual disorder, alcohol-related disorder not otherwise
specified, alcohol intoxication, and alcohol withdrawal. In one
aspect, the alcohol-related disease or disorder is early onset
alcoholic. In another aspect, the alcohol-related disease or
disorder is late onset alcoholic.
[0027] In one embodiment, the present invention provides
compositions and methods for reducing the frequency of alcohol
consumption compared with the frequency of alcohol consumption
before the treatment. One of ordinary skill in the art will
appreciate that the frequency can be compared with prior
consumption by the subject or with consumption by a control subject
not receiving the treatment. In one aspect, the type of alcohol
consumption is heavy drinking. In another aspect, it is excessive
drinking.
[0028] In one embodiment, the present invention provides
compositions and methods for reducing the quantity of alcohol
consumed in a subject compared with the amount of alcohol consumed
before the treatment or compared with the alcohol consumption by a
control subject not receiving the treatment.
[0029] One of ordinary skill in the art will appreciate that in
some instances a subject being treated for and addictive disorder
is not necessarily dependent. Such subjects include, for example,
subjects who abuse alcohol, drink heavily, drink excessively, are
problem drinkers, or are heavy drug users. The present invention
provides compositions and methods for treating or preventing these
behaviors in non-dependent subjects.
[0030] In one embodiment of the invention, the present invention
provides compositions and methods for improving the physical or
psychological sequelae associated with alcohol consumption compared
with a control subject not receiving the treatment.
[0031] In one embodiment, the present invention provides
compositions and methods for increasing the abstinence rate of a
subject compared with a control subject not receiving the
treatment.
[0032] In one embodiment, the present invention provides
compositions and methods for reducing the average level of alcohol
consumption in a subject compared with the level of alcohol
consumption before the treatment or compared, with the level of
alcohol consumption by a control subject not receiving the
treatment.
[0033] In one embodiment, the present invention provides
compositions and methods for reducing alcohol consumption and for
increasing abstinence compared with the alcohol consumption by the
subject before treatment or with a control subject not receiving
the treatment.
[0034] In one embodiment, the present invention provides
compositions and methods for treating a subject with a
predisposition to early-onset alcoholism.
[0035] In one embodiment, the present invention provides
compositions and methods for treating a subject with a
predisposition to late-onset alcoholism.
[0036] One of ordinary skill in the art will appreciate that there
are multiple parameters or characteristics of alcohol consumption
which may characterize a subject afflicted with an alcohol-related
disease or disorder. It will also be appreciated that combination
therapies may be effective in treating more than one parameter, and
that there are multiple ways to analyze the effectiveness of
treatment. The parameters analyzed when measuring alcohol
consumption or frequency of alcohol consumption include, but are
not limited to, heavy drinking days, number of heavy drinking days,
average drinking days, number of drinks per day, days of
abstinence, number of individuals not drinking heavily or abstinent
over a given time period, and craving. Both subjective and
objective measures can be used to analyze the effectiveness of
treatment. For example, a subject can self-report according to
guidelines and procedures established for such reporting. The
procedures can be performed at various times before, during, and
after treatment. Additionally, assays are available for measuring
alcohol consumption. These assays include breath alcohol meter
readings, measuring serum CDT and GGT levels, and measuring 5-HTOL
urine levels.
[0037] The present invention further provides adjunctive therapies
to be used in conjunction with the combination drug therapies. The
present invention further provides adjunctive therapy or treatment
wherein the subject is also submitted to a psychosocial management
program. Psychosocial management programs are known in the art and
include, but are not limited to, Brief Behavioral Compliance
Enhancement Treatment, Cognitive Behavioral Coping Skills Therapy,
Motivational Enhancement Therapy, Twelve-Step Facilitation Therapy
(Alcoholics Anonymous), Combined Behavioral Intervention, Medical
Management, psychoanalysis, psychodynamic treatment, and
Biopsychosocial, Report, Empathy, Needs, Advice, Direct Advice and
Assessment. The present invention further encompasses the use of
additional adjunct therapies and treatment, including hypnosis and
acupuncture.
[0038] The present invention further provides for advice to be
provided to subjects in conjunction with drug combination therapy.
Advice constitutes a set of instructions pertaining to the
potential consequences of excessive drinking, a calendar or other
method for monitoring drinking, and instructions or suggestions
about how to reduce or stop drinking. Any of these strategies
either alone or in any combination, and no matter how brief or
lengthy, can constitute advice. The advice can be provided in a
format such as written, electronic, or interpersonal. In one
embodiment, the drug combination therapy is more effective at
treatment or prevention than merely administering a placebo and
providing advice, administering no drugs and providing advice, or
not administering drugs or providing advice. In one aspect, the
combination drug therapy is more effective at treatment or
prevention than drug therapy used in combination with a
psychosocial management program.
[0039] In one embodiment, at least one of the compounds being
administered is administered at least once a day. In one aspect, it
is administered at least twice a day. In another embodiment, it is
administered at least once a week. In yet another embodiment, it is
administered at least once a month.
[0040] In one embodiment, at least one of the compounds is a
serotonin receptor antagonist. In one aspect, the serotonin
receptor is the serotonin-3 receptor. In one aspect, the compound
is ondansetron.
[0041] Various aspects and embodiments of the invention are
described in further detail below.
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS
[0042] FIG. 1. Haploview generated LD plots for the five SNPs
examined in this study and 5-HTTLPR alleles of SLC6A4 gene. The
pooled sample consists of subjects of Caucasian and Hispanic
origin. Number in each box represents D' values for each SNP
pair.
[0043] FIG. 2. Amounts of drinking in 165 Caucasian male and female
alcoholics. (A) Amounts of drinking as a function of TT, TG and GG
genotypes of rs1042173 (N of subjects in each group is: 47 TT, 77
TG, and 41 GG). Mean drinks per drinking day (.+-.SEM) for the TT,
TG and GG subjects were 11.17.+-.0.98 vs. 8.05.+-.0.47 and
9.58.+-.0.67, respectively (F=5.63; p=0.004). (B) Drinks per
drinking day variance as a function of the TT and G carriers (N of
subjects in each genotype is: 47 TT, 118 G carriers). Mean drinks
per drinking day (.+-.SEM) for the T homozygotes and G carriers
were 11.17.+-.0.98 vs. 8.58.+-.0.39 respectively (t=2.97;
p=0.003).
[0044] FIG. 3. (A) Serotonin transporter (5-HTT) mRNA expression
levels in HeLa cell cultures quantified by quantitative real-time
PCR assay. The data shown here are mean.+-.SEM of four replicates
for 5-HTT mRNA expressed by the T and G alleles in three separate
experiments (Exp.) conducted on separate times.
GAPDH=glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase. (B) Average
differences in optical densities of bands seen on immunoblots for
serotonin transporter (5-HTT) protein expression in HeLa cell
cultures for the T and G allele specific expression in three cell
cultures (G: 1.23+0.07; T: 0.28+0.05; N=4).
[0045] FIG. 4 is a graphic representation of platelet paroxetine
binding (Borax for LL, and S-carrier genotypes (5-HTTLPR genotype).
The ordinate indicates platelet binding (Bmax) and the abscissa
indicates the genotype.
DETAILED DESCRIPTION
Abbreviations, Generic Names, and Acronyms
[0046] 5-HT--serotonin [0047] 5-HT.sub.3--a subtype of serotonin
receptor, the serotonin-3 receptor [0048]
5-HTOL--5-hydroxytryptophol [0049] 5-HTT--serotonin transporter
(also referred to as SERT, 5HTT, HTT, and OCD1) [0050]
5-HTTLPR--serotonin transporter-linked polymorphic region [0051]
ADE--alcohol deprivation effect [0052] ADI--adolescence diagnostic
interview [0053] ASPD--antisocial personality disorder [0054]
AUD--alcohol use disorder [0055] BBCET--Brief Behavioral Compliance
Enhancement Treatment [0056] BED--binge eating disorder [0057]
b.i.d.--twice a day [0058] B.sub.max--maximum specific paroxetine
binding density [0059] BRENDA--Biopsychosocial, Report, Empathy,
Needs, Direct advice, and Assessment [0060] CBI--combined
behavioral intervention [0061] CBT--Cognitive Behavioral Coping
Skills Therapy, also referred to as cognitive behavioral therapy
[0062] CDT--carbohydrate-deficient transferrin [0063]
ChIPS--children's interview for psychiatric syndrome [0064]
CMDA--cortico-mesolimbic dopamine [0065] DA--dopamine [0066]
DDD--drinks/drinking day [0067] DSM--Diagnostic and Statistical
Manual of Mental Disorders [0068] EOA--early-onset alcoholic(s)
[0069] G2651T--a site within a putative polyadenylation signal for
a commonly used 3' polyadenylation site of the SLC6A4 gene; also
has reference identification number rs1042173 at the GenBank
website of the National Center for Biotechnology Infuriation [0070]
GABA--.gamma.-amino-butyric acid (also referred to as .gamma.-amino
butyric acid and .gamma.-aminobutyric acid) [0071]
GGT--.gamma.-glutamyl transferase [0072] ICD--impulse control
disorder [0073] IP--intraperitoneal [0074] K.sub.d--affinity
constant [0075] K.sub.m--equilibrium constant [0076] L--long [0077]
LOA--late-onset alcoholic(s) [0078] MET--Motivational Enhancement
Therapy [0079] miRNA--micro RNA [0080] MM--Medical Management
[0081] NAc--nucleus accumbens [0082] Naltrexone--a .mu. opioid
receptor antagonist [0083] ncRNA--non-coding RNA [0084]
NMDA--N-methyl-D-aspartate [0085] NOS--not otherwise specified
[0086] Ondansetron (Zofran.RTM.)--a serotonin receptor antagonist
[0087] P--alcohol-preferring rats [0088] S--short [0089]
SERT--serotonin transporter (also referred to as 5-HTT) [0090]
SLC6A4--human 5-HT transporter gene, [0091] SNP--single nucleotide
polymorphism [0092] SSRI--selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitor
[0093] Topiramate (Topamax.RTM.)--an anticonvulsant [0094]
TSF--Twelve-Step Facilitation Therapy (e.g., Alcoholics Anonymous)
[0095] V.sub.max--maximum serotonin uptake velocity [0096]
VTA--ventral tegmental area
Definitions
[0097] In describing and claiming the invention, the following
terminology will be used in accordance with the definitions set
forth below. Unless defined otherwise, all technical and scientific
terms used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood by
one of ordinary skill in the art to which this invention belongs.
Although any methods and materials similar or equivalent to those
described herein can be used in the practice or testing of the
present invention, the preferred methods and materials are
described herein. As used herein, each of the following terms has
the meaning associated with it in this section. Specific and
preferred values listed below for radicals, substituents, and
ranges are for illustration only; they do not exclude other defined
values or other values within defined ranges for the radicals and
substituents.
[0098] As used herein, the articles "a" and "an" refer to one or to
more than one, i.e., to at least one, of the grammatical object of
the article. By way of example, "an element" means one element or
more than one element.
[0099] The term "about," as used herein, means approximately, in
the region of, roughly, or around. When the term "about" is used in
conjunction with a numerical range, it modifies that range by
extending the boundaries above and below the numerical values set
forth. In general, the term "about" is used herein to modify a
numerical value above and below the stated value by a variance of
20%.
[0100] "Addictive disorders" include, but are not limited to,
eating disorders, obesity-related disorders, impulse control
disorders, alcohol-related disorders, nicotine-related disorders,
amphetamine-related disorders, methamphetamine-related disorders,
cannabis-related disorders, cocaine-related disorders, gambling,
sexual disorders, hallucinogen use disorders, inhalant-related
disorders, benzodiazepine abuse or dependence related disorders,
and opioid-related disorders.
[0101] One of ordinary skill in the art will appreciate that
addictive disorders such as those related to alcohol or drugs, does
mean that a subject is dependent unless specifically defined as
such.
[0102] The term "additional therapeutically active compound", in
the context of the present invention, refers to the use or
administration of a compound for an additional therapeutic use
other than just the particular disorder being treated. Such a
compound, for example, could include one being used to treat an
unrelated disease or disorder, or a disease or disorder which may
not be responsive to the primary treatment for the addictive
disease or disorder being treated. Disease and disorders being
treated by the additional therapeutically active agent include, for
example, hypertension and diabetes.
[0103] As used herein, the term "aerosol" refers to suspension in
the air. In particular, aerosol refers to the particlization or
atomization of a formulation of the invention and its suspension in
the air.
[0104] As used herein, the term "affected cell" refers to a cell of
a subject afflicted with a disease or disorder, which affected cell
has an altered phenotype compared with a subject not afflicted with
a disease, condition, or disorder.
[0105] Cells or tissue are "affected" by a disease or disorder if
the cells or tissue have an altered phenotype relative to the same
cells or tissue in a subject not afflicted with a disease,
condition, or disorder.
[0106] As used herein, an "agonist" is a composition of matter
that, when administered to a mammal such as a human, enhances or
extends a biological activity of interest. Such effect may be
direct or indirect.
[0107] The term "alcohol abuser", as used herein, refers to a
subject who meets DSM IV criteria for alcohol abuse (i.e.,
"repeated use despite recurrent adverse consequences") but is not
dependent on alcohol.
[0108] "Alcohol-related disorders" as used herein refers to
diseases and disorder related to alcohol consumption and include,
but are not limited to, alcohol-induced psychotic disorder, with
delusions; alcohol abuse; excessive drinking; heavy drinking:
problem drinking: alcohol intoxication; alcohol withdrawal; alcohol
intoxication delirium; alcohol withdrawal delirium; alcohol-induced
persisting dementia; alcohol-induced persisting amnestic disorder;
alcohol dependence; alcohol-induced psychotic disorder, with
hallucinations; alcohol-induced mood disorder; alcohol-induced or
associated bipolar disorder; alcohol-induced or associated post
traumatic stress disorder; alcohol-induced anxiety disorder;
alcohol-induced sexual dysfunction; alcohol-induced sleep disorder;
and alcohol-related disorder not otherwise specified (NOS).
[0109] As used herein, "amino acids" are represented by the full
name thereof, by the three letter code corresponding thereto, or by
the one-letter code corresponding thereto, as indicated in the
following table:
TABLE-US-00001 Full Name Three-Letter Code One-Letter Code Aspartic
Acid Asp D Glutamic Acid Glu E Lysine Lys K Arginine Arg R
Histidine His H Tyrosine Tyr Y Cysteine Cys C Asparagine Asn N
Glutamine Gln Q Serine Ser S Threonine Thr T Glycine Gly G Alanine
Ala A Valine Val V Leucine Leu L Isoleucine Ile I Methionine Met M
Proline Pro P Phenylalanine Phe F Tryptophan Trp W
[0110] The expression "amino acid" as used herein is meant to
include both natural and synthetic amino acids, and both D and L
amino acids. "Standard amino acid" means any of the twenty standard
L-amino acids commonly found in naturally occurring peptides,
"Nonstandard amino acid residue" means any amino acid, other than
the standard amino acids, regardless of whether it is prepared
synthetically or derived from a natural source. As used herein,
"synthetic amino acid" also encompasses chemically modified amino
acids, including but not limited to salts, amino acid derivatives
(such as amides), and substitutions. Amino acids contained within
the peptides of the present invention, and particularly at the
carboxy- or amino-terminus, can be modified by methylation,
amidation, acetylation or substitution with other chemical groups
which can change the peptide's circulating half-life without
adversely affecting their activity. Additionally, a disulfide
linkage may be present or absent in the peptides of the
invention.
[0111] The term "amino acid" is used interchangeably with "amino
acid residue," and may refer to a free amino acid and to an amino
acid residue of a peptide. If will be apparent from the context in
which the term is used whether it refers to a free amino acid or a
residue of a peptide.
[0112] Amino acids have the following general structure:
##STR00001##
[0113] Amino acids may be classified into seven groups on the,
basis of the side chain R: (1) aliphatic side chains; (2) side
chains containing a hydroxylic (OH) group; (3) side chains
containing sulfur atoms; (4) side chains containing an acidic or
amide group; (5) side chains containing a basic group; (6) side
chains containing an aromatic ring; and (7) proline, an imino acid
in which the side chain is fused to the amino group.
[0114] As used herein, the term "conservative amino acid
substitution" is defined herein as exchanges within one of the
following five groups:
[0115] I. Small aliphatic, nonpolar or slightly polar residues:
[0116] Ala, Ser, Thr, Pro, Gly;
[0117] Polar, negatively charged residues and their amides: [0118]
Asp, Asn, Glu, Gln;
[0119] III. Polar, positively charged residues: [0120] His, Arg,
Lys;
[0121] IV. Large, aliphatic, nonpolar residues: [0122] Met Leu,
Ile, Val, Cys
[0123] V. Large, aromatic residues: [0124] Phe, Tyr, Trp
[0125] The nomenclature used to describe the peptide compounds of
the present invention follows the conventional practice wherein the
amino group is presented to the left and the carboxy group to the
right of each amino acid residue. In the formulae representing
selected specific embodiments of the present invention, the amino-
and carboxy-terminal groups, although not specifically shown, will
be understood to be in the form they would assume at physiologic pH
values, unless otherwise specified.
[0126] The term "basic" or "positively charged" amino acid, as used
herein, refers to amino acids in which the R groups have a net
positive charge at pH 7.0, and include, but are not limited to, the
standard amino acids lysine, arginine, and histidine.
[0127] As used herein, an "analog" of a chemical compound is a
compound that, by way of example, resembles another in structure
but is not necessarily an isomer (e.g., 5-fluorouracil is an analog
of thymine).
[0128] An "antagonist" is a composition of matter that when
administered to a mammal such as a human, inhibits or impedes a
biological activity attributable to the level or presence of an
endogenous compound in the mammal. Such effect may be direct or
indirect,
[0129] As used herein, the term "anti-alcohol agent" refers to any
active drug, formulation, or method that exhibits activity to treat
or prevent one or more symptom(s) of alcohol addiction, alcohol
abuse, alcohol intoxication, and/or alcohol withdrawal, including
drugs, formulations and methods that significantly reduce, limit,
or prevent alcohol consumption in mammalian subjects.
[0130] The term "appetite suppression", as used herein, is a
reduction, a decrease or, in cases of excessive food consumption,
an amelioration in appetite. This suppression reduces the desire or
craving for food. Appetite suppression can result in weight loss or
weight control as desired.
[0131] The term "average drinking," as used herein, refers to the
mean number of drinks consumed during a one week period. The term
"average drinking" is used interchangeably herein with the term
"average level of drinking."
[0132] A "biomarker" is a specific biochemical in the body which
has a particular molecular feature that makes it useful for
measuring the progress of disease or the effects of treatment, or
for measuring a process of interest.
[0133] A "compound," as used herein, refers to any type of
substance or agent that is commonly considered a drug, or a
candidate for use as a drug, as well as combinations and mixtures
of the above.
[0134] A "control" subject is a subject having the same
characteristics as a test subject, such as a similar type of
dependence, etc. The control subject may, for example, be examined
at precisely or nearly the same time the test subject is being
treated or examined. The control subject may also, for example, be
examined at a time distant from the time at which the test subject
is examined, and the results of the examination of the control
subject may be recorded so that the recorded results may be
compared with results obtained by examination of a test
subject.
[0135] A "test" subject is a subject being treated.
[0136] As used herein, a "derivative" of a compound refers to a
chemical compound that may be produced from another compound of
similar structure in one or more steps, as in replacement of H by
an alkyl, acyl, or amino group.
[0137] As used herein, the term "diagnosis" refers to detecting a
risk or propensity to an addictive related disease disorder. In any
method of diagnosis exist false positives and false negatives. Any
one method of diagnosis does not provide 100% accuracy.
[0138] A "disease" is a state of health of a subject wherein the
subject cannot maintain homeostasis, and wherein if the disease is
not ameliorated then the subject's health continues to deteriorate.
In contrast, a "disorder" in a subject is a state of health in
which the subject is able to maintain homeostasis, but in which the
subject's state of health is less favorable than it would be in the
absence of the disorder. However, the definitions of "disease" and
"disorder" as described above are not meant to supersede the
definitions or common usage related to specific addictive diseases
or disorders.
[0139] A disease, condition, or disorder is "alleviated" if the
severity of a symptom of the disease or disorder, the frequency
with which such a spliptom is experienced by a patient, or both,
are reduced.
[0140] As used herein, an "effective amount" means an amount
sufficient to produce a selected effect, such as alleviating
symptoms of a disease or disorder. In the context of administering
two or more compounds, the amount of each compound, when
administered in combination with another compound(s), may be
different from when that compound is administered alone. The term
"more effective" means that the selected effect is alleviated to a
greater extent by one treatment relative to the second treatment to
which it is being compared.
[0141] The term "elixir," as used herein, refers in general to a
clear, sweetened, alcohol-containing, usually hydroalcoholic liquid
containing flavoring substances and sometimes active medicinal
agents.
[0142] "Ethnic and Racial Categories" are defined herein according
NIH guidelines (1997 OMB Directive 15).
[0143] Ethnic Categories:
[0144] Hispanic or Latino: A person of Cuban, Mexican, Puerto
Rican, South or Central American, or other Spanish culture or
origin, regardless of race. The term "Spanish origin" can also be
used in addition to "Hispanic or Latino."
[0145] Not Hispanic or Latino
[0146] Racial Categories:
[0147] American Indian or Alaska Native: A person having origins in
any of the original peoples of North, Central, or South America,
and who maintains tribal affiliations or community attachment.
[0148] Asian: A person having origins in any of the original
peoples of the Far East, Southeast Asia, or the Indian subcontinent
including, for example, Cambodia, China, India., Japan, Korea,
Malaysia, Pakistan, the Philippine Islands, Thailand, and Vietnam.
(Note: Individuals from the Philippine Islands have been recorded
as Pacific islanders in previous data collection strategies.)
[0149] Black or African American: A person having origins in any of
the black racial groups of Africa. Terms such as "Haitian" or
"Negro" can be used in addition to "Black or African American."
[0150] Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander: A person having
origins in any of the original peoples of Hawaii, Guam, Samoa, or
other Pacific Islands.
[0151] White: A person having origins in any of the original
peoples of Europe, the Middle East, or North Africa.
[0152] The term "excessive drinker," as used herein, refers to men
who drink more than 21 alcohol units per week and women who consume
more than 14 alcohol units per week. One standard drink is 0.5 oz
of absolute alcohol, equivalent to 10 oz of beer, 4 oz of wine, or
1 oz of 100-proof liquor. These individuals are not dependent on
alcohol but may or may not meet DSM IV criteria for alcohol
abuse.
[0153] As used herein, a "functional" molecule is a molecule in a
form in which it exhibits a property or activity by which it is
characterized. A functional enzyme, for example, is one that
exhibits the characteristic catalytic activity by which the enzyme
is characterized.
[0154] The term "heavy drinker," as used herein, refers to men who
drink more than 14 alcohol units per week and women who consume
more than 7 alcohol units per week. One standard drink is 0.5 oz of
absolute alcohol, equivalent to 10 oz of beer, 4 oz of wine, or 1
oz of 100-proof liquor. These individuals are not dependent on
alcohol but may or may not meet DSM IV criteria for alcohol
abuse.
[0155] The term "heavy drinking", as used with respect to the
alcohol-dependent population of Example 1, refers to drinking at
least 21 standard drinks/week for women and at least 30 drinks/week
for men during the 90 days prior to enrollment in the study and is
more fully described therein.
[0156] A "heavy drinking day," as used herein, refers to the
consumption by a man or woman of more than about five or four
standard drinks per drinking day, respectively.
[0157] The term "heavy drug use," as used herein, refers to the use
of any drug of abuse, including, but not limited to, cocaine,
methamphetamine, other stimulants, phencyclidine, other
hallucinogens, marijuana, sedatives, tranquilizers, hypnotics,
opiates at intervals or in quantities greater than the norm. The
intervals of use include intervals such as at least once a month,
at least once a week, and at least once a day. "Heavy drug use" is
defined as testing "positive" for the use of that drug on at least
2 occasions in any given week with at least 2 days between testing
occasions.
[0158] As used herein, the term "inhaler" refers both to devices
for nasal and pulmonary administration of a drug, e.g., in
solution, powder and the like. For example, the term "inhaler" is
intended to encompass a propellant driven inhaler, such as is used
to administer antihistamine for acute asthma attacks, and plastic
spray bottles, such as are used to administer decongestants.
[0159] The term "inhibit," as used herein, refers to the ability of
a compound or any agent to reduce or impede a described function,
level, activity, synthesis, release, binding, etc., based on the
context in which the term "inhibit" is used. Preferably, inhibition
is by at least 10%, more preferably by at least 25%, even more
preferably by at least 50%, and most preferably, the function is
inhibited by at least 75%. The term "inhibit" is used
interchangeably with "reduce" and "block."
[0160] The term "inhibit a complex," as used herein, refers to
inhibiting the formation of a complex or interaction of two or more
proteins, as well as inhibiting the function or activity of the
complex. The term also encompasses disrupting a formed complex.
However, the term does not imply that each and every one of these
functions must be inhibited at the same time.
[0161] The term "inhibit a protein," as used herein, refers to any
method or technique which inhibits protein synthesis, levels,
activity, or function, as well as methods of inhibiting the
induction or stimulation of synthesis, levels, activity, or
function of the protein of interest. The term also refers to any
metabolic or regulatory pathway which can regulate the synthesis,
levels, activity, or function of the protein of interest. The term
includes binding with other molecules and complex formation.
Therefore, the term "protein inhibitor" refers to any agent or
compound, the application of which results in the inhibition of
protein function or protein pathway function. However, the term
does not imply that each and every one of these functions must be
inhibited at the same time.
[0162] As used herein, an "instructional material" includes a
publication, a recording, a diagram, or any other medium of
expression which can be used to communicate the usefulness of a
compound of the invention in the kit for effecting alleviation of
the various diseases or disorders recited herein. Optionally, or
alternately, the instructional material may describe one or more
methods of alleviating the diseases or disorders in a subject. The
instructional material of the kit of the invention may, for
example, be affixed to a container which contains the identified
compound invention or be shipped together with a container which
contains the identified compound. Alternatively,the instructional
material may be shipped separately from the container with the
intention that the instructional material and the compound be used
cooperatively by the recipient.
[0163] "Intensity of drinking" refers to the number of drinks,
which can be equated with values such as drinks/day,
drinks/drinking day, etc. Therefore, greater intensity of drinking
means more drinks/day, or drinks/drinking day, etc.
[0164] As used herein, a "ligand" is a compound that specifically
binds to a target compound or molecule. A ligand "specifically
binds to" or "is specifically reactive with" a compound when the
ligand functions in a binding reaction which is determinative of
the presence of the compound in a sample of heterogeneous
compounds.
[0165] A "receptor" is a compound or molecule that specifically
binds to a ligand.
[0166] As used herein, the term "linkage" refers to a connection
between two groups. The connection can be either covalent or
non-covalent, including but not limited to ionic bonds, hydrogen
bonding, and hydrophobic/hydrophilic interactions.
[0167] As used herein, the term "linker" refers to a molecule that
joins two other molecules either covalently or noncovalently, e.g.,
through ionic or hydrogen bonds or van der Waals interactions.
[0168] The term "measuring the level of expression" or "determining
the level of expression" as used herein refers to any measure or
assay which can be used to correlate the results of the assay with
the level of expression of a gene or protein of interest. Such
assays include measuring the level of mRNA, protein levels, etc.
and can be performed by assays such as northern and western blot
analyses, binding assays, immunoblots, etc. The level of expression
can include rates of expression and can be measured in terms of the
actual amount of an mRNA or protein present.
[0169] The term "nasal administration" in all its grammatical forms
refers to administration of at least one compound of the invention
through the nasal mucous membrane to the bloodstream for systemic
delivery of at least one compound of the invention. The advantages
of nasal administration for delivery are that it does not require
injection using a syringe and needle, it avoids necrosis that can
accompany intramuscular administration of drugs, and trans-mucosal
administration of a drug is highly amenable to self
administration.
[0170] As used herein, the term "nucleic acid" encompasses RNA as
well as single and double-stranded DNA and cDNA. Furthermore, the
terms, "nucleic acid," "DNA," "RNA" and similar terms also include
nucleic acid analogs, i.e. analogs having other than a
phosphodiester backbone. For example, the so-called "peptide
nucleic acids," which are known in the art and have peptide bonds
instead of phosphodiester bonds in the backbone, are considered
within the scope of the present invention. By "nucleic acid" is
also meant any nucleic acid, whether composed of
deoxyribonucleosides or ribonucleosides, and whether composed of
phosphodiester linkages or modified linkages such as
phosphodiester, phosphoramidate, siloxane, carbonate,
carboxymethylester, acetamidate, carbamate, thioether, bridged
phosphoramidate, bridged methylene phosphonate, bridged
phosphoramidate, bridged phosphoramidate, bridged methylene
phosphonate, phosphorothioate, methylphosphonate,
phosphorodithioate, bridged phosphorothioate or sulfone linkages,
and combinations of such linkages. The term nucleic acid also
specifically includes nucleic acids composed of bases other than
the five biologically occurring bases (adenine, guanine, thymine,
cytosine and uracil). Conventional notation is used herein to
describe polynucleotide sequences: the left-hand end of a
single-stranded polynucleotide sequence is the 5'-end; the
left-hand direction of a double-stranded polynucleotide sequence is
referred to as the 5'-direction. The direction of 5' to 3' addition
of nucleotides to nascent RNA, transcripts is referred to as the
transcription direction. The DNA strand having the same sequence as
an snRNA is referred to as the "coding strand"; sequences on the
DNA strand which are located 5' to a reference point on the DNA are
referred to as "upstream sequences"; sequences on the DNA strand
which are 3' to a reference point on the DNA are referred to as
"downstream sequences."
[0171] Unless otherwise specified, a "nucleotide sequence encoding
an amino acid sequence" includes all nucleotide sequences that are
degenerate versions of each other and that encode the same amino
acid sequence. Nucleotide sequences that encode proteins and RNA
may include introns.
[0172] "Obesity" is commonly referred to as a condition of
increased body weight due to excessive fat. Drugs to treat obesity
are generally divided into three groups: (1) those that decrease
food intake, such as drugs that interfere with monoamine receptors,
such as noradrenergic receptors, serotonin receptors, dopamine
receptors, and histamine receptors; (2) those that increase
metabolism; and (3) those that increase thermogenesis or decrease
fat absorption by inhibiting pancreatic lipase (Bray, 2000,
Nutrition, 16:953-960 and Leonhardt et al:, 1999, Eur. J. Nutri.,
28:1-13). Obesity has been defined in terms of body mass index
(BMI). BMI is calculated as weight (kg)/[height (m)].sup.2,
according to the guidelines of the U.S. Centers for Disease Control
and Prevention (CDC), and the World Health Organization (WHO).
Physical status: The use and interpretation of anthropometry.
Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization 1995. WHO Technical
Report Series), for adults over 20 years old, BMI falls into one of
these categories: below 18.5 is considered underweight, 18.5-24.9
is considered normal, 25.0-29.9 is considered overweight, and 30.0
and above is considered obese.
[0173] The term "oligonucleotide" typically refers to short
polynucleotides, generally no greater than about 50 nucleotides. It
will be understood that when a nucleotide sequence is represented
by a DNA sequence (i.e., A, T, G, C), this also includes an RNA
sequence (i.e., A, U, G, C) in which "U" replaces "T."
[0174] The term "peptide" typically refers to short
polypeptides.
[0175] "Polypeptide" refers to a polymer composed of amino acid
residues, related naturally occurring structural variants, and
synthetic non-naturally occurring analogs thereof linked via
peptide bonds, related naturally occurring structural variants, and
synthetic non-naturally occurring analogs thereof. Synthetic
polypeptides can be synthesized, for example, using an automated
polypeptide synthesizer.
[0176] The term "protein" typically refers to large
polypeptides.
[0177] A "recombinant polypeptide" is one which is produced upon
expression of a recombinant polynucleotide.
[0178] A peptide encompasses a sequence of two or more amino acids
wherein the amino acids are naturally occurring or synthetic
(non-naturally occurring) amino acids. Peptide mimetics include
peptides having one or more of the following modifications:
[0179] 1. peptides wherein one or more of the peptidyl --C(O)NR--
linkages (bonds) have been replaced by a non-peptidyl linkage such
as a --CH2-carbamate linkage
[0180] (--CH2OC(O)NR--), a phosphonate linkage, a --CH2-sulfonamide
(--CH2-S(O)2NR--) linkage, a urea (--NHC(O)NH--) linkage, a
--CH2-secondary amine linkage, or with an alkylated peptidyl
linkage (--C(O)NR--) wherein R is C1-C4 alkyl;
[0181] 2. peptides wherein the N-terminus is derivatized to a
--NRR1 group, to a NRC(O)R group, to a --NRC(O)OR group, to a
--NRS(O)2R group, to a --NHC(O)NHR group where R and R1 are
hydrogen or C1-C4 alkyl with the proviso that R and R1 are not both
hydrogen;
[0182] 3. peptides wherein the C terminus is derivatized to
--C(O)R2 where R,2 is selected from the group consisting of C1-C4
alkoxy, and --NR3R4 where R3 and R4 are independently selected from
the group consisting of hydrogen and C1-C4 alkyl.
[0183] The term "per application" as used herein refers to
administration of a drug or compound to a subject.
[0184] As used herein, the term "pharmaceutically acceptable
carrier" includes any of the standard pharmaceutical carriers, such
as a phosphate buffered saline solution, water, emulsions such as
an oil/water or water/oil emulsion, and various types of wetting
agents. The term also encompasses any of the agents approved by a
regulatory agency of the US Federal government or listed in the US
Pharmacopeia for use in animals, including humans.
[0185] As used herein, the term "physiologically acceptable" ester
or salt means an ester or salt form of the active ingredient which
is compatible with any other ingredients of the pharmaceutical
composition, and which is not deleterious to the subject to which
the composition is to be administered.
[0186] A "predisposition" to an addictive disease or disorder
refers to situations a subject has an increased chance of abusing a
substance such as alcohol or a drug or becoming addicted to alcohol
or a drug or other addictive diseases or disorders.
[0187] The term "prevent," as used herein, means to stop something
from happening, or taking advance measures against something
possible or probable from happening. In the context of medicine,
"prevention" generally refers to action taken to decrease the
chance of getting a disease or condition.
[0188] The term "problem drinker," as used herein, encompasses
individuals who drink excessively and who report that their alcohol
consumption is causing them problems. Such problems include, for
example, driving while intoxicated, problems at work caused by
excessive drinking, and relationship problems caused by excessive
drinking by the subject.
[0189] As used herein, "protecting group" with respect to a
terminal amino group refers to a terminal amino group of a peptide,
which terminal amino group is coupled with any of various
amino-terminal protecting groups traditionally employed in peptide
synthesis. Such protecting groups include, for example, acyl
protecting groups such as formyl, acetyl, benzoyl, trifluoroacetyl,
succinyl, and methoxysuccinyl; aromatic urethane protecting groups
such as benzyloxycarbonyl; and aliphatic urethane protecting
groups, for example, tert-butoxycarbonyl or adamantyloxycarbonyl.
See Gross and Mienhofer, eds., The Peptides, vol. 3, pp. 3-88
(Academic Press, New York, 1981) for suitable protecting
groups.
[0190] As used herein, "protecting group" with respect to a
terminal carboxy group refers to a terminal carboxyl group of a
peptide, which terminal carboxyl group is coupled with any of
various carboxyl-terminal protecting groups. Such protecting groups
include, for example, tert-butyl, benzyl, or other acceptable
groups linked to the terminal carboxyl group through an ester or
ether bond.
[0191] The term "psychosocial management program," as used herein,
relates to the use of various types of counseling and management
techniques used to supplement the combination pharmacotherapy
treatment of addictive and alcohol-related diseases and
disorders.
[0192] As used herein, the term "purified" and like terms relate to
an enrichment of a molecule or compound relative to other
components normally associated with the molecule or compound in a
native environment. The term "purified" does not necessarily
indicate that complete purity of the particular molecule has been
achieved during the process. A "highly purified" compound as used
herein refers to a compound that is greater than 90% pure.
[0193] "Reduce"--see "inhibit".
[0194] The term "reduction in drinking", as used herein, refers to
a decrease in drinking according to one or more of the measurements
of drinking such as heavy drinking, number of drinks/day, number of
drinks/drinking day, etc.
[0195] The term "regulate" refers to either stimulating or
inhibiting a function or activity of interest.
[0196] A "sample," as used herein, refers to a biological sample
from a subject, including, but not limited to, normal tissue
samples, diseased tissue samples, biopsies, blood, saliva, feces,
semen, tears, and urine. A sample can also be any other source of
material obtained from a subject which contains cells, tissues, or
fluid of interest as interpreted in the context of the claim and
the type of assay to be performed using that sample.
[0197] By "small interfering RNAs (siRNAs)" is meant, inter alfa,
an isolated dsRNA molecule comprising both a sense and an
anti-sense strand. In one aspect, it is greater than 10 nucleotides
in length. siRNA also refers to a single transcript that has both
the sense and complementary antisense sequences from the target
gene, e.g., a hairpin. siRNA further includes any form of dsRNA
(proteolytically cleaved products of larger dsRNA, partially
purified RNA, essentially pure RNA, synthetic RNA, recombinantly
produced RNA) as well as altered RNA that differs from naturally
occurring RNA by the addition, deletion, substitution, and/or
alteration of one or more nucleotides.
[0198] By the term "specifically binds," as used herein, is meant a
molecule which recognizes and binds a specific molecule, but does
not substantially recognize or bind other molecules in a sample, or
it means binding between two or more molecules as in part of a
cellular regulatory process, where said molecules do not
substantially recognize or bind other molecules in a sample.
[0199] The term "standard," as used herein, refers to something
used for comparison. For example, it can be a known standard agent
or compound which is administered or added and used for comparing
results when adding a test compound, or it can be a standard
parameter or function which is measured to obtain a control value
when measuring an effect of an agent or compound on a parameter or
function. Standard can also refer to an "internal standard", such
as an agent or compound which is added at known amounts to a sample
and is useful in determining such things as purification or
recovery rates when a sample is processed or subjected to
purification or extraction procedures before a marker of interest
is measured. Internal standards are often a purified marker of
interest which has been labeled, such as with a radioactive
isotope, allowing it to be distinguished from an endogenous
marker.
[0200] The term "one standard drink," as used herein, is 0.5 oz of
absolute alcohol, equivalent to 10 oz of beer, 4 oz of wine, or I
oz of 100-proof liquor.
[0201] A "subject" of diagnosis or treatment is a mammal, including
a human.
[0202] The term "subject comprises a predisposition to the early
onset of alcoholism," as used herein, refers to a subject who has,
or is characterized by, a predisposition to the early onset of
alcoholism.
[0203] The term "symptom," as used herein, refers to any morbid
phenomenon or departure from the normal in structure, function, or
sensation, experienced by the patient and indicative of disease. In
contrast, a sign is objective evidence of disease. For example, a
bloody nose is a sign. It is evident to the patient, doctor, nurse
and other observers.
[0204] As used herein, term "treating" may include prophylaxis of
the specific disease, disorder, or condition,or alleviation of the
symptoms associated with a specific disease, disorder or condition
and/or preventing or eliminating said symptoms. A "prophylactic"
treatment is a treatment administered to a subject who does not
exhibit signs of a disease or exhibits only early signs of the
disease for the purpose of decreasing the risk of developing
pathology associated with the disease. "Treating" is used
interchangeably with "treatment" herein.
[0205] A "therapeutic" treatment is a treatment administered to a
subject who exhibits signs of pathology for the purpose of
diminishing or eliminating those signs.
[0206] A "therapeutically effective amount" of a compound is that
amount of compound which is sufficient to provide a beneficial
effect to the subject to which the compound is administered.
Chemical Definitions
[0207] As used herein, the term "halogen" or "halo" includes bromo,
chloro, fluoro, and iodo.
[0208] The term "haloalkyl" as used herein refers to an alkyl
radical bearing at least one halogen substituent, for example,
chloromethyl, fluoroethyl or trifluoromethyl and the like.
[0209] The term "C.sub.1-C.sub.n alkyl" wherein n is an integer, as
used herein, represents a branched or linear alkyl group having
from one to the specified number of carbon atoms. Typically,
C.sub.1-C.sub.6 alkyl groups include, but are not limited to,
methyl, ethyl, n-propyl, iso-propyl, butyl, iso-butyl, sec-butyl,
tent-butyl, pentyl, hexyl, and the like.
[0210] The term "C.sub.2-C.sub.n alkenyl" wherein n is an integer,
as used herein, represents an olefinically unsaturated branched or
linear group having from two to the specified number of carbon
atoms and at least one double bond. Examples of such groups
include, but are not limited to, 1-propenyl, 2-propenyl,
1,3-butadienyl, 1-butenyl, hexenyl, pentenyl, and the like.
[0211] The term "C.sub.2-C.sub.n alkynyl" wherein n is an integer
refers to an unsaturated branched or linear group having from two
to the specified number of carbon atoms and at least one triple
bond. Examples of such groups include, but are not limited to,
1-propynyl, 2-propynyl, 1-butynyl, 2-butynyl, 1-pentynyl, and the
like.
[0212] The term "C.sub.3-C.sub.n cycloalkyl" wherein n=8,
represents cyclopropyl, cyclobutyl, cyclopentyl, cyclohexyl,
cycloheptyl, and cyclooctyl.
[0213] As used herein, the term "optionally substituted" refers to
from zero to four substituents, wherein the substituents are each
independently selected. Each of the independently selected
substituents may be the same or different than other
substituents.
[0214] As used herein the term "aryl" refers to an optionally
substituted mono- or bicyclic carbocyclic ring system having one or
two aromatic rings including, but not limited to, phenyl, benzyl,
naphthyl, tetrahydronaphthyl, indanyl, indenyl, and the like.
"Optionally substituted aryl" includes aryl compounds having from
zero to four substituents, and "substituted aryl" includes aryl
compounds having one or more substituents. The term
(C.sub.5-C.sub.8 alkyl)aryl refers to any aryl group which is
attached to the parent moiety via the alkyl group.
[0215] The term "heterocyclic group" refers to an optionally
substituted mono- or bicyclic carbocyclic ring system containing
from one to three heteroatoms wherein the heteroatoms are selected
from the group consisting of oxygen, sulfur, and nitrogen. As used
herein the term "heteroaryl" refers to an optionally substituted
mono- or bicyclic carbocyclic ring system having one or two
aromatic rings containing from one to three heteroatoms and
includes, but is not limited to, furyl, thienyl, pyridyl and the
like.
[0216] The term "bicyclic" represents either an unsaturated or
saturated stable 7- to 12-membered bridged or fused bicyclic carbon
ring. The bicyclic ring may be attached at any carbon atom which
affords a stable structure. The term includes, but is not limited
to, naphthyl, dicyclohexyl, dicyclohexenyl, and the like.
[0217] The compounds of the present invention contain one or more
asymmetric centers in the molecule. In accordance with the present
invention a structure that does not designate the stereochemistry
is to be understood as embracing all the various optical isomers,
as well as racemic mixtures thereof.
[0218] The compounds of the present invention may exist in
tautomeric forms and the invention includes both mixtures and
separate individual tautomers. For example the following
structure:
##STR00002##
is understood to represent a mixture of the structures:
##STR00003##
[0219] The term "pharmaceutically-acceptable salt" refers to salts
which retain the biological effectiveness and properties of the
compounds of the present invention and which are not biologically
or otherwise undesirable. In many cases, the compounds of the
present invention are capable of forming acid and/or base salts by
virtue of the presence of amino and/or carboxyl groups or groups
similar thereto.
Embodiments
[0220] The number of serotonin transporter protein molecules in
cells is affected by the amount of mature (secondary) serotonin
transporter mRNA molecules expressed in that cell. The expression
levels of mRNA are controlled by the 5'-HTTLPR and 3'-UTR of the
SLC6A4 gene via two different mechanisms. The 5'-HTTLPR region
controls the transcription rate of SLC6A4 (Hells et al., (1996) J.
Neurochem. 66:2621-2624), while rs1042173 SNP in the 3'-UTR, of
SLC6A4 affects mature mRNA levels via post-transcriptional
mechanisms (Battersby et al., (1999), J. Neurochem. 72:1384-1388;
Beaudoing et al., (2000), Genome Res 10:1001-1010; Chen et al.,
(2006), Nat. Genet. 38:1452-145).
[0221] The 5'-HTTLPR is found to harbor several binding sites for
different transcription factor molecules necessary for the
regulation of transcription initiation (Hu et al., (2005), Alcohol
Clin. Exp. Res. 29:8-16). Therefore, the number of nascent
(primary) mRNA copies transcribed by the SLC6A4 gene and the
subsequent mature mRNA copies is affected by 5'-HTTLPR
polymorphisms. The rs1042173 allelic differences are reported to be
regulated by Micro RNA (miRNA) binding to at/near the rs1042173
site (for examples, miR-15a and miR-16 binding), degrading primary
mRNA molecules and differential polyadenylation and resulting in
altered mature mRNA levels. Therefore, the combined effects of
5'-HTTLPR and rs1042173 polymorphisms may modulate each other's
individual effects on determining the overall availability of
mature mRNA for translation into serotonin transporter protein
molecules.
[0222] Without wishing to be bound by any particularly, it is
hypothesized herein that, considering these factors, the combined
genetic effect of 5'-HTTLPR and rs1042173 polymorphisms can result
in differences in serotonergic function and regulation. Since
alcohol consumption affects serotonergic function, this gene-gene
interaction (5'-HTTLPR and rs1042173) may lead to a serotonergic
dysregulation that either provokes, aggravates, or maintains
further drinking behavior and alcoholism. These states of
serotonergic dysregulation or alterations in function can be
stabilized or ameliorated in excessive drinking or alcoholic
populations by the compositions and methods of the present
invention such as administration of serotonergic medications
including the serotonin-3 (5-HT-3) antagonist, ondansetron.
[0223] In one embodiment, 5-HT-3 receptor antagonists (including
ondansetron) can improve the drinking outcomes of those with
certain polymorphisms of 5'-HTTLPR and/or rs1042173, either alone
or combined. Because abused drugs are predicted to work through
similar mechanisms, the present invention therefore encompasses the
use of 5-HT3 antagonists (including ondansetron) to ameliorate or
stabilize these serotonergic states and produce a therapeutic
effect that improves clinical outcome for these disorders and
diseases. The addictive diseases and disorders encompassed by the
present compositions and methods include, but are not limited to,
alcohol-related diseases and disorders, obesity-related diseases
and disorders, eating disorders, impulse control disorders,
nicotine-related disorders, amphetamine-related disorders,
methamphetamine-related disorders, cannabis-related disorders,
cocaine-related disorders, hallucinogen use disorders,
inhalant-related disorders, benzodiazepine abuse or dependence
related disorders, opioid-related disorders, gambling, and computer
or electronic addictions.
[0224] Because the serotonin system has intimate connections and is
modulated in the brain by other neurotransmitters, particularly
dopamine, GABA, glutamate, opioids, and cannabinoid, the present
invention encompasses the use of medications and drugs that affect
the structure and function of these other neurotransmitters when
combined with any serotonergic agent (including ondansetron). In
one aspect, the combination is efficacious for individuals with
polymorphisms at the 5'-HTTLPR and rs1042173 described herein or
anywhere else in the serotonergic system. In another aspect, the
present invention provides compositions, compounds and methods that
are associated with these co-modulating neurotransmitters (i.e.,
dopamine, GABA, glutamate, opioids, and cannabinoid), including,
but not limited to, topiramate, baclofen, gabapentin, naltrexone,
nalmefene, and rimonabant--in combination with any serotonergic
agent (including but not limited to ondansetron, selective
serotonin re-uptake blockers, and other agonists or antagonists of
other serotonin receptors or moieties) can produce a therapeutic
effect to improve the clinical outcomes for individuals who use,
abuse, misuse, or are dependent on alcohol. Because abused drugs
are predicted to work through similar mechanisms, the present
invention further provides combinations of these co-modulating
drugs with any other serotonergic agent to be used to treat
individuals with any substance use, abuse, misuse, dependence, or
habit-forming behavior with polymorphisms at 5'-HTTLPR and
rs1042173, or anywhere else in the serotonergic or co-modulating
neurotransmitter systems (i.e., dopamine, GABA, glutamate, opioids,
and cannabinoid), either alone or in combination.
[0225] The present invention encompasses compositions and methods
for treatment or prevention where 5'-HTTLPR polymorphisms are
associated with vulnerability or can sustain, provoke, or govern
alcohol consumption. 5'-HTTLPR polymorphisms or related miRNA,
mRNA, protein expression, levels, or states of function, or other
biochemical products or chemical associations may themselves serve
as a biomarker for alcohol consumption. Such a biomarker (i.e.,
blood test) can be used to provide a means or a test to determine
whether, and how much, alcohol has been consumed by an individual.
5'-HTTLPR polymorphisms or related miRNA, mRNA, protein expression,
levels, or states of function, or other biochemical products or
chemical associations may themselves serve as a biomarker for
alcohol use, misuse, or dependence. Such a biomarker (i.e., blood
test) can be used to provide a means or a test to determine,
evaluate, or support a diagnosis of alcohol use, misuse, or
dependence.
[0226] The present invention encompasses compositions and methods
for treatment or prevention where rs1042173 polymorphisms are
associated with vulnerability or can sustain, provoke, or govern
alcohol consumption. rs1042173 polymorphisms or related miRNA,
mRNA, protein expression, levels, or states of function, or other
biochemical products or chemical associations may themselves serve
as a biomarker for alcohol consumption. Such a biomarker (i.e.,
blood test) can be used to provide a means or a test to determine
whether, and how much, alcohol has been consumed by an individual.
rs1042173 polymorphisms or related miRNA, mRNA, protein expression,
levels, or states of function, or other biochemical products or
chemical associations may themselves serve as a biomarker for
alcohol use, misuse, or dependence. Such a biomarker (i.e., blood
test) can be used to provide a means or a test to determine,
evaluate, or support a diagnosis of alcohol use, misuse, or
dependence.
[0227] The present invention encompasses compositions and methods
for treatment or prevention where the combination of 5'-HTTLPR and
rs1042173 polymorphisms is associated with vulnerability or can
sustain, provoke, or govern alcohol consumption. The combination of
5P-HTTLPR and rs1042173 polymorphisms or related miRNA, mRNA, or
protein expression, levels, or states of function, or other
biochemical products or chemical associations, may itself serve as
a biomarker for alcohol consumption. Such a biomarker can be used
to provide a means or a test to determine whether, and how much,
alcohol has been consumed by an individual. The combination of
5'-HTTLPR and rs1042173 polymorphisms or related miRNA, mRNA, or
protein expression, levels, or states of function, or other
biochemical products or chemical associations, may itself serve as
a biomarker for alcohol use, abuse, or dependence. Such a biomarker
can be used to determine, evaluate, or support a diagnosis of
alcohol use, misuse, or dependence.
[0228] The present invention further provides for the use of any
5-HT-3 antagonist (including ondansetron) at any dose or dosage
form to individuals with 5'-HTTLPR polymorphisms can ameliorate,
improve, treat, or aid in recovery from alcohol use, abuse, or
dependence, or substance use, abuse, or dependence.
[0229] The present invention encompasses providing any agent or
drug that has an effect on the serotonin system, at any dose or
dosage form, either directly or indirectly to individuals with
5'-HTTLPR polymorphisms can ameliorate, improve, treat, or aid in
recovery from alcohol use, abuse, or dependence.
[0230] The present invention encompasses providing any 5-HT-3
antagonist (including ondansetron), at any dose or any dosage firm,
to individuals with rs1042173 polymorphisms can ameliorate,
improve, treat or aid in recovery from alcohol use, abuse, or
dependence, or substance use, abuse, or dependence.
[0231] The present invention encompasses providing any agent or
drug that has an effect on the serotonin system, at any dose or
dosage thrill, either directly or indirectly to individuals with
rs1042173 polymorphisms can ameliorate, improve, treat, or aid in
recovery from substance use, misuse, abuse, or dependence or any
habit-forming behavior.
[0232] The present invention encompasses providing any 5-HT-3
antagonist including ondansetron), at any dose or dosage form, to
individuals with rs1042173 and 5'-HTTLPR polymorphisms combined can
ameliorate, improve, treat, or aid in recovery from alcohol use,
abuse, or dependence.
[0233] The present invention encompasses providing any agent or
drug that has an effect on the serotonin system, at any dose or
dosage form, either directly or indirectly to individuals with
rs1042173 and 5'-HTTLPR polymorphisms can ameliorate, improve,
treat, or aid in recovery from substance use, abuse, or dependence
or habit-forming behavior.
[0234] The present invention encompasses providing any agent or
drug or chemical entity that has an effect, at any dose or dosage
form, either directly or indirectly to modulate, regulate, or alter
the structural, functional, molecular, or biochemical effects of
rs1042173 and 5'-HTTLPR polymorphisms, either alone or combined,
can ameliorate, improve, treat, or aid in recovery from alcohol
use, abuse, or dependence.
[0235] The present invention encompasses providing any agent or
drug or chemical entity that has an effect, at any dose or dosage
form, either directly or indirectly to modulate, regulate, or alter
the structural, functional, molecular, or biochemical effects of
rs1042173 and 5'-HTTLPR polymorphisms, either alone or combined,
can ameliorate, improve, treat, or aid in recovery from substance
use, abuse, or dependence or habit-forming behavior.
[0236] 5'-HTTLPR and rs1042173 polymorphisms, either alone or in
combination, or combined with any other polymorphisms within the
serotonin system, or their related miRNA, mRNA, ncRNA, or protein
expression, levels, or states of function or other biochemical
products or chemical associations, may themselves serve as a
biomarker for alcohol consumption. In one aspect, the use of
5'-HTTLPR and rs1042173 as biomarkers can provide a means or a test
to determine whether, and how much, alcohol has been consumed by an
individual.
[0237] 5'-HTTLPR and rs1042173 polymorphisms, either alone or in
combination, or combined with any other polymorphisms within the
serotonin system, or their related miRNA, mRNA, ncRNA, or protein
expressions, levels, or states of function or other biochemical
products or chemical associations, may themselves serve as a
biomarker for alcohol use, misuse, or dependence. In one aspect,
the use of 5'-HTTLPR and rs1042173 as biomarkers can provide a
means or a test to determine, evaluate, or support a diagnosis of
alcohol use, misuse, abuse, or dependence.
[0238] 5'-HTTLPR and rs1042173 polymorphisms, either alone or in
combination, or combined with any other polymorphisms within the
serotonin system, or their related miRNA, mRNA, ncRNA, or protein
expressions, levels, or states of function or other biochemical
products or chemical associations, may themselves serve as a
biomarker for substance use or a habit-forming behavior. In one
aspect, the use of 5'-HTTLPR and rs1042173 as biomarkers can
provide a means or a test to determine whether, and how much,
substance has been consumed, or a habit-forming behavior has been
performed, by an individual.
[0239] 5'-HTTLPR and rs1042173 polymorphisms, either alone or in
combination, or combined with any other polymorphisms within the
serotonin system, or their related miRNA, mRNA, ncRNA, or protein
expressions, levels, or states of function or other biochemical
products or chemical associations, may themselves serve as a
biomarker for substance use, abuse, misuse, dependence, or any
habit-forming behavior. In one aspect, the use of 5'-HTTLPR and
rs1042173 as biomarkers can provide a means or a test to determine
whether, and how much, a substance has been consumed, or a
habit-forming behavior has been performed, by an individual.
[0240] In one aspect, providing any agent or drug or chemical
entity, at any dose or dosage form, either directly or indirectly
to modulate, regulate, or alter the structural, functional,
molecular, or biochemical effects of the serotonin system can be
used to predict the response of a treatment effect toward any
genetic polymorphism, either alone or combined, to ameliorate,
improve, treat, or aid in recovery from alcohol use, abuse, or
dependence, substance use, abuse, or dependence, or any
habit-forming behavior.
[0241] In another aspect, providing any 5-HT-3 antagonist
(including ondansetron), at any dose or dosage form, either
directly or indirectly to modulate, regulate, or alter the
structural, functional, molecular, or biochemical effects of any
polymorphism, either alone or combined, within the serotonin system
can ameliorate, improve, treat, or aid in recovery from alcohol
use, abuse, or dependence or substance use, abuse, or
dependence
[0242] The present invention further encompasses a method whereby
genetic screening is used to identify polymorphisms within the
serotonin system or their related miRNA, mRNA, ncRNA, or protein
expression, levels, or states of function, or other biochemical
products or chemical associations, may serve as a biomarker for
alcohol consumption. Such a biomarker (including a blood test) can
be used to provide a means or a test to determine whether, and how
much, alcohol has been consumed by an individual.
[0243] The present invention further encompasses a method whereby
genetic screening is used to identify polymorphisms within the
serotonin system or their related miRNA, mRNA, ncRNA, or protein
expression, levels, or states of function, or other biochemical
products or chemical associations, may serve as a biomarker to
determine, evaluate, or support the diagnosis of alcohol use,
misuse, abuse, or dependence.
[0244] The present invention further encompasses a method whereby
genetic screening is used to identify polymorphisms within the
serotonin system or their related miRNA, mRNA, ncRNA, or protein
expression, levels, or states of function, or other biochemical
products or chemical associations, may serve as a biomarker for the
consumption of any substance, or any substance with abuse- or
dependence-forming capability. Such a biomarker (including a blood
test) can be used to provide a means or a test to determine
whether, and how much of, any substance (including addictive
substances) has been consumed, or a habit-forming behavior has been
performed, by an individual.
[0245] The present invention further encompasses a method whereby
genetic screening is used to identify polymorphisms within the
serotonin system or their related miRNA, mRNA, ncRNA, or protein
expression, levels, or states of function, or other biochemical
products or chemical associations, may serve as a biomarker to
determine, evaluate, or support the diagnosis of substance use,
misuse, abuse, or dependence or any habit-forming behavior.
[0246] The present invention further encompasses a method whereby
genetic screening is used to identify polymorphisms within the
serotonin system or their related miRNA, mRNA, ncRNA, or protein
expression, levels, or states of function, or other biochemical
products or chemical associations, in order to identify individuals
who use, abuse, misuse, or are dependent on alcohol or any other
substance or habit-forming behavior, may be a basis for identifying
treatment. Such a test (including a blood test) can be anticipated
to determine individuals who will respond to any treatment (i.e.,
pharmacological, behavioral, genetic, biochemical, or any other
combinations).
[0247] The present invention further encompasses a method whereby
genetic screening is used to identify any polymorphisms within the
serotonin system or their related miRNA, mRNA, ncRNA, or protein
expressions, levels, or states of function, or other biochemical
products or chemical associations, in order to identify individuals
who use, abuse, misuse, or are dependent on any substance or have a
habit-forming behavior, may be a basis for identifying adverse
events or side effects or optimizing any treatment (i.e.,
pharmacological, behavioral, genetic, biochemical, or any other
combinations) at any dose, dosage form, or treatment regimen. Such
a test can be anticipated to determine individuals who will not
respond to a treatment or individuals who will need additional
measures to optimize the success of any treatment (i.e.,
pharmacological, behavioral, genetic, biochemical, or any other
combinations).
[0248] The present invention further encompasses a method whereby
genetic screening is used to identify any polymorphisms within the
serotonin system or their related miRNA, mRNA, ncRNA, or protein
expression, levels, or states of function, or other biochemical
products or chemical associations, in order to identify individuals
who use, abuse, misuse, or are dependent on alcohol or any other
substance or have a habit-forming behavior (including but not
limited to obesity, gambling, or computer or electronic
addictions), may be a basis for identifying adverse events or side
effects or optimizing treatment with any 5-HT-3 antagonist
(including ondansetron) at any dose or dosage form. Such a test can
be anticipated to determine individuals who will respond to
treatment with any 5-HT-3 antagonist (including ondansetron).
[0249] The present invention further encompasses a method whereby
genetic screening is used to identify 5'-HTTLPR and rs1042173
polymorphisms or their related miRNA, mRNA, or protein expressions,
levels, or states of function, or other biochemical products or
chemical associations, either alone or in any combination, in order
to identify individuals who use, abuse, misuse, or are dependent on
alcohol or any other substance or have a habit-forming behavior,
may be a basis for identifying adverse events or side effects or
optimizing treatment with any 5-HT-3 antagonist (including
ondansetron) at any dose or dosage form. Such a test (including a
blood test) can be anticipated to determine individuals who will
not respond to treatment with a 5-HT-3 antagonist (including
ondansetron) or individuals who will need additional measures to
optimize the success of treatment with any 5-HT-3 antagonist
(including ondansetron).
[0250] The present invention further encompasses a method whereby
genetic screening is used to identify 5'-HTTLPR and rs1042173
polymorphisms or their related miRNA, mRNA, or protein expressions,
levels, or states of function, or other biochemical products or
chemical associations, either alone or in any combination, in order
to identify individuals who use, abuse, misuse, or are dependent on
alcohol or any other substance or have a habit-forming behavior
(including but not limited to obesity, gambling, or computer or
electronic addictions), may be a basis for identifying those who
will respond to treatment with any 5-HT-3 antagonist (including
ondansetron) at any dose or dosage form. Such a test (including a
blood test) can be anticipated to determine individuals who will
respond to treatment with a 5-HT-3 antagonist (including
ondansetron). Such diseased individuals can be identified by means
of the genetic screening and then provided with ondansetron.
[0251] The present invention further encompasses a method whereby
genetic screening is used to identify 5'-HTTLPR and rs1042173
polymorphisms or their related miRNA, mRNA, or protein expressions,
levels, or states of function, or other biochemical products or
chemical associations, either alone or in any combination, in order
to identify individuals who use, abuse, misuse, or are dependent on
alcohol, may be a basis for identifying those who will respond to
treatment with any 5-HT-3 antagonist (including ondansetron) at any
dose or dosage form. Such a test (including a blood test) can be
anticipated to determine individuals with an alcohol use, abuse, or
dependence disorder who wilt respond to treatment with a 5-HT-3
antagonist (including ondansetron). Such individuals can be
identified by means of the genetic screening and then provided with
ondansetron.
[0252] The present invention further encompasses a method whereby
genetic screening is used to identify any polymorphisms within the
serotonin system or their related miRNA, mRNA, ncRNA, or protein
expressions, levels, or states of function, or other biochemical
products or chemical associations, either alone or in any
combination, in order to identify individuals who use, abuse,
misuse, or are dependent on alcohol or any other substance or have
a habit-forming behavior (including but not limited to obesity,
gambling, or computer or electronic addictions), may be a basis for
identifying individuals who will respond to treatment with any
serotonergic agent, compound, or drug at any dose or dosage form.
Such a test (including a blood test) can be anticipated to
determine individuals who will respond to treatment for any
addictive behavior with any serotonergic agent, compound, or
drug.
[0253] The present invention further encompasses a method whereby
genetic screening is used to identify 5'-HTTLPR and rs1042173
polymorphisms or their related miRNA, mRNA, or protein expressions,
levels, or states of function, or other biochemical products or
chemical associations, either alone or in any combination, in order
to identify individuals who use, abuse, misuse, or are dependent on
alcohol or any other substance or have a habit-forming behavior
(including but not limited to obesity, gambling, or computer or
electronic addictions), may be a basis for identifying those
susceptible to adverse events or side effects or optimizing
treatment with any serotonergic agent, compound, or drug at any
dose or dosage form. Such a test (including a blood test) can be
anticipated to determine individuals who will not respond to
treatment with a serotonergic agent, compound, or drug, or
individuals who will need additional measures to optimize the
success of treatment with any serotonergic agent, compound, or
drug.
[0254] The present invention further encompasses a method whereby
genetic screening is used to identify 5'-HTTLPR and rs1042173
polymorphisms, or any other polymorphisms in co-modulating
neurotransmitter systems (i.e., dopamine, GABA, glutamate, opioids,
and cannabinoids) or their related miRNA, mRNA, ncRNA, or protein
expressions, levels, or states of function, or other biochemical
products or chemical associations, either alone or in any
combination, in order to identify individuals who use, abuse,
misuse, or are dependent on alcohol, may be a basis for identifying
those who will respond to treatment with any 5-HT-3 antagonist
(including ondansetron) in combination with any drug that affects
these co-modulating systems (including but not limited to
topiramate, baclofen, gabapentin, naltrexone, nalmefene, and
rimonabant) at any dose or dosage form. Such a test (including a
blood test) can be anticipated to determine individuals with an
alcohol use, abuse, or dependence disorder who wilt respond to
treatment with a 5-HT-3 antagonist (including ondansetron) plus any
of these co-modulating agents or drugs. Individuals with alcohol
use, abuse, or dependence who have these polymorphisms identified
by this genetic screening can than be provided with ondansetron
plus the co modulating medication or drug, with the prediction that
these combinations will be expected to be efficacious.
[0255] The present invention further encompasses a method whereby
genetic screening is used to identify 5'-HTTLPR and rs1042173
polymorphisms, or any other polymorphisms in co-modulating
neurotransmitter systems (i.e., dopamine, GABA, glutamate, opioids,
and cannabinoids) or their related miRNA, mRNA, ncRNA, or protein
expressions, levels, or states of function, or other biochemical
products or chemical associations, either alone or in any
combination, in order to identify individuals who use, abuse,
misuse, or are dependent on alcohol, may be a basis for identifying
those who will be susceptible to adverse events or not respond to
treatment with any 5-HT-3 antagonist (including ondansetron) in
combination with any drug that affects these co-modulating systems
(including but not limited to topiramate, baclofen, gabapentin,
naltrexone, nalmefene, and rimonabant) at any dose or dosage form.
Such a test (including a blood test) can be anticipated to
determine individuals who will not respond to treatment with a
5-HT-3 antagonist (including ondansetron) plus any of these
co-modulating agents or drugs, or who will need additional measures
to optimize treatment to these compounds. Individuals with
substance use, abuse, dependence or any habit-forming behavior who
have these polymorphisms identified by this genetic screening can
either be screened out of being provided the combined treatment or
be given additional measures to optimize their treatment.
[0256] The present invention further encompasses a method whereby
genetic screening is used to identify 5'-HTTLPR and rs1042173
polymorphisms, or any other polymorphisms in co-modulating
neurotransmitter systems (i.e., dopamine, GABA, glutamate, opioids,
and cannabinoids) or their related miRNA, mRNA, ncRNA, or protein
expressions, levels, or states of function, or other biochemical
products or chemical associations, either alone or in any
combination, is used to produce a biomarker (including a blood
test) to determine, ascertain, or evaluate consumption level or
diagnosis of alcohol use, abuse, misuse, or dependence.
[0257] The present invention further encompasses a method whereby
genetic screening is used to identify 5'-HTTLPR and rs1042173
polymorphisms, or any other polymorphisms in co-modulating
neurotransmitter systems (i.e., dopamine, GABA, glutamate, opioids,
and cannabinoids) or their related miRNA, mRNA, ncRNA, or protein
expressions, levels, or states of function, or other biochemical
products or chemical associations, either alone or in any
combination, is used to produce a biomarker (including a blood
test) to determine, ascertain, or evaluate consumption level or
diagnosis of substance use, abuse, misuse, or dependence or
habit-forming behavior.
[0258] The present invention further encompasses a method whereby
genetic screening is used to identify 5'-HTTLPR and rs1042173
polymorphisms, or any other polymorphisms in co-modulating
neurotransmitter systems (i.e., dopamine, GABA, glutamate, opioids,
and cannabinoids) or their related miRNA, mRNA, ncRNA, or protein
expressions, levels, or states of function, or other biochemical
products or chemical associations, either alone or in any
combination, in order to identify individuals with substance use,
abuse, misuse, or dependence or any habit-forming behavior, may be
a basis for identifying those who will respond to treatment with
any 5-HT-3 antagonist (including ondansetron) in combination with
any drug that affects these co-modulating systems (including but
not limited to topiramate, baclofen, gabapentin, naltrexone,
nalmefene, and rimonabant) at any dose or dosage form. Such a test
(including a blood test) can be anticipated to determine
individuals with substance use, misuse, abuse, or dependence or any
habit-forming disorder who will respond to treatment with a 5-HT-3
antagonist (including ondansetron) plus any of these co-modulating
agents or drugs. Individuals with substance use, abuse, or
dependence or any habit-forming behavior who have these
polymorphisms identified by this genetic screening can than be
provided with ondansetron plus the co modulating medication or
drug, with the prediction that these combinations will be expected
to be efficacious.
[0259] The present invention further encompasses a method whereby
genetic screening is used to identify 5'-HTTLPR and rs1042173
polymorphisms, or any other polymorphisms in co-modulating
neurotransmitter systems (i.e., dopamine, GABA, glutamate, opioids,
and cannabinoids) or their related miRNA, mRNA, ncRNA, or protein
expressions, levels, or states of function, or other biochemical
products or chemical associations, either alone or in any
combination, in order to identify individuals with substance use,
abuse, misuse, or dependence or any habit-forming behavior, may be
a basis for identifying those who will be susceptible to adverse
events or side effects or who will not respond to treatment with
any 5-HT-3 antagonist (including ondansetron) in combination with
any drug that affects these co-modulating systems (including but
not limited to topiramate, bactofen, gabapentin, naltrexone,
nalmefene, and rimonabant) at any dose or dosage form. Such a test
(including a blood test) can be anticipated to determine
individuals with substance use, misuse, abuse, or dependence or any
habit-forming disorder who will not respond to treatment with a
5-HT-3 antagonist (including ondansetron) plus any of these
co-modulating agents or drugs, or who will require additional
measures to optimize treatment. Individuals with substance use,
abuse, dependence, or any habit-forming behavior who have these
polymorphisms identified by this genetic screening can either be
screened out of being provided the combined treatment or be given
additional measures to optimize their treatment.
[0260] The present invention encompasses the use of ondansetron as
well as other drugs. In one aspect, combinations of drugs are used.
The present invention encompasses the use of combinations of drugs
or compounds to treat addictive and compulsive diseases and
disorders, particular alcohol-related diseases and disorders. The
present invention further encompasses the use of adjunctive
treatments and therapy such as psychosocial management regimes,
hypnosis, and acupuncture.
[0261] In one embodiment, the present invention provides
compositions and methods for treating alcohol-related diseases and
disorders using pharmaceutical compositions comprising effective
amounts of ondansetron, topiramate and/or naltrexone.
[0262] The dosage of the active compound(s) being administered will
depend on the condition being treated, the particular compound, and
other clinical factors such as age, sex, weight, and health of the
subject being treated, the route of administration of the
compound(s), and the type of composition being administered
(tablet, gel cap, capsule, solution, suspension, inhaler, aerosol,
elixir, lozenge, injection, patch, ointment, cream, etc.). It is to
be understood that the present invention has application for both
human and veterinary use.
[0263] For example, in one embodiment relating to oral
administration to humans, a dosage of between approximately 0.1 and
300 mg/kg/day, or between approximately 0.5 and 50 mg/kg/day, or
between approximately I and 10 mg/kg/day, is generally sufficient,
but will vary depending on such things as the disorder being
treated, the length of treatment, the age, sex, weight, and/or
health of the subject, etc. The drugs can be administered in
formulations that contain all drugs being used, or the drugs can be
administered separately. In some cases, it is anticipated that
multiple doses/times of administration will be required or useful.
The present invention further provides for varying the length of
time of treatment.
[0264] Topiramate is disclosed herein as a drug useful in
combination drug therapy. In one embodiment, topiramate is provided
at a dosage ranging from about 15 mg/day to about 2500 mg/day. In
one aspect, topiramate is administered at a dosage ranging from
about 25 mg/day to about 1000 mg/day. In yet another aspect,
topiramate is administered at a dosage ranging from about 50 mg/day
to about 500 mg/day. In one aspect, topiramate is administered at a
dosage of about 400 mg/day. In another aspect, topiramate is
administered at a dosage of 400 mg/day. In a further aspect,
topiramate is administered at a dosage of about 300 mg/day. In yet
a further aspect, topiramate is administered at a dosage of about
275 mg/day. In one aspect, topiramate is administered at a dose of
about 1 mg/day. In one aspect, up to about 300 mg/day is
administered.
[0265] In one embodiment, topiramate is provided at a dose of about
1 mg/kg. In one aspect, topiramate is provided at a dose of about
10 mg/kg. In one aspect, topiramate is provided at a dose of about
100 mg/kg. In one embodiment, topiramate is administered at a
dosage ranging from about 0.1 mg/kg/day to about 100 mg/kg/day.
[0266] Topiramate (C.sub.12H.sub.21NO.sub.8S; IUPAC name:
2,3:4,5-Bis-O-(1-methylethylidene)-beta-D-fructopyranose sulfamate;
CAS Registry No. 97240-79-4) has the following structure:
##STR00004##
[0267] An important aspect of psychotropic drugs is to produce
weight gain. These increases in weight gain can induce a range of
metabolic problems including abnormal sugar, fat, and carbohydrate
metabolism. Because topiramate can cause weight loss and improve
endocrine function, it is proposed herein that topiramate may be
used to ameliorate weight gain caused by other psychotropic drugs
with which it is combined as well as alcohol and any other abused
drugs.
[0268] An important adverse event of topiramate is cognitive
impairment. In the general population, this is reported by 2.4% of
individuals who take topiramate (Johnson & Johnson
Pharmaceutical Research & Development. Investigator's Brochure:
Topiramate (RWJ-17021-000), 10th ed.; December 2005). In the
substance abuse field, the occurrence rate of cognitive impairment
is about 18.7% (Johnson B A, Ait-Daoud N, Bowden C L et al. Oral
topiramate for treatment of alcohol dependence: a randomized
controlled trial. Lancet 2003, 361:1677-1685).
Topiramate-associated cognitive effects are due to its
anti-glutaminergic properties. It is, therefore, not obvious that
ondansetron, a serotonin-3 receptor antagonist, will alleviate
these complaints of cognitive impairment. Ondansetron appears to
have cholinergic effects, perhaps though interactions with the GABA
system, that seem to ameliorate topiramate-associated cognitive
impairment. Hence, it is to be expected that the rate of cognitive
impairment reported by this triple combination would be less than
that for topiramate on its own.
[0269] Ondansetron is disclosed herein as a drug useful alone or as
part of combination drug therapy. Ondansetron is a 5-HT.sub.3
receptor antagonist and has functionally opposite effects to SSRIs
and blocks serotonin agonism at the 5-HT.sub.3 receptor. The dosage
and treatment regimen for administering ondansetron when it is
being used as one compound of a combination therapy can be varied
based on the other drug or drugs with which it is being
administered, or based on other criteria such as the age, sex,
health, and weight of the subject. The present invention therefore
provides for the use of ondansetron at varying doses such as about
0.01 .mu.g/kg, about 0.1 .mu.g/kg, about 1.0 .mu.g/kg, about 5.0
.mu.g/kg, about 10.0 .mu.g/kg, about 0.1 mg/kg, about 1.0 mg/kg,
about 5.0 mg/kg, and about 10.0 mg/kg. In another embodiment,
ondansetron is administered at a dosage ranging from about 0.01
.mu.g/kg to about 100 .mu.g/kg per application. In one aspect,
ondansetron is administered at a dosage ranging from about 0.1
.mu.g/kg to about 10.0 .mu.g/kg per application. In yet another
aspect, ondansetron is administered at a dosage ranging from about
1.0 .mu.g/kg to about 5.0 .mu.g/kg per application. In a further
aspect, ondansetron is administered at a dosage of about 4.0
.mu.g/kg per application. In another aspect, ondansetron is
administered at a dosage of about 3.0 .mu.g/kg per application. In
one aspect, ondansetron is administered at a dose of about 4
.mu.g/kg twice daily (about 0.25 to 0.6 mg twice daily for body
weights between about 50 kg and 150 kg).
[0270] Ondansetron (C.sub.18H.sub.19N.sub.3O; CAS Registry No.
99614-02-5; IUPAC name:
9-methyl-3-[(2-methyl-1H-imidazol-1-yl)methyl]-1,2,3,9-tetrahydrocarbazol-
-4-one) has the following structure:
##STR00005##
[0271] The present invention further provides for the use of other
drugs such as naltrexone as part of the drug combination therapy
disclosed herein. In one embodiment, naltrexone is administered at
a dose of about 10 mg/day. In one aspect, naltrexone is
administered at a dosage at a dosage of about 50 mg/day. In one
aspect, naltrexone is administered at a dosage of about 100 mg/day.
In one aspect, naltrexone is administered at a dosage ranging from
about 1 mg to about 300 mg per application. In another aspect,
naltrexone is administered at a dosage ranging from about 10 mg to
about 50 mg per application. In a further aspect of the invention,
naltrexone is administered at a dosage of about 25 mg per
application. In one embodiment, naltrexone is administered at least
once a month. In a further embodiment, naltrexone is administered
once a month. In one embodiment, naltrexone is administered at
least once a week. In another embodiment, naltrexone is
administered at least once a day. In a further embodiment,
naltrexone is administered at least twice a day. In one aspect,
naltrexone is administered twice day.
[0272] Naltrexone (C.sub.20H.sub.23NO.sub.4;
17-(Cyclopropylmethyl)-4,5a-epoxy-3,14-dihydroxymorphinan-6-one
hydrochloride; CAS Registry No. 16590-41-3) has the following
structure:
##STR00006##
[0273] Naltrexone also has important adverse events--nausea and
vomiting--that reduce compliance to it. Indeed, about 15% of
individuals in alcohol trials are unable to tolerate a naltrexone
dose of 50 mg/day. This has led to the development of depot
formulations that release naltrexone slowly to reduce the incidence
of nausea and vomiting. Nevertheless, these depot formulation(s)
appear to have similar compliance rates to the oral form of the
medication. Importantly, ondansetron reduces nausea and decreases
vomiting by slowing gut motility. Therefore, a combination that
adds ondansetron to naltrexone will diminish the nausea and
vomiting caused by naltrexone. This is an important therapeutic
advance because many more people will be able to tolerate the
treatment due to increased compliance, and higher doses than the
typically administered naltrexone dose of 50 mg/day can be given to
improve the therapeutic response.
[0274] In one embodiment, the alcohol-related disease or disorder
being treated includes, but is not limited to, early-onset
alcoholic, late-onset alcoholic, alcohol-induced psychotic disorder
with delusions, alcohol abuse, excessive drinking, heavy drinking,
problem drinking, alcohol intoxication, alcohol withdrawal, alcohol
intoxication delirium, alcohol withdrawal delirium, alcohol-induced
persisting dementia, alcohol-induced persisting amnestic disorder,
alcohol dependence, alcohol-induced psychotic disorder with
hallucinations, alcohol-induced mood disorder, alcohol-induced or
associated bipolar disorder, alcohol-induced or associated
posttraumatic stress disorder, alcohol-induced anxiety disorder,
alcohol-induced sexual dysfunction, alcohol-induced sleep disorder,
alcohol-induced or associated gambling disorder, alcohol-induced or
associated sexual disorder, alcohol-related disorder not otherwise
specified, alcohol intoxication, and alcohol withdrawal. In one
aspect, the alcohol-related disease or disorder is early onset
alcoholic. In another aspect, the alcohol-related disease or
disorder is late onset alcoholic.
[0275] In one embodiment, the present invention provides
compositions and methods for reducing the frequency of alcohol
consumption compared with the frequency of alcohol consumption
before the treatment. One of ordinary skill in the art will
appreciate that the frequency can be compared with prior
consumption by the subject or with consumption by a control subject
not receiving the treatment. In one aspect, the type of alcohol
consumption is heavy drinking In another aspect, it is excessive
drinking.
[0276] In one embodiment, the present invention provides
compositions and methods for reducing the quantity of alcohol
consumed in a subject compared with the amount of alcohol consumed
before the treatment or compared with the alcohol consumption by a
control subject not receiving the treatment.
[0277] One of ordinary skill in the art will appreciate that in
some instances a subject being treated for and addictive disorder
is not necessarily dependent. Such subjects include, for example,
subjects who abuse alcohol, drink heavily, drink excessively, are
problem drinkers, or are heavy drug users. The present invention
provides compositions and methods for treating or preventing these
behaviors in non-dependent subjects.
[0278] In one embodiment of the invention, the present invention
provides compositions and methods for improving the physical or
psychological sequelae associated with alcohol consumption compared
with a control subject not receiving the treatment.
[0279] In one embodiment, the present invention provides
compositions and methods for increasing the abstinence rate of a
subject compared with a control subject not receiving the
treatment.
[0280] In one embodiment, the present invention provides
compositions and methods for reducing the average level of alcohol
consumption in a subject compared with the level of alcohol
consumption before the treatment or compared with the level of
alcohol consumption by a control subject not receiving the
treatment.
[0281] In one embodiment, the present invention provides
compositions and methods for reducing alcohol consumption and for
increasing abstinence compared with the alcohol consumption by the
subject before treatment or with a control subject not receiving
the treatment.
[0282] In one embodiment, the present invention provides
compositions and methods for treating a subject with a
predisposition to early-onset alcoholism.
[0283] In one embodiment, the present invention provides
compositions and methods for treating a subject with a
predisposition to late-onset alcoholism.
[0284] One of ordinary skill in the art will appreciate that there
are multiple parameters or characteristics of alcohol consumption
which may characterize a subject afflicted with an alcohol-related
disease or disorder. It will also be appreciated that combination
therapies may be effective in treating more than one parameter, and
that there are multiple ways to analyze the effectiveness of
treatment. The parameters analyzed when measuring alcohol
consumption or frequency of alcohol consumption include, but are
not limited to, heavy drinking days, number of heavy drinking days,
average drinking days, number of drinks per day, days of
abstinence, number of individuals not drinking heavily or abstinent
over a given time period, and craving. Both subjective and
objective measures can be used to analyze the effectiveness of
treatment. For example, a subject can self-report according to
guidelines and procedures established for such reporting. The
procedures can be performed at various times before, during, and
after treatment. Additionally, assays are available for measuring
alcohol consumption. These assays include breath alcohol meter
readings, measuring serum CDT and GGT levels, and measuring 5-HTOL
urine levels.
[0285] In some embodiments, a first compound and a second compound
are administered nearly simultaneously. In other embodiments, a
first compound is administered prior to the second compound. In yet
other embodiments, the first compound is administered subsequent to
the second compound. If three or more compounds are administered,
one of ordinary skill in the art will appreciate that the three or
more compounds can be administered simultaneously or in varying
order.
[0286] In certain embodiments disclosed herein, an individual is
given a pharmaceutical composition comprising a combination of two
or more compounds to treat or prevent an addiction-related disease
or disorder or impulse control-related disease or disorder. In some
of these embodiments, each compound is a separate chemical entity.
However, in other embodiments, the at least two compounds can be
joined together by a chemical linkage, such as a covalent bond, so
that the at least two different compounds form separate parts of
the same molecule. In one aspect, the chemical linkage is selected
such that after entry into the body, the linkage is broken, such as
by enzymatic action, acid hydrolysis, base hydrolysis, or the like,
and the two separate compounds are then formed.
[0287] Data from previous structure-activity relationship (SAR)
studies within the art may be used as a guide to determine which
compounds to use and the optimal position or positions on the
molecules to attach the tether such that potency and selectivity of
the compounds will remain high. The tether or linker moiety is
chosen from among those of demonstrated utility for linking
bioactive molecules together. Disclosed herein are representative
compounds that can be attached together in different combinations
to form heterobivalent therapeutic molecules.
[0288] Examples of linkers reported in the scientific literature
include methylene (CH.sub.2).sub.n linkers (Hussey et al., J. Am.
Chem. Soc., 2003, 125:3692-3693; Tamiz et al., J. Med. Chem., 2001,
44:1615-1622), oligo ethyleneoxy O(--CH.sub.2CH.sub.2O--).sub.n
units used to link naltrexamine to other opioids, glycine oligomers
of the formula
--NH--(COCH.sub.2NH).sub.nCOCH.sub.2CH.sub.2CO--(NHCH.sub.2CO).sub.nNH--
used to link opioid antagonists and agonists together ((a)
Portoghese et al., Life Sci., 1982, 31:1283-1286. (b) Portoghese et
al., J. Med. Chem., 1986, 29:1855-1861), hydrophilic diamines used
to link opioid peptides together (Stepinski et al., Internat. J. of
Peptide & Protein Res., 1991, 38:588-92), rigid double stranded
DNA spacers (Paar et al., J. Immunol., 2002, 169:856-864) and the
biodegradable linker poly(L-lactic acid) (Klok et al.,
Macromolecules, 2002, 35:746-759). The attachment of the tether to
a compound can result in the compound achieving a favorable binding
orientation. The linker itself may or may not be biodegradable. The
linker may take the form of a prodrug and be tunable for optimal
release kinetics of the linked drugs. The linker may be either
conformationally flexible throughout its entire length or else a
segment of the tether may be designed to be conformationally
restricted (Portoghese et al., J. Med. Chem., 1986,
29:1650-1653).
[0289] With respect to alcohol-related disorders, including but not
limited to alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence, at least two
compounds selected from the group consisting of topiramate,
ondansetron, and naltrexone, and analogs, derivatives, and
modifications thereof, and pharmaceutically acceptable salts
thereof, can be used to decrease ethanol consumption associated
with such alcohol-related disorders. In one aspect, topiramate and
ondansetron are used. Accordingly, the present invention provides a
method for treating or preventing alcohol-related disorders based
on ethanol consumption, comprising administering to a subject in
need of such treatment or prevention an effective amount of at
least two compounds selected from the group consisting of
topiramate, ondansetron, and naltrexone, and analogs, derivatives,
and modifications thereof or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt
thereof. In a further aspect, the combination pharmacotherapy
treatment is used in conjunction with behavioral modification or
therapy.
[0290] Additional types of compounds can be administered to treat
further the addiction-related diseases and disorders or to treat
other diseases and disorders. The additional types of compounds
include, but are not limited to, adrenergics, adrenocortical
steroids, adrenocortical suppressants, aldosterone antagonists,
amino acids, analeptics, analgesics, anorectic compounds,
anorexics, anti-anxiety agents, antidepressants, antihypertensives,
anti-inflammatories, antinauseants, antineutropenics,
antiobsessional agents, antiparkinsonians, antipsychotics, appetite
suppressants, blood glucose regulators, carbonic anhydrase
inhibitors, cardiotonics, cardiovascular agents, choleretics,
cholinergics, cholinergic agonists, cholinesterase deactivators,
cognition adjuvants, cognition enhancers, hormones, memory
adjuvants, mental performance enhancers, mood regulators,
neuroleptics, neuroprotectives, psychotropics, relaxants,
sedative-hypnotics, stimulants, thyroid hormones, thyroid
inhibitors, thyromimetics, cerebral ischemia agents,
vasoconstrictors, and vasodilators.
[0291] In one embodiment, the present invention provides methods
and compositions useful for decreasing mesocorticolimbic dopamine
activity.
[0292] In one embodiment, the present invention provides methods
and compositions useful for regulating mesocorticolimbic dopamine
activity.
[0293] In one embodiment, the present invention provides methods
and compositions useful for inhibiting glutamate function.
[0294] In one embodiment, the present invention provides methods
and compositions useful for facilitating .gamma.-amino-butyric acid
activity.
[0295] In one embodiment, the present invention provides methods
and compositions useful for regulating .gamma.-amino-butyric acid
activity.
[0296] The present invention provides for multiple methods for
delivering the compounds of the invention. The compounds may be
provided, for example, as pharmaceutical compositions in multiple
formats as well, including, but not limited to, tablets, capsules,
pills, lozenges, syrups, ointments, creams, elixirs, suppositories,
suspensions, inhalants, injections (including depot preparations),
and liquids.
[0297] The present invention further encompasses biologically
active analogs, homologs, derivatives, and modifications of the
compounds of the invention.
[0298] Methods for the preparation of such compounds are known in
the art, in one aspect, the compounds are topiramate, naltrexone,
and ondansetron.
[0299] The compositions and methods described herein for treating
or preventing alcohol-related diseases and disorders are also
useful for treating or preventing other addiction-related diseases
and disorders and impulse control disorders. In one aspect, the
compositions and methods elicit an indirect effect on CMDA neurons.
Such effects may be elicited, for example, by regulating
serotonergic, opiate, glutamate, or .gamma.-amino-butyric acid
receptors. In one aspect, the addictive diseases and disorders
include eating disorders, impulse control disorders,
nicotine-related disorders, methamphetamine-related disorders
amphetamine-related disorders, cannabis-related disorders,
cocaine-related disorders, hallucinogen use disorders,
inhalant-related disorders, benzodiazepine abuse or dependence
related disorders, and opioid-related disorders.
[0300] A list of types of drugs, and specific drugs within
categories which are encompassed within the invention is provided
below.
[0301] Adrenergic: Adrenalone; Amidephrine Mesylate; Apraclonidine
Hydrochloride; Brimonidine Tartrate; Dapiprazole Hydrochloride;
Deterenol Hydrochloride; Dipivefrin; Dopamine Hydrochloride;
Ephedrine Sulfate; Epinephrine; Epinephrine Bitartrate; Epinephryl
Borate; Esproquin Hydrochloride; Etafedrine Hydrochloride;
Hydroxyamphetamine Hydrobromide; Levonordefrin; Mephentermine
Sulfate; Metaraminol Bitartrate; Metizoline Hydrochloride;
Naphazoline Hydrochloride; Norepinephrine Bitartrate; Oxidopamine;
Oxymetazoline Hydrochloride; Phenylephrine Hydrochloride;
Phenylpropanolamine Hydrochloride; Phenylpropanolamine Polistirex;
Prenalterol Hydrochloride; Propylhexedrine; Pseudoephedrine
Hydrochloride; Tetrahydrozoline Hydrochloride; Tramazoline
Hydrochloride; Xylometazoline Hydrochloride.
[0302] Adrenocortical steroid: Ciprocinonide; Desoxycorticosterone
Acetate; Desoxycorticosterone Pivalate; Dexamethasone Acetate;
Fludrocortisone Acetate; Flumoxonide; Hydrocortisone Hemisuccinate;
Methylprednisolone Hemisuccinate; Naflocort; Procinonide;
Timobesone Acetate; Tipredane.
[0303] Adrenocortical suppressant: Aminoglutethimide;
Trilostane.
[0304] Alcohol deterrent: Disulfiram.
[0305] Aldosterone antagonist: Canrenoate Potassium; Canrenone;
Dicirenone; Mexrenoate Potassium; Prorenoate Potassium;
Spironolactone.
[0306] Amino acid: Alanine; Aspartic Acid; Cysteine Hydrochloride;
Cystine; Histidine; Isoleucine; Leucine; Lysine; Lysine Acetate;
Lysine Hydrochloride; Methionine; Phenylalanine; Proline; Serine;
Threonine; Tryptophan; Tyrosine; Valine.
[0307] Analeptic: Modafinil.
[0308] Analgesic: Acetaminophen; Alfentanit Hydrochloride;
Aminobenzoate Potassium; Aminobenzoate Sodium; Anidoxime;
Anileridine; Anileridine Hydrochloride; Anilopam Hydrochloride;
Anirolac; Antipyrine; Aspirin; Benoxaprofen; Benzydamine
Hydrochloride; Bicifadine Hydrochloride; Brifentanil Hydrochloride;
Bromadoline Maleate; Bromfenac Sodium; Buprenorphine Hydrochloride;
Butacetin; Butixirate; Butorphanol; Butorphanol Tartrate;
Carbamazepine; Carbaspirin Calcium; Carbiphene Hydrochloride;
Carfentanil Citrate; Ciprefadol Succinate; Ciramadol; Ciramadol
Hydrochloride; Clonixeril; Clonixin; Codeine; Codeine Phosphate;
Codeine Sulfate; Conorphone Hydrochloride; Cyclazocine; Dexoxadrol
Hydrochloride; Dexpemedolac; Dezocine; Diflunisal; Dihydrocodeine
Bitartrate; Dimefadane; Dipyrone; Doxpicomine Hydrochloride;
Drinidene; Enadoline Hydrochloride; Epirizole; Ergotamine Tartrate;
Ethoxazene Hydrochloride; Etofenamate; Eugenol; Fenoprofen;
Fenoprofen. Calcium; Fentanyl Citrate; Floctafenine; Flufenisal;
Flunixin; Flunixin Meglumine; Flupirtine Maleate; Fluproquazone;
Fluradoline Hydrochloride; Flurbiprofen; Hydromorphone
Hydrochloride; Ibufenac; Indoprofen; Ketazocine; Ketorfanol;
Ketorolac Tromethamine; Letimide Hydrochloride; Levomethadyl
Acetate; Levomethadyl Acetate Hydrochloride; Levonantradol
Hydrochloride; Levorphanol Tartrate; Lofemizole Hydrochloride;
Lofentanil Oxalate; Lorcinadol; Lomoxicam; Magnesium Salicylate;
Mefenamic Acid; Menabitan Hydrochloride; Meperidine Hydrochloride;
Meptazinol Hydrochloride; Methadone Hydrochloride; Methadyl
Acetate; Methopholine; Methotrimeprazine; Metkephamid Acetate;
Mimbane Hydrochloride; Mirfentanil Hydrochloride; Molinazone;
Morphine Sulfate; Moxazocine; Nahitan Hydrochloride; Nalbuphine
Hydrochloride; Nalmexone Hydrochloride; Namoxyrate; Nantradol
Hydrochloride; Naproxen; Naproxen Sodium; Naproxol; Nefopam
Hydrochloride; Nexeridine Hydrochloride; Noracymethadol
Hydrochloride; Ocfentanil Hydrochloride; Octazamide; Olvanil;
Oxetorone Fumarate; Oxycodone; Oxycodone Hydrochloride; Oxycodone
Terephthalate; Oxymotphone Hydrochloride; Pemedolac; Pentamorphone;
Pentazocine; Pentazocine Hydrochloride; Pentazocine Lactate;
Phenazopyridine Hydrochloride; Phenyramidol Hydrochloride;
Picenadol Hydrochloride; Pinadoline; Pirfenidone; Piroxicam
Olamine; Pravadoline Maleate; Prodilidine Hydrochloride; Profadol
Hydrochloride; Propirarn Fumarate; Propoxyphene Hydrochloride;
Propoxyphene Napsylate; Proxazole; Proxazole Citrate; Proxorphan
Tartrate; Pyrroliphene Hydrochloride; Remifentanil Hydrochloride;
Salcolex; Salethamide Maleate; Salicylamide; Salicylate Meglumine;
Salsalate; Sodium Salicylate; Spiradoline Mesylate; Sufentanil;
Sufentanil Citrate; Talmetacin; Talniflumate; Talosalate;
Tazadolene Succinate; Tebufelone; Tetrydamine; Tifurac Sodium;
Tilidine Hydrochloride; Tiopinac; Tonazoeine Mesylate; Tramadol
Hydrochloride; Trefentanil Hydrochloride; Trolamine; Veradoline
Hydrochloride; Veritopam Hydrochloride; Volazocine; Xorphanol
Mesylate; Xylazine Hydrochloride; Zenazocine Mesylate; Zomepirac
Sodium; Zucapsaicin.
[0309] Anorectic compounds including dexfenfluramine.
[0310] Anorexic: Aminorex; Amphecloral; Chlorphentermine
Hydrochloride; Clominorex; Clortennine Hydrochloride;
Diethylpropion Hydrochloride; Fenfluramine Hydrochloride;
Fenisorex; Fludorex; Fluminorex; Levamfetamine Succinate; Mazindol;
Mefenorex Hydrochloride; Phenmetrazine Hydrochloride; Phentermine;
Sibutramine Hydrochloride.
[0311] Anti-anxiety agent: Adatanserin Hydrochloride; Alpidem;
Binospirone Mesylate; Bretazenil; Glemanserin; Ipsapirone
Hydrochloride; Mirisetron Maleate; Ocinapion; Ondansetron
Hydrochloride; Panadiplon; Pancopride; Pazinaclone; Serazapine
Hydrochloride; Tandospirone Citrate; Zalospirone Hydrochloride.
[0312] Anti-cannabis agent: Rimonabant and other useful drugs,
including drugs regulating the cannabinoid receptors.
[0313] Antidepressant: Adatanserin Hydrochloride; Adinazolam;
Adinazolam Mesylate; Alaproclate; Aletamine Hydrochloride; Amedalin
Hydrochloride; Amitriptyline Hydrochloride; Amoxapine; Aptazapine
Maleate; Azaloxan Fumarate; Azepindole; Azipramine Hydrochloride;
Bipenarnol Hydrochloride; Bupropion Hydrochloride; Butacetin;
Butriptyline Hydrochloride; Caroxazone; Cartazolate; Ciclazindol;
Cidoxepin Hydrochloride; Cilobamine Mesylate; Clodazon
Hydrochloride; Clomipramine Hydrochloride; Cotinine Fumarate;
Cyclindole; Cypenamine Hydrochloride; Cyprolidol Hydrochloride;
Cyproximide; Daledalin Tosylate; Dapoxetine Hydrochloride; Dazadrol
Maleate; Dazepinil Hydrochloride; Desipramine Hydrochloride;
Dexamisole; Deximafen; Dibenzepin Hydrochloride; Dioxadrol
Hydrochloride; Dothiepin Hydrochloride; Doxepin Hydrochloride;
Duloxetine Hydrochloride; Eclanamine Maleate; Encyprate;
Etoperidone Hydrochloride; Fantridone Hydrochloride; Fehmetozole
Hydrochloride; Fenmetramide; Fezolamine Fumarate; Fluotracen
Hydrochloride; Fluoxetine; Fluoxetine Hydrochloride; Fluparoxan
Hydrochloride; Gamfexine; Guanoxyfen Sulfate; Imafen Hydrochloride;
Imiloxan Hydrochloride; Imipramine Hydrochloride; Indeloxazine
Hydrochloride; Intriptyline Hydrochloride; Iprindole;
Isocarboxazid; Ketipramine Fumarate; Lofepramine Hydrochloride;
Lortalamine; Maprotiline; Maprotiline Hydrochloride; Melitracen
Hydrochloride; Milacemide Hydrochloride; Minaprine Hydrochloride;
Mirtazapine; Moclobemide; Modaline Sulfate; Napactadine
Hydrochloride; Napamezole Hydrochloride; Nefazodone Hydrochloride;
Nisoxetine; Nitrafudam Hydrochloride; Nomifensine Maleate;
Nortriptyline Hydrochloride; Octriptyline Phosphate; Opipramol
Hydrochloride; Oxaprotiline Hydrochloride; Oxypertine; Paroxetine;
Phenelzine Sulfate; Pirandamine Hydrochloride; Pizotyline;
Pridefine Hydrochloride; Prolintane Hydrochloride; Protriptyline
Hydrochloride; Quipazine Maleate; Rolicyprine; Seproxetine
Hydrochloride; Sertraline Hydrochloride; Sibutramine Hydrochloride;
Sulpiride; Suritozole; Tametraline Hydrochloride; Tampramine
Fumarate; Tandamine Hydrochloride; Thiazesim Hydrochloride;
Thozalinone; Tomoxetine Hydrochloride; Trazodone Hydrochloride;
Trebenzomine Hydrochloride; Trimipramine; Trimipramine Maleate;
Venlafaxine Hydrochloride; Viloxazine Hydrochloride; Zimeldine
Hydrochloride; Zometapine.
[0314] Antihypertensive: Aflyzosin Hydrochloride; Alipamide;
Althiazide; Amiquinsin Hydrochloride; Amlodipine Besylate;
Amlodipine Maleate; Anaritide Acetate; Atiprosin Maleate;
Belfosdil; Bemitradine; Bendacalol Mesylate; Bendroflumethiazide;
Benzthiazide; Betaxolol Hydrochloride; Bethanidine Sulfate;
Bevantolol Hydrochloride; Biclodil Hydrochloride; Bisoprolol;
Bisoprolol Fumarate; Bucindolol Hydrochloride; Bupicomide;
Buthiazide: Candoxatril; Candoxatrilat; Captopril; Carvedilol;
Ceronapril; Chlorothiazide Sodium; Cicletanine; Cilazapril;
Clonidine; Clonidine Hydrochloride; Clopamide; Cyclopenthiazide;
Cyclothiazide; Darodipine; Debrisoquin Sulfate; Delapril
Hydrochloride; Diapamide; Diazoxide; Dilevalol Hydrochloride;
Diltiazem Malate; Ditekiren; Doxazosin Mesylate; Ecadotril;
Enalapril Maleate; Enalaprilat; Enalkiren; Endralazine Mesylate;
Epithiazide; Eprosartan; Eprosartan Mesylate; Fenoldopam Mesylate;
Flavodilol Maleate; Flordipine; Flosequinan; Fosinopril Sodium;
Fosinoprilat; Guanabenz; Guanabenz Acetate; Guanacline Sulfate;
Guanadrel Sulfate; Guancydine; Guanethidine Monosulfate;
Guanethidine Sulfate; Guanfacine Hydrochloride; Guanisoquin
Sulfate; Guanoclor Sulfate; Guanoctine Hydrochloride; Guanoxabenz;
Guanoxan Sulfate; Guanoxyfen Sulfate; Hydralazine Hydrochloride;
Hydralazine Polistirex; Hydroflumethiazide; Indacrinone;
Indapamide; Indolaprif Hydrochloride; Indoramin; Indoramin
Hydrochloride; Indorenate Hydrochloride; Lacidipine; Leniquinsin;
Levcromakalim; Lisinopril; Lofexidine Hydrochloride; Losartan
Potassium; Losulazine Hydrochloride; Mebutamate; Mecamylamine
Hydrochloride; Medroxalol; Medroxalol Hydrochloride;
Methalihiazide; Methyclothiazide; Methyldopa; Methyldopate
Hydrochloride; Metipranolol; Metolazone; Metoprolol Fumarate;
Metoprolol Succinate; Metyrosine; Minoxidil; Monatepil Maleate;
Muzolimine; Nebivolol; Nitrendipine; Ofornine; Pargyline
Hydrochloride; Pazoxide; Pelanserin Hydrochloride; Perindopril
Erbumine; Phenoxybenzamine Hydrochloride; Pinacidil; Pivopril;
Polythiazide; Prazosin Hydrochloride; Primidolol; Priziditol
Hydrochloride; Quinapril Hydrochloride; Quinaprilat; Quinazosin
Hydrochloride; Quinelorane Hydrochloride; Quinpirole Hydrochloride;
Quinuclium Bromide; Ramipril; Rauwolfia Serpentina; Reserpine;
Saprisartan Potassium; Sarabasin Acetate; Sodium Nitroprusside;
Sulfinalol Hydrochloride; Tasosartan; Teludipine Hydrochloride;
Temocapril Hydrochloride; Terazosin Hydrochloride; Terlakiren;
Tiamenidine; Tiamenidine Hydrochloride; Ticrynafen; Tinabinol;
Tiodazosin; Tipentosin Hydrochloride; Trichlormethiazide;
Trimazosin Hydrochloride; Trimethaphan Camsylate; Trimoxamine
Hydrochloride; Tripamide; Xipamide; Zankiren Hydrochloride;
Zofenoprilat Arginine.
[0315] Anti-inflammatory: Alclofenac; Alclometasone Dipropionate;
Algestone Acetonide; Alpha Amylase; Amcinafal; Amcinafide; Amfenac
Sodium; Amiprilose Hydrochloride; Anakinra; Anirolac; Anitrazafen;
Apazone; Balsalazide Disodium; Bendazac; Benoxaprofen; Benzydamine
Hydrochloride; Bromelains; Broperamole; Budesonide; Carprofen;
Cicloprofen; Cintazone; Cliprofen; Clobetasol Propionate;
Clobetasone Butyrate; Clopirac; Cloticasone Propionate;
Cormethasone Acetate; Cortodoxone; Deflazacort; Desonide;
Desoximetasone; Dexamethasone Dipropionate; Diclofenac Potassium;
Diclofenac Sodium; Diflorasone Diacetate; Diflumidone Sodium;
Diflunisal; Difluprednate; Diftalone; Dimethyl Sulfoxide;
Drocinonide; Endrysone; Enlimomab; Enolicam Sodium; Epirizole;
Etodolac; Etofenamate; Felbinac; Fenamole; Fenbufen; Fenclofenac;
Fenclorac; Fendosal; Fenpipalone; Fentiazac; Flazalone; Fluazacort;
Flufenamic Acid; Flumizole; Flunisolide Acetate; Flunixin; Flunixin
Meglumine; Fluocortin Butyl; Fluorometholone Acetate; Fluquazone;
Flurbiprofen; Fluretofen; Fluticasone Propionate; Furaprofen;
Furobufen; Halcinonide; Halobetasol Propionate; Halopredone
Acetate; Ibufenac; Ibuprofen; Ibuprofen Aluminum; Ibuprofen
Piconol; Ilonidap; Indomethacin; Indomethacin Sodium; Indoprofen;
Indoxote; Intrazole; Isoflupredone Acetate; Isoxepac; Isoxicam;
Ketoprofen; Lofemizole Hydrochloride; Lornoxicam; Loteprednol
Etabonate; Meclofenamate Sodium; Meclofenamic Acid; Meclorisone
Dibutyrate; Mefenamic Acid; Mesalamine; Meseclazone;
Methylprednisolone Suleptanaic; Momiflumate; Nabumetone; Naproxen;
Naproxen Sodium; Naproxol; Nimazone; Olsalazine Sodium; Orgotein;
Orpanoxin; Oxaprozin; Oxyphenbutazone; Paranyline Hydrochloride;
Pentosan Polysulfate Sodium; Phenbutazone Sodium Glycerate;
Pirfenidone; Piroxicam; Piroxicam Cinnamate; Piroxicam Olamine;
Pirprofen; Prednazate; Prifelone; Prodotic Acid; Proquazone;
Proxazole; Proxazole Citrate; Rimexolone; Romazarit; Salcolex;
Salnacedin; Salsalate; Sanguinarium Chloride; Seclazone;
Sermetacin; Sudoxicam; Sulindac; Suprofen; Talmetacin;
Talniflumate; Talosalate; Tebufelone; Tenidap; Tenidap Sodium;
Tenoxicam; Tesicam; Tesimide; Tetrydamine; Tiopinac; Tixocortol
Pivalate; Tolmetin; Tolmetin Sodium; Triclonide; Triflumidate;
Zidometacin; Zomepirac Sodium.
[0316] Antinauseant: Buclizine Hydrochloride; Cyclizine Lactate;
Naboctate Hydrochloride.
[0317] Antineutropenic: Filgrastim; Lenograstim; Molgramostim;
Regramostim; Sargramostim.
[0318] Antiobsessional agent: Fluvoxamine Maleate.
[0319] Antiparkinsonian: Benztropine Mesylate; Biperiden; Biperiden
Hydrochloride; Biperiden Lactate; Carmantadine; Ciladopa
Hydrochloride; Dopamantine; Ethopropazine Hydrochloride;
Lazabemide; Levodopa; Lometraline Hydrochloride; Mofegiline
Hydrochloride; Naxagolide Hydrochloride; Pareptide Sulfate;
Procyclidine Hydrochloride; Quinetorane Hydrochloride; Ropinirole
Hydrochloride; Selegiline Hydrochloride; Tolcapone; Trihexyphenidyl
Hydrochloride, Antiperistaltic; Difenoximide Hydrochloride;
Difenoxin; Diphenoxylate Hydrochloride; Fluperamide; Lidamidine
Hydrochloride; Loperamide Hydrochloride; Malethamer; Nufenoxole;
Paregoric.
[0320] Antipsychotic: Acetophenazine Maleate; Alentemol
Hydrobromide; Alpertine; Azaperone; Batelapine Maleate; Benperidol;
Benzindopyrine Hydrochloride; Brofbxine; Bromperidol; Bromperidol
Decanoate; Butaclamol Hydrochloride; Butaperazine; Butaperazine
Maleate; Carphenazine Maleate; Carvotroline Hydrochloride;
Chlorpromazine; Chlorpromazine Hydrochloride; Chlorprothixene;
Cinperene; Cintriamide; Clomacran Phosphate; Clopenthixol;
Clopimozide; Clopipazan Mesytate; Cloroperone Hydrochloride;
Clothiapine; Clothixamide Maleate; Clozapine; Cyclophenazine
Hydrochloride; Droperidol; Etazolate Hydrochloride; Fenimide;
Flucindole; Flumezapine; Fluphenazine Decanoate; Fluphenazine
Enanthate; Fluphenazine Hydrochloride; Fluspiperone; Fluspirilene;
Flutroline; Gevotrohne Hydrochloride; Halopemide; Haloperidol;
Haloperidol Decanoate; lloperidone; lmidoline Hydrochloride;
Lenperone; Mazapertine Succinate; Mesoridazine; Mesoridazine
Besylate; Metiapine; Milenperone; Milipertine; Molindone
Hydrochloride; Naranol Hydrochloride; Neflumozide Hydrochloride;
Ocaperidone; Olanzapine; Oxiperomide; Penfluridol; Pentiapine
Maleate; Perphenazine; Pimozide; Pinoxepin Hydrochloride;
Pipamperone; Piperacetazine; Pipotiazine Palniitate; Piquindone
Hydrochloride; Prochlorperazine Edisylate; Prochlorperazine
Maleate; Promazine Hydrochloride; Remoxipride; Remoxipride
Hydrochloride; Rimcazole Hydrochloride; Seperidol Hydrochloride;
Sertindole; Setoperone; Spiperone; Thioridazine; Thioridazine
Hydrochloride; Thiothixene; Thiothixene Hydrochloride; Tioperidone
Hydrochloride; Tiospirone Hydrochloride; Trifluoperazine
Hydrochloride; Trifluperidol; Triflupromazine; Triflupromazine
Hydrochloride; Ziprasidone Hydrochloride.
[0321] Appetite suppressant: Dexfenfluramine Hydrochloride;
Phendimetrazine Tartrate; Phentermine Hydrochloride.
[0322] Blood glucose regulators: Human insulin; Glucagon;
Tolazamide; Tolbutamide; Chloropropamide; Acetohexamide and
Glipizide.
[0323] Carbonic anhydrase inhibitor: Acetazolamide; Acetazolamide
Sodium, Dichlorphenamide; Dorzolamide Hydrochloride; Methazolamide;
Sezolarmide Hydrochloride.
[0324] Cardiac depressant: Acecainide Hydrochloride; Acetylcholine
Chloride; Actisomide; Adenosine; Amiodarone; Aprindine; Aprindine
Hydrochloride; Artilide Fumarate; Azimilide Dihydrochloride;
Bidisomide; Bucainide Maleate; Bucromarone; Butoprozine
Hydrochloride; Capobenate Sodium; Capobenic Acid; Cifenline;
Cifenline Succinate; Clofilium Phosphate; Disobutamide;
Disopyramide; Disopyramide Phosphate; Dofetilide; Drobuline;
Edifolone Acetate; Emilium Tosylate; Encainide Hydrochloride;
Flecainide Acetate; Ibutilide Fumarate; Indecainide Hydrochloride;
Ipazilide Fumarate; Lorajmine Hydrochloride; Lorcainide
Hydrochloride; Meobentine Sulfate; Mexiletine Hydrochloride;
Modecainide; Moricizine; Oxiramide; Pirmenol Hydrochloride;
Pirolazamide; Pranolium Chloride; Procainamide Hydrochloride;
Propafenone Hydrochloride; Pyrinoline; Quindonium Bromide;
Quinidine Gluconate; Quinidine Sulfate; Recainam Hydrochloride;
Recainam Tosylate; Risotilide Hydrochloride; Ropitoin
Hydrochloride; Sematilide Hydrochloride; Suricainide Maleate;
Tocainide; Tocainide Hydrochloride; Transcainide.
[0325] Cardiotonic: Actodigin; Amrinone; Bemoradan; Butopamine;
Carbazeran; Carsatrin Succinate; Deslanoside; Digitalis; Digitoxin;
Digoxin; Dobutamine; Dobutamine Hydrochloride; Dobutamine
Lactobionate; Dobutamine Tartrate; Enoximone; Imazodan
Hydrochloride; lndolidan; Isomazole Hydrochloride; Levdobutamine
Lactobionate; Lixazinone Sulfate; Medorinone; Milrinone; Pelrinone
Hydrochloride; Pimobendan; Piroximone; Prinoxodan; Proscillaridin;
Quazinone; Tazolol Hydrochloride; Vesnarinone.
[0326] Cardiovascular agent: Dopexamine; Dopexamine
Hydrochloride.
[0327] Choleretic: Dehydrocholic Acid; Fencibutirol; Hymecromone;
Piprozolin; Sincalide; Tocamphyl.
[0328] Cholinergic: Aceclidine; Bethanechol Chloride; Carbachol;
Demecarium Bromide; Dexpanthenol; Echothiophate Iodide;
Isofturophate; Methacholine Chloride; Neostigmine Bromide;
Neostigmine Methylsulfate; Physostigmine; Physostigmine Salicylate;
Physostigmine Sulfite; Pilocarpine; Pilocarpine Hydrochloride;
Pilocarpine Nitrate; Pyridostigmine Bromide.
[0329] Cholinergic agonist: Xanomeline; Xanomeline Tartrate.
[0330] Cholinesterase Deactivator: Obidoxime Chloride; Pralidoxime
Chloride; Pralidoxime Iodide; Pralidoxime Mesylate.
[0331] Coccidiostat: Arprinocid; Narasin; Semduramicin;
Semduramicin Sodium.
[0332] Cognition adjuvant: Ergoloid Mesylates; Piracetam;
Pramiracetam Hydrochloride; Pramiracetam Sulfate; Tacrine
Hydrochloride.
[0333] Cognition enhancer: Besipirdine Hydrochloride; Linopirdine;
Sibopirdine.
[0334] Dopamine receptor agonist: cabergoline (Dostinex)
[0335] Hormone: Diethylstilbestrol; Progesterone; 17-hydroxy
progesterone; Medroxyprogesterone; Norgestrel; Norethynodrel;
Estradiol; Megestrol (Megace); Norethindrone; Levonorgestrel;
Ethyndiol; Ethinyl estradiol; Mestranol; Estrone; Equilin;
17-alpha-dihydroequitin; equilenin; 17-alpha-dihydroequilenin;
17-alpha-estradiol; 17-beta-estradiol; Leuprolide (lupron);
Glucagon; Testolactone; Clomiphene; Han menopausal gonadotropins;
Human chorionic gonadotropin; Urofollitropin; Bromocriptine;
Gonadorelin; Luteinizing hormone releasing hormone and analogs;
Gonadotropins; Danazol; Testosterone; Dehydroepiandrosterone;
Androstenedione; Dihydroestosteronc; Relaxin; Oxytocin;
Vasopressin; Folliculostatin; Follicle regulatory protein;
Gonadoctrinins; Oocyte maturation inhibitor; Insulin growth factor;
Follicle Stimulating Hormone; Luteinizing hormone; Tamoxifen;
Corticorelin Ovine Triftutate; Cosyntropin; Metogest; Pituitary,
Posterior; Seractide Acetate; Somalapor; Somatrem; Somatropin;
Somenopor; Somidobove.
[0336] Memory adjuvant: Dimoxamine Hydrochloride; Ribaminol.
[0337] Mental performance enhancer: Aniracetam.
[0338] Mood regulator: Fengabine.
[0339] Neuroleptic: Duoperone Fumarate; Risperidone.
[0340] Neuroprotective: Dizocilpine Maleate.
[0341] Psychotropic: Minaprine.
[0342] Relaxant: Adiphenine Hydrochloride; Alcuronium Chloride;
Aminophylline; Azumolene Sodium; Baclofen; Benzoctamine
Hydrochloride; Carisoprodol; Chlorphenesin Carbamate;
Chlorzoxazone; Cinflumide; Cinnamedrine; Clodanolene;
Cyclobenzaprine Hydrochloride; Dantrolene; Dantrolene Sodium;
Fenalanide; Fenyripol Hydrochloride; Fetoxylate Hydrochloride;
Flavoxate Hydrochloride; Fletazepam; Flumetramide; Flurazepam
Hydrochloride; Hexafluorenium Bromide; Isomylamine Hydrochloride;
Lorbamate; Mebeverine Hydrochloride; Mesuprine Hydrochloride;
Metaxalone; Methocarbarnol; Methixene Hydrochloride; Nafomine
Malate; Nelezaprine Maleate; Papaverine Hydrochloride; Pipoxolan
Hydrochloride; Quinctolate; Ritodrine; Ritodrine Hydrochloride;
Rolodine; Theophylline Sodium Glycinate; Thiphenamil Hydrochloride;
Xitobam.
[0343] Sedative-hypnotic: Allobarbital; Alonimid; Alprazolam;
Amobarbital Sodium; Bentazepam; Brotizolam; Butabarbital;
Butabarbital Sodium; Butalbital; Capuride; Carboclorah Chloral
Betaine; Chloral Hydrate; Chlordiazepoxide Hydrochloride;
Cloperidone Hydrochloride; Clorethate; Cyprazepam; Dexclamol
Hydrochloride; Diazepam; Dichloralphenazone; Estazolam;
Ethchlorvynol; Etomidate; Fenoham; Flunitrazepam; Fosazepam;
Glutethimide; Halazepam; Lormetazepam; Mecloqualone; Meprobamate;
Methaqualone; Midaflur; Paraldehyde; Pentobarbital; Pentobarbital
Sodium; Perlapine; Prazepam; Quazepam; Reclazepam; Roletamide;
Secobarbital; Secobarbital Sodium; Suproclone; Thalidomide;
Tracazolate; Trepipam Maleate; Triazolam; Tricetamide; Triclofos
Sodium; Trimetozine; Uldazepam; Zaleplon; Zolazepam Hydrochloride;
Zolpidem Tartrate.
[0344] Serotonin antagonist: Altanserir Tartrate; Amesergide;
Ketanserin; Ritanserin.
[0345] Serotonin inhibitor: Cinanserin Hydrochloride; Fenclonine;
Fonazine Mesylate; Xylamidine Tosylate.
[0346] Serotonin receptor antagonist: Tropanserin
Hydrochloride.
[0347] Stimulant: Amfonelic Acid; Amphetamine Sulfate; Ampyzine
Sulfate; Arbutamine Hydrochloride; Azabon; Caffeine; Ceruletide;
Ceruletide Diethylamine; Cisapride; Dazopride Fumarate;
Dextroamphetamine; Dextroamphetamine Sulfate; Difluanine
Hydrochloride; Dimefline Hydrochloride; Doxapram Hydrochloride;
Etryptamine Acetate; Ethamivan; Fenethylline Hydrochloride;
Flubanilate Hydrochloride; Flurothyl; Histamine Phosphate;
Indriline Hydrochloride; Mefexamide; Methamphetamine Hydrochloride;
Methylphenidate Hydrochloride; Pemoline; Pyrovalerone
Hydrochloride; Xamoterol; Xamoterol Fumarate Synergist; Proadifen
Hydrochloride.
[0348] Thyroid hormone: Levothyroxine Sodium; Liothyronine Sodium;
Liotrix.
[0349] Thyroid inhibitor: Methimazole; Propyithiouracil.
[0350] Thyromimetic: Thyromedan Hydrochloride.
[0351] Cerebral ischemic agents: Dextrorphan Hydrochloride.
[0352] Vasoconstrictor: Angiotensin Amide; Felypressin;
Methysergide; Methysergide Maleate.
[0353] Vasodilator: Alprostadil; Azaclorzine Hydrochloride;
Bamethan Sulfate; Bepridil Hydrochloride; Buterizine; Cetiedil
Citrate; Chrorronar Hydrochloride; Clonitrate; Diltiazem
Hydrochloride; Dipyridamole; Droprenilamine; Erythrityl
Tetranitrate; Felodipine; Flunarizine Hydrochloride; Fostedil;
Hexobendine; Inositol Niacinate; Iproxamine Hydrochloride;
Isosorbide Dinitrate; Isosorbide Mononitrate; Isoxsuprine
Hydrochloride; Lidoflazine; Mefenidil; Mefenidil Fumarate;
Mibefradil Dihydrochloride; Miofiazine Hydrochloride; Mixidine;
Nafronyl Oxalate; Nicardipine Hydrochloride; Nicergoline;
Nicorandil; Nicotinyl Alcohol; Nifedipine; Nimodipine; Nisoldipine;
Oxfenicine; Oxprenolol Hydrochloride; Pentaerythritol Tetranitrate;
Pentoxifylline; Pentrinitrol; Perhexiline Maleate; Pindolol;
Pirsidomine; Prenylamine; Propatyl Nitrate; Suloctidil; Terodiline
Hydrochloride; Tipropidil Hydrochloride; Tolazoline Hydrochloride;
Xanthinol Niacinate.
[0354] Assays and methods for testing compounds of the invention
are described herein or are known in the art. For example, see
Lippa et al., U.S. Pat. Pub. No. 2006/0173-64, published Aug. 3,
2006.
[0355] The invention further encompasses treating and preventing
obesity, i.e., for affecting weight loss and preventing weight
gain. Obesity is a disorder characterized by the accumulation of
excess fat in the body. Obesity has been recognized as one of the
leading causes of disease and is emerging as a global problem.
Increased instances of complications such as hypertension, non
insulin dependent diabetes mellitus, arteriosclerosis,
dyslipidemia, certain forms of cancer, sleep apnea, and
osteoarthritis have been related to increased instances of obesity
in the general population In one aspect, the invention encompasses
administering to a subject in need thereof a combination therapy to
induce weight loss. For example, subjects having a BMI of greater
than about 25 (25.0-29.9 is considered overweight) are identified
for treatment. In one aspect, the individuals have a BMI of greater
than 30 (30 and above is considered obese). In another aspect, a
subject may be targeted for treatment to prevent weight gain. In
one embodiment, an individual is instructed to take at least one
compound of the invention at least once daily and at least a second
compound of the invention at least once daily. The compound may be
in the form of, for example, a tablet, a lozenge, a liquid, etc. In
one aspect, a third compound is also taken daily. In one
embodiment, compounds may be taken more than once daily. In another
embodiment, compounds are taken less than once daily. The dosages
can be determined based on what is known in the art or what is
determined to be best for a subject of that age, sex, health,
weight, etc. Compounds useful for treating obesity according to the
methods of the invention, include, but are not limited to,
topiramate, naltrexone, and ondansetron. See Weber (U.S. Pat. Pub.
No. 20070275970) and McElroy (U.S. Pat. No. 6,323,236) for
additional information and techniques for administering drugs
useful for treating obesity, addictive disorders, and impulse
control disorders, and for determining dosage schemes.
[0356] Pharmaceutically-acceptable base addition salts can be
prepared from inorganic and organic bases. Salts derived from
inorganic bases, include by way of example only, sodium, potassium,
lithium, ammonium, calcium and magnesium salts. Salts derived from
organic bases include, but are not limited to, salts of primary,
secondary and tertiary amines, such as alkyl amines, dialkyl
amines, trialkyl amines, substituted alkyl amines, di(substituted
alkyl) amines, tri(substituted alkyl) amines, alkenyl amines,
dialkenyl amines, trialkenyl amines, substituted alkenyl amines,
di(substituted alkenyl) amines, tri(substituted alkenyl) amines,
cycloalkyl amines, di(cycloalkyl) amines, tri(cycloalkyl) amines,
substituted cycloalkyl amines, disubstituted cycloalkyl amines,
trisubstituted cycloalkyl amines, cycloalkenyl amines,
di(cycloalkenyl) amines, tri(cycloalkenyl) amines, substituted
cycloalkenyl amines, disubstituted cycloalkenyl amines,
trisubstituted cycloalkenyl amines, aryl amines, diaryl amines,
triaryl amines, heteroaryl amines, diheteroaryl amines,
triheteroaryl amines, heterocyclic amines, diheterocyclic amines,
triheterocyclic amines, mixed di- and tri-amines where at least two
of the substituents on the amine are different and are selected
from the group consisting of alkyl, substituted alkyl, alkenyl,
substituted alkenyl, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl,
cycloalkenyl, substituted cycloalkenyl, aryl, heteroaryl,
heterocyclic, and the like. Also included are amines where the two
or three substituents, together with the amino nitrogen, form a
heterocyclic or heteroaryl group. Examples of suitable amines
include, by way of example only, isopropylamine, trimethyl amine,
diethyl amine, tri(iso-propyl) amine, tri(n-propyl) amine,
ethanolamine, 2-dimethylaminoethanol, tromethamine, lysine,
arginine, histidine, caffeine, procaine, hydrabamine, choline,
betaine, ethylenediamine, glucosamine, N-alkylglucamines,
theobromine, purines, piperazine, piperidine, morpholine,
N-ethylpiperidine, and the like. It should also be understood that
other carboxylic acid derivatives would be useful in the practice
of this invention, for example, carboxylic acid amides, including
carboxamides, lower alkyl carboxamides, dialkyl carboxamides, and
the like.
[0357] Pharmaceutically acceptable acid addition salts may be
prepared from inorganic and organic acids. Salts derived from
inorganic acids include hydrochloric acid, hydrobromic acid,
sulfuric acid, nitric acid, phosphoric acid, and the like. Salts
derived from organic acids include acetic acid, propionic acid,
glycolic acid, pyruvic acid, oxalic acid, malic acid, malonic acid,
succinic acid, maleic acid, fumaric acid, tartaric acid, citric
acid, benzoic acid, cinnamic acid, mandelic acid, methanesulfonic
acid, ethanesulfonic acid, p-toluene-sulfonic acid, salicylic acid,
and the like.
[0358] Psychosocial Intervention and Management
[0359] The drug combination treatments of the present invention can
be further supplemented by providing to subjects a form of
psychosocial intervention and/or management, such as Brief
Behavioral Compliance Enhancement Treatment (BBCET). BBCET, a
standardized, manual-guided, brief (i.e., delivered in about 15
minutes), psychosocial adherence enhancement procedure, emphasizes
that medication compliance is crucial to changing participants'
drinking behavior (Johnson et al., Brief Behavioral Compliance
Enhancement Treatment (BBCET) manual. In: Johnson B A, Ruiz P,
Galanter M, eds. Handbook of clinical alcoholism treatment.
Baltimore, Md.: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2003, 282-301).
Brief interventions (Edwards et al., J. Stud. Alcohol. 1977,
38:1004-103:1) such as BBCET, have been shown to benefit treatment
of alcohol dependence. BBCET was modeled on the clinical management
condition in the National Institute of Mental Health collaborative
depression trial, which was used as an adjunct to the medication
condition for that study (Fawcett et al. Psychopharmacol Bull.
1987, 23:309-324). BBCET has been used successfully as the
psychosocial treatment platform in the single-site and multi-site
efficacy trials of topiramate for treating alcohol dependence
(Johnson et al., Lancet. 2003, 361:1677-1685; Johnson et al., JAMA,
2007, 298:1641-1651). It is delivered by trained clinicians,
including nurse practitioners and other non-specialists. Uniformity
and consistency of BBCET delivery are ensured by ongoing training
and supervision. BBCET is copyrighted material (Johnson et al.,
Brief Behavioral Compliance Enhancement Treatment (BBCET) manual,
In: Johnson B A, Ruiz P, Galanter M, eds. Handbook of clinical
alcoholism treatment. Baltimore, Md.: Lippincott Williams &
Wilkins; 2003, 282-301).
[0360] The present invention further encompasses the use of
psychosocial management regimens other than BBCET, including, but
not limited to, Cognitive Behavioral Coping Skills Therapy (CBT)
(Project MATCH Research Group. Matching Alcoholism Treatments to
Client Heterogeneity: Project MATCH posttreatment drinking
outcomes. J Stud Alcohol. 1997; 58:7-29), Motivational Enhancement
Therapy (MET) (Project MATCH Research Group. Matching Alcoholism
Treatments to Client Heterogeneity: Project MATCH posttreatment
drinking outcomes. J. Stud. Alcohol. 1997, 58:7-29), Twelve-Step
Facilitation Therapy (TSF) (Project MATCH Research Group. Matching
Alcoholism Treatments to Client Heterogeneity: Project MATCH
posttreatment drinking outcomes. J. Stud. Alcohol. 1997, 58:7-29),
Combined Behavioral Intervention (CBI), (Anton et al., JAMA, 2006,
295:2003-2017) Medical Management (MM) (Anton et at., JAMA, 2006,
295:2003-2017), or the Biopsychosocial, Report, Empathy, Needs,
Direct advice, and Assessment (BRENDA) model (Garbutt et al., JAMA,
2005, 293:1617-1625). The present invention further encompasses the
use of alternative interventions such as hypnosis or acupuncture to
assist in treating an addictive disease or disorder.
[0361] The psychosocial management programs can be used before,
during, and after treating the subject with the combination drug
therapy of the invention.
[0362] One of ordinary skill in the art will recognize that
psychosocial management procedures, as well as alternative
interventions such as hypnosis or acupuncture, can also be used in
conjunction with combination drug therapy to treat addictive and
impulse-related disorders other than alcohol-related diseases and
disorders.
[0363] The present invention further encompasses the use of
combination pharmacotherapy and behavioral (psychosocial)
intervention or training to treat other addictive and/or impulse
control disorders.
[0364] For example, binge eating disorder (BED) is characterized by
discrete periods of binge eating during which large amounts of food
are consumed in a discrete period of time and a sense of control
over eating is absent. Persons with bulimia nervosa have been
reported to have electroencephalographic abnormalities and to
display reduced binge eating in response to the anti-epileptic drug
phenytoin. In addition, in controlled trials in patients with
epilepsy, topiramate was associated with suppression of appetite
and weight loss unrelated to binge eating. Ondansetron has been
shown to reduce binge eating.
[0365] BED is a subset of a larger classification of mental
disorders broadly defined as Impulse Control Disorders (ICDs)
characterized by harmful behaviors performed in response to
irresistible impulses. It has been suggested that ICDs may be
related to Obsessive-compulsive disorder or similarly, maybe forms
of obsessive-compulsive disorders. It has also been hypothesized
that ICDs may be related to mood disorder or may be forms of
affective spectrum disorder, a hypothesized family of disorders
sharing at least one common physiologic abnormality with major
depression. In the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
Disorders (DSM-IV), the essential feature of an ICD is the failure
to resist an impulse, drive, or temptation to perform an act that
is harmful to the person or to others. For most ICDs, the
individual feels an increasing sense of tension or arousal before
committing the act, and then experiences pleasure, gratification,
or release at the time of committing the act. After the act is
performed, there may or may not be regret or guilt. ICDs are listed
in a residual category, the ICDs Not Elsewhere Classified, which
includes intermittent explosive disorder (IED), kleptomania,
pathological gambling, pyromania, trichotillomania, and ICDs not
otherwise specified (NOS). Examples of ICDs NOS are compulsive
buying or shopping, repetitive self-mutilation, nonparaphilic
sexual addictions, severe nail biting, compulsive skin picking,
personality disorders with impulsive features, attention
deficit/hyperactivity disorder, eating disorders characterized by
binge eating, and substance use disorders.
[0366] Many drugs can cause physical and/or psychological
addiction. Those most well known drugs include opiates, such as
heroin, opium and morphine; sympathomimetics, including cocaine and
amphetamines; sedative-hypnotics, including alcohol,
benzodiazepines, and barbiturates; and nicotine, which has effects
similar to opioids and sympathomimetics. Drug addiction is
characterized by a craving or compulsion for taking the drug and an
inability to limit its intake. Additionally, drug dependence is
associated with drug tolerance, the loss of effect of the drug
following repeated administration, and withdrawal, the appearance
of physical and behavioral symptoms when the drug is not consumed.
Sensitization occurs if repeated administration of a drug leads to
an increased response to each dose. Tolerance, sensitization, and
withdrawal are phenomena evidencing a change in the central nervous
system resulting from continued use of the drug. This change
motivates the addicted individual to continue consuming the drug
despite serious social, legal, physical, and/or professional
consequences.
[0367] Attention-deficit disorders include, but are not limited to,
Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder, Predominately Inattentive
Type; Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder, Predominately
Hyperactivity-Impulsive Type; Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity
Disorder, Combined Type; Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
not otherwise specified (NOS); Conduct Disorder; Oppositional
Defiant Disorder; and Disruptive Behavior Disorder not otherwise
specified (NOS).
[0368] Depressive disorders include, but are not limited to, Major
Depressive Disorder, Recurrent; Dysthymic Disorder; Depressive
Disorder not otherwise specified (NOS); and Major Depressive
Disorder, Single Episode.
[0369] Parkinson's disease includes, but is not limited to,
neuroleptic-induced parkinsonism.
[0370] Addictive disorders include, but are not limited to, eating
disorders, impulse control disorders, alcohol-related disorders,
nicotine-related disorders, amphetamine-related disorders,
cannabis-related disorders, cocaine-related disorders, gambling,
sexual disorders, hallucinogen use disorders, inhalant-related
disorders, and opioid-related disorders, all of which arc further
subclassified as listed below.
[0371] Eating disorders include, but are not limited to, Bulimia
Nervosa, Nonpurging Type; Bulimia Nervosa, Purging Type; and Eating
Disorder not otherwise specified (NOS).
[0372] Impulse control disorders include, but are not limited to,
intermittent Explosive Disorder, Kleptomania, Pyromania,
Pathological Gambling, Trichotillomania, and Impulse Control
Disorder not otherwise specified (NOS).
[0373] Nicotine-related disorders include, but are not limited to,
Nicotine Dependence, Nicotine Withdrawal, and Nicotine-Related
Disorder not otherwise specified (NOS).
[0374] Amphetamine-related disorders include, but are not limited
to, Amphetamine Dependence, Amphetamine Abuse, Amphetamine
Intoxication, Amphetamine Withdrawal, Amphetamine Intoxication
Delirium, Amphetamine-Induced Psychotic Disorder with delusions,
Amphetamine-Induced Psychotic Disorders with hallucinations,
Amphetamine-Induced Mood Disorder, Amphetamine-Induced Anxiety
Disorder, Amphetamine-Induced Sexual Dysfunction,
Amphetamine-Induced Sleep Disorder, Amphetamine Related Disorder
not otherwise specified (NOS), Amphetamine Intoxication, and
Amphetamine Withdrawal.
[0375] Cannabis-related disorders include, but are not limited to,
Cannabis Dependence; Cannabis Abuse; Cannabis Intoxication;
Cannabis Intoxication Delirium; Cannabis-Induced Psychotic
Disorder, with delusions; Cannabis-Induced Psychotic Disorder with
hallucinations; Cannabis-Induced Anxiety Disorder; Cannabis-Related
Disorder not otherwise specified (NOS); and Cannabis
intoxication.
[0376] Cocaine-related disorders include, but are not limited to,
Cocaine Dependence, Cocaine Abuse, Cocaine Intoxication, Cocaine
Withdrawal, Cocaine Intoxication Delirium, Cocaine-Induced
Psychotic Disorder with delusions, Cocaine-Induced Psychotic
Disorders with hallucinations, Cocaine-Induced Mood Disorder,
Cocaine-Induced Anxiety Disorder, Cocaine-Induced Sexual
Dysfunction, Cocaine-Induced Sleep Disorder, Cocaine-Related
Disorder not otherwise specified (NOS), Cocaine Intoxication, and
Cocaine Withdrawal.
[0377] Hallucinogen-use disorders include, but are not limited to,
Hallucinogen Dependence, Hallucinogen Abuse, Hallucinogen
Intoxication, Hallucinogen Withdrawal, Hallucinogen Intoxication
Delirium, Hallucinogen-Induced Psychotic Disorder with delusions,
Hallucinogen-Induced Psychotic Disorder with hallucinations,
Hallucinogen-Induced Mood Disorder, Hallucinogen-Induced Anxiety
Disorder, Hallucinogen-Induced Sexual Dysfunction,
Hallucinogen-Induced Sleep Disorder, Hallucinogen Related Disorder
not otherwise specified (NOS), Hallucinogen Intoxication, and
Hallucinogen Persisting Perception Disorder (Flashbacks).
[0378] Inhalant-related disorders include, but are not limited to,
Inhalant Dependence; Inhalant Abuse; Inhalant Intoxication;
Inhalant Intoxication Delirium, Inhalant-Induced Psychotic
Disorder, with delusions; Inhalant-Induced Psychotic Disorder with
hallucinations; Inhalant-Induced Anxiety Disorder; Inhalant-Related
Disorder not otherwise specified (NOS); and Inhalant
intoxication.
[0379] Opioid-related disorders include, but are not limited to,
Opioid Dependence, Opioid Abuse, Opioid Intoxication, Opioid
Intoxication Delirium, Opioid-Induced Psychotic Disorder, with
delusions, Opioid-Induced Psychotic Disorder with hallucinations,
Opioid-Induced Anxiety Disorder, Opioid-Related Disorder not
otherwise specified (NOS), Opioid Intoxication, and Opioid
Withdrawal.
[0380] Tic disorders include, but are not limited to, Tourette's
Disorder, Chronic Motor or Vocal Tic Disorder, Transient Tic
Disorder, Tie Disorder not otherwise specified (NOS), Stuttering,
Autistic Disorder, and Somatization Disorder.
[0381] The present invention further encompasses the treatment of
at least two addictive diseases or disorders or impulse control
disorders simultaneously. For example, the present invention
provides for the simultaneous treatment of alcohol related
disorders and weight control (see Examples).
[0382] The present invention also encompasses the use of the
compounds and combination therapies of the invention in
circumstances where mandatory treatment may be applicable. For
example, a court may require that a subject be treated or take part
in a treatment program using compounds or combination therapies of
the invention as part of a mandated therapy related to alcohol
abuse, excessive drinking, drug use, etc. More particularly, the
invention encompasses forensic uses where a court would require a
subject who has been convicted of driving under the influence to be
subjected to the methods of the invention as part of a condition of
bail, probation, treatment, etc.
[0383] The invention also encompasses the use of pharmaceutical
compositions comprising compounds of the invention to practice the
methods of the invention, the compositions comprising at least one
appropriate compound and a pharmaceutically-acceptable carrier.
[0384] Other methods useful for the practice of the invention can
be found, for example, in U.S. Pat. Pub. No. 2006/0173064 (Lippa et
al.), U.S. Pat. No. 6,323,236 (McElroy), U.S. Pat. Pub. No.
2007/0275970, PCT application PCT/US/2008/052628 (Johnson et al.)
filed Jan. 31, 2008, and PCT application PCT/US/2007/088100
(Johnson and Tiouririne), filed Dec. 19, 2007.
[0385] In one embodiment, a composition of the invention may
comprise one compound of the invention. In another embodiment, a
composition of the invention may comprise more than one compound of
the invention. In one embodiment, additional drugs or compounds
useful for treating other disorders may be part of the composition.
In one embodiment, a composition comprising only one compound of
the invention may be administered at the same time as another
composition comprising at least one other compound of the
invention. In one embodiment, the different compositions may be
administered at different times from one another. When a
composition of the invention comprises only one compound of the
invention, an additional composition comprising at least one
additional compound must also be used.
[0386] The pharmaceutical compositions useful for practicing the
invention may be, for example, administered to deliver a dose of
between 1 ng/kg/day and 100 mg/kg/day.
[0387] Pharmaceutical compositions that arc useful in the methods
of the invention may be administered, for example, systemically in
oral solid formulations, or as ophthalmic, suppository, aerosol,
topical or other similar formulations. In addition to the
appropriate compounds, such pharmaceutical compositions may contain
pharmaceutically-acceptable carriers and other ingredients known to
enhance and facilitate drug administration. Other possible
formulations, such as nanoparticles, liposomes, resealed
erythrocytes, and immunologically based systems may also be used to
administer an appropriate compound, or an analog, modification, or
derivative thereof according to the methods of the invention.
[0388] Compounds which are identified using any of the methods
described herein may be formulated and administered to a subject
for treatment of the diseases disclosed herein. One of ordinary
skill in the art will recognize that these methods will be useful
for other diseases, disorders, and conditions as well.
[0389] A "prodrug" refers to an agent that is converted into the
parent drug in vivo. Prodrugs are often useful because, in some
situations, they may be easier to administer than the parent drug.
They may, for instance, be bioavailable by oral administration
whereas the parent is not. The prodrug may also have improved
solubility in pharmaceutical compositions over the parent drug, or
may demonstrate increased palatability or be easier to formulate.
An example, without limitation, of a prodrug would be a compound of
the present invention which is administered as an ester (the
"prodrug") to facilitate transmittal across a cell membrane where
water solubility is detrimental to mobility but which then is
metabolically hydrolyzed to the carboxylic acid, the active entity,
once inside the cell where water-solubility is beneficial. A
further example of a prodrug might be a short peptide
(polyaminoacid) bonded to an acid group where the peptide is
metabolized to provide the active moiety.
[0390] The invention encompasses the preparation and use of
pharmaceutical compositions comprising a compound useful for
treatment of the diseases disclosed herein as an active ingredient.
Such a pharmaceutical composition may consist of the active
ingredient alone, in a form suitable for administration to a
subject, or the pharmaceutical composition may comprise the active
ingredient and one or more pharmaceutically acceptable carriers,
one or more additional ingredients, or some combination of these.
The active ingredient may be present in the pharmaceutical
composition in the form of a physiologically acceptable ester or
salt, such as in combination with a physiologically acceptable
cation or anion, as is well known in the art.
[0391] The formulations of the pharmaceutical compositions
described herein may be prepared by any method known or hereafter
developed in the art of pharmacology. In general, such preparatory
methods include the step of bringing the active ingredient into
association with a carrier or one or more other accessory
ingredients, and then, if necessary or desirable, shaping or
packaging the product into a desired single- or multi-dose
unit.
[0392] Although the descriptions of pharmaceutical compositions
provided herein are principally directed to pharmaceutical
compositions which are suitable for ethical administration to
humans, it will be understood by the skilled artisan that such
compositions are generally suitable for administration to animals
of all sorts. Modification of pharmaceutical compositions suitable
for administration to humans in order to render the compositions
suitable for administration to various animals is well understood,
and the ordinarily skilled veterinary pharmacologist can design and
perform such modification with merely ordinary, if any,
experimentation. Subjects to which administration of the
pharmaceutical compositions of the invention is contemplated
include, but are not limited to, humans and other primates, mammals
including commercially relevant mammals such as cattle, pigs,
horses, sheep, cats, and dogs, and birds including commercially
relevant birds such as chickens, ducks, geese, and turkeys.
[0393] One type of administration encompassed by the methods of the
invention is parenteral administration, which includes, but is not
limited to, administration of a pharmaceutical composition by
injection of the composition, by application of the composition
through a surgical incision, by application of the composition
through a tissue-penetrating non-surgical wound, and the like. In
particular, parenteral administration is contemplated to include,
but is not limited to, subcutaneous, intraperitoneal,
intramuscular, and infrasternal injection, and kidney dialytic
infusion techniques
[0394] Pharmaceutical compositions that are useful in the methods
of the invention may be prepared, packaged, or sold in formulations
suitable for oral, rectal, vaginal, parenteral, topical, pulmonary,
intranasal, inhalation, buccal, ophthalmic, intrathecal or another
route of administration. Other contemplated formulations include
projected nanoparticles, liposomal preparations, resealed
erythrocytes containing active ingredient, and
immunologically-based formulations.
[0395] A pharmaceutical composition of the invention may be
prepared, packaged, or sold in bulk, as a single unit dose, or as a
plurality of single unit doses. As used herein, a "unit dose" is a
discrete amount of the pharmaceutical composition comprising a
predetermined amount of the active ingredient. The amount of the
active ingredient is generally equal to the dosage of the active
ingredient which would be administered to a subject, or a
convenient fraction of such a dosage such as, for example, one-half
or one-third of such a dosage.
[0396] The relative amounts of the active ingredient, the
pharmaceutically acceptable carrier, and any additional ingredients
in a pharmaceutical composition of the invention will vary,
depending upon the identity, size, and condition of the subject
treated and further depending upon the route by which the
composition is to be administered. By way of example, the
composition may comprise between 0.1% and 100% (w/w) active
ingredient.
[0397] In addition to the active ingredient, a pharmaceutical
composition of the invention may further comprise one or more
additional pharmaceutically active agents. Particularly
contemplated additional agents include anti-emetics and scavengers
such as cyanide and cyanate scavengers.
[0398] Controlled- or sustained-release formulations of a
pharmaceutical composition of the invention may be made using
conventional technology.
[0399] A formulation of a pharmaceutical composition of the
invention suitable for oral administration may be prepared,
packaged, or sold in the form of a discrete solid dose unit
including, but not limited to, a tablet, a hard or soft capsule, a
cachet, a troche, or a lozenge, each containing a predetermined
amount of the active ingredient. Other formulations suitable for
oral administration include, but are not limited to, a powdered or
granular formulation, an aqueous or oily suspension, an aqueous or
oily solution, or an emulsion.
[0400] As used herein, an "oily" liquid is one which comprises a
carbon-containing liquid molecule and which exhibits a less polar
character than water.
[0401] A tablet comprising the active ingredient may, for example,
be made by compressing or molding the active ingredient, optionally
with one or more additional ingredients. Compressed tablets may be
prepared by compressing, in a suitable device, the active
ingredient in a free-flowing form such as a powder or granular
preparation, optionally mixed with one or more of a binder, a
lubricant, an excipient, a surface active agent, and a dispersing
agent. Molded tablets may be made by molding, in a suitable device,
a mixture of the active ingredient, a pharmaceutically acceptable
carrier, and at least sufficient liquid to moisten the mixture.
Pharmaceutically acceptable excipients used in the manufacture of
tablets include, but are not limited to, inert diluents,
granulating and disintegrating agents, binding agents, and
lubricating agents. Known dispersing agents include, but are not
limited to, potato starch and sodium starch glycollate. Known
surface active agents include, but are not limited to, sodium
lauryl sulphate. Known diluents include, but are not limited to,
calcium carbonate, sodium carbonate, lactose, microcrystalline
cellulose, calcium phosphate, calcium hydrogen phosphate, and
sodium phosphate. Known granulating and disintegrating agents
include, but are not limited to, corn starch and alginic acid.
Known binding agents include, but are not limited to, gelatin,
acacia, pre-gelatinized maize starch, polyvinylpyrrolidone, and
hydroxypropyl methylcellulose. Known lubricating agents include,
but are not limited to, magnesium stearate, stearic acid, silica,
and talc.
[0402] Tablets may be non-coated or may be coated using known
methods to achieve delayed disintegration in the gastrointestinal
tract of a subject, thereby providing sustained release and
absorption of the active ingredient. By way of example, a material
such as glyceryl monostearate or glyceryl distearate may be used to
coat tablets. Further by way of example, tablets may be coated
using methods described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,256,108; 4,160,452; and
4,265,874 to form osmotically-controlled release tablets. Tablets
may further comprise a sweetening agent, a flavoring agent, a
coloring agent, a preservative, or some combination of these in
order to provide pharmaceutically elegant and palatable
preparation.
[0403] Hard capsules comprising the active ingredient may be made
using a physiologically degradable composition, such as gelatin.
Such hard capsules comprise the active ingredient, and may further
comprise additional ingredients including, for example, an inert
solid diluent such as calcium carbonate, calcium phosphate, or
kaolin.
[0404] Soft gelatin capsules comprising the active ingredient may
be made using a physiologically degradable composition, such as
gelatin. Such soft capsules comprise the active ingredient, which
may be mixed with water or an oil medium such as peanut oil, liquid
paraffin, or olive oil.
[0405] Lactulose can also be used as a freely erodible filler and
is useful when the compounds of the invention are prepared in
capsule form.
[0406] Liquid formulations of a pharmaceutical composition of the
invention which are suitable for oral administration may be
prepared, packaged, and sold either in liquid form or in the form
of a dry product intended for reconstitution with water or another
suitable vehicle prior to use.
[0407] Liquid suspensions may be prepared using conventional
methods to achieve suspension of the active ingredient in an
aqueous or oily vehicle. Aqueous vehicles include, for example,
water and isotonic saline. Oily vehicles include, for example,
almond oil, oily esters, ethyl alcohol, vegetable oils such as
arachis, olive, sesame, or coconut oil, fractionated vegetable
oils, and mineral oils such as liquid paraffin. Liquid suspensions
may further comprise one or more additional ingredients including,
but not limited to, suspending agents, dispersing or wetting
agents, emulsifying agents, demulcents, preservatives, buffers,
salts, flavorings, coloring agents, and sweetening agents. Oily
suspensions may further comprise a thickening agent. Known
suspending agents include, but are not limited to, sorbitol syrup,
hydrogenated edible fats, sodium alginate, polyvinylpyrrolidone,
gum tragacanth, gum acacia, and cellulose derivatives such as
sodium carboxymethylcellulose, methylcellulose, and
hydroxypropylmethylcellulose. Known dispersing or wetting agents
include, but are not limited to, naturally occurring phosphatides
such as lecithin, condensation products of an alkylene oxide with a
fatty acid, with a long chain aliphatic alcohol, with a partial
ester derived from a fatty acid and a hexitol, or with a partial
ester derived from a fatty acid and a hexitol anhydride (e.g.,
polyoxyethylene stearate, heptadecaethyleneoxycetanol,
polyoxyethylene sorbitol monooleate, and polyoxyethylene sorbitan
monooleate, respectively). Known emulsifying agents include, but
are not limited to, lecithin and acacia. Known preservatives
include, but are not limited to, methyl, ethyl, or n-propyl para
hydroxybenzoates, ascorbic acid, and sorbic acid. Known sweetening
agents include, for example, glycerol, propylene glycol, sorbitol,
sucrose, and saccharin. Known thickening agents for oily
suspensions include, for example, beeswax, hard paraffin, and cetyl
alcohol.
[0408] In one aspect, a preparation in the form of a syrup or
elixir or for administration in the form of drops may comprise
active ingredients together with a sweetener, which is preferably
calorie-free, and which may further include methylparaben or
propylparaben as antiseptics, a flavoring and a suitable color.
[0409] Liquid solutions of the active ingredient in aqueous or oily
solvents may be prepared in substantially the same manner as liquid
suspensions, the primary difference being that the active
ingredient is dissolved, rather than suspended in the solvent.
Liquid solutions of the pharmaceutical composition of the invention
may comprise each of the components described with regard to liquid
suspensions, it being understood that suspending agents will not
necessarily aid dissolution of the active ingredient in the
solvent. Aqueous solvents include, for example, water and isotonic
saline. Oily solvents include, for example, almond oil, oily
esters, ethyl alcohol, vegetable oils such as arachis, olive,
sesame, or coconut oil, fractionated vegetable oils, and mineral
oils such as liquid paraffin.
[0410] Powdered and granular formulations of a pharmaceutical
preparation of the invention may be prepared using known methods.
Such formulations may be administered directly to a subject, used,
for example, to form tablets, to fill capsules, or to prepare an
aqueous or oily suspension or solution by addition of an aqueous or
oily vehicle thereto. Each of these formulations may further
comprise one or more of a dispersing or wetting agent, a suspending
agent, and a preservative. Additional excipients, such as fillers
and sweetening, flavoring, or coloring agents, may also be included
in these formulations.
[0411] A pharmaceutical composition of the invention may also be
prepared, packaged, or sold in the form of oil in water emulsion or
a water-in-oil emulsion. The oily phase may be a vegetable oil such
as olive or arachis oil, a mineral oil such as liquid paraffin, or
a combination of these. Such compositions may further comprise one
or more emulsifying agents including naturally occurring gums such
as gum acacia or gum tragacanth, naturally occurring phosphatides
such as soybean or lecithin phosphatide, esters or partial esters
derived from combinations of fatty acids and hexitol anhydrides
such as sorbitan monooleate, and condensation products of such
partial esters with ethylene oxide such as polyoxyethylene sorbitan
monooleate. These emulsions may also contain additional ingredients
including, for example, sweetening or flavoring agents.
[0412] A pharmaceutical composition of the invention may be
prepared, packaged, or sold in a formulation suitable for rectal
administration. Such a composition may be in the form of, for
example, a suppository, a retention enema preparation, and a
solution for rectal or colonic irrigation.
[0413] Suppository formulations may be made by combining the active
ingredient with a non irritating pharmaceutically acceptable
excipient which is solid at ordinary room temperature (i.e. about
20.degree. C.) and which is liquid at the rectal temperature of the
subject (i.e. about 37.degree. C. in a healthy human). Suitable
pharmaceutically acceptable excipients include, but are not limited
to, cocoa butter, polyethylene glycols, and various glycerides.
Suppository formulations may further comprise various additional
ingredients including, but not limited to, antioxidants and
preservatives.
[0414] Retention enema preparations or solutions for rectal or
colonic irrigation may be made by combining the active ingredient
with a pharmaceutically acceptable liquid carrier. As is well known
in the art, enema preparations may be administered using, and may
be packaged within, a delivery device adapted to the rectal anatomy
of the subject. Enema preparations may further comprise various
additional ingredients including, but not limited to, antioxidants
and preservatives.
[0415] A pharmaceutical composition of the invention may be
prepared, packaged, or sold in a formulation suitable for vaginal
administration. Such a composition may be in the form of, for
example, a suppository, an impregnated or coated
vaginally-insertable material such as a tampon, a douche
preparation, or gel or cream or a solution for vaginal
irrigation.
[0416] Methods for impregnating or coating a material with a
chemical composition are known in the art, and include, but are not
limited to methods of depositing or binding a chemical composition
onto a surface, methods of incorporating a chemical composition
into the structure of a material during the synthesis of the
material (i.e. such as with a physiologically degradable material),
and methods of absorbing an aqueous or oily solution or suspension
into an absorbent material, with or without subsequent drying.
[0417] Douche preparations or solutions for vaginal irrigation may
be made by combining the active ingredient with a pharmaceutically
acceptable liquid carrier. As is well known in the art, douche
preparations may be administered using, and may be packaged within,
a delivery device adapted to the vaginal anatomy of the subject.
Douche preparations may further comprise various additional
ingredients including, but not limited to, antioxidants,
antibiotics, antifungal agents, and preservatives.
[0418] As used herein, "parenteral administration" of a
pharmaceutical composition includes any route of administration
characterized by physical breaching of a tissue of a subject and
administration of the pharmaceutical composition through the breach
in the tissue. Parenteral administration thus includes, but is not
limited to, administration of a pharmaceutical composition by
injection of the composition, by application of the composition
through a surgical incision, by application of the composition
through a tissue-penetrating non-surgical wound, and the like. In
particular, parenteral administration is contemplated to include,
but is not limited to, subcutaneous, intraperitoneal,
intramuscular, and intrasternal injection, and kidney dialytic
infusion techniques.
[0419] Formulations of a pharmaceutical composition suitable for
parenteral administration comprise the active ingredient combined
with a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier, such as sterile water
or sterile isotonic saline. Such formulations may be prepared,
packaged, or sold in a form suitable for bolus administration or
for continuous administration. Injectable formulations may be
prepared, packaged, or sold in unit dosage form, such as in ampules
or in multi-dose containers containing a preservative. Formulations
for parenteral administration include, but are not limited to,
suspensions, solutions, emulsions in oily or aqueous vehicles,
pastes, and implantable sustained-release or biodegradable
formulations. Such formulations may further comprise one or more
additional ingredients including, but not limited to, suspending,
stabilizing, or dispersing agents. In one embodiment of a
formulation for parenteral administration, the active ingredient is
provided in dry (i.e., powder or granular) form for reconstitution
with a suitable vehicle (e.g., sterile pyrogen free water) prior to
parenteral administration of the reconstituted composition.
[0420] The pharmaceutical compositions may be prepared, packaged,
or sold in the form of a sterile injectable aqueous or oily
suspension or solution. This suspension or solution may be
formulated according to the known art, and may comprise, in
addition to the active ingredient, additional ingredients such as
the dispersing agents, wetting agents, or suspending agents
described herein. Such sterile injectable formulations may be
prepared using a non-toxic parenterally acceptable diluent or
solvent, such as water or 1,3-butane diol, for example. Other
acceptable diluents and solvents include, but are not limited to,
Ringer's solution, isotonic sodium chloride solution, and fixed
oils such as synthetic mono- or di-glycerides. Other
parentally-administrable formulations which are useful include
those which comprise the active ingredient in microcrystalline
form, in a liposomal preparation, or as a component of a
biodegradable polymer systems. Compositions for sustained release
or implantation may comprise pharmaceutically acceptable polymeric
or hydrophobic materials such as an emulsion, an ion exchange
resin, a sparingly soluble polymer, or a sparingly soluble
salt.
[0421] Formulations suitable for topical administration include,
but are not limited to, liquid or semi-liquid preparations such as
liniments, lotions, oil in water or water in oil emulsions such as
creams, ointments or pastes, and solutions or suspensions.
Topically-administrable formulations may, for example, comprise
from about 1% to about 10% (w/w) active ingredient, although the
concentration of the active ingredient may be as high as the
solubility limit of the active ingredient in the solvent.
Formulations for topical administration may further comprise one or
more of the additional ingredients described herein.
[0422] A pharmaceutical composition of the invention may be
prepared, packaged, or sold in a formulation suitable for pulmonary
administration via the buccal cavity. Such a formulation may
comprise dry particles which comprise the active ingredient and
which have a diameter in the range from about 0.5 to about 7
nanometers, and preferably from about 1 to about 6 nanometers. Such
compositions are conveniently in the form of dry powders for
administration using a device comprising a dry powder reservoir to
which a stream of propellant may be directed to disperse the powder
or using a self-propelling solvent/powder-dispensing container such
as a device comprising the active ingredient dissolved or suspended
in a low-boiling propellant in a sealed container. Preferably, such
powders comprise particles wherein at least 98% of the particles by
weight have a diameter greater than 0.5 nanometers and at least 95%
of the particles by number have a diameter less than 7 nanometers.
More preferably, at least 95% of the particles by weight have a
diameter greater than 1 nanometer and at least 90% of the particles
by number have a diameter less than 6 nanometers. Dry powder
compositions preferably include a solid fine powder diluent such as
sugar and are conveniently provided in a unit dose form.
[0423] Low boiling propellants generally include liquid propellants
having a boiling point of below 65.degree. F. at atmospheric
pressure. Generally, the propellant may constitute about 50% to
about 99.9% (w/w) of the composition, and the active ingredient may
constitute about 0.1% to about 20% (w/w) of the composition. The
propellant may further comprise additional ingredients such as a
liquid non-ionic or solid anionic surfactant or a solid diluent
(preferably having a particle size of the same order as particles
comprising the active ingredient).
[0424] Pharmaceutical compositions of the invention formulated for
pulmonary delivery may also provide the active ingredient in the
form of droplets of a solution or suspension. Such formulations may
be prepared, packaged, or sold as aqueous or dilute alcoholic
solutions or suspensions, optionally sterile, comprising the active
ingredient, and may conveniently be administered using any
nebulization or atomization device. Such formulations may further
comprise one or more additional ingredients including, but not
limited to, a flavoring agent such as saccharin sodium, a volatile
oil, a buffering agent, a surface active agent, or a preservative
such as methylhydroxybenzoate. The droplets provided by this route
of administration preferably have an average diameter in the range
from about 0.1 to about 200 nanometers.
[0425] The formulations described herein as being useful for
pulmonary delivery are also useful for intranasal delivery of a
pharmaceutical composition of the invention.
[0426] Another formulation suitable for intranasal administration
is a coarse powder comprising the active ingredient and having an
average particle from about 0.2 to about 500 micrometers. Such a
formulation is administered in the manner in which snuff is taken,
i.e., by rapid inhalation through the nasal passage from a
container of the powder held close to the flares.
[0427] Formulations suitable for nasal administration may, for
example, comprise from about as little as about 0.1% (w/w) and as
much as about 100% (w/vv) of the active ingredient, and may further
comprise one or more of the additional ingredients described
herein.
[0428] A pharmaceutical composition of the invention may be
prepared, packaged, or sold in a formulation suitable for buccal
administration. Such formulations may, for example, be in the form
of tablets or lozenges made using conventional methods, and may,
for example, comprise about 0.1% to about 20% (w/w) active
ingredient, the balance comprising an orally dissolvable or
degradable composition and, optionally, one or more of the
additional ingredients described herein. Alternately, formulations
suitable for buccal administration may comprise a powder or an
aerosolized or atomized solution or suspension comprising the
active ingredient. Such powdered, aerosolized, or atomized
formulations, when dispersed, preferably have an average particle
or droplet size in the range from about 0.1 to about 200
nanometers, and may further comprise one or more of the additional
ingredients described herein.
[0429] A pharmaceutical composition of the invention may be
prepared, packaged, or sold in a formulation suitable for
ophthalmic administration. Such formulations may, for example, be
in the form of eye drops including, for example, a 0.1% to 1.0%
(w/w) solution or suspension of the active ingredient in an aqueous
or oily liquid carrier. Such drops may further comprise buffering
agents, salts, or one or more other of the additional ingredients
described herein. Other opthalmically-administrable formulations
which are useful include those which comprise the active ingredient
in microcrystalline form or in a liposomal preparation.
[0430] A pharmaceutical composition of the invention may be
prepared, packaged, or sold in a formulation suitable for
intramucosal administration. The present invention provides for
intramucosal administration of compounds to allow passage or
absorption of the compounds across mucosa. Such type of
administration is useful for absorption orally (gingival,
sublingual, buccal, etc.), rectally, vaginally, pulmonary, nasally,
etc.
[0431] In some aspects, sublingual administration has an advantage
for active ingredients which in some cases, when given orally, are
subject to a substantial first pass metabolism and enzymatic
degradation through the liver, resulting in rapid metabotization
and a loss of therapeutic activity related to the activity of the
liver enzymes that convert the molecule into inactive metabolites,
or the activity of which is decreased because of this
bioconversion.
[0432] In some cases, a sublingual route of administration is
capable of producing a rapid onset of action due to the
considerable permeability and vascularization of the buccal mucosa.
Moreover, sublingual administration can also allow the
administration of active ingredients which are not normally
absorbed at the level of the stomach mucosa or digestive mucosa
after oral administration, or alternatively which are partially or
completely degraded in acidic medium after ingestion of, for
example, a tablet.
[0433] Sublingual tablet preparation techniques known from the
prior art are usually prepared by direct compression of a mixture
of powders comprising the active ingredient and excipients for
compression, such as diluents, binders, disintegrating agents and
adjuvants. In an alternative method of preparation, the active
ingredient and the compression excipients can be dry- or
wet-granulated beforehand. In one aspect, the active ingredient is
distributed throughout the mass of the tablet. WO 00/16750
describes a tablet for sublingual use that disintegrates rapidly
and comprises an ordered mixture in which the active ingredient is
in the form of microparticles which adhere to the surface of
water-soluble particles that are substantially greater in size,
constituting a support for the active microparticles, the
composition also comprising a mucoadhesive agent. WO 00/57858
describes a tablet for sublingual use, comprising an active
ingredient combined with an effervescent system intended to promote
absorption, and also a pH-modifier.
[0434] The compounds of the invention can be prepared in a
formulation or pharmaceutical composition appropriate for
administration that allows or enhances absorption across mucosa.
Mucosal absorption enhancers include, but are not limited to, a
bile salt, fatty acid, surfactant, or alcohol. In specific
embodiments, the permeation enhancer can be sodium cholate, sodium
dodecyl sulphate, sodium deoxycholate, taurodeoxycholate, sodium
glycocholate, dimethylsulfoxide or ethanol. In a further
embodiment, a compound of the invention can be formulated with a
mucosal penetration enhancer to facilitate delivery of the
compound. The formulation can also be prepared with pH, optimized
for solubility, drug stability, and absorption through mucosa such
as nasal mucosa, oral mucosa, vaginal mucosa, respiratory, and
intestinal mucosa.
[0435] To further enhance mucosal delivery of pharmaceutical agents
within the invention, formulations comprising the active agent may
also contain a hydrophilic low molecular weight compound as a base
or excipient. Such hydrophilic low molecular weight compounds
provide a passage medium through which a water-soluble active
agent, such as a physiologically active peptide or protein, may
diffuse through the base to the body surface where the active agent
is absorbed. The hydrophilic low molecular weight compound
optionally absorbs moisture from the mucosa or the administration
atmosphere and dissolves the water-soluble active peptide. The
molecular weight of the hydrophilic low molecular weight compound
is generally not more than 10000 and preferably not more than 3000.
Exemplary hydrophilic low molecular weight compounds include polyol
compounds, such as oligo-, di- and monosaccharides such as sucrose,
mannitol, lactose, L-arabinose, D-erythrose, D-ribose, D-xylose,
D-mannose, D-galactose, lactulose, cellobiose, gentibiose,
glycerin, and polyethylene glycol. Other examples of hydrophilic
low molecular weight compounds useful as carriers within the
invention include N-methylpyrrolidone, and alcohols (e.g.,
oligovinyl alcohol, ethanol, ethylene glycol, propylene glycol,
etc.). These hydrophilic low molecular weight compounds can be used
alone or in combination with one another or with other active or
inactive components of the intranasal formulation.
[0436] When a controlled-release pharmaceutical preparation of the
present invention further contains a hydrophilic base, many options
are available for inclusion. Hydrophilic polymers such as a
polyethylene glycol and polyvinyl pyrrolidone, sugar alcohols such
as D-sorbitol and xylitol, saccharides such as sucrose, maltose,
lactulose, D-fructose, dextran, and glucose, surfactants such as
polyoxyethylene-hydrogenated castor oil, polyoxyethylene
polyoxypropylene glycol, and polyoxyethylene sorbitan higher fatty
acid esters, salts such as sodium chloride and magnesium chloride,
organic acids such as citric acid and tartaric acid, amino acids
such as glycine, beta-alanine, and lysine hydrochloride, and
aminosaccharides such as meglumine are given as examples of the
hydrophilic base. Polyethylene glycol, sucrose, and polyvinyl
pyrrolidone are preferred and polyethylene glycol are further
preferred. One or a combination of two or more hydrophilic bases
can be used in the present invention.
[0437] The present invention contemplates pulmonary, nasal, or oral
administration through an inhaler. In one embodiment, delivery from
an inhaler can be a metered dose.
[0438] An inhaler is a device for patient self-administration of at
least one compound of the invention comprising a spray inhaler
(e.g., a nasal, oral, or pulmonary spray inhaler) containing an
aerosol spray formulation of at least one compound of the invention
and a pharmaceutically acceptable dispersant. In one aspect, the
device is metered to disperse an amount of the aerosol formulation
by forming a spray that contains a dose of at least one compound of
the invention effective to treat a disease or disorder encompassed
by the invention. The dispersant may be a surfactant, such as, but
not limited to, polyoxyethylene fatty acid esters, polyoxyethylene
fatty acid alcohols, and polyoxyethylene sorbitan fatty acid
esters. Phospholipid-based surfactants also may be used.
[0439] In other embodiments, the aerosol formulation is provided as
a dry powder aerosol formulation in which a compound of the
invention is present as a finely divided powder. The dry powder
formulation can further comprise a bulking agent, such as, but not
limited to, lactose, sorbitol, sucrose, and mannitol.
[0440] In another specific embodiment, the aerosol formulation is a
liquid aerosol formulation further comprising a pharmaceutically
acceptable diluent, such as, but not limited to, sterile water,
saline, buffered saline and dextrose solution.
[0441] In further embodiments, the aerosol formulation further
comprises at least one additional compound of the invention in a
concentration such that the metered amount of the aerosol
formulation dispersed by the device contains a dose of the
additional compound in a metered amount that is effective to
ameliorate the symptoms of disease or disorder disclosed herein
when used in combination with at least a first or second compound
of the invention.
[0442] Thus, the invention provides a self administration method
for outpatient treatment of an addiction related disease or
disorder such as an alcohol-related disease or disorder. Such
administration may be used in a hospital, in a medical office, or
outside a hospital or medical office by non-medical personnel for
self administration.
[0443] Compounds of the invention will be prepared in a formulation
or pharmaceutical composition appropriate for nasal administration.
In a further embodiment, the compounds of the invention can be
formulated with a mucosal penetration enhancer to facilitate
delivery of the drug. The formulation can also be prepared with pH
optimized for solubility, drug stability, absorption through nasal
mucosa, and other considerations.
[0444] Capsules, blisters, and cartridges for use in an inhaler or
insufflator may be formulated to contain a powder mix of the
pharmaceutical compositions provided herein; a suitable powder
base, such as lactose or starch; and a performance modifier, such
as 1-leucine, mannitol, or magnesium stearate. The lactose may be
anhydrous or in the form of the monohydrate. Other suitable
excipients include dextran, glucose, maltose, sorbitol, xylitol,
fructose, sucrose, and trehalose. The pharmaceutical compositions
provided herein for inhaled/intranasal administration may further
comprise a suitable flavor, such as menthol and levomenthol, or
sweeteners, such as saccharin or saccharin sodium.
[0445] For administration by inhalation, the compounds for use
according to the methods of the invention are conveniently
delivered in the form of an aerosol spray presentation from
pressurized packs or a nebulizer, with the use of a suitable
propellant, e.g., dichlorodifluoromethane, trichlorofluoromethane,
dichlorotetrafluoroethane, carbon dioxide or other suitable gas. In
the case of a pressurized aerosol, the dosage unit may be
determined by providing a valve to deliver a metered amount.
Capsules and cartridges of e.g., gelatin for use in an inhaler or
insufflator may be formulated containing a powder mix of the drugs
and a suitable powder base such as lactose or starch.
[0446] As used herein, "additional ingredients" include, but are
not limited to, one or more of the following: excipients; surface
active agents; dispersing agents; inert diluents; granulating and
disintegrating agents; binding agents; lubricating agents;
sweetening agents; flavoring agents; coloring agents;
preservatives; physiologically degradable compositions such as
gelatin; aqueous vehicles and solvents; oily vehicles and solvents;
suspending agents; dispersing or wetting agents; emulsifying
agents, demulcents; buffers; salts; thickening agents; fillers;
emulsifying agents; antioxidants; antibiotics; antifungal agents;
stabilizing agents; and pharmaceutically acceptable polymeric or
hydrophobic materials. Other "additional ingredients" which may be
included in the pharmaceutical compositions of the invention are
known in the art and described, for example in Genaro, ed., 1985,
Remington's Pharmaceutical Sciences, Mack Publishing Co., Easton,
Pa., which is incorporated herein by reference.
[0447] Typically, dosages of the compounds of the invention which
may be administered to an animal, preferably a human, range in
amount from about 1.0 .mu.g to about 100 g per kilogram of body
weight of the animal. The precise dosage administered will vary
depending upon any number of factors, including but not limited to,
the type of animal and type of disease state being treated, the age
of the animal and the route of administration. Preferably, the
dosage of the compound will vary from about 1 mg to about 10 g per
kilogram of body weight of the animal. More preferably, the dosage
will vary from about 10 mg to about 1 g per kilogram of body weight
of the animal.
[0448] The compounds may be administered to a subject as frequently
as several times daily, or it may be administered less frequently,
such as once a day, once a week, once every two weeks, once a
month, or even less frequently, such as once every several months
or even once a year or less. The frequency of the dose will be
readily apparent to the skilled artisan and will depend upon any
number of factors, such as, but not limited to, the type and
severity of the disease being treated, the type and age of the
animal, etc.
[0449] The invention also includes a kit comprising the compounds
of the invention and an instructional material that describes
administration of the compounds. In another embodiment, this kit
comprises a (preferably sterile) solvent suitable for dissolving or
suspending the composition of the invention prior to administering
the compound to the mammal.
[0450] As used herein, an "instructional material" includes a
publication, a recording, a diagram, or any other medium of
expression that can be used to communicate the usefulness of the
compounds of the invention in the kit for effecting alleviation of
the various diseases or disorders recited herein. Optionally, or
alternately, the instructional material may describe one or more
methods of alleviating the diseases or disorders. The instructional
material of the kit of the invention may, for example, be affixed
to a container that contains a compound of the invention or be
shipped together with a container that contains the compounds.
Alternatively, the instructional material may be shipped separately
from the container with the intention that the instructional
material and the compound be used cooperatively by the
recipient.
[0451] Relevant nucleic acid and amino sequences encompassed by the
present invention include, but are not limited to:
TABLE-US-00002 Human serotonin transporter (SLC6A4), nucleic acid
sequence (GenBank Accession No. NM_001045-2775 bp mRNA)- SEQ ID NO:
1 acagccagcgccgccgggtgcctcgagggcgcgaggccagcccgcctgcccagcccggga
ccagcctccccgcgcagcctggcaggtctcctggaggcaaggcgaccttgcttgccctct
cttgcagaataacaaggggcttagccacaggagttgctggcaagtggaaagaagaacaaa
tgagtcaatcccgacgtgtcaatcccgacgatagagagctcggaggtgatccacaaatcc
aagcacccagagatcaattgggatccttggcagatggacatcagtgtcatttactaacca
gcaggatggagacgacgcccttgaattctcagaagcagctatcagcgtgtgaagatggag
aagattgtcaggaaaacggagttctacagaaggttgttcccaccccaggggacaaagtgg
agtccgggcaaatatccaatgggtactcagcagttccaagtcctggtgcgggagatgaca
cacggcactctatcccagcgaccaccaccaccctagtggctgagcttcatcaaggggaac
gggagacctggggcaagaaggtggatttccttctctcagtgattggctatgctgtggacc
tgggcaatgtctggcgcttcccctacatatgttaccagaatggagggggggcattcctcc
tcccctacaccatcatggccatttttgggggaatcccgctcttttacatggagctcgcac
tgggacagtaccaccgaaatggatgcatttcaatatggaggaaaatctgcccgattttca
aagggattggttatgccatctgcatcattgccttttacattgcttcctactacaacacca
tcatggcctgggcgctatactacctcatctcctccttcacggaccagctgccctggacca
gctgcaagaactcctggaacactggcaactgcaccaattacttctccgaggacaacatca
cctggaccctccattccacgtcccctgctgaagaattttacacgcgccacgtcctgcaga
tccaccggtctaaggggctccaggacctggggggcatcagctggcagctggccctctgca
tcatgctgatcttcactgttatctacttcagcatctggaaaggcgtcaagacctctggca
aggtggtgtgggtgacagcaaccttcccttatatcatcctttctgtcctgctggtgaggg
gtgccaccctccctggagcctggaggggtgttctcttctacttgaaacccaattggcaga
aactcctggagacaggggtgtggatagatgcagccgctcagatcttcttctctcttggtc
cgggctttggggtcctgctggcttttgctagctacaacaagttcaacaacaactgctacc
aagatgccctggtgaccagcgtggtgaactgcatgacgagcttcgtttcgggatttgtca
tcttcacagtgctcggttacatggctgagatgaggaatgaagatgtgtctgaggtggcca
aagacgcaggtcccagcctcctcttcatcacgtatgcagaagcgatagccaacatgccag
cgtccactttctttgccatcatcttctttctgatgttaatcacgctgggcttggacagca
cgtttgcaggcttggagggggtgatcacggctgtgctggatgagttcccacacgtctggg
ccaagcgccgggagcggttcgtgctcgccgtggtcatcacctgcttctttggatccctgg
tcaccctgacttttggaggggcctacgtggtgaagctgctggaggagtatgccacggggc
ccgcagtgctcactgtcgcgctgatcgaagcagtcgctgtgtcttggttctatggcatca
ctcagttctgcagggacgtgaaggaaatgctcggcttcagcccggggtggttctggagga
tctgctgggtggccatcagccctctgtttctcctgttcatcatttgcagttttctgatga
gcccgccacaactacgacttttccaatataattatccttactggagtatcatcttgggtt
actgcataggaacctcatctttcatttgcatccccacatatatagcttatcggttgatca
tcactccagggacatttaaagagcgtattattaaaagtattaccccagaaacaccaacag
aaattccttgtggggacatccgcttgaatgctgtgtaacacactcaccgagaggaaaaag
gcttctccacaacctcctcctccagttctgatgaggcacgcctgccttctcccctccaag
tgaatgagtttccagctaagcctgatgatggaagggccttctccacagggacacagtctg
gtgcccagactcaaggcctccagccacttatttccatggattcccctggacatattccca
tggtagactgtgacacagctgagctggcctattttggacgtgtgaggatgtggatggagg
tgatgaaaaccaccctatcatcagttaggattaggtttagaatcaagtctgtgaaagtct
cctgtatcatttcttggtatgatcattggtatctgatatctgtttgcttctaaaggtttc
actgttcatgaatacgtaaactgcgtaggagagaacagggatgctatctcgctagccata
tattttctgagtagcatatataattttattgctggaatctactagaaccttctaatccat
gtgctgctgtggcatcaggaaaggaagatgtaagaagctaaaatgaaaaatagtgtgtcc
atgcaaaaaaaaaaa Human serotonin transporter (SLC6A4), amino acid
sequence (GenBank Accession No. NP_001036; 630 residues)- SEQ ID
NO: 2 mettplnsqkqlsacedgedcqengvlqkvvptpgdkvesgqisngysavpspgagddtr
hsipattttlvaelhqgeretwgkkvdfllsvigyavdlgnvwrfpyicygnaggafllp
ytimaifgglplfymelalgqyhrngcisiwrkicpifkgigyaiciiafyiasyyntim
awalyylissftdqlpwtscknswntgnctnyfsednitwtlhstspaeefytrhvlqih
rskglqdlggiswqtalcimliftviyfsiwkgvktsgkvvwvtatfpyiitsvllvrga
tlpgawrgvlfylkpnwqklletgvwidaaaqiffslgpgfgvllafasynkfnnncyqd
alvtsvvncmtsfvsgfviftvlgymaemrnedvsevakdagpsllfityaeaianmpas
tffaiifflmlitlgldstfaglegvitavldefplvwakrrerfvlavvitcffaslvt
ltfggayvvklleeyatgpavltvalieavavswfygitqfcrdvkemlgfspgwfwric
wvaisplfllfiicsflmsppqlrlfqynypywsiilgycigtssficiptyiayrliit
pgtfkeriiksitpetpteipcgdirlnav SNP rs25531 forward primer- SEQ ID
NO: 3 5'-TCCT CCGCTTTGGCGCCTCTTCC-3' (forward) SNP rs25531 reverse
primer- SEQ ID NO: 4 5'-TGGGGGTTGCAGGGGAGATCCTG-3 (reverse)
rs2891483 forward primer- SEQ ID NO: 5 GCAGAAGCGATAGCCAACATG
rs2891483 reverse primer- SEQ ID NO: 6 CAAGCCCAGCGTGATTAACATC
rs2891483 probe- SEQ ID NO: 7 CTTTCTTTGCC[C/A]TCATCT (represented
by CTTTCTTTGCCNTCATCT in the sequence listing) First primer for
amplifying the 5'-HTTLPR 44 bp promoter region repeat polymorphism
SEQ ID NO: 8 5'-CGT TGC CGC TCT GAA TGC CAG-3' Second primer for
amplifying the 5'-HTTLPR 44 bp promoter region repeat polymorphism-
SEQ ID NO: 9 5'-GGA TTC TGG TGC CAC CTA GAC GCC-3' SNP polymorphism
site of SLC6A4 rs1042173- SEQ ID NO: 10
GCCATATATTTTCTGAGTAGCATATA[G/T]AATTTTATTGCTGGAATCTAC TAGA-
(represented by GCCATATATTTTCTGAGTAGCATATANAATTTTATTGCTGGAATCTACTA
GA in the sequence listing)
[0452] Other methods and techniques useful for the practice of the
invention that are not described are known in the art, for example,
see International application no. PCT/US2008/064232.
[0453] Without further description, it is believed that one of
ordinary skill in the art can, using the preceding description and
the following illustrative examples, make and utilize the compounds
of the present invention and practice the claimed methods. The
following working examples, therefore, specifically point out
embodiments of the present invention, and are not to be construed
as limiting in any way the remainder of the disclosure.
EXAMPLES
Example 1
Correlation of a Functional Polymorphism in the 3'UTR of the
Serotonin Transporter Gene SLC6A4 and its Association with Drinking
Activity
[0454] It was determined whether allelic variation at a single
nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) within a putative polyadenylation
signal for a commonly used 3' polyadenylation site G2651T SNP
(National Center for Biotechnology Information reference ID
#rs1042173) of SLC6A4, the serotonin transporter gene, is
associated with differences in the severity of drinking among
treatment-seeking alcoholics. To determine the functional
significance of the G2651T/rs1042173 SNP, we examined whether
allelic variation at this site was associated with quantifiable
changes in mRNA expression level and 5-HTT protein expression. The
human serotonin transporter gene (SLC6A4) is found at position
17q11.1-q12 of chromosome 17. G2651T/rs1042173 is in exon 15
position 25,549,137. Additionally, the 5-HTTLPR is in the promoter
at chromosome position .about.25,588,500. The sequence of the
5'-flanking region of the gene corresponds to GenBank Accession No.
X76753 (see Heils et al., J. Neurochem., 66:2621, 1996).
[0455] Materials and Methods
[0456] Subjects
[0457] A total of two hundred seventy-five alcohol-dependent
subjects (78.5% male) aged between 18 and 66 years were used in
this study, in which 198 of them were included in our previous
study (Johnson et al., 2008). All subjects were considered to be
alcohol-dependent (see below for details) and enrolled as part of a
pharmacotherapy trial for the treatment of alcohol dependence at
both the University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio
and at University of Virginia. Participants were recruited by
newspaper or radio advertisements, and written informed
consent--approved by review boards of all participating institutes,
was obtained from all participants.
[0458] Alcohol dependence was diagnosed using the Structured
Clinical Interview for Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
Disorders, 4th edition (American Psychiatric Association, 1994)
Axis I Disorders, by a trained psychologist. All subjects had a
score of .gtoreq.8 on the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test
(AUDIT) (Babor et al., 1992) that screened for individuals with
alcohol use and related problems: reported heavy drinking which was
defined as drinking of .gtoreq.21 standard drinks/week for women
and .gtoreq.30 standard drinks/week for men during the 90 days
prior to enrollment. Absence of other substance use was confirmed
by negative urine toxicological screen for narcotics, amphetamines,
or sedative hypnotics at enrollment. The Subjects who met the
following criteria were excluded from the study: current axis I
psychiatric diagnoses other than alcohol or nicotine dependence;
significant alcohol withdrawal symptoms based on the revised
clinical institute withdrawal assessment for alcohol scale
(Sullivan et al., 1989) score >15]; clinically significant
physical abnormalities based on physical examination,
electrocardiogram recording, hematological assessment, biochemistry
including serum bilirubin concentration, and urinalysis; pregnant
or lactating state; treatment for alcohol dependence .ltoreq.30
days prior to enrollment, and mandated incarceration or employment
loss for not receiving alcohol treatment.
[0459] Drinking Measurements
[0460] Self-reported drinking (measured in standard drinks) in the
90 days prior to study enrollment was quantified using the
timeline, follow-back method. One standard drink was defined as
0.35 L of beer, 0.15 L of wine, or 0.04 L of 80-proof liquor. The
intensity of drinking was assessed by measurement of the mean
drinks per drinking day and mean drinks per day. Drinks per
drinking day was defined as the total number of drinks divided by
the number of drinking days within the 90 days; drinks per day was
defined as the total number of drinks divided by 90 days.
[0461] DNA Extraction and Genotyping
[0462] Ten milliliters of blood was drawn from each subject at
baseline to obtain white blood cells for the determination of 5-HTT
genotypes. DNA was extracted using a Gentra Puregene.RTM. kit
(QIAGEN Inc., Valencia, Calif.). SNPs for association analyses were
selected using the National Center for Biotechnology Information
(NCBI) dbSNP database (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/SNP/) based on
their functional potential and minor allele frequency
(MAF).gtoreq.0.05. The average SNP density is .about.7 kb. Detailed
information on SNP locations, chromosomal positions, allelic
variants, MAF and primer/probe sequences is summarized in Table 1.
Four of the five SNPs (rs6354, rs6355, rs28914832, and rs1042173)
were genotyped with TaqMart.RTM. SNP genotyping assays (Applied
Biosystems, Foster City, Calif.). Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
conditions were 50.degree. C. for 2 min, 95.degree. C. for 10 min,
30 cycles of 95.degree. C. for 25 s, and 60.degree. C. for 1 min.
Alleles of each SNP were determined with an ABI PRISM.RTM. 7900HT
instrument (Applied Biosystems) and analyzed using sequence
detection system (SDS) software.
[0463] The DNA samples from the 77 subjects that were not included
in our previous study were genotyped for 5'-HTTLPR L/S alleles as
described previously (Johnson et al., 2008).
[0464] Assays for SNP rs25531 were carried out as described by
Wendland et at (2006). Each assay had a total assay volume of 20
.mu.l, and the PCR conditions were 15 min at 95.degree. C., 35
cycles of 94.degree. C. for 30 s, 65.5.degree. C. for 90 s, and
72.degree. C. for 60 s, with a final extension step of 10 min at
72.degree. C. Afterwards, 10 .mu.l of PCR product was
double-digested with HpaII and BccI (5 U each; New England Biolabs,
Ipswich, Mass.) in a 20-.mu.l reaction assay containing NEBuffer 1
and bovine serum albumin at 37.degree. C. for 5 h. Finally, 10
.mu.l of remaining PCR product and 20 .mu.l of restriction enzyme
assay solution were electrophoresed with 3.5% UltraPure.TM. agarose
gel (Invitrogen.TM., Carlsbad, Calif.) for 1.5-2 h at 100 V in
Tris/Borate/elethylenediaminetetraacetic acid buffer and visualized
by ethidium bromide staining (Sigma-Aldrich, St Louis, Mo.). The
uncut PCR product in the lanes loaded with restriction
enzyme-digested PCR products were detected as the "A" allele of
rs25531, and the cut product at 402 by were detected as the "G"
allele of rs25531.
[0465] Association Analyses with Drinking Intensity
[0466] Associations of individual SNPs with the intensity of
drinking (i.e., drinks per drinking day and drinks per day) were
analyzed using the analysis of variance test in SAS version 9.1
(SAS Institute Inc., Cary, N.C.). Three genetic models (additive,
dominant, and recessive) were tested using gender and age as
covariates. Pair-wise linkage disequilibrium (LD) among all 6
polymorphisms was assessed using the Haploview program (Barrett et
al., 2005). All associations found to be significant were corrected
for multiple testing according to Bonferroni correction by dividing
the significance level by the number of polymorphisms studied.
[0467] Cloning, Cell Culture, and Transfection
[0468] Allelic expression differences of the SNP (rs1042173) that
showed a significant association with drinking intensity were
studied using an in vitro system. The human 5-HTT containing the G
allele of rs1042173 in pBluescript II KS (-) was a generous gift
from Prof. Randy D. Blakely (Vanderbilt University School of
Medicine, Nashville, Tenn.). This 5-HTT cDNA/Bluescript construct
contained the coding region as well as both 5'- and 3'-untranslated
regions of the gene with a total length of 2508 bp. The human 5-HTT
construct was digested with HindIII/XbaI and subcloned into
pcDNA3.1(-) (Invitrogen.TM.) pre-digested with HindIII/XbaI as
described by Qian et al (Qian et al., 1997). To produce plasmid
with the T allele of rs1042173, a DNA plasmid carrying the G allele
was mutated using the GeneTailor.TM. site-directed mutagenesis
system (Invitrogen.TM.). Both constructs were DNA sequence
verified.
[0469] HeLa cells were cultured in complete medium [Dulbecco's
modified Eagle's medium (HyClone, Logan, Utah), 10% GIBCO.RTM.
fetal bovine serum (Invitrogen.TM.), 100 U/ml penicillin, and 100
.mu.g/ml streptomycin (Mediatech, Inc., Manassas, Va.)] in 6-well
plates and maintained in a humidified incubator at 37.degree. C.
and 5% CO2. After the cells reached approximately 80% confluence,
they were transfected with one of the two alleles (4 .mu.g of
plasmids per well)) in 6-well culture plates using
Lipofectamine.TM. 2000 (Invitrogen.TM.) according to the
manufacturer's guidelines. RNA and proteins were extracted from
HeLa cells 24 h after transfection.
[0470] RNA Isolation, Reverse Transcription, and Quantitative
Real-Time Polymerase Chain Reaction (qRT-PCR)
[0471] Total RNA was extracted from HeLa cells with TRIZOL.RTM.
reagent (Invitrogen.TM.). Potential DNA contaminations were removed
by treating the RNA samples with RNase-free DNase I at 37.degree.
C. for 30 min. Each RNA sample was reverse transcribed in vitro
using SuperScript.RTM. II RT (Invitrogen.TM.) to obtain cDNA. These
cDNA samples were transcribed with TaqMan.RTM. Gene Expression
Assays (Applied Biosystems) specific for 5-HTT mRNA, and the
resulting 5-HTT mRNA was quantified by the ABI PRISM.RTM. 7900HT
sequence detection system. TaqMan.RTM. primer/probe sets for
glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (G3PDH) were used as an
internal control to normalize the expression of 5-HTT. For each
qRT-PCR experiment, four samples with the G allele, four samples
with the T allele, and four controls with the pcDNA3.1 (-) vector
only were used in cell cultures from transfections carried out on
different days.
[0472] Western Blotting Analysis
[0473] Radioimmunoprecipitation assay buffer [Tris-HCl (pH 7.4), 1%
NP-40, 150 mM NaCl, 0.25% Na-deoxycholate, and 1 mM EDTA] was added
to HeLa cells after washing the cells once with ice-cold
phosphate-buffered saline. The protein concentration of the cell
lysates was determined using the Bio-Rad assay (Bio-Rad
Laboratories, Hercules, Calif.). Fifteen micrograms of samples were
loaded onto 10% sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gels (30%
acrylamide) in Tris-glycine buffer containing sodium dodecyl
sulfate. The separated proteins were then electrophoretically
transferred to nitrocellulose membranes (PerkinElmer, Waltham,
Mass.) overnight at 25 mA. The membranes were blocked for 1 h at
room temperature with 2% non-fat dry milk diluted in Tris-buffered
saline with Tween.RTM. 20 (TBST) buffer and washed three times for
10 min each in TBST buffer; then they were incubated overnight with
primary antibody (1:200) at 4.degree. C. [rabbit polyclonal
immunoglobulin G (IgG) corresponding to the C-terminus of a
sodium-dependent 5-HTT of human origin (200 .mu.g/ml stock
solution) (Santa Cruz Biotechnology, Inc., Santa Cruz, Calif.)].
Membranes then were washed three times for 10 min each in TBST
buffer and incubated with secondary antibodies (1:5,000)
[anti-rabbit IgG (goat), horseradish peroxidase labeled
(PerkinElmer)] for 1.5 h at room temperature. The hybridized
membranes were washed with TBST buffer four times for 10 min each,
and the immunoreactivity of the proteins was detected using Western
Lightning.RTM. Chemiluminescence Reagent Plus (PerkinElmer) and
exposure to X-ray film. Tubulin protein was used as an internal
control to control for discrepancies in the loading of proteins in
each lane. A monoclonal antibody (mouse monoclonal antibody to
.alpha.-tubulin) was used as the primary antibody (1:2,000), and an
anti-mouse IgG was used as the secondary antibody in western
blotting for tubulin.
[0474] Densitometric and Statistical Analysis
[0475] Western blotting films were scanned on a UMAX scanner
(Techville, Inc., Dallas, Tex.) using Adobe Photoshop (v. 6.0;
Adobe Systems Inc., San Jose, Calif.), and the optical densities of
the G and T alleles and tubulin were measured using NIH Image
software (v. 1.61). The optical densities of bands of the G and
alleles and of tubulin were quantified using densitometry. The
background (the area surrounding each band) optical density values
were quantified the same way as for the protein bands, and the
values were subtracted from the measured optical density values for
the protein bands. The ratios of the optical density values of the
G and T alleles to the optical density values of tubulin in the
corresponding samples were calculated to normalize the expression
of the G and T alleles of the 5-HTT. Student's t-test was used to
analyze protein data to determine the significance of expression
differences between the G and T alleles.
[0476] Results
[0477] Genotyping and LD Analysis
[0478] DNA samples from 275 alcohol-dependent subjects were
genotyped in this study. Of these subjects, 165 were Caucasians (43
females and 122 males) and 110 were Hispanics (16 females and 94
males). Genotypic distributions of all 5 SNPs and 5-HTTLPR L/S
alleles, conformed to the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium (Table 1).
Further, the LD analyses using Haploview revealed no haplotype
blocks among the 5 SNPs and the 5'-HTTLPR L/S polymorphism
according to the criteria of Gabriel et al. (2002), in Caucasian,
Hispanic or pooled populations, respectively (FIG. 1).
[0479] Associations with Self-Reported Drinking Measures
[0480] To exclude potential variations caused by ethnic differences
on drinking intensity, subgroups of subjects based on ethnicity
were analyzed separately for all polymorphisms studied here. Among
the polymorphisms analyzed individually using SAS (version 9.1)
program for associations with drinking intensity, only SNP
rs1042173 in the 3' UTR of SLC6A4 showed a significant association
with intensity of drinking. Table 2 shows demographic and drinking
parameters of the cohort analyzed for rs1042173 association
studies. No significant association was detected for other genetic
polymorphisms with intensity of drinking in Caucasian, Hispanic or
pooled populations (data not shown).
[0481] Among Caucasian subjects, mean drinks per drinking day
differed significantly among TT, TG, and GG genotypes (F=5.625;
p=0.004). Using Tukey's post-hoc multiple comparison test, the
differences between TG heterozygotes and TT homozygotes were
statistically significant (d=4.721; p=0.002); however, the
differences between TG heterozygotes and GG homozygotes were not
(d=2.175; p=0.20). When TT and TG were combined and compared with
GG using Student's t-test, the means did not differ significantly
(t=0.32; p=0.75). The combined means of TG and GG (FIG. 2A) were
significantly lower than the mean of TT (t=2.97; p=0.003). This
suggests a dominant effect of the G allele over the T allele. The
difference between the means of drinks per drinking day in
G-carriers and TT genotypic group was 2.59+0.87 (95% CI -0.879 to
4.297).
[0482] Estrogen has been shown to modulate the synthesis, release,
and metabolism of 5-HT (Bethea et al., 2002; Frackiewicz et al.,
2000; Pivac et al., 2004). Thus, to examine the impact of gender on
these associations, we repeated the analyses on male subjects only.
In Caucasian males, the mean difference of standard drinks per
drinking day between G-carriers and TT genotypic group, was
2.89+1.07 (95% CI -0.771 to 5.009), which was similar to the mean
difference in combined Caucasian male and female subjects.
Therefore, we did not find a significant effect of gender on the
associations between rs1042173 genotypes and drinks per drinking
day.
[0483] However, among Hispanic subjects, we did not detect a
significant effect of rs1042173 genotypes on both measures of
drinking intensity, drinks per drinking day (F=0.935; p=0.397) and
drinks per day (F=0.299; p=0.74).
[0484] Considering that 5'-HTTLPR L/S polymorphism has implicated
as functional in many reported studies, we examined potential
interactive effect of 5'-HTTLPR L/S and rs1042173 alleles on
drinking intensity by using a newly developed algorithm for
detecting gene-gene interaction, called generalized multifactor
dimensionality reduction (GMDR) method (Lou et al. 2007). Our GMDR
analyses revealed no significant interaction between these two
functional SNPs (P=0.623).
[0485] 5-HTT mRNA Expression in Cells Transfected with Plasmid
Carrying Either T or G Alleles
[0486] To study whether the T and G alleles of rs1042173 leads to
differential expression levels of 5-HTTs, we transfected plasmids
carrying the T and G alleles of rs1042173 into HeLa cells and
quantified mRNA levels by using the qRT-PCR assay. Results were
analyzed for allelic differences using the .DELTA..DELTA.Ct method
described by Winer et al (1999). FIG. 3A depicts the mean 5-HTT
mRNA expression levels for the T and G alleles from three
independent transfection experiments. The G allele yielded
significantly higher mRNA expression level compared with the T
allele. In the three independent experiments, the G
allele-transfected HeLa cells, compared with their T
allele-transfected counterparts, always produced a >50% higher
5-HTT mRNA level, an effect that was significant statistically
(p<0.0001).
[0487] 5-HTT Protein Expression in the T and G Alleles of the
rs1042173 SNP
[0488] To determine if the allele-associated RNA difference can be
translated into protein, we measured allele-specific differences in
5-HTT protein levels between the two alleles. After normalization
with tubulin for the loading difference, we found that the 5-HTT
protein level with G allele (0.137.+-.0.006) is significantly
higher than that of T allele (0.104.+-.0.002) (t=5.53; p=0.005; See
FIG. 3B). These results were reproduced in western blotting
experiments from several independent replications. Notably, the
expression of both mRNA and 5-HTT proteins was in the same
direction--the G allele being associated with higher mRNA and
protein expression levels than the T allele.
[0489] Discussion
[0490] The data provide evidence that rs1042173, a SNP in the 3'
UTR of the SLC6A4 gene, is associated with intensity of drinking
among Caucasians dependent on alcohol. Using a site-directed
mutagenesis approach, it was shown that rs1042173 is a functional
polymorphism that resulted in a difference in 5-HTT expression
levels in HeLa cell cultures, with G allele associated with higher
5-HTT mRNA and protein expression levels than the T allele. Of
multiple approaches used to determine whether a polymorphism is a
function one, a direct comparison of expression level between two
alleles through an in vitro expression system as used in this study
represents one of the most convenient molecular techniques in the
field.
[0491] Alcohol-dependent individuals who were G-allele carriers for
rs1042173 showed less intensity of drinking compared with those who
were homozygous for the T allele. Importantly, the average
intensity of drinking for both of these allelic groups exceeded the
threshold for heavy drinking (i.e., .gtoreq.5 and .gtoreq.4
standard drinks/day for men and women, respectively), and all were
dependent on alcohol. At the time of entry, subjects in both
allelic groups were not statistically significantly different in
average chronological age and duration of alcohol dependency. It
is, therefore, reasonable to propose that alcohol-dependent
individuals with the TT genotype might constitute a subtype of more
intense drinkers among heavy-drinking alcoholics of European
descent.
[0492] This is the first study to investigate the function of the
rs1042173 SNP in an alcohol-dependent population. The rs1042173
polymorphism is not only located at a putative polyadenylation
signal site in the 3' UTR of the 5-HTT gene but also near a
potential binding site for microRNA miRNA-135 according to a
bioinformatics prediction with PicTar program (Chen et al., 2006).
It has been hypothesized that a variant at this location may change
expression levels by affecting the stability of mRNA (Battersby et
al., 1999; Beaudoing et al., 2000; Chen et al., 2006). Our findings
have been further supported by two recent reports. The first study
reported by Vallender et al. (2008) revealed that a functional
haplotype containing T allele of rs1042173 was associated with
higher mRNA expression in HEK293 cells compared to the haplotype
consisting of G allele. Another study reported by Lim et al. (2006)
showed that G-allele had increased allelic expression imbalance
(AEI) in Epstein-Barr virus transformed lymphoblast cells while
human pons tissue showed a decreased AEI for G-allele. Although the
expression levels associated with each allele of rs1042173 are
inconsistent among these studies (likely due to different reporter
genes and/or cell lines used among them), they all reveal that
rs1042173 is a functional one.
[0493] The finding of no association between rs1042173 genotype and
intensity of drinking in Hispanics, which differed from that of an
association among Caucasians, while the allelic frequencies for T
and G alleles in Caucasians and Hispanics were not significantly
different, does suggest the possibility of differential regulation
of gene expression by ethnic group. Due to the relatively small
sample size of the cohort, such a premise needs to be treated as
preliminary and confirmed by larger studies.
[0494] The data show that the association between the intensity of
drinking and the genotype remained significant in the same manner
even if we varied the drinking period prior to enrollment within a
range of 14 to 90 days (data not shown). The consistency of these
results strengthened our findings.
[0495] The findings suggest the possibility that two different
subgroups of treatment-seeking alcoholics with allelic differences
at the 3' UTR, SNP rs1042173 can differ in their intensity of
drinking, an effect that might be associated with underlying
differences in expression of 5-HTT.
TABLE-US-00003 TABLE 1 Biological Information of the 5 SNPs
Examined in the Study Primers and probe MAF p-values for the
sequences/context NCBI physical Chromosome Cau- His- deviation from
HWE.sup.b sequence ID of ABI dbSNP ID position position Alleles
CEU.sup.a casian.sup.b panic.sup.b Caucasian Hispanic primers and
probes 5-HTTLPR Promoter -25,588,500 L 0.451 0.430 0.814 0.624
Forward: TCCT (long) CCGCTTTGGCGCCTCTTCC Reverse: TGGGGGTTGCAG
GGGAGATCCTG rs25531 Promoter 25,588,472 S 0.100 0.065 0.079 0.999
1.000 Forward: TGCT CCGCTTTG (short) GCGCCTCTTCC A/G Reverse:
TGGGGGTTGCAGG GGAGATCCTG The two alleles were determined using
restriction enzymes HPAl1 and bcc1 rs6354 Exon 2 25,574,024 T/G
0.295 0.202 0.158 0.319 1.000 C_1841706_10 (5' UTR) rs6355 Exon 3
25,572,936 C/G 0.025 0.022 0.026 1.000 1.000 C_11414113_20
(Ala/Gly) rs28914832 Exon 10 25,562,500 A/C 0.008 0.003 0.009 1.000
1.000 (Custom Taqman (R) SNP (Leu/Ile) Genotyping Assay) Forward:
GCAGAAGCGATAG CCAACATG Reverse: CAAGCCCAGCGTG ATTAACATC Probe:
CTTTCTTTGCC[C/A] TCATCT rs1042173 Exon 15 25,549,137 G/T 0.433
0.419 0.455 0.138 1.000 C_7473190_10 (3' UTR) MAF, minor allele
frequence; HWE, Hardy-weinberg equilibrium; ABI, Applied Biosystem
(Foster City, CA). .sup.aEuropean sample from HapMap project.
.sup.bData from this study.
TABLE-US-00004 TABLE 2 Demographics and Drinking Parameters in the
Cohort Analyzed for rs1042173 Caucasian Hispanic TT TG GG p-value
TT TG GG p-value Number of subjects 47 77 41 -- 26 56 28 -- Gender
(% male) 82.97 64.93 80.49 -- 88.46 85.71 82.14 -- Age (years) 41.6
.+-. 1.66 42.36 .+-. 1.23 40.98 .+-. 1.52 0.62 37.08 .+-. 2.01
40.05 .+-. 1.22 38.82 .+-. 1.76 0.33 Age of onset of 29.74 .+-.
1.72 30.61 .+-. 1.25 28.37 .+-. 1.87 0.69 26.44 .+-. 1.67 26.82
.+-. 1.23 26.36 .+-. 1.87 0.91 problem drinking Baseline drinks
11.17 .+-. 0.98 8.05 .+-. 0.47 9.58 .+-. 0.67 0.0043 9.99 .+-. 0.71
10.66 .+-. 0.67 9.76 .+-. 0.58 0.65 per drinking day Baseline
drinks 8.99 .+-. 0.96 6.48 .+-. 0.44 7.72 .+-. 0.58 0.02 8.23 .+-.
0.75 7.52 .+-. 0.59 7.92 .+-. 0.55 0.74 per day Years of lifetime
11.86 .+-. 1.32 11.75 .+-. 1.04 12.6 .+-. 1.4 0.56 10.63 .+-. 1.68
13.23 .+-. 1.2 12.64 .+-. 1.51 0.35 drinking Values are means .+-.
SEM. Significant p-values after correction for multiple testing are
given in bold. "Years of lifetime drinking" was calculated by
subtracting the age at which the subject began experiencing
symptoms of alcohol dependence from their age at study enrollment.
The adjusted p-value at the 0.05 significance level is 0.010.
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Example 2
Drinking Histories in Alcohol-Use-Disordered Youth: Relationship of
Platelet Serotonin Transporter Expression with Genotypes of the
Serotonin Transporter
[0536] Functional control of the serotonin system is hypothesized
to be regulated in part by differences in SERT (5-HTT) expression
[15]. The gene responsible for encoding SERT expression has a
functional polymorphism at the 5'-regulatory promoter region [16,
17]. The polymorphism contains an insertion/deletion mutation with
the long (L) variant having 44 base pairs that are absent in the
short (S) variant. In normal controls, the LL genotype, compared to
S-carriers (i.e., SS and SL genotypes), has greater 5-HT uptake in
human platelets [18], lymphoblasts [19], and greater numbers (e.g.,
reflecting either greater expression or less turnover) of SERT in
human raphe nuclei [20]. Assuming that individuals with the LL
genotype have greater SERT expression rates, these individuals
would be hypothesized to have greater 5-HT uptake, lower
intra-synaptic 5-HT levels, and, therefore, reduced intra-synaptic
5HT neurotransmission in vivo and in vitro [16, 19].
[0537] Differential expression of the serotonin transporter, in
interaction with chronic alcohol use, may play an important role in
the etiology and pathogenesis of alcoholism [15, 21], especially
for early-onset alcoholism. For example, adolescents with the LL
genotype may have specific vulnerabilities that increase the risk
of developing alcoholism [1, 22]. Family risk and population
studies provide support for this hypothesis. In a sample of men at
risk for alcohol dependence, the LL genotype was more prevalent
among those who developed alcohol dependence [23]. Ernouf and
colleagues [24] have shown that platelet serotonin (5-HT) uptake
was higher in alcohol dependent parents and their children,
compared to age-matched controls. Rausch and colleagues [25] showed
that adult males with alcohol-dependent fathers had higher mean
Vmax for platelet 5-HT uptake, compared to FH- controls. In a
Japanese sample, alcoholics with the L allele (e.g., LL and LS
genotypes) had a significantly earlier onset of alcohol dependence,
compared those with the SS genotype [26]. In a Korean male sample,
the frequency of the L-allele was significantly higher in alcohol
dependent individuals compared to controls [27]. However, in
European and Mexican-American samples, the SS genotype, not the LL
genotype, has been associated with an antisocial-type of alcoholism
[28, 29], so the genetic risk is clearly not as simple as a single
allelic variant increasing risk for alcohol dependence. Our group
has reported previously that 5-HT uptake into platelets was greater
among EOA males, compared to LOA males and healthy controls [30].
Although in adult normal samples, platelet 5-HT uptake is greater
among L-carriers compared to individuals with the SS genotype [18],
we recently found that among adults with chronic alcohol
dependence, both 5-HT uptake and 3H-paroxetine binding to SERT were
reduced among L-carriers (e.g., LL and LS) compared to SS
homozygotes [31], and these reductions in platelet 5-HT function
were related to years of drinking. Together, the above findings
from family risk and population studies support the hypothesis that
chronic alcohol use may be "toxic" to SERT and diminish SERT
activity expressed in individuals who are L-carriers [15, 20,
22].
[0538] The aims were to determine whether SERT genotype (LL vs.
S-carriers) differentiated Early Onset adolescents with AUD with
respect to their drinking patterns or their serotonergic activity
measured by SERT density and function in platelets. Relationships
of platelet SERT measures to current and lifetime drinking also
were examined. It was hypothesized that platelet measures of SERT
binding and function would be related to SERT genotype, in part due
to the relatively short histories of alcohol use. Specifically it
was predicted that adolescents with AUD would show higher SERT
function and SERT density in the LL genotype compared to the
S-genotypes (LS, SS). It was also tested whether history of
drinking, current amount of drinking, or both, determine how SERT
genotype alters SERT function in adolescents with alcohol use
disorder.
[0539] Materials and Methods
[0540] Participants--Participants were youths aged 18-20 with a
current alcohol use disorder who were not seeking treatment.
Participants were diagnosed with alcohol abuse or alcohol
dependence, using criteria from the Diagnostic and Statistical
Manual of Mental Disorders 4th edition (DSM-IV; American
Psychiatric Association, 1994). All volunteers were in good
physical health (determined by a complete physical examination,
electrocardiogram (EKG) within normal limits, and laboratory
screening tests within acceptable parameters); were consuming at
least 3 Standard Drinks/Drinking Day; had breath-alcohol level of
zero at screen; and were literate in English. Exclusionary criteria
included current or lifetime Axis I DSM-IV Substance Use Disorder
other than to alcohol or cannabis use disorder. Illicit substance
use in the past 30 days other than marijuana use was exclusionary.
Psychiatric exclusionary criteria included current major depressive
disorder, bipolar disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder,
psychosis, or attention deficit hyperactivity (ADHD) that was
medicated within the previous 30 days. Medical exclusionary
criteria included elevated liver enzymes greater than 4 times the
normal range, and/or elevated bilirubin (>110% per limits of
normal); serious medical co-morbidity requiring medical
intervention or close supervision; clinically significant alcohol
withdrawal; treatment for alcohol abuse or dependence within the
last 30 days; or, if female, pregnant. All participants gave
written informed consent. The study was approved by the University
of Texas Health Science Center Institutional Review Board.
[0541] Diagnostic Measures--Trained therapists used the Children's
Interview for Psychiatric Syndromes (ChIPS), which adheres strictly
to DSM-IV criteria for psychiatric disorders and has been shown to
be accurate and provide valid diagnoses of psychiatric disorders in
adolescents and young adults to 20 years of age [32]. Current and
lifetime substance use disorders were diagnosed in a structured
clinical interview using the Adolescent Diagnostic Interview (ADI)
[33, 34]. The principal investigator clarified discrepancies and
established reliability of interviews, using the Best Estimate
Diagnostic Procedure [35, 36], and monitored for consistency of
participant's self-report throughout the study. Recent reported
drinking and lifetime drinking were determined by patient interview
using time-line follow back procedures [37].
[0542] General design and procedures--The experimental design was a
cross-sectional retrospective study. After initial screening,
eligible participants gave blood for assay of platelet 5HT function
and genotyping. Fifty milliliters of blood was drawn from each
participant to obtain platelets for the measurement of 5-HT uptake
into intact platelets and paroxetine binding to platelet membranes.
Additionally a 10 ml sample of blood was drawn for the
determination of SERT genotype.
[0543] Platelet Suspension and Platelet Membrane Preparation--Fifty
ml blood was drawn into 60 ml polypropylene syringes containing 10
ml of Acid-Citrate-Dextrose (ACD) buffer. The blood was then
centrifuged at 150 g at 23.degree. C. for 20 min in a Beckman TJ-6
centrifuge to obtain platelet-rich plasma (PRP). Platelet count in
PRP was determined with a Coulter counter model S-plus VI and
adjusted to 3.times.108 platelets/ml with the addition of platelet
buffer (137 mM KCl, 1 mM MgCl.sub.2. 5.5 mM glucose, 5 mM HEPES, pH
7.4) to prepare adjusted PRP for the serotonin uptake experiments
only. Three ml of adjusted PRP was used for platelet serotonin
uptake experiments, which were performed on the day of the blood
draw. To prepare platelet membranes for paroxetine binding
experiments the remainder of the PRP was used. One ml of
prostaglandin I2 solution (300 ng/ml) per ml of PRP was added to
prevent loss of platelets during centrifugation, and then the
sample was centrifuged at 550 g. The resulting platelet pellet was
resuspended in platelet buffer and then centrifuged at 35,000 g.
The platelet membrane pellet was resuspended in 1 ml of platelet
buffer and then stored at 80 oC until the day of the assay to
measure paroxetine binding.
[0544] Serotonin Uptake into Intact Platelets--Platelet 5-HT uptake
experiments were performed in 21 participants. The adjusted PRP
suspension was used to determine platelet 5-HT uptake. Assay tubes
were prepared in duplicate and contained .sup.3[H] 5-HT at six
different concentrations (62.5 nM to 2000 nM), and 100 .mu.M
pargyline with or without 50 .mu.M fluoxetine. These tubes were
incubated at 37.degree. C. for 5 min; then the reaction was started
by the addition of 100 .mu.l of adjusted PRP that contained 107
platelets. The assay tubes were incubated at 37.degree. C. for an
additional 5 min; then the reaction was quenched by rapid filtering
through Whatman GF/B filters using a Brandel Cell Harvester. The
filters were washed three times with 5 ml of ice-cold wash buffer
(50 mM Tris-HCl, 150 mM NaCl, and 20 mM ethylene diamine
tetra-acetic acid (EDTA)). Filters were placed in scintillation
vials containing 5 ml of Beckman Ready Protein+ scintillation
counting fluid and immediately counted. Specific uptake was
calculated by subtracting total uptake front nonspecific uptake
(fluoxetine tubes). Maximum 5-HT uptake rate (Vmax) in platelets
was expressed as fmol 5-HT/min-10.sup.7 platelets, and the
equilibrium constant (Km) as nM. Km and Vmax were calculated using
the one-site hyperbolic function in Prism 4 software by Graph
Pad.TM..
[0545] Paroxetine Binding to Platelet Membranes--Platelet membranes
were used to determine platelet paroxetine binding. Assay tubes
were prepared in duplicate containing incubation buffer (50 mM
Tris-HCl, 5 mM KCl and 120 mM NaCl) and .sup.3[H] paroxetine at 6
different concentrations (0 to 2 nM) with and without 150 mM
fluoxetine. The actual concentration of paroxetine in each tube was
determined using a 40 ml aliquot taken from each tube prior to the
addition of platelet membranes. The experiment was started by the
addition of 80 mg of platelet membrane protein then the assay tubes
were incubated for 1 hr at 23.degree. C. The reaction was quenched
by addition of ice-cold wash buffer (50 mM Tris HCl, 150 mM NaCl,
20 mM EDTA) and rapid filtering through Whatman GF/B filters
treated with 0.3% polyethylenimine using a Brandel Cell Harvester.
Filters were washed 3 times with ice-cold wash buffer, dried
over-night, placed in scintillation vials containing 5 ml of
Beckman Ready Protein+ scintillation counting fluid and counted in
a Beckman LS-6500 liquid scintillation counter. Disintegrations per
minute (DPM) from the 40 ml aliquots were converted into nM of
paroxetine to obtain the actual concentrations in each tube. Total
and non-specific binding of paroxetine was plotted against each
actual concentration. Specific binding was calculated by
subtracting non-specific binding from total binding. Kd and Bmax of
paroxetine binding were calculated using Prism4 software
(Graphpad). Paroxetine binding (Bmax) was expressed as fmol/mg of
platelet membrane protein and Kd as nM. Protein concentrations were
measured using the BioRad method and a SPECTRAmax PLUS384
Micro-plate spectrophotometer.
[0546] Genotypin--The blood sample for the determination of SERT
genotype was drawn at enrollment. White blood cells were separated
from plasma and re-suspended, and DNA was isolated using PUREGENE,
Gentra systems according to the manufacturer's protocol. The
5'-HTTLPR 44 bp promoter region repeat polymorphism was amplified
by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) from .about.50 ng of DNA using
two primers: 5'-CGT TGC CGC TCT GAA TGC CAG-3' AND 5'-GGA TTC TTG
TGC CAC CTA GAC GCC-3' and in a 25-ul final volume consisting of
0.5 U of Tfl DNA polymerase (Epicentre), 1.times. PCR buffer, 1.5
ml MgCl.sub.2, 200 uM dNTPs, 1.times. (enhancer, and 0.6 uM of each
primer. The PCR conditions were as follows: 94.degree. for 30 s;
70.degree. C. for 30 s, and 72.degree. C. for 30 s); a final
extension of 72.degree. C. for 7 min and terminal hold at 4 oC.
Separation by gel electrophoresis using 4% MetaPhor agarose
(Cambrex, Rockland, Me.) allowed visualization by ethidium
bromide/UV detection of the two variants (long (L) and short (5):
fragment sizes=464 bp and 420 bp, respectively) of the promoter
region of the SCL4A gene (-1415 to -951) [16].
[0547] Statistical Analyses--Means and standard deviations for
outcome variables of platelet variables (Km and Vmax of 5HT uptake
into intact platelets, and Kd and Bmax of paroxetine binding on
platelet plasma membranes) were examined. Non-normal distributions
of outcome variables were transformed. Planned analyses included
Pearson correlations to examine the relationships the platelet
variables. T-tests were used to determine whether there were group
differences in the LL genotypes vs. S-carrier genotypes, in
psychiatric disorders, current, and lifetime drinking, for the
dependent variables for platelet 5HT function (Bmax Kd. Vmax, and
KM).
[0548] Results--The distribution of genotypes was the following:
LL, n=8, LS, n=9, SS, n=4. Since S-carriers (LS and SS) were the
predominant genotypes in the sample, LS and SS were pooled for the
analyses of group differences (e.g., LL vs, S-carriers).
[0549] There were no statistically significant differences in age
or ethnicity between the LL and S-carriers (see Table 1). However,
the LL group had a significantly earlier age of onset and longer
duration of alcohol use, but did not have significant differences
in quantitative measures of recent drinking. The LL group also had
significantly higher inattention and motor components of trait
impulsivity, and a trend towards significant differences in total
BIS-11 trait impulsivity. All participants had a current Alcohol
Use Disorder based on DSM-IV criteria. There were no significant
differences between genotype groups in other the DSM-IV psychiatric
groups.
[0550] Table 2 and FIG. 4 present the results of the platelet
studies. Participants having the LL genotype had significantly
higher Bmax and Kd than did S-carriers, indicating, greater amounts
of SERT with lower affinity for paroxetine binding. There were no
genotype group differences in the platelet functional measures of
5HT uptake.
[0551] Discussion--The main finding was that SERT genotype
predicted differences in age of onset and duration of drinking, as
well as the platelet binding profile of SERT among adolescent
subjects with an alcohol use disorder. Specifically, adolescents
with the LL genotype began drinking at a younger age and showed
greater 3H-paroxetine binding at lower affinity than did
S-carriers.
[0552] Even though both groups of participants had an onset of
alcohol use disorder during adolescence and were of the same
current age (i.e., mean=18.7 yrs), participants with an LL-genotype
had significantly earlier age of onset of drinking (i.e., 13.5 vs.
15.2 years of age) compared to the S-carriers. This finding is
consistent with a hypothesis described by Johnson [22] predicting
that the LL genotype would be associated with an earlier age of
onset of problem drinking. Also consistent with the Johnson
hypothesis, the LL-group also had higher levels of behavioral
vulnerability (i.e., trait impulsivity) than did the S-carriers [1,
15, 22]. This latter finding is interesting in light of the
literature suggesting LL-genotypes may have lower 5-HT in the
synaptic cleft and lower central turnover of 5-HT associated with
higher levels of impulsivity [1, 15, 22]. Interestingly, there were
no significant group differences in the current levels of drinking,
which contrasts with reports in college students, showing that
S-carriers had heavier patterns of binge drinking [38].
[0553] Results front previous studies in adult populations have
generally shown that the SS genotype is associated with antisocial
types of alcoholism in European and Mexican-American populations
[28], while among Asian populations, LL-genotype has been
associated with alcoholism risk [26, 29]. The present study
population of adolescents included Caucasian, "white"--Hispanic,
biracial or mixed, and American Indian ancestry participants. The
results suggest that the LL genotype may be associated with a
greater impulsivity, thereby increasing risk to begin encountering
problem drinking at an earlier (adolescent) age. Given the
association of the SS-genotype with anxiety and stress-related
disorders [15, 39], an alternative hypothesis is that by the time
that Caucasian adolescents mature into college-age young adults,
other environmental factors such as stress, interact with S-carrier
genotypes, to produce anxiety or affective distress resulting in
greater patterns of drinking and alcoholism risk.
[0554] Previous studies in adults have shown that compared to
S-carriers, the LL-genotype is associated with increased central
SERT binding [20] and increased 5-HT uptake (but not binding) in
the platelets of healthy subjects [18]. However, this finding
appears not to be the case in adult alcoholics. It is known that
adult alcoholics having an L-allele actually have reduced
3H-paroxetine binding and 5-HT uptake into platelets compared to
the SS-homozygotes--and hypothesized that this effect is related to
years of problem drinking [31]. The current findings suggest that
adolescent problem drinkers who have the LL genotype initially have
normal patterns of increased SERT binding, but that S-carriers do
not have normal SERT binding. Therefore, it is reasonable to
speculate that with continued heavy drinking, adolescents who have
earlier onset of drinking and longer duration of drinking have an
earlier onset of down regulation of SERT than is seen in adult
alcoholics.
[0555] Example 2,
TABLE-US-00005 TABLE 1 Demographics, Drinking History, and Current
Psychiatric Disorders Genotype LL LS/SS (n = 8) (n = 13) Variable
Mean (SD) Mean (SD) P value Age (yrs) 18.9 0.6 18.5 0.5 0.20 Trait
Impulsivity (BIS-11) Non-planning 26.0 4.7 24.4 6.9 0.57
Inattention 20.5 3.4 16.5 3.8 0.03 Motor 27.8 3.2 23.9 3.2 0.02
Total 74.3 7.4 64.9 11.3 0.05 Lifetime Drinking Age of Onset of
13.5 1.2 15.2 1.9 0.03 Alcohol Use (yrs) Duration of 5.4 0.9 3.3
1.8 <0.01* Alcohol Use (yrs) Recent Drinking DD 3.0 1.7 3.9 5.3
0.98 DDD 9.9 5.7 7.8 7.8 0.27 PDA 67.6 16.1 52.7 25.7 0.16 (Percent
(Percent Num- of LL Num- of LS/SS ber Participants) ber
Participants) Gender 0.97 Male 5 62.5 8 61.5 Female 3 37.5 5 38.5
Ethnicity 0.38 Caucasian 2 25.0 3 23.1 Hispanic 3 37.5 9 69.2
Biracial or Mixed 3 37.5 0 0.0 American Indian 0 0.0 1 7.7 ADHD 3
37.5 3 25.0 0.48 ODD 1 12.5 3 25.0 0.55 CD 6 75.0 9 75.0 0.92 Mood
Disorders 2 25.0 3 23.0 0.85 Anxiety Disorders 0 0.0 4 44.0 0.81
Alcohol Use 8 100.0 13 100.0 + Disorder Alcohol 8 100.0 10 83.3
0.14 Dependence Alcohol Abuse 0 0.0 3 16.7 ** Cannabis 1 12.5 6
50.0 0.11 Dependence *Duration of alcohol use remains significant
after including Barrett Impulsivity Scale (BIS) total as covariate.
DD: Average Drinks per Day in past 90 days; DDD: Average Drinks per
Drinking Day in past 90 days; PDA: Percent Days Abstinent in past
90 days; (+) All participants met criteria for a current Alcohol
Use Disorder; ** Three participants met DSM-IV-TR criteria for
Alcohol Abuse. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD);
Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD), Conduct Disorder (CD)
[0556] Example 2,
TABLE-US-00006 TABLE 2 Group differences in measures of 5HT uptake
and paroxetine binding Genotype LL LS/SS (n = 8) (n = 13) Variable
Mean (SD) Mean (SD) P value Paroxetine Binding B.sub.max (fmol/
802.0 254.2 504.3 199.8 0.02 mg protein) K.sub.d (nM) 0.7 0.5 0.4
.3 0.03 Bmax/Kd 1293.2 508.6 1861.4 1318.0 0.18 5HT Uptake Vmax
181.6 128.4 200.1 113.5 0.46 (fmol/min-10.sup.7 platelets) K.sub.m
(.mu.M) 445.9 409.3 323.2 136.4 0.40 V.sub.max/K.sub.m 0.6 0.4 0.7
0.4 0.53 Note: Data were transformed to the natural log scale for
t-test analyses.
[0557] Conclusion--The present findings provide partial support for
the hypothesis that among currently drinking adolescents with an
alcohol use disorder, those having a LL-genotype display greater
impulsivity, began drinking at an earlier age, and have increased
.sup.3H-paroxetine binding to platelet SERT. These findings expand
our current understanding of the 5'-promoter of the SERT gene in
regulating the SERT in adolescents with AUD. This study provides
preliminary findings that further demonstrate that platelet and
genetic measures of SERT function may be useful measures to track
the complex interplay of biological and environmental factors in
the etiology of vulnerability and risk of either alcoholism onset
or toxicity.
Example 2 Bibliography
[0558] 1. Johnson, B. A., and N. Ait-Daoud, Psychopharmacology,
2000. 149: p. 327-344. [0559] 2. LeMarquand et al., Biological
Psychiatry, 1994. 36: p, 326-337. [0560] 3. LeMarquandet al.,
American Journal of Psychiatry, 1999, 156: p. 1771-1779. [0561] 4.
Stoltenberg, S. F., Alcoholism: Clin. Exp. Res., 2003. 27: p.
1853-1859. [0562] 5. Linnoila et al., Life Sciences, 1983. 33: p.
2609-2614. [0563] 6. Eils-Aims, M. L., et al., Archives of General
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Virkkunen et al., Archives of General Psychiatry, 1996. 53: p.
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Virkkunen, et al., Journal of Psychiatry and Neuroscience, 1995.
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Neurobiology, Psychology, Family Issues., M. Galanter, Editor.
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et al., Journal of Neural Transmission, 1997. 104: p. 1005-1014.
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Sobell, M. B., Timeline follow-back: A technique for assessing
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1609-1619. [0600] 43. Twitchell et al., Alcoholism: Clin. Exp.
Res., 2000. 24(7): p. 972-979. [0601] 44. Twitchell, et al.,
Alcoholism: Clin. Exp. Res., 2001. 25(7): p. 953-959.
Example 3
LL Alcoholics Experience Greatest Reduction in Drinking Severity
Following Ondansetron Treatment
[0602] 5-HT3 up-regulation increases the function of DA (Blandina
et at 1989; Blandina et al 1988; De Deurwaerdere et al 1998), the
principal neurotransmitter mediating alcohol's rewarding effects.
This up-regulation may be increased by bouts of binge drinking
because the extent to which the 5-HT3 receptor is potentiated is
inversely related to the level of basal 5-HT neurotransmission
(Lovinger 1991; Levinger 1999; Lovinger and Zhou 1994; Lovinger and
Zhou 1998; Zhou and Lovinger 1996; Zhou et al 1998). Ondansetron
may, therefore, be differentially effective in EOA with presumed LL
variant predominance by blockade of up-regulated 5-HT3 receptors,
thereby ameliorating the serotonergic dysfunction and decreasing
alcohol's rewarding effects.
[0603] Polymorphic variation of the SERT at 5'-HTTLPR also may
explain the therapeutic treatment response to SSRIs among type A
alcoholics (similar to LOA) with presumed SS/SL predominance
(Pettinati et al 2000). This association is, however, probably not
mediated through 5-HT3 mechanisms. It is proposed herein that in
Pettinati et al.'s type A alcoholics, predominantly with the SS/SL
form, basal serotonergic function was normal. Chronic SSRI
treatment, therefore, produced modest facilitation of 5-HT
neurotransmission and long-term inhibition of dopaminergic
activity, thereby offsetting alcohol's rewarding effects during
chronic drinking. Individuals with the SS/SL form of 5'-HTTLPR can
be expected to experience a similar modest anti-rewarding effect
during acute alcohol intake while receiving chronic SSRI treatment.
In contrast, chronic SSRI treatment was probably ineffective at
reducing the protracted drinking of type B alcoholics (Kranzler et
al 1996) with presumed LL predominance because serotonergic
activity would have been increased greatly (as there are relatively
fewer SERT transporters in this state), and the ensuing marked
hypo-dopaminergic state probably triggered relief drinking to
normalize tins neurochemical condition. Chronic SSRI treatment
probably has little effect on 5-HT neurotransmission among acutely
drinking individuals with the LL variant because basal serotonin
reuptake already is enhanced greatly.
[0604] The present studies were performed to determine if the
effective of ondansetron treatment could be correlated with the
expression of the LL variant of 5'-HTTLPR and alcohol
consumption.
[0605] Materials and Methods
[0606] In a pre-planned interim analysis, data were examined for
the 226 alcohol-dependent individuals (aged 18-65 years) enrolled
into the 12-week randomized controlled pharmacotherapy trial to
determine the effect of ondansetron on drinking among individuals
who varied on allelic difference at the 5-HTT gene and age of
alcoholism onset. All these individuals were enrolled at the
University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio. Briefly,
the study design was 2 (LL vs. LS/SS).times.2 (early onset vs. late
onset).times.2 (ondansetron 4 .mu.g/kg b.i.d. vs. placebo). The
inferential results below are for the severity of
drinking--drinks/drinking day (DDD).
[0607] Demographic data were that: 74% were male and 26% female;
48% were early-onset alcoholics and 52% late-onset alcoholics, and
20% were Hispanic and 80% White. There were no significant
differences (P>0.05) on demographics between the treatment
groups. Baseline mean (SD) DDD (past 90 days) were also similar for
the ondansetron 4 .mu.g/kg b.i.d. and placebo groups--9.83 (4.63)
vs. 9.85 (4.49), respectively. The inferential analyses were
conducted on all randomized subjects according to the
intent-to-treat principle. The analytic plan was first to calculate
the DDD in each week. We then used the difference between weekly
DDD and the baseline DDD (in the past 90 days) as repeat measures.
A mixed-model approach (SAS PROC MIXED) was used to study the
effect of treatment, genotype (LL vs. LS/SS), treatment and
genotype interaction, age, age of onset (early vs. late), gender,
and age at onset of problem drinking, adjusting for the baseline
DDD level. Also included is a random slope for time to study the
variation in the time trend of the weekly DDD.
Results--Example 3
[0608] It was observed that DDD for both the ondansetron and
placebo groups had a roughly linear decreasing time pattern; thus,
all groups improved their drinking outcomes over time (F=32.96;
P<0.0001). The table below (Table 1--Example 3) shows the cell
contrasts for the different genotypes on DDD for the placebo and
treatment (i.e., ondansetron) groups.
[0609] There also was a main effect of treatment (F=5.64; P=0.02).
The interaction of treatment and genotype was highly significant
(F=6.99; P=0.0083). There also was a marginally significant effect
of age of onset (F=3.68; P=0.06). There was an overall significant
effect for the LL group to reduce DDD (F=5.64; P=0.02) and an
effect of time (F=12.69; P=0.0007). From the table, the cell
contrasts show that the reduction in DDD for the LL group was
driven by the tact that the ondansetron LL group had a
significantly greater reduction in DDD compared with the other
allelic types. Indeed, the effect size (Cohen's d) for
ondansetron's effect in LL individuals to reduce DDD was large
(i.e., 0.08). The mean (SEM) DDD reduction from baseline across the
treatment period for the different genotypes and treatment
conditions was 5.70 (0.64) for ondansetron LL, 3.45 (0.44) for
ondansetron LS/SS, 3.54 (0.67) for placebo LL, and 4.25 (0.45) for
placebo LS/SS. About 70% of those who entered the double-blind
phase completed the trial.
[0610] These promising data provide the first evidence that
alcoholics with the LL genotype, compared with their LS/SS
counterparts, experience significantly greater reduction in the
severity of drinking following ondansetron treatment.
Example 3
TABLE-US-00007 [0611] TABLE 1 Lower Upper P- Cohen's Treatment
Genotype Estimate CI CI Value d Placebo LS/SS vs. -0.71 -2.29 0.87
0.379 0.03 LL Treatment LS/SS vs. 2.25 0.73 3.78 0.004 0.10 LL
Placebo vs. LS/SS -0.80 -2.03 0.43 0.203 0.04 treatment Placebo vs.
LL 2.16 0.35 3.98 0.020 0.08 treatment
[0612] Critically, these new findings on serotonergic medications
revive the concept that alcoholism is a heterogeneous disorder
associated with varying neurochemical abnormalities. Medications
that specifically target one or more of these underlying
abnormalities promise, therefore, to be powerful treatments, and
their trials should advance our scientific understanding of the
disease.
Example 4
Methods of Predicting Responses to Treatment Based on Different
Genotypes of the 5'-HTTLPR and the 3'-UTR of the Serotonin
Transporter Gene SLC6A4 and Methods of Treatment Based on the
Differences
[0613] Based on the results of the experiments described in
Examples 1-3, a series of studies were performed to determine
whether there is a pharmacogenetic effect of ondansetron to
differentially treat those with the LL genotype of the 5'-HTTLPR,
the TT genotype of the 3'-UTR of rs1042173, or the combination of
the genotypes.
[0614] Materials and Methods
[0615] Subjects: 289 alcohol-dependent men and women enrolled in a
12-week treatment trial in which they received, either ondansetron
(4 .mu.g/kg) or placebo. All subjects also received weekly
cognitive behavioral therapy as their standardized psychosocial
treatment. Genotyping was conducted on all subjects.
[0616] Statistical Methods: Mixed-effects models were used to study
the effect of treatment and genotype and their interaction for each
of the primary drinking outcomes. The models included random
intercept and random slope and were adjusted for covariates such as
participants' average 90-day drinking levels prior to the study,
age, gender, ethnicity (Caucasian and Hispanic), and center. A
variance-components covariance matrix was used to model different
variances for the intercept and slope and a covariance between
them. Interactions of treatment, genotype, age, and center were
first included in the models. They were excluded from the final
models if not significant.
[0617] Results: For drinks per drinking day (DDD) outcome, it was
found that there were significant rs1042173 main effects in DDD
(p=0.003) as well as in the rs1042173-by-5'-HTTLPR L/S alleles (LL,
LS/SS) interaction effect (p=0.021) and the 5'-HTTLPR L/S
alleles-by-treatment interaction effect (p=0.028). Patients with
the TT genotype had more than a 1-DDD reduction compared with those
with TG/GG (mean difference=-1.16; 95% CI: -1.93 to -0.39;
p=0.003). Unexpectedly, in patients with bath the LL and TT
genotypes (LT), the DDD reduction was much greater than in those
with the other genotype combinations of rs1042173 and 5'-HTTLPR L/S
alleles (p<0.05), and there was more than a 2-DDD reduction in
LT individuals compared with those who had LL and TG/GG (LG; mean
difference=-2.06; 95% CI: -3.27 to -0.85; p=0.001). When treated
with ondansetron, LT genotype patients seemed to respond, to
treatment more effectively than did TG/GG genotype patients (mean
difference=-1.31; 95% Cl: -2.36 to -0.25; p=0.016). A similar
treatment effect was observed when we compared patients with the LL
genotype with those who had LS/SS (mean difference=-1.41; 95% CI:
-2.46 to -0.36; p=0.009), and among patients with the LL genotype,
those in the treatment group had a 1.5-DDD reduction compared with
those in the placebo group (mean difference=-1.50; 95% Cl: -2.70 to
-0.31; p=0.013). Similar effects were observed for other drinking
measures.
[0618] Conclusion: Ondansetron exerts a preferential treatment
effect to reduce severe drinking among alcohol-dependent
individuals with the LL genotype of the 5'-HTTLPR, an effect that
is increased among those who also possess the TT allele in the
3'-UTR of rs1042173. These data demonstrate an important
pharmacogenetic effect of ondansetron in alcohol-dependent
individuals. This study validates a method whereby
alcohol-dependent individuals identified as having either of these
alleles, or their combination, can be treated effectively with
ondansetron.
[0619] The data presented in Examples 1 and 4 demonstrate that
there is an association with higher severe drinking and
susceptibility to ondansetron treatment in alcohol-dependent
subjects homozygous for T, relative to alcohol-dependent subjects
with a G allele.
[0620] The disclosures of each and every patent, patent
application, and publication cited herein are hereby incorporated
by reference herein in their entirety.
[0621] Headings are included herein for reference and to aid in
locating certain sections. These headings are not intended to limit
the scope of the concepts described therein under, and these
concepts may have applicability in other sections throughout the
entire specification.
[0622] While this invention has been disclosed with reference to
specific embodiments, it is apparent that other embodiments and
variations of this invention may be devised by others skilled in
the art without departing from the true spirit and scope of the
invention.
Sequence CWU 1
1
1912775DNAHomo sapiens 1acagccagcg ccgccgggtg cctcgagggc gcgaggccag
cccgcctgcc cagcccggga 60ccagcctccc cgcgcagcct ggcaggtctc ctggaggcaa
ggcgaccttg cttgccctct 120cttgcagaat aacaaggggc ttagccacag
gagttgctgg caagtggaaa gaagaacaaa 180tgagtcaatc ccgacgtgtc
aatcccgacg atagagagct cggaggtgat ccacaaatcc 240aagcacccag
agatcaattg ggatccttgg cagatggaca tcagtgtcat ttactaacca
300gcaggatgga gacgacgccc ttgaattctc agaagcagct atcagcgtgt
gaagatggag 360aagattgtca ggaaaacgga gttctacaga aggttgttcc
caccccaggg gacaaagtgg 420agtccgggca aatatccaat gggtactcag
cagttccaag tcctggtgcg ggagatgaca 480cacggcactc tatcccagcg
accaccacca ccctagtggc tgagcttcat caaggggaac 540gggagacctg
gggcaagaag gtggatttcc ttctctcagt gattggctat gctgtggacc
600tgggcaatgt ctggcgcttc ccctacatat gttaccagaa tggagggggg
gcattcctcc 660tcccctacac catcatggcc atttttgggg gaatcccgct
cttttacatg gagctcgcac 720tgggacagta ccaccgaaat ggatgcattt
caatatggag gaaaatctgc ccgattttca 780aagggattgg ttatgccatc
tgcatcattg ccttttacat tgcttcctac tacaacacca 840tcatggcctg
ggcgctatac tacctcatct cctccttcac ggaccagctg ccctggacca
900gctgcaagaa ctcctggaac actggcaact gcaccaatta cttctccgag
gacaacatca 960cctggaccct ccattccacg tcccctgctg aagaatttta
cacgcgccac gtcctgcaga 1020tccaccggtc taaggggctc caggacctgg
ggggcatcag ctggcagctg gccctctgca 1080tcatgctgat cttcactgtt
atctacttca gcatctggaa aggcgtcaag acctctggca 1140aggtggtgtg
ggtgacagcc accttccctt atatcatcct ttctgtcctg ctggtgaggg
1200gtgccaccct ccctggagcc tggaggggtg ttctcttcta cttgaaaccc
aattggcaga 1260aactcctgga gacaggggtg tggatagatg cagccgctca
gatcttcttc tctcttggtc 1320cgggctttgg ggtcctgctg gcttttgcta
gctacaacaa gttcaacaac aactgctacc 1380aagatgccct ggtgaccagc
gtggtgaact gcatgacgag cttcgtttcg ggatttgtca 1440tcttcacagt
gctcggttac atggctgaga tgaggaatga agatgtgtct gaggtggcca
1500aagacgcagg tcccagcctc ctcttcatca cgtatgcaga agcgatagcc
aacatgccag 1560cgtccacttt ctttgccatc atcttctttc tgatgttaat
cacgctgggc ttggacagca 1620cgtttgcagg cttggagggg gtgatcacgg
ctgtgctgga tgagttccca cacgtctggg 1680ccaagcgccg ggagcggttc
gtgctcgccg tggtcatcac ctgcttcttt ggatccctgg 1740tcaccctgac
ttttggaggg gcctacgtgg tgaagctgct ggaggagtat gccacggggc
1800ccgcagtgct cactgtcgcg ctgatcgaag cagtcgctgt gtcttggttc
tatggcatca 1860ctcagttctg cagggacgtg aaggaaatgc tcggcttcag
cccggggtgg ttctggagga 1920tctgctgggt ggccatcagc cctctgtttc
tcctgttcat catttgcagt tttctgatga 1980gcccgccaca actacgactt
ttccaatata attatcctta ctggagtatc atcttgggtt 2040actgcatagg
aacctcatct ttcatttgca tccccacata tatagcttat cggttgatca
2100tcactccagg gacatttaaa gagcgtatta ttaaaagtat taccccagaa
acaccaacag 2160aaattccttg tggggacatc cgcttgaatg ctgtgtaaca
cactcaccga gaggaaaaag 2220gcttctccac aacctcctcc tccagttctg
atgaggcacg cctgccttct cccctccaag 2280tgaatgagtt tccagctaag
cctgatgatg gaagggcctt ctccacaggg acacagtctg 2340gtgcccagac
tcaaggcctc cagccactta tttccatgga ttcccctgga catattccca
2400tggtagactg tgacacagct gagctggcct attttggacg tgtgaggatg
tggatggagg 2460tgatgaaaac caccctatca tcagttagga ttaggtttag
aatcaagtct gtgaaagtct 2520cctgtatcat ttcttggtat gatcattggt
atctgatatc tgtttgcttc taaaggtttc 2580actgttcatg aatacgtaaa
ctgcgtagga gagaacaggg atgctatctc gctagccata 2640tattttctga
gtagcatata taattttatt gctggaatct actagaacct tctaatccat
2700gtgctgctgt ggcatcagga aaggaagatg taagaagcta aaatgaaaaa
tagtgtgtcc 2760atgcaaaaaa aaaaa 27752630PRTHomo sapiens 2Met Glu
Thr Thr Pro Leu Asn Ser Gln Lys Gln Leu Ser Ala Cys Glu1 5 10 15Asp
Gly Glu Asp Cys Gln Glu Asn Gly Val Leu Gln Lys Val Val Pro 20 25
30Thr Pro Gly Asp Lys Val Glu Ser Gly Gln Ile Ser Asn Gly Tyr Ser
35 40 45Ala Val Pro Ser Pro Gly Ala Gly Asp Asp Thr Arg His Ser Ile
Pro 50 55 60Ala Thr Thr Thr Thr Leu Val Ala Glu Leu His Gln Gly Glu
Arg Glu65 70 75 80Thr Trp Gly Lys Lys Val Asp Phe Leu Leu Ser Val
Ile Gly Tyr Ala 85 90 95Val Asp Leu Gly Asn Val Trp Arg Phe Pro Tyr
Ile Cys Tyr Gln Asn 100 105 110Gly Gly Gly Ala Phe Leu Leu Pro Tyr
Thr Ile Met Ala Ile Phe Gly 115 120 125Gly Ile Pro Leu Phe Tyr Met
Glu Leu Ala Leu Gly Gln Tyr His Arg 130 135 140Asn Gly Cys Ile Ser
Ile Trp Arg Lys Ile Cys Pro Ile Phe Lys Gly145 150 155 160Ile Gly
Tyr Ala Ile Cys Ile Ile Ala Phe Tyr Ile Ala Ser Tyr Tyr 165 170
175Asn Thr Ile Met Ala Trp Ala Leu Tyr Tyr Leu Ile Ser Ser Phe Thr
180 185 190Asp Gln Leu Pro Trp Thr Ser Cys Lys Asn Ser Trp Asn Thr
Gly Asn 195 200 205Cys Thr Asn Tyr Phe Ser Glu Asp Asn Ile Thr Trp
Thr Leu His Ser 210 215 220Thr Ser Pro Ala Glu Glu Phe Tyr Thr Arg
His Val Leu Gln Ile His225 230 235 240Arg Ser Lys Gly Leu Gln Asp
Leu Gly Gly Ile Ser Trp Gln Leu Ala 245 250 255Leu Cys Ile Met Leu
Ile Phe Thr Val Ile Tyr Phe Ser Ile Trp Lys 260 265 270Gly Val Lys
Thr Ser Gly Lys Val Val Trp Val Thr Ala Thr Phe Pro 275 280 285Tyr
Ile Ile Leu Ser Val Leu Leu Val Arg Gly Ala Thr Leu Pro Gly 290 295
300Ala Trp Arg Gly Val Leu Phe Tyr Leu Lys Pro Asn Trp Gln Lys
Leu305 310 315 320Leu Glu Thr Gly Val Trp Ile Asp Ala Ala Ala Gln
Ile Phe Phe Ser 325 330 335Leu Gly Pro Gly Phe Gly Val Leu Leu Ala
Phe Ala Ser Tyr Asn Lys 340 345 350Phe Asn Asn Asn Cys Tyr Gln Asp
Ala Leu Val Thr Ser Val Val Asn 355 360 365Cys Met Thr Ser Phe Val
Ser Gly Phe Val Ile Phe Thr Val Leu Gly 370 375 380Tyr Met Ala Glu
Met Arg Asn Glu Asp Val Ser Glu Val Ala Lys Asp385 390 395 400Ala
Gly Pro Ser Leu Leu Phe Ile Thr Tyr Ala Glu Ala Ile Ala Asn 405 410
415Met Pro Ala Ser Thr Phe Phe Ala Ile Ile Phe Phe Leu Met Leu Ile
420 425 430Thr Leu Gly Leu Asp Ser Thr Phe Ala Gly Leu Glu Gly Val
Ile Thr 435 440 445Ala Val Leu Asp Glu Phe Pro His Val Trp Ala Lys
Arg Arg Glu Arg 450 455 460Phe Val Leu Ala Val Val Ile Thr Cys Phe
Phe Gly Ser Leu Val Thr465 470 475 480Leu Thr Phe Gly Gly Ala Tyr
Val Val Lys Leu Leu Glu Glu Tyr Ala 485 490 495Thr Gly Pro Ala Val
Leu Thr Val Ala Leu Ile Glu Ala Val Ala Val 500 505 510Ser Trp Phe
Tyr Gly Ile Thr Gln Phe Cys Arg Asp Val Lys Glu Met 515 520 525Leu
Gly Phe Ser Pro Gly Trp Phe Trp Arg Ile Cys Trp Val Ala Ile 530 535
540Ser Pro Leu Phe Leu Leu Phe Ile Ile Cys Ser Phe Leu Met Ser
Pro545 550 555 560Pro Gln Leu Arg Leu Phe Gln Tyr Asn Tyr Pro Tyr
Trp Ser Ile Ile 565 570 575Leu Gly Tyr Cys Ile Gly Thr Ser Ser Phe
Ile Cys Ile Pro Thr Tyr 580 585 590Ile Ala Tyr Arg Leu Ile Ile Thr
Pro Gly Thr Phe Lys Glu Arg Ile 595 600 605Ile Lys Ser Ile Thr Pro
Glu Thr Pro Thr Glu Ile Pro Cys Gly Asp 610 615 620Ile Arg Leu Asn
Ala Val625 630323DNAHomo sapiens 3tcctccgctt tggcgcctct tcc
23423DNAHomo sapiens 4tgggggttgc aggggagatc ctg 23521DNAHomo
sapiens 5gcagaagcga tagccaacat g 21622DNAHomo sapiens 6caagcccagc
gtgattaaca tc 22718DNAHomo sapiensmisc_feature12n = C or A
7ctttctttgc cntcatct 18821DNAHomo sapiens 8cgttgccgct ctgaatgcca g
21924DNAHomo sapiens 9ggattctggt gccacctaga cgcc 241052DNAHomo
sapiensmisc_feature27n = g or t 10gccatatatt ttctgagtag catatanaat
tttattgctg gaatctacta ga 521121DNAHomo sapiens 11cgttgccgct
ctgaatgcca g 211224DNAHomo sapiens 12ggattctggt gccacctaga cgcc
241323DNAHomo Sapiens 13tcctccgctt tggcgcctct tcc 231423DNAHomo
Sapiens 14tgggggttgc aggggagatc ctg 231523DNAHomo Sapiens
15tcctccgctt tggcgcctct tcc 231623DNAHomo Sapiens 16tgggggttgc
aggggagatc ctg 231721DNAHomo Sapiens 17gcagaagcga tagccaacat g
211822DNAHomo Sapiens 18caagcccagc gtgattaaca tc 221918DNAHomo
Sapiensmisc_feature12n = c or a 19ctttctttgc cntcatct 18
* * * * *
References