U.S. patent application number 15/812723 was filed with the patent office on 2018-03-29 for probability analysis and prediction modeling.
This patent application is currently assigned to American Airlines, Inc.. The applicant listed for this patent is American Airlines, Inc.. Invention is credited to Julianne Anderson, Arthur Busse, James Fox, Marcial Lapp, Daniel Muzich, Randeep Ramamurthy, Thomas Trenga.
Application Number | 20180089600 15/812723 |
Document ID | / |
Family ID | 48427800 |
Filed Date | 2018-03-29 |
United States Patent
Application |
20180089600 |
Kind Code |
A1 |
Fox; James ; et al. |
March 29, 2018 |
Probability Analysis and Prediction Modeling
Abstract
A system is disclosed for forecasting costs and determining
probabilities, along with the use of prediction modeling. The
system analyzes previous actions to determine future actions, while
using cost prediction modeling.
Inventors: |
Fox; James; (Phoenix,
AZ) ; Ramamurthy; Randeep; (Phoenix, AZ) ;
Anderson; Julianne; (Tempe, AZ) ; Busse; Arthur;
(Tempe, AZ) ; Lapp; Marcial; (Ann Arbor, MI)
; Muzich; Daniel; (Phoenix, AZ) ; Trenga;
Thomas; (Mesa, AZ) |
|
Applicant: |
Name |
City |
State |
Country |
Type |
American Airlines, Inc. |
Fort Worth |
TX |
US |
|
|
Assignee: |
American Airlines, Inc.
Fort Worth
TX
|
Family ID: |
48427800 |
Appl. No.: |
15/812723 |
Filed: |
November 14, 2017 |
Related U.S. Patent Documents
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Application
Number |
Filing Date |
Patent Number |
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15695446 |
Sep 5, 2017 |
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15812723 |
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14038278 |
Sep 26, 2013 |
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15695446 |
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13352667 |
Jan 18, 2012 |
8600787 |
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14038278 |
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13348417 |
Jan 11, 2012 |
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13352667 |
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61561245 |
Nov 17, 2011 |
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Current U.S.
Class: |
1/1 |
Current CPC
Class: |
G06Q 30/0202 20130101;
G06Q 10/0631 20130101; G06Q 10/02 20130101 |
International
Class: |
G06Q 10/02 20120101
G06Q010/02; G06Q 10/06 20120101 G06Q010/06; G06Q 30/02 20120101
G06Q030/02 |
Claims
1. A system comprising: a network interface in communication with a
memory; the memory in communication with a processor for enabling
forecasting and overbooking; the processor, when executing a
computer program, executes operations comprising: forecasting, by
the processor, a spoiled seat (SS) cost for each seat in a
plurality of seats associated with the flight, wherein the
plurality of seats associated with a flight are obtained from an
airline central data repository over the internet by invoking logic
within modules by passing parameters relating to requests for data;
forecasting, by the processor, a denied boarding (DB) cost for the
flight based on a probability of a volunteer not taking the flight;
determining, by the processor and in real-time iteratively
throughout the period of time and based on passenger name record
characteristics, a booked passenger no-show forecast (NSF) for each
booked passenger associated with the flight, wherein the booked
passenger NSF is based upon whether the respective passenger flew
on a previous leg of a passenger itinerary; aggregating, by the
processor and in real-time iteratively throughout the period of
time, the booked passenger NSF and an unbooked passenger NSF to
create a flight NSF; and determining, by the processor and in
real-time iteratively throughout the period of time and using a
flight cost prediction model, an authorized seat allocation (AU)
for the flight that minimizes an overbooking cost, wherein the
overbooking cost is based upon an accumulation of each SS cost, the
DB cost and the flight NSF.
2. The system of claim 1, wherein at least one of the reservation
system and the revenue management system uses the AU to determine
the number of additional seats to be sold for the flight and the
respective price for each additional seat.
3. The system of claim 1, wherein the SS cost is based upon at
least one of a current selling class of the flight and historic
fares associated with the flight.
4. The system of claim 1, wherein the forecasting the DB cost
comprises determining a first probability that a first DB passenger
will be involuntary or voluntary.
5. The system of claim 4, wherein the forecasting the DB cost
further comprises determining a second probability that a second DB
passenger will be involuntary or voluntary, wherein the second
probability is based upon the first probability.
6. The system of claim 4, wherein the DB cost is based upon at
least one of a non-compensation factor, a voucher amount, a voucher
breakage factor, an expected percentage of volunteers, an ill-will
factor, an involuntary DB cost, an expected accommodations cost, a
double DB factor or the probability of voluntary denial.
7. The system of claim 1, wherein the booked passenger NSF is
further based upon at least one of the complete passenger itinerary
of each respective passenger or an adjustment factor, wherein the
adjustment factor is determined based upon historical NSF data.
8. The system of claim 1, wherein the determining the booked
passenger NSF comprises determining, for at least a subset of
booked passengers, a conditional probability of a passenger showing
for a second leg given the passenger flew a first leg.
9. The system of claim 8, further comprising adjusting the booked
passenger NSF in response to determining, for at least a subset of
booked passengers, whether the first leg and the second leg are
scheduled for the same day.
10. The system of claim 1, further comprising determining a next
active leg (NAL) for a first booked passenger, wherein the first
booked passenger is one of a plurality of passengers associated
with the flight.
11. The system of claim 10, further comprising determining a first
booked passenger NSF as a probability that the first booked
passenger will show for the NAL, wherein the booked passenger NSF
is based upon the first booked passenger NSF.
12. The system of claim 1, further comprising: transmitting, by the
computer, the AU to a reservation system and a revenue management
system; wherein the revenue management system determines, based on
the updated authorization parameter, a number of additional seats
to be sold for the flight and a respective price for each
additional seat, receiving, by the computer and from the
reservation system and the revenue management system, the number of
additional seats to be sold for the flight and the respective price
for each additional seat; providing, by the computer, a certain
number of tickets to access the flight based on the AU and the
number of additional seats; and providing access information, by
the computer and in real-time, that allows access to the flight for
the certain number of the tickets.
13. The system of claim 1, wherein the booked passenger NSF is
based upon at least one of a previous leg, a subsequent leg or
direction of travel for each booked passenger.
14. The system of claim 1, further comprising: calculating, by the
processor, a first expected marginal seat revenue (EMSR) for each
first class seat on the flight; and comparing, by the processor,
the respective EMSR to a second EMSR for a potential sale of an
additional coach seat.
15. The system of claim 14, wherein the comparing the respective
EMSR to a second EMSR comprises adjusting for the risk of double
sell.
16. The system of claim 15, further comprising determining a coach
upgrade parameter based upon the comparing.
17. The system of claim 16, wherein at least one of a reservation
system or a revenue management system uses the coach upgrade
parameter to determine a number of additional seats to be offered
for sale for the flight and a respective price for each additional
seat.
18. The system of claim 16, further comprising determining an
optimal time for the additional seats to be offered for sale and
making the optimal time available to the at least one of the
reservation system or the revenue management system.
19. The system of claim 18, wherein the determining the optimal
time comprises determining that a coach achievable demand is less
than the AU plus the coach upgrade parameter.
20. The system of claim 1, further comprising: creating, by the
processor and in real-time iteratively throughout a period of time,
a flight-dependent and time-dependent voucher based on the SS cost,
the DB cost, the booked passenger NSF, the unbooked passenger NSF,
the flight NSF, the AU, the overbooking cost and most current
conditions to minimize costs, wherein the voucher dynamically and
iteratively changes throughout the day to minimize costs based on
the SS cost, the DB cost, the booked passenger NSF, the unbooked
passenger NSF, the flight NSF, the AU, the overbooking cost and
most current conditions; and providing, by the processor and in
real-time iteratively throughout the period of time and to a
customer mobile device, the offer for the AU.
Description
RELATED APPLICATIONS
[0001] This application is a continuation of, claims priority to
and the benefit of, U.S. Ser. No. 15/695,446 filed Sep. 5, 2017.
The '446 application is a continuation of, claims priority to and
the benefit of, U.S. Ser. No. 14/038,278 filed Sep. 26, 2013. The
'278 application is a continuation of and claims priority to, and
the benefit of, U.S. Ser. No. 13/352,667 filed on Jan. 18, 2012 aka
U.S. Pat. No. 8,600,787 which issued on Dec. 3, 2013. The '667
application is a continuation of and claims priority to, and the
benefit of, U.S. Ser. No. 13/348,417 filed on Jan. 11, 2012. The
'417 application claims priority to and the benefit of U.S.
Provisional Application No. 61/561,245 filed on Nov. 17, 2011. Each
of the aforementioned applications are hereby incorporated by
reference in their entirety.
FIELD OF DISCLOSURE
[0002] The present disclosure generally relates to a revenue
maximization system, and more particularly, to enabling forecasting
and analysis methods and tools used as input to inventory control
and revenue management systems.
BACKGROUND
[0003] The transportation services industry, and particularly the
airline industry, is often associated with high costs and varying
degrees of profitability. As a result, airlines often seek new
sources of income (e.g., ala carte pricing for additional services)
and innovative ways to increase revenues (e.g., optimizing existing
processes). One such method of increasing revenues involves
offering for sale a greater number of seats for any particular
flight than is actually available on the flight. Such a strategy of
authorizing more seats to be sold than there exists in inventory is
often referred to as an "overbooking" strategy.
[0004] Most airlines overbook because some passengers holding a
confirmed reservation will not show up for the flight ("no-show"),
and the resulting empty seats represent forgone revenue opportunity
for the airline. Traditional overbooking strategies have proven to
be effective in generating increasing revenue, reducing costs and
generally improving overall operational efficiencies for airlines.
However, traditional overbooking optimization methods and systems
often employ broad estimating techniques that produce only
marginally accurate passenger no-show forecast and cost data. Thus,
a long-felt need exists to provide a robust, model driven,
sophisticated and customizable revenue maximization, cost
forecasting and overbooking management system to enable accurate,
timely and revenue maximizing data to the airline operation.
[0005] An overbooking strategy for a flight is accomplished by
forecasting no-show rates, and then selling (i.e., overbooking) at
a level that minimizes costs associated with operating a flight
with empty seats, while also minimizing the expected total costs of
overbooking. In other words, overbooking costs include not only the
revenue opportunity cost of a flight with empty seats (spoiled seat
("SS") costs), but also costs associated with denying a passenger
boarding on a flight due to overbooking denied boarding ("DB")
costs. DB costs are incurred when more passengers show up than
there are seats to accommodate them, and the airline has to
compensate such denied passengers with, for example, vouchers
(e.g., for a discount off of future travel) and/or cash payments
(which may be established by law or regulation). Another cost
associated with denying a passenger boarding is "ill-will," which
can be thought of as the opposite of good will, wherein ill-will
accrues to the airline and/or the airline's brand due to denied
boardings.
SUMMARY
[0006] The present disclosure provides a forecasting and/or
overbooking management system that maximizes revenue ("MARS"), as
disclosed in various embodiments. MARS takes both the forecast of
expected no-shows and the expected costs into account in
formulating an overbooking strategy.
[0007] In various embodiments, MARS may be configured to minimize
costs associated with the number of seats authorized to be sold for
an airline flight. MARS determines an SS cost for each seat in a
plurality of seats associated with a flight, where the SS cost may
be, for example, based upon a current selling class of the flight
and historic average fares associated with the flight. MARS
determines a denied boarding cost for the flight. In various
embodiments, the denied boarding cost is based upon any subset or
all of a wide variety of factors, including: a non-compensation
factor, a voucher amount, a voucher breakage factor, an expected
percentage of volunteers, an factor, compensation associated with
involuntary denied boarding (e.g., cash payment or a "draft"), an
expected accommodations cost for the denied passenger (e.g., hotel,
meal, local transport, etc.), and/or a double denied boarding
factor (e.g., the ripple effect on inventory due to reaccommodating
the denied passenger on a future flight).
[0008] In minimizing the costs associated with overbooking airline
seats, MARS determines a booked passenger no-show forecast ("NSF")
for each booked passenger associated with the flight. In various
embodiments, the NSF is based upon the complete passenger itinerary
of each respective passenger, data indicating whether the
respective passenger flew on a previous leg of the passenger
itinerary, and an adjustment factor based upon historical NSF data.
MARS determines a flight NSF by aggregating the booked passenger
NSF and an unbooked passenger NSF.
[0009] In various embodiments, MARS determines an authorized seat
allocation for a flight by minimizing an overbooking cost based
upon a cumulative spoiled seat cost, a cumulative denied boarding
cost and the flight NSF. In various embodiments, MARS updates data
(e.g., an authorization parameter) associated with the flight based
upon the authorized seat allocation. A reservation system and/or a
revenue management system uses the authorization parameter to
determine a number of additional seats to be sold for the flight
and/or a price for each respective additional seat.
[0010] In various embodiments, MARS calculates a flight
authorization level ("AU") that minimizes an overbooking cost
associated with the flight, the flight with a coach seating
capacity ("CAP"), wherein the overbooking cost is based upon a
spoiled seat SS cost and a denied boarding (DB) cost, and wherein
minimizing overbooking cost with respect to AU may be determined
by:
n = 0 .mu. + 3 .sigma. P ( x = n ) .times. [ SSCost n + DBCost n ]
##EQU00001## where : x = # no shows for a flight ##EQU00001.2##
SSCost n = SSCost ( max [ n - ( AU - CAP ) , 0 ] ) ##EQU00001.3##
DBCost n = DBCost ( max [ ( AU - CAP ) - n , 0 ] ) ##EQU00001.4## x
~ Binomial ( AU , p = " No - Show - Rate " ) ##EQU00001.5## P ( x =
n ) .ident. ( AU n ) p n ( 1 - p ) ( AU - n ) ##EQU00001.6## .mu. =
AU .times. p ##EQU00001.7## .sigma. = AU .times. p .times. ( 1 - p
) ##EQU00001.8##
wherein DBcost.sub.n is associated with the DB cost of the n.sup.th
passenger that is denied boarding and is determined by DB
cost.sub.n=DDB.sub.n*[(1-ncf)*(voucher_amt*b*pv.sub.n+(ill_will+exp_invol-
_cost.sub.n)*(1-pv.sub.n)+HMT.sub.n)],
[0011] where [0012] ncf=no compensation factor=the percentage of
passengers denied boarding that do not qualify to be compensated,
[0013] voucher_amt=an amount of a voucher offered to passengers who
volunteer to DB, [0014] b: Breakage factor, the expected percentage
of voucher dollars that will be used, [0015] pv.sub.n: given n
passengers who are denied boarding to the flight, pv.sub.n is the
expected percentage of volunteers; [0016] ill_will: Extra cost
added due to bad customer image and possible loss of customers due
to involuntarily denying boarding to passengers; [0017]
exp_invol_cost.sub.n: an expected payout to an involuntary DB
passenger; [0018] HMT.sub.n=an expected accommodation cost of the
n.sup.th DB passenger; [0019] DDB.sub.n=a double DB factor.
[0020] In various embodiments, the system may be configured to
optimize AU based upon at least one of:
[0021] HMT.sub.n is not offered to voluntary DB passengers such
that HMT.sub.n is reduced by multiplying by the expected percentage
of involuntary passengers (1-pv.sub.n);
[0022] DDB.sub.n is based on the probability that DB.sub.n causes a
ripple effect DB, wherein the ripple effect DB is associated with a
DB on a different flight; and
[0023] DDB.sub.n is based on an expected cost of reaccommodating
the ripple effect DB.
[0024] In various embodiments, MARS calculates AUs for each
scheduled flight in the airline network. The calculating of the AUs
for each flight in the airline network may be executed, for
example, on a daily basis. The periodic calculation of AU may be
based upon updated data associated with at least one of the
voucher_amt, HMT.sub.n, DDB.sub.n and market load factors. The
periodic calculation of AU may be based upon updated input data to
the SScost.sub.n such as an update of a current selling class for
each flight and updated market load factors.
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS
[0025] A more complete understanding of the present disclosure may
be derived by referring to the detailed description and claims when
considered in connection with the Figures, wherein like reference
numbers refer to similar elements throughout the Figures, and:
[0026] FIG. 1 is a block diagram illustrating major system
components for forecasting and overbooking management, in
accordance with various embodiments;
[0027] FIG. 2 is a process flow diagram showing a process for
determining a flight authorization level that minimizes overbooking
costs, in accordance with various embodiments;
[0028] FIG. 3 is a process flow diagram showing a process for
determining flight NSF, in accordance with various embodiments;
[0029] FIG. 4 is a graph showing an overbooking cost model in
accordance with various embodiments;
[0030] FIG. 5 is a process flow diagram showing a process for
dynamically calculating costs, in accordance with various
embodiments; and
[0031] FIG. 6 is a process flow diagram showing a process for
determining an upgrade solution, in accordance with various
embodiments.
DETAILED DESCRIPTION
[0032] The present invention fundamentally changes the way
organizations calculate and/or implement revenue maximization
and/or cost minimization strategies. For example, MARS enables
airlines to: [0033] formulate more precise predictions regarding
whether a particular passenger will show up for a particular leg
(e.g., flight) of a passenger itinerary; such forecasts may be
based upon a comprehensive analysis of itinerary data and taking
into account data associated with previously flown legs, a next
active leg and subsequently scheduled legs; [0034] forecast costs
associated with denying passengers boarding on a particular flight,
for every flight each day, factoring in the actual passengers
booked, market load factors, double denied boarding costs, hotel
costs, and probability a denied boarding will result in a voucher
or a cash payment; [0035] dynamically calculate costs by analyzing
re-accommodation dependencies; [0036] forecast costs associated
with an empty seat on a particular flight, individually for every
flight each day, factoring in the current selling class and
historic average fares; [0037] implement a strategy that authorizes
more seats to be sold in coach based upon seats in first class by
calculating expected marginal seat revenue ("EMSR") for each first
class seat and comparing it to an EMSR for each potential
additional sale of a coach seat; in various embodiments, EMSR may
be adjusted for the risk of double selling a unit of inventory
(e.g., a seat); [0038] implement just in time inventory and
releasing additional seats for sale in the coach cabin based upon
EMSR and coach cabin demand; [0039] adjust, in near real time, for
booking in first/envoy class cabin by, for example, decreasing the
risk of double selling a seat (e.g., selling the same physical seat
to two customers); and [0040] optimize voucher pricing (e.g., the
value, often in the form of a credit, offered to passengers who
voluntarily get "bumped" from a flight when the flight is
overbooked).
[0041] While the disclosure may discuss airlines and "flights" for
purposes of convenience and illustration, one of skill in the art
will appreciate that the overbooking and revenue maximization
method and tools discussed herein apply to any transportation
industry; e.g., buses, cruise ships, passenger trains, etc.
[0042] Various embodiments of the present invention employ
forecasting, statistical analysis and/or optimization techniques.
For more information regarding such techniques refer to, for
example: "The Theory and Practice of Revenue Management"
(International Series in Operations Research & Management
Science) by Kalyan T. Talluri and Garrett J. van Ryzin; "Using
Multivariate Statistics (5th Edition)" by Barbara G. Tabachnick and
Linda S. Fidell; and "Introduction to Operations Research" by
Friedrich S. Hiller and Gerald J. Lieberman, McGraw-Hill 7th
edition, Mar. 22, 2002; the contents of which are each hereby
incorporated by reference in their entireties.
[0043] While the embodiments described herein are described in
sufficient detail to enable those skilled in the art to practice
the invention, it should be understood that other embodiments may
be realized and that logical and mechanical changes may be made
without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention. Thus,
the detailed description herein is presented for purposes of
illustration only and not of limitation.
[0044] For the sake of brevity, conventional data networking,
application development and other functional aspects of the systems
(and components of the individual operating components of the
systems) may not be described in detail herein. Furthermore, the
connecting lines shown in the various figures contained herein are
intended to represent functional relationships and/or physical
couplings between the various elements. It should be noted that
many alternative or additional functional relationships or physical
connections may be present in a practical system.
[0045] In various embodiments, MARS includes a user interface
("UI"), software modules, logic engines, numerous databases,
interfaces to systems and tools, and/or computer networks. While
MARS may contemplate upgrades or reconfigurations of existing
processing systems, changes to existing databases and system tools
are not necessarily required by the present invention.
[0046] The benefits provided by this disclosure include, for
example, increased revenue, increased forecasting accuracy, lower
costs, increased seat utilization, increased customer good will,
increased planning and operational efficiency and increased
employee morale. For example, a revenue management organization
benefits from increased accuracy in setting inventory levels and
predicting costs. Customers benefit from a more detailed and
sophisticated double booking management strategy that minimizes the
number of involuntary boarding denials.
[0047] While the description references specific technologies,
system architectures and data management techniques, practitioners
will appreciate that this description is but various embodiments
and that other devices and/or methods may be implemented without
departing from the scope of the invention. Similarly, while the
description references a user interfacing with the system via a
computer user interface, practitioners will appreciate that other
interfaces may include mobile devices, kiosks and handheld devices
such as mobile phones, smart phones, tablet computing devices,
etc.
[0048] "Entity" may include any individual, software program,
business, organization, government entity, web site, system,
hardware, and/or any other entity.
[0049] A "user" may include any entity that interacts with a system
and/or participates in a process. With reference to FIG. 1, user
105 may perform tasks such as requesting, retrieving, receiving,
updating, analyzing and/or modifying data, initiating,
manipulating, interacting with or using a software application,
tool, module or hardware, and initiating, receiving or sending a
communication. User 105 may interface with Internet server 125 via
any communication protocol, device or method discussed herein,
known in the art, or later developed. User 105 may be, for example,
a member of a revenue management organization, a member of an
operations research and systems analysis organization, a downstream
system, a third-party system, a system administrator, etc.
[0050] In various embodiments, with reference to FIG. 1, system 101
may include a user 105 interfacing with a MARS 115 by way of a
client 110. MARS 115 may be a partially or fully integrated system
comprised of various subsystems, modules and databases. Client 110
comprises any hardware and/or software suitably configured to
facilitate entering, accessing, requesting, retrieving, updating,
analyzing and/or modifying data. The data may include operational
data (e.g., schedules, resources, routes, operational alerts,
weather, etc.), passenger data, cost data, forecasts, historical
data, verification data, asset (e.g., airplane) data, inventory
(e.g., airplane seat) data, legal/regulatory data, authentication
data, demographic data, transaction data, or any information
discussed herein.
[0051] Client 110 includes any device (e.g., a computer), which
communicates, in any manner discussed herein, with the MARS 115 via
any network discussed herein. Browser applications comprise
Internet browsing software installed within a computing unit or
system to conduct online communications and transactions. These
computing units or systems may take the form of personal computers,
mobile phones, personal digital assistants, mobile email devices,
laptops, notebooks, hand-held computers, portable computers,
kiosks, and/or the like. Practitioners will appreciate that client
110 may or may not be in direct contact with the MARS 115. For
example, client 110 may access the services of MARS 115 through
another server, which may have a direct or indirect connection to
Internet server 125. Practitioners will further recognize that
client 110 may present interfaces associated with a software
application (e.g., SAS analytic software) or module that are
provided to client 110 via application GUIs or other interfaces and
are not necessarily associated with or dependant upon internet
browsers or internet specific protocols.
[0052] User 105 may communicate with the MARS 115 through a
firewall 120 to help ensure the integrity of the MARS 115
components. Internet server 125 may include any hardware and/or
software suitably configured to facilitate communications between
the client 110 and one or more MARS 115 components.
[0053] Firewall 120, as used herein, may comprise any hardware
and/or software suitably configured to protect MARS 115 components
from users of other networks. Firewall 120 may reside in varying
configurations including stateful inspection, proxy based and
packet filtering, among others. Firewall 120 may be integrated as
software within Internet server 125, any other system 101
component, or may reside within another computing device or may
take the form of a standalone hardware component.
[0054] Authentication server 130 may include any hardware and/or
software suitably configured to receive authentication credentials,
encrypt and decrypt credentials, authenticate credentials, and/or
grant access rights according to pre-defined privileges associated
with the credentials. Authentication server 130 may grant varying
degrees of application and data level access to users based on
information stored within authentication database 135 and user
database 140. Application server 145 may include any hardware
and/or software suitably configured to serve applications and data
to a connected client 110.
[0055] According to various embodiments, MARS 115 is used to
maximize revenue and/or manage inventory strategy, such as an
airline seat overbooking strategy. With reference again to FIG. 1,
MARS 115 allows communication with CDR 150 and with various other
databases, tools, UIs and systems (not shown in FIG. 1). Such
systems include, for example, airline scheduling systems, passenger
booking and reservations systems, revenue management systems and
inventory systems.
[0056] MARS 115 components are interconnected and communicate with
one another to allow for a completely integrated revenue
maximization and overbooking management, forecasting and inventory
management system. In various embodiments, MARS 115 communicates
with external systems and databases 160 to, for example, share
results and other data. For example, in embodiments of the system,
MARS 115 formulates passenger show rate (or no-show rate) and cost
prediction models, and airline reservations systems (external
Systems and databases 160) sell inventory based upon the MARS 115
output.
[0057] MARS 115 modules (e.g., upgrade analyzer 146, Optimizer 147,
Cost Engine 148, no-show forecaster ("NSF") 149 and other MARS 115
modules not shown in FIG. 1) are software modules configured to
enable online functions such as sending and receiving messages,
receiving query requests, configuring responses, dynamically
configuring user interfaces, requesting data, receiving data,
displaying data, executing complex processes, calculations,
forecasts, mathematical techniques, workflows and/or algorithms,
prompting user 105, verifying user responses, authenticating the
user, initiating MARS 115 processes, initiating other software
modules, triggering downstream systems and processes, encrypting
and decrypting. Additionally, MARS 115 modules may include any
hardware and/or software suitably configured to receive requests
from client 110 via Internet server 125 and application server
145.
[0058] MARS 115 modules may be further configured to process
requests, execute transactions, construct database queries, and/or
execute queries against databases, within system 101 (e.g., central
data repository ("CDR") 150), external data sources and temporary
databases. In various embodiments, one or more MARS 115 modules may
be configured to execute application programming interfaces in
order to communicate with a variety of messaging platforms such as,
for instance, email systems, wireless communications systems,
mobile communications systems, multimedia messaging service ("MMS")
systems, short messaging service ("SMS") systems, and the like.
[0059] MARS 115 modules may be configured to exchange data with
other systems and application modules, such as, for example an
airline reservation system. In various embodiments, MARS 115
modules may be configured to interact with other system 101
components to perform complex calculations, retrieve additional
data, format data into reports, create XML representations of data,
construct markup language documents, construct, define or control
UIs, and/or the like. Moreover, MARS 115 modules may reside as
stand-alone systems or tools or may be incorporated with the
application server 145 or any other MARS 115 component as program
code. As one of ordinary skill in the art will appreciate, MARS 115
modules may be logically or physically divided into various
subcomponents such as a workflow engine configured to evaluate
predefined rules and to automate processes.
[0060] In addition to the components described above, MARS 115 may
further include one or more of the following: a host server or
other computing systems including a processor for processing
digital data; a memory coupled to the processor for storing digital
data; an input digitizer coupled to the processor for inputting
digital data; an application program stored in the memory and
accessible by the processor for directing processing of digital
data by the processor; a display device coupled to the processor
and memory for displaying information derived from digital data
processed by the processor; and a plurality of databases.
[0061] As will be appreciated by one of ordinary skill in the art,
one or more system 101 components may be embodied as a
customization of an existing system, an add-on product, upgraded
software, a stand-alone system (e.g., kiosk), a distributed system,
a method, a data processing system, a device for data processing,
and/or a computer program product. Accordingly, individual system
101 components may take the form of an entirely software
embodiment, an entirely hardware embodiment, or an embodiment
combining aspects of both software and hardware. Furthermore,
individual system 101 components may take the form of a computer
program product on a computer-readable storage medium having
computer-readable program code means embodied in the storage
medium. Any suitable computer-readable storage medium may be
utilized, including hard disks, CD-ROM, optical storage devices,
magnetic storage devices, and/or the like.
[0062] Client 110 may include an operating system (e.g., Windows
XP, Windows NT, 95/98/2000, Windows 7, Vista, OS2, UNIX, Linux,
Solaris, MacOS, Windows Mobile OS, Windows CE, Palm OS, Symbian OS,
Blackberry OS, J2ME, etc.) as well as various conventional support
software and drivers typically associated with mobile devices
and/or computers. Client 110 may be in any environment with access
to any network, including both wireless and wired network
connections. In various embodiments, access is through a network or
the Internet through a commercially available web-browser software
package. Client 110 and MARS 115 components may be independently,
separately or collectively suitably coupled to the network via data
links which include, for example, a connection to an Internet
Service Provider ("ISP") over the local loop as is typically used
in connection with standard wireless communications networks and/or
methods, modem communication, cable modem, Dish networks, ISDN,
Digital Subscriber Line ("DSL"). In various embodiments, any
portion of client 110 may be partially or fully connected to a
network using a wired ("hard wire") connection. As those skilled in
the art will appreciate, client 110 and/or any of the system
components may include wired and/or wireless portions.
[0063] Internet server 125 may be configured to transmit data to
client 110 within markup language documents. "Data" may include
encompassing information such as commands, messages, transaction
requests, queries, files, data for storage, and/or the like in
digital or any other form. Internet server 125 may operate as a
single entity in a single geographic location or as separate
computing components located together or in separate geographic
locations. Further, Internet server 125 may provide a suitable web
site or other Internet-based graphical user interface, which is
accessible by users (such as user 105). In various embodiments, the
Microsoft Internet Information Server ("IIS"), Microsoft
Transaction Server ("MTS"), and Microsoft SQL Server, are used in
conjunction with the Microsoft operating system, Microsoft NT web
server software, a Microsoft SQL Server database system, and a
Microsoft Commerce Server. In various embodiments, Linux, Apache,
Informix MySQL and PHP hypertext processor are used to enable MARS
115. Additionally, components such as Access or Microsoft SQL
Server, Oracle, Sybase, InterBase, etc., may be used to provide an
Active Data Object ("ADO") compliant database management
system.
[0064] Like Internet server 125, application server 145 may
communicate with any number of other servers, databases and/or
components through any means known in the art. Further, application
server 145 may serve as a conduit between client 110 and the
various systems and components of MARS 115. Internet server 125 may
interface with application server 145 through any means known in
the art including a LAN/WAN, for example. Application server 145
may further invoke software modules such as the Optimizer 147,
automatically or in response to user 105 requests.
[0065] Any of the communications, inputs, storage, databases or
displays discussed herein may be facilitated through a web site
having web pages. The term "web page" as it is used herein is not
meant to limit the type of documents and applications that may be
used to interact with the user. For example, a typical web site may
include, in addition to standard HTML documents, various forms,
Java applets, JavaScript, active server pages ("ASP"), common
gateway interface scripts ("CGI"), Flash files or modules, FLEX,
ActionScript, extensible markup language ("XML"), dynamic HTML,
cascading style sheets ("CSS"), helper applications, plug-ins,
and/or the like. A server may include a web service that receives a
request from a web server, the request including a URL (e.g.,
http://yahoo.com/) and an internet protocol ("IP") address. The web
server retrieves the appropriate web pages and sends the data or
applications for the web pages to the IP address. Web services are
applications that are capable of interacting with other
applications over a communications means, such as the Internet. Web
services are typically based on standards or protocols such as XML,
SOAP, WSDL and UDDI. Web services methods are well known in the
art, and are covered in many standard texts. See, e.g., Alex
Nghiem, IT Web Services: A Roadmap for the Enterprise (2003).
[0066] FIG. 1 depicts databases that are included in various
embodiments of the invention. An exemplary list of various
databases used herein includes: an authentication database 135, a
user database 140, CDR 150 and/or other databases that aid in the
functioning of the system. As practitioners will appreciate, while
depicted as separate and/or independent entities for the purposes
of illustration, databases residing within system 101 may represent
multiple hardware, software, database, data structure and
networking components. Furthermore, embodiments are not limited to
the databases described herein, nor do embodiments necessarily
utilize each of the disclosed databases.
[0067] Authentication database 135 may store information used in
the authentication process such as, for example, user identifiers,
passwords, access privileges, user preferences, user statistics,
and the like. User database 140 maintains user information and
credentials for MARS 115 users (e.g., user 105).
[0068] CDR 150 is a data repository that may be configured to store
a wide variety of comprehensive data for MARS 115. While depicted
as a single logical entity in FIG. 1, those of skill in the art
will appreciate that CDR 150 may, in various embodiments, consist
of multiple physical and/or logical data sources. In various
embodiments, CDR 150 stores operational data, schedules, resource
data, asset data, inventory data, personnel information, routes and
route plans, station (e.g., airports or other terminals) data,
operational alert data, weather information, passenger data,
reservation data, cost data, optimization results, booking class
data, forecasts, historical data, verification data, authentication
data, demographic data, legal data, regulatory data, transaction
data, security profiles, access rules, content analysis rules,
audit records, predefined rules, process definitions, financial
data, and the like. For example, a data source or component
database of CDR 150 includes passenger name record ("PNR") data for
an airline, historical voluntary voucher cost information,
historical show rates for markets and/or market segments and for
particular passenger attributes, route and schedule data, airline
equipment characteristics, pricing data, etc.
[0069] Any databases discussed herein may include relational,
hierarchical, graphical, or object-oriented structure and/or any
other database configurations. Common database products that may be
used to implement the databases include DB2 by IBM (Armonk, N.Y.),
various database products available from Oracle Corporation
(Redwood Shores, Calif.), Microsoft Access or Microsoft SQL Server
by Microsoft Corporation (Redmond, Wash.), MySQL by MySQL AB
(Uppsala, Sweden), or any other suitable database product.
Moreover, the databases may be organized in any suitable manner,
for example, as data tables or lookup tables. Each record may be a
single file, a series of files, a linked series of data fields or
any other data structure. Association of certain data may be
accomplished through any desired data association technique such as
those known or practiced in the art. For example, the association
may be accomplished either manually or automatically. Automatic
association techniques may include, for example, a database search,
a database merge, GREP, AGREP, SQL, using a key field in the tables
to speed searches, sequential searches through all the tables and
files, sorting records in the file according to a known order to
simplify lookup, and/or the like. The association step may be
accomplished by a database merge function, for example, using a
"key field" in pre-selected databases or data sectors. Various
database tuning steps are contemplated to optimize database
performance. For example, frequently used files such as indexes may
be placed on separate file systems to reduce In/Out ("I/O")
bottlenecks.
[0070] One skilled in the art will also appreciate that, for
security reasons, any databases, systems, devices, servers or other
components of system 101 may consist of any combination thereof at
a single location or at multiple locations, wherein each database
or system includes any of various suitable security features, such
as firewalls, access codes, encryption, decryption, compression,
decompression, and/or the like.
[0071] The systems and methods may be described herein in terms of
functional block components, screen shots, optional selections and
various processing steps. It should be appreciated that such
functional blocks may be realized by any number of hardware and/or
software components configured to perform the specified functions.
For example, the system may employ various integrated circuit
components, e.g., memory elements, processing elements, logic
elements, look-up tables, and the like, which may carry out a
variety of functions under the control of one or more
microprocessors or other control devices. Similarly, the software
elements of the system may be implemented with any programming or
scripting language such as C, C++, C#, Java, JavaScript, Flash,
ActionScript, FLEX, VBScript, Macromedia Cold Fusion, COBOL,
Microsoft Active Server Pages, assembly, PERL, SAS, PHP, awk,
Python, Visual Basic, SQL Stored Procedures, PL/SQL, any UNIX shell
script, and extensible markup language (XML) with the various
algorithms being implemented with any combination of data
structures, objects, processes, routines or other programming
elements. Further, it should be noted that the system may employ
any number of conventional techniques for data transmission,
signaling, data processing, network control, and the like. Still
further, the system could be used to detect or prevent security
issues with a client-side scripting language, such as JavaScript,
VB Script or the like.
[0072] Software elements may be loaded onto a general purpose
computer, special purpose computer, or other programmable data
processing apparatus to produce a machine, such that the
instructions that execute on the computer or other programmable
data processing means for implementing the functions specified in
the flowchart block or blocks. These computer program instructions
may also be stored in a computer-readable memory that can direct a
computer or other programmable data processing apparatus to
function in a particular manner, such that the instructions stored
in the computer-readable memory produce an article of manufacture
including instruction means which implement the function specified
herein or in flowchart block or blocks. The computer program
instructions may also be loaded onto a computer or other
programmable data processing apparatus to cause a series of
operational steps to be performed on the computer or other
programmable apparatus to produce a computer-implemented process
such that the instructions which execute on the computer or other
programmable apparatus provide steps for implementing the functions
specified in the flowchart block or blocks.
[0073] Accordingly, functional blocks of the block diagrams and
flowchart illustrations support combinations of means for
performing the specified functions, combinations of steps for
performing the specified functions, and program instruction means
for performing the specified functions. It will also be understood
that each functional block of the block diagrams and flowchart
illustrations, and combinations of functional blocks in the block
diagrams and flowchart illustrations, can be implemented by either
special purpose hardware-based computer systems which perform the
specified functions or steps, or suitable combinations of special
purpose hardware and computer instructions. Further, illustrations
of the process flows and the descriptions thereof may make
reference to user windows, web pages, web sites, web forms,
prompts, etc. Practitioners will appreciate that the illustrated
steps described herein may comprise in any number of configurations
including the use of windows, web pages, web forms, popup windows,
prompts and/or the like. It should be further appreciated that the
multiple steps as illustrated and described may be combined into
single web pages and/or windows but have been expanded for the sake
of simplicity. In other cases, steps illustrated and described as
single process steps may be separated into multiple web pages
and/or windows but have been combined for simplicity.
[0074] Referring again to FIG. 1, in various embodiments, user 105
logs onto an application (e.g., a module) and Internet server 125
may invoke an application server 145. Application server 145
invokes logic in the MARS 115 modules by passing parameters
relating to user's 105 requests for data. MARS 115 manages requests
for data from MARS 115 modules and/or communicates with system 101
components. Transmissions between user 105 and Internet server 125
may pass through a firewall 120 to help ensure the integrity of
MARS 115 components. Practitioners will appreciate that the
invention may incorporate any number of security schemes or none at
all. In various embodiments, Internet server 125 receives requests
from client 110 and interacts with various other system 101
components to perform tasks related to requests from client
110.
[0075] Internet server 125 may invoke an authentication server 130
to verify the identity of user 105 and assign roles, access rights
and/or permissions to user 105. In order to control access to the
application server 145 or any other component of MARS 115, Internet
server 125 may invoke an authentication server 130 in response to
user 105 submissions of authentication credentials received at
Internet server 125. When a request to access system 101 is
received from Internet server 125, Internet server 125 determines
if authentication is required and transmits a prompt to client 110.
User 105 enters authentication data at client 110, which transmits
the authentication data to Internet server 125. Internet server 125
passes the authentication data to authentication server 145 which
queries the user database 140 for corresponding credentials. When
user 105 is authenticated, user 105 may access various applications
and their corresponding data sources.
[0076] With reference again to FIG. 1, in various embodiments, an
optimizer module (e.g., Optimizer 147) receives input from a
forecaster module (e.g., NSF 149) and one or more cost forecaster
and analysis engines (e.g., Cost Engine 148). The optimizer module
determines an optimal booking allocation (aka "authorization level"
or "AU") for an airline flight. In various embodiments, upgrade
analyzer 146 receives a first AU calculation and calculates an
upgrade adjusted AU based upon an EMSR calculation.
[0077] With reference now to FIG. 2, a process for determining the
AU that minimizes overbooking costs is shown. Cost Engine 148
forecasts a spoiled seat ("SS") cost for each seat in a plurality
of seats associated with a flight (Step 205). In various
embodiments, the SS cost is based upon at least one of a current
selling class of the flight and historic fares associated with the
flight.
[0078] Cost Engine 148 forecasts a denied boarding ("DB") cost for
the flight (Step 210). In various embodiments, forecasting the DB
cost includes assessing the probability that each DB passenger will
volunteer to not take the flight or that the passenger with be
denied boarding involuntarily.
[0079] NSF 149 determines a booked passenger no-show forecast
("NSF") for each passenger associated with the flight (Step 215).
In various embodiments, the booked passenger NSF is based upon a
subset of the booked passenger associated with the flight. In
various embodiments, the booked passenger NSF is based upon the
next active leg of a passenger's itinerary. The next active leg may
not correspond to the flight that is being analyzed.
[0080] NSF 149 aggregates the booked passenger NSF and an unbooked
passenger NSF to create a flight NSF (Step 220). Optimizer 147
determines an authorized seat allocation for the flight that
minimizes an overbooking cost, where the overbooking cost is based
upon an accumulation of each SS cost, the DB cost and the flight
NSF (Step 225).
[0081] MARS 115 updates an authorization parameter for the flight
based upon the AU (Step 230). In various embodiments, the
authorization parameter is obtained, received and/or accessed by a
reservation system and/or revenue management system that uses the
AU to determine a number of additional seats to be sold for the
flight and a respective price for each additional seat.
No-Show Forecast ("NSF")
[0082] In various embodiments, NSF 149 may be configured to
forecast a no-show rate for every passenger booked in a flight
using their passenger name record ("PNR") characteristics. NSF 149
determines the likelihood that a particular passenger will show up
for a flight based upon traditional factors such as passenger
demographics, historic no-show data from similar flights, etc.
Additionally, in various embodiments, NSF 149 performs a
comprehensive analysis of itinerary data for each particular
passenger in determining the show rate (aka the no-show-forecast or
"NSF").
[0083] NSF is based upon and, in various embodiments, proportional
to a no-show rate; the terms NSF and no-show rate may be used
interchangeably herein. "No-show rate" may be thought of as the
complement of the probability of show, i.e., 1-NSF=probability of
show. PNR characteristics include data stored, collected or
accessible by airlines such as: outbound origin type indicator,
local/flow indicator, frequent flyer status, offline OA indicator,
e-ticket indicator, time of day, advanced purchase range,
refundability indicator, service class, day of week, multiple
passenger in itinerary, next active leg, outbound vs. return,
number of legs being traveled, order of the flight under analysis
with other legs in the itinerary, etc.
[0084] In various embodiments, CDR 150 includes historical PNR data
and historical show rate data. Historical show rate data is
analyzed by directional markets and/or regions and may also be
analyzed by PNR characteristic. "Directional Market" includes a
flight in one direction between one particular point and another.
Thus, Boston to Reagan Washington (BOS.fwdarw.DCA) is considered a
different directional market than Reagan Washington to Boston
(DCA.fwdarw.BOS).
[0085] In various embodiments, NSF 149 comprises a historical data
processing engine that applies various statistical methods to
historical PNR data in order to generate forecast coefficients
based on historical show rates for various market and passenger
characteristics and combinations of characteristics. Such
statistical methods include, for example, regression techniques
such as logistic regression. Thus, in various embodiments,
determining an NSF for a particular passenger comprises determining
the forecast market for the passenger and aggregating the
appropriate forecast coefficients associated with historical
passenger data with similar PNR characteristics.
[0086] With reference now to FIG. 3, a process for determining
flight NSF in various embodiments is shown. NSF 149 determines a
NSF for each booked passenger of the flight and aggregates the
individual booked passenger NSF's into a flight level booked
passenger NSF. In various embodiments, for the booked passenger
NSF, NSF 149 accesses PNR data for the flight being analyzed from
CDR 150 (Step 305). NSF 149 analyzes the PNR data and, for each
passenger booked on the flight, determines the next active leg for
the passenger. Based upon the next active leg, NSF 149 assigns a
forecast market (Step 310). As discussed above, in various
embodiments, NSF 149 may analyze PNR data for a subset of booked
passengers.
[0087] Based upon the forecast market and PNR characteristics, NSF
149 retrieves NSF coefficients for the passenger (Step 315). For
instance, NSF 149 may determine that the forecast market is
Washington, D.C. to Phoenix, Ariz. (DCA.fwdarw.PHX) and that the
passenger is an outbound passenger, without other passengers on his
itinerary and the ticket was purchased for the flight in the 14-21
day AP range. In various embodiments, NSF 149 retrieves forecast
coefficients from the forecast market data area (e.g.
table/row/column) of CDR 150 and NSF 149 aggregates the various
forecast coefficients to determine a show rate (or NSF) to
associate with the passenger.
[0088] In various embodiments, default rules may determine how to
handle NSF data that is incomplete, missing, outside of expected
bounds, etc. For instance, NSF 149 may determine that forecast
coefficient data for a particular forecast market is based upon a
sample size that is too small to be statistically significant and,
for example, apply a default rule that directs NSF 149 to use
unbooked NSF data in place of the booked passenger historical NSF
data (Step 320). Other default rules may direct NSF 149 to use a
predetermined value assigned to the forecast market (Step 325).
Default rules may be nested, cumulative, stored in code (hard
coded), stored in a database and/or derived based upon conditions
such as time of year, day of week, etc.
[0089] NSF 149 aggregates the individual booked passenger NSFs to
determine a booked passenger NSF for the flight (Step 330). In
various embodiments, NSF 149 may apply an adjustment to the booked
passenger NSF (Step 335) to, for example, ensure that the booked
passenger NSF for the flight is within certain upper and lower
bounds. Such upper and lower bounds may be stored, calculated or
derived and may be based upon statistical analysis, the experience
or intuition of experts, etc.
[0090] NSF 149 determines an unbooked passenger NSF for the flight.
In various embodiments, a historical show rate by directional
market based on booking period is used to predict a show rate to
associate with unbooked seats of the flight. Unbooked seats are the
seats yet to be reserved by a passenger. Unbooked NSF may be based
upon historical averages and as a function of time. The function of
time may represent the booking period as designated by the days
before a flight is scheduled to depart. Booking period may be
referred to as the advanced purchase (AP) timeframe. AP is a
typical term in the airline industry and many airline rate
structures are based upon AP with rate restrictions associated with
a particular AP.
[0091] Thus, for example, a reference table in CDR 150 may store a
historical show rate for passengers who booked a flight at a given
AP and/or inside of a given date before a flight. For example, for
a directional market x.fwdarw.y, the show rate might be 0.85 for
the +60 AP, 0.90 for the +30 AP and 0.97 for the seven day AP. The
reference table may store information at the directional market
level. In various embodiments, some directional markets may not
have data comprehensive enough upon which to base show rate or NSF
forecasts. NSF 149 may use market segment data in the case where
specific directional market data is inadequate (e.g., insufficient,
missing, known to be inaccurate, etc.).
[0092] With reference again to FIG. 3, NSF 149 determines the days
until departure of the flight that is being analyzed (Step 340) and
determines a directional market associated with a flight. NSF 149
accesses unbooked passenger historical data based upon the days
until departure and the directional market and determines an
unbooked passenger NSF (Step 345). In various embodiments, default
rules may determine how to handle unbooked passenger NSF data that
may be, for example, missing, incomplete, outside of expected
bounds or variances, etc. For instance, NSF 149 may determine that
the unbooked NSF data for a particular directional market and
timeframe is incomplete and, for example, apply a default rule that
directs NSF 149 to use unbooked NSF data for a market group
associated with the directional market (Step 350). For example, if
the data for Cedar Rapids.fwdarw.Chicago is incomplete, the default
rule may direct NSF 149 to use Des Moines.fwdarw.Chicago data, or
the default rule may direct NSF 149 to use Iowa
(aggregated).fwdarw.Chicago data. Other default rules may direct
NSF 149 to use a predetermined value for the market (Step 355).
Default rules for determining unbooked passenger NSF may be nested,
may be stored in code (hard coded), in a database and/or derived
based upon conditions such as time of year, day of week, etc.
[0093] In various embodiments, the number of unbooked seats
associated with the flight at any given time is calculated based on
an AU of the flight less the number of bookings (i.e., booked/sold
tickets): # Unbooked Seats=(Capacity-# Booked Passengers*(Booked
Show Rate))/(Unbooked Show Rate).
[0094] In various embodiments, the booked passenger NSF may be
aggregated with an unbooked seat NSF to determine a flight NSF
(Step 360). NSF 149 may apply an adjustment to the flight NSF in
order to, for example, ensure that the flight NSF is within certain
bounds (Step 365). For example, in various embodiments, flight show
rates are bounded by finding Q1-1.5*(Q3-Q1) of the historical show
rates of flights at the market level, where Q1=25th percentile and
Q3=75th percentile.
[0095] Next Active Leg
[0096] As discussed above, in various embodiments, NSF 149
determines an NSF (or probability of show) based on historic show
rates for the next active leg ("NAL") in the passenger itinerary.
In various embodiments, based upon the itinerary data, NSF 149
determines a historic show rate of passengers with similar
characteristics and identical or similar (e.g., same start and end
points plus similar departure time or day of week) NAL of a
passenger's itinerary.
[0097] Traditional systems and methods for forecasting whether a
booked passenger will show for a flight typically do not
differentiate between passengers based upon their itinerary. For
example, consider a flight from Washington, D.C. (DCA) to Boston,
Mass. (BOS) where passenger 1 and passenger 2 are both booked
passengers for the flight. NSF 149 may predict an NSF for passenger
1 and passenger 2 based upon historical directional market data and
passenger profile data (class of service booked, how far in advance
the ticket was purchased, etc.). In various embodiments, NSF 149
determines a passenger NSF for a particular flight based, at least
partially, upon the NAL for the passenger.
[0098] For example, if passenger 1's itinerary comprises one leg
(DCA.fwdarw.BOS) and passenger 2's itinerary comprises two legs
(PHX.fwdarw.DCA and DCA.fwdarw.BOS), NSF 149 analyzes the NSF for
these passengers differently. In various embodiments, NSF 149
determines the NAL for each passenger. Since passenger 1 is only
scheduled for one leg, passenger 1's NAL is the same flight as the
flight that is under analysis, namely, DCA.fwdarw.BOS. NSF 149
determines the passenger forecast market to be the directional
market of DCA.fwdarw.BOS. NSF 149 determines the NSF of passenger 1
based upon forecast coefficients associated with the DCA.fwdarw.BOS
directional market.
[0099] In various embodiments, the forecast coefficients for a
particular directional market may be determined in a variety of
ways; for example, the forecast coefficient may be stored in a
table and the table may be updated periodically (e.g., daily,
weekly or monthly) based upon actual show/no-show data for
particular passenger characteristics associated with the forecast
market.
[0100] Continuing the above example, NSF 149 may determine
Passenger 2's NSF as different from Passenger 1's NSF even if, for
example, all other characteristics regarding the passengers were
identical. Passenger 2 is scheduled to fly two legs so, in various
embodiments, passenger 2's NSF for the flight being analyzed by NSF
149 depends upon passenger 2's NAL; i.e., whether passenger 2 has
flown leg 1 (PHX.fwdarw.DCA), or not. In this example, if NSF 149
determines that passenger 2 has yet to fly leg 1, then NSF 149
determines the NAL for passenger 2 to be PHX.fwdarw.DCA, even
though the flight being analyzed is DCA.fwdarw.BOS; in other words,
since passenger 2 has yet to show for the first of a two-leg
itinerary, NSF 149 uses the forecast coefficients based upon the
first leg (i.e., the NAL), in determining passenger 2's NSF for the
passenger's second leg. Thus, since passenger 2's NAL is
PHX.fwdarw.DCA, NSF 149 uses PHX.fwdarw.DCA data to determine
passenger 2's NSF for the DCA.fwdarw.BOS flight.
[0101] Continuing the same example, if NSF 149 determines that
passenger 2 has already flown leg 1, then DCA.fwdarw.BOS is the NAL
and NSF 149 assigns DCA.fwdarw.BOS as the forecast market for
passenger 2 and determines forecast coefficients based upon
DCA.fwdarw.BOS in assigning the passenger 2's NSF for the
DCA.fwdarw.BOS flight. One of skill in the art will recognize that
the above example merely illustrates embodiments and is not
presented for purposes of limitation.
[0102] Outbound vs. Return
[0103] In various embodiments, when analyzing the booked passenger
NSF for a particular flight, NSF 149 considers where the flight is
with respect to the order of all the legs in the passenger
itinerary. For example, NSF 149 may consider whether a passenger
has flown a portion of the itinerary, is en route, or is on a
return segment when forecasting the NSF for the particular
passenger for the particular leg.
[0104] For example, consider a forecast for a flight from
DCA.fwdarw.BOS. Passenger 1's itinerary comprises one leg:
DCA.fwdarw.BOS. Passenger 2's itinerary comprises four legs:
Outbound: Leg1-BOS.fwdarw.DCA; Leg2-DCA.fwdarw.PHX; Return:
Leg3-PHX.fwdarw.DCA; Leg4-DCA.fwdarw.BOS. Assume that passenger 2
has already flown legs 1-3. In various embodiments, on the
itineraries depicted in the example above, for the purpose of
determining NSF, MARS 115 considers otherwise similar passengers as
fundamentally different. This example illustrates two of the
various considerations NSF 149 uses in forecasting a passenger NSF
for a flight: "outbound vs. return" and "connecting flight." MARS
115, and specifically NSF 149, takes into consideration an outbound
passenger's (e.g., itinerary 1 in the above example) probability of
show is likely to be different than a passenger on an intermittent
leg or a return portion of their trip (e.g. passenger 2 in the
above example). Furthermore, in various embodiments, NSF 149
forecasts the NSF for passenger 1 and passenger 2 differently
because passenger 2 is a connecting passenger (from PHX) and
passenger 1 is an originating passenger. For example, in various
embodiments, NSF 149 calculates the NSF for passenger 2's leg 4 as
a joint probability (i.e., NSF for leg 4 depends upon passenger 2's
NSF for leg 3) and/or a conditional probability (e.g., whether or
not passenger 2 has already flown leg 3).
[0105] In addition to the methods discussed above, in various
embodiments, NSF 149 may be configured to calculate NSF for
particular passengers based upon one or more of the following
methods or factors: NSF or market coefficient is at least partially
determined using logistic regression; NSF for a passenger is
determined based upon a previous leg flown and/or future scheduled
legs; a feedback loop adjusts the forecasted booked show rate to
account for errors in forecast (e.g. an experienced based
adjustment factor is applied to the forecast); etc.
Cost Forecaster
[0106] Cost Engine 148 may be configured to forecast costs
associated with overbooking. In various embodiments, MARS 115
enables forecasting DB costs and SS costs. If the AU is set too
high, more passengers might show for a flight than there are seats
on the airplane for the passengers. DB costs include all the costs
associated with denying a passenger boarding on a flight. SS costs
include all the costs associated with flying an airplane with an
empty seat (e.g., the lost revenue associated with not selling
enough tickets so that seat utilization is 100% on the flight).
[0107] Denied Boarding (DB) Costs
[0108] Several factors contribute to the cost associated with an
airline denying a passenger boarding on a flight for which the
passenger possesses a ticket. In various embodiments, Cost Engine
148 forecasts DB costs individually for every flight, each day,
factoring in the actual passengers booked, market load factors,
hotel costs, and probability a denied boarding will result in a
voucher or a draft. The DB cost is calculated at the flight level
and also takes into account the different accommodation options
(e.g. hotel, meals and transportation) available.
[0109] FIG. 4 shows an example of calculating denied boarding cost
given an exemplary voucher cost of $400 (405). The vertical axis
(430) indicates the total expected cost and the horizontal axis
(435) indicates the number of passengers denied boarding. In
various embodiments, denied boarding cost may be modeled as an
aggregate, for each passenger denied boarding, of a breakage
adjusted voucher cost (410), an involuntary rate draft cost (425),
a rolling denied boarding marginal cost (i.e., double denied
boarding costs) (415) and a secondary hotel, meal and
transportation cost (420). In various embodiments, Cost Engine 148
takes into account an estimate that considers that not all vouchers
issued by an airline will be redeemed by a passenger. Thus, gross
voucher cost may be adjusted by a "breakage factor."
[0110] Cost Engine 148 may also consider the effect on future
flights of a denied boarding of the current flight. Cost Engine 148
employs sophisticated data analysis and forecasting algorithms that
are able to assess the cumulative effect, across the airline's
entire network, of excess passengers in the system; e.g., the
effect associated with passengers who may be denied boarding on a
particular flight, rescheduled for a later flight and cause that
later flight to deny boarding of a different passenger. As shown in
FIG. 4, rolling DB marginal cost (415) takes this phenomenon into
account.
[0111] In various embodiments, Cost Engine 148 determines the cost
of each denied boarding passenger for a flight based upon the
following:
DBcost.sub.i=DDB.sub.i*[(1-ncf)*(voucher_amt*b*pv.sub.i+(ill_will+exp_in-
vol_cost.sub.i)*(1-pv.sub.i)+HMT.sub.i)]; where, [0112] DB
cost.sub.i: DB cost of the i.sup.th passenger who is denied
boarding; [0113] ncf: No Compensation Factor, the percentage of DBs
that do not qualify to be compensated due to non-compliance,
0.ltoreq.ncf.ltoreq.1; [0114] voucher_amt: The actual amount of the
voucher offered to passengers who volunteer to DB (i.e.,
voluntarily get "bumped" from the flight); [0115] b: Breakage
factor, the expected percentage of voucher dollars that will be
used, 0.ltoreq.b.ltoreq.1 (breakage factor can also be thought of
as the voucher utilization factor); [0116] pv.sub.i: Given i DBs,
pv.sub.i is the expected percentage of volunteers, calculated from
a linear regression model using historical data,
0.ltoreq.pv.ltoreq.1; [0117] ill_will: The extra cost added due to
bad customer image and possible loss of customers due to
involuntarily denying boarding to passengers; [0118]
exp_invol_cost.sub.i: The expected payout to an involuntary DB
passenger; [0119] HMT.sub.i: The expected hotel, meal and
transportations costs of the i.sup.th DB passenger, based on the
time to accommodate the passenger; and, [0120] DDB.sub.i: Double DB
factor, increases the DB cost based on the probability that this DB
causes another DB. DDB.sub.i increases depending on the load factor
of an entire directional market and the station load factor for
that day. DDB.sub.i.gtoreq.1.
[0121] MARS 115 also includes a voucher analysis and pricing module
to reduce costs by minimizing both involuntary draft costs (i.e.,
payments to involuntary passengers that are denied boarding) and
voucher outlays (i.e., vouchers given to passengers who voluntarily
opt to not travel on a flight).
[0122] In various embodiments, MARS 115 evaluates flights occurring
in a given timeframe (e.g., the next 24 hours) on an iterative
basis (e.g., every 30 minutes) on the criteria used in the DB
calculations. A flight may have low expected DB costs in the
morning, but due to operational issues (cancellation, downgrade,
weather, a political event) have much higher actual DB costs. Costs
are minimized by adjusting the voucher offer for a particular
flight throughout the day based on the most current conditions.
[0123] In various embodiments, MARS 115 calculates a plurality of
AUs for, respectively, each scheduled flight in airline network. In
response to calculating the plurality of AUs, Cost Engine 148
calculates, on a periodic basis the DBcost.sub.n for each flight
scheduled for departure in the next x-number hours (e.g., x=24, a
rolling 24 hour time period). In various embodiments, the periodic
basis may be based upon a schedule (e.g., every 30 minutes) and/or
may be based upon an operational factor such as, for example, to
assess the impact of flight cancellations, weather, a political
event (e.g., terrorism), an economic event, or a flight maintenance
issue.
[0124] In various embodiments, MARS 115 determines a plurality of
affected flights among flights scheduled for departure in the next
twenty-four hours that are affected by an operational factor and
adjusts an actual voucher offer amount for a subset of flights in
the plurality of affected flights.
[0125] Dynamic Calculation of Re-Accommodation Costs
[0126] In various embodiments, DB cost is dynamically calculated
based upon a plurality of forecasts for a re-accommodation cost for
each of a plurality of denied passengers for a flight. When
passengers are DB for a flight, they are typically reaccommodated
on a later flight. Predicting the costs associated with such
re-accommodation can be complex since each reaccommodated passenger
takes up a seat on a future flight which decreases the number of
re-accommodation options available for the next DB passenger.
[0127] In various embodiments, Optimizer 147 and Cost Engine 148
work in conjunction with each other to dynamically determine the
re-accommodation costs for a given DB passenger based upon
re-accommodation options and taking into account re-accommodation
options that may have been eliminated by other DB passengers. For
example, the cost for a 3.sup.rd DB passenger may depend on number
of re-accommodation options and how the 1.sup.st and 2.sup.nd DB
passenger were reaccommodated.
[0128] With reference now to FIG. 5, in various embodiments, when
determining the DB Costs for a flight, Cost Engine 148 determines a
re-accommodation cost for each possible number of DB passengers.
Cost Engine 148 determines the forecasted number of denied
passengers for the flight. The number of forecasted denied
passengers for the flight may be based upon the CAP, the AU and/or
the NSF for the flight.
[0129] Cost engine analyzes a plurality of flights in an airline
network to identify a plurality of alternate accommodation (AA)
flights that cover at least the same directional market as the
flight (Step 505). Cost Engine 148 analyzes the booking information
for each flight in the plurality of AA flights (Step 510). Cost
Engine 148 selects a first AA flight for the first DB. For example,
a flight is scheduled for Phoenix to Pittsburgh (PHX.fwdarw.PIT) on
Day 1 at 12 pm. Cost Engine 148 identifies the following AA
flights:
[0130] AA.sub.1: PHX.fwdarw.PIT on Day 1 at 4 pm
[0131] AA.sub.2: PHX.fwdarw.CLT.fwdarw.PIT on Day 1 at 5 pm
[0132] AA.sub.3: PHX.fwdarw.PIT on Day 1 at 8 pm
[0133] AA.sub.4: PHX.fwdarw.PIT on Day 2 at 7 am
[0134] AA.sub.5: PHX.fwdarw.CLT.fwdarw.PIT on Day 2 at 8 am
[0135] In the above example, Cost Engine 148 may assign the first
denied passenger to be reaccommodated on the first AA flight
(DB.sub.1:AA.sub.1) and may determine that AA.sub.1 can still
accommodate more passengers and assign the second denied passenger
to the same flight (DB.sub.2:AA.sub.1). However, based upon the
re-accommodations DB.sub.1 and DB.sub.2 on AA.sub.1, there may not
be enough "room" on any AA flight for DB.sub.3 until AA.sub.4 on
the next day. Thus, in determining the DB Costs for each DB, Cost
Engine 148 may not include a hotel, meal and transportation (HMT)
cost for DB.sub.1 and DB.sub.2 but may include an HMT as part of
DBCost.sub.3.
[0136] In various embodiments, Cost Engine 148 may also adjust the
double DB factor component of a potential DB for a different
flight. For example, if booking information suggests that
re-accommodation of a 3.sup.rd DB passenger on AA.sub.4 would
influence the probability that passenger already booked on the
AA.sub.4 flight would now be denied boarding on that flight, Cost
Engine 148 assesses this cost to the system and incorporates the
DDB cost in DBCost.sub.3.
[0137] With reference again to FIG. 5, Cost Engine 148 selects for
a first denied passenger a first AA flight from the plurality of AA
flights, wherein the first denied passenger is one of the plurality
of denied passengers (Step 515). Based upon the selecting the first
AA flight for the first denied passenger, Cost Engine 148 selects
for a second denied passenger a second AA flight from the plurality
of AA flights (Step 520). In response to the second AA flight being
scheduled to depart on a different day than the flight (Step 525),
Cost Engine 148 adjusts the DB cost associated with the second
denied passenger to account for hotel, meal and/or transport (HMT)
costs (Step 530).
[0138] Spoiled Seat (SS) Costs--SS Cost is the cost associated with
a flight flying with an empty seat. Airlines typically consider
empty seats on flights as revenue that may never be recaptured. In
various embodiments, Cost Engine 148 forecasts SS costs based upon
various factors such as the closure level for the flight, day of
week, historical market average fares and advance purchase ("AP")
range. "Closure level" means the lowest fare class for that flight.
"AP Range" means the advanced purchase interval prior to a flight's
actual day of departure. Since fares generally increase as a flight
approaches the scheduled departure date, spoiled seat costs are
generally more expensive a few days before the flight departs than
a couple months before the flight departs. Thus, in various
embodiments, Cost Engine 148 calculates SS costs based upon a time
factor such as the AP range and/or the actual timeframe (e.g.,
number of days) before the flight is scheduled to depart.
[0139] Cost Engine 148, calculates a SS cost for each potential
spoiled seat on a flight. The first SS for a flight (i.e.,
SS.sub.1) can be thought of as the predicted value of selling one
more seat on the plane. In various embodiments, Cost Engine 148
determines additional SS costs using an exponential decay function
such as the exemplary function: SSi=d.sup.i-1SS.sub.i-1, where
0<d<1 is calculated using historical fares by market and
Advance Purchase.
Optimizer
[0140] In various embodiments, Optimizer 147 receives input from
NSF 149 and
[0141] Cost Engine 148 to determine an overbooking strategy for a
flight. Given the no-show rate, Optimizer 147 evaluates the risk of
denied boardings (DB cost) against missed revenue potential (SS
Cost). In various embodiments, Optimizer 147 may employ a variety
of statistical models and/or optimization methods in order to
determine the optimal overbooking strategy. In various embodiments,
Optimizer 147 assumes that the actual show rate follows a binomial
distribution with an exemplary mathematical formulation as shown
below:
min { E [ Overbooking Cost ] } w . r . t . to AU E [ Overbooking
Cost ] = n = 0 .mu. + 3 .sigma. P ( x = n ) .times. { SPCost ( max
[ n - ( AU - CAP ) , 0 ] ) + DBCost ( max [ ( AU - CAP ) - n , 0 ]
) subject to : CAP .ltoreq. AU .ltoreq. 1.12 .times. CAP where : x
~ Binomial ( AU , p = No Show Rate ) P ( x = n ) .ident. ( AU n ) p
n ( 1 - p ) AU - n .mu. = AU .times. p , .sigma. = AU .times. p
.times. ( 1 - p ) ##EQU00002##
[0142] Thus, the optimal AU is determined as the AU that minimizes
expected overbooking costs and the expected overbooking cost is
calculated as a summation of overbooking costs across a show rate
distribution; i.e., P(x=n) is determined based upon a statistical
distribution (binomial) that depends on a historical no-show
rate.
[0143] In order to illustrate the embodiment shown in the above
equation, consider a flight where CAP=100 and NSF=0.95 (no-show
rate=5%,). Optimizer 147 calculates the expected overbooking costs
for a range of AUs=100, 101, . . . 112 and chooses the AU with the
minimum expected cost. To further illustrate the model, consider
how Optimizer 147, in the illustrated embodiment, calculates the
expected overbooking cost when AU=102: [0144] n=the range of
no-shows; the possibilities are zero no-shows (n=0), one no-show
(n=1), two no-shows (n=2) . . . n={AU*5%+3*.sigma.. For AU=102, the
upper bound for n works out to 12 (rounded from 11.7). .sigma.=the
standard deviation of the distribution. [0145] P(x=n) is the
probability that the number of no-shows will equal n no-shows and
the model sums the probability weighted overbooking cost (SS cost
and DB cost) for each n;
[0146] The following illustrates the calculation of overbooking
cost for n=3, given CAP=100, AU=102. [0147] P(x=3) can be
calculated from the binomial distribution; [0148] Spoiled Seat
Cost=SSCost(max[3-(102-100),0]=SSCost(max[1,0])=SSCost(1).
Intuitively, if an airline sells 102 tickets, (AU=102), given
expect 3 no-shows (n=3), only 99 (102-3) passengers will show-up
for the flight. Hence we will spoil only 1 seat given our CAP of
100 and the spoiled seat at AU=102 is =SSCost(1). [0149] DB
Cost=DBCost(max[(102-100)-3,0])=DBCost(max[-1,0])=DBCost(0). This
implies when there are 3 no-shows for a cabin with 100 seats
(CAP=100) and 102 seats are sold for the cabin (AU=102), there will
be no passengers denied boarding.
Upgrade Solution
[0150] MARS 115 may include upgrade analyzer 146 module. Upgrade
solution refers to a method of further optimizing the overbooking
solution by considering additional cabins' (e.g. first class cabin)
seats in the overbooking analysis. In various embodiments, MARS 115
determines an optimal number of additional seats that can be sold
as coach seats with the intent of upgrading the passengers to the
first and/or business class cabin.
[0151] One reason why upgrade solution analysis is an effective
strategy for an airline is due to space available complimentary
upgrades typically granted to certain passengers. Such passengers
are comprised primarily of frequent fliers who book in the coach
cabin but often receive a free upgrade to the first class or
business cabins. Since these passengers are booked in coach (e.g.,
paid coach level prices for their ticket), airlines do not want to
consider such complimentarily upgrade passengers in passenger
demand for first class when deciding how many extra seats to add in
the coach cabin as an upgrade solution.
[0152] In various embodiments, upgrade analyzer determines
achievable demand (Step 605), for instance by adding the bookings
for coach to demand for coach seats at any time (=t). Upgrade
analyzer 146 determines that there may be excess demand for coach
seats and less demand for first/business class seats (Step 610).
Upgrade analyzer 146 may be configured to execute an EMSR process
to determine if the seats should be sold as coach and/or
first/business class seats.
[0153] In various embodiments, upgrade analyzer 146 calculates the
EMSR for each first class (Step 615) seat and compares it to an
EMSR for each potential additional sale of a coach seat (Steps 620
and 625). In various embodiments, this EMSR is adjusted for the
risk of double sell. In this context, a double sell refers to a
situation where a first/envoy class seat is offered and sold at
coach prices and that seat is also sold as a first/envoy class
seat. Thus, there are two booked passengers allocated to the same
physical seat on the airplane. This situation often leads to an
involuntary denied boarding which is associated with high cost due
to government mandated cash payments and due to the generated.
[0154] In various embodiments, determining an effective upgrade
solution is time sensitive. EMSR is a function of demand and the
likelihood that a ticket will be sold:
EMSR=demand.sub.t.times.p(sell).sub.t. The number of units (seats)
demanded (aka "achievable demand") generally decreases as time gets
closer to the departure time of the flight (T=0). Thus, one output
of upgrade analyzer 146 includes the time aspect of when to sell
and upgrade seats. In various embodiments, as long as
EMSR.sub.coach>=EMSR.sub.first, upgrade solution seats are
released for sale the excess demand is managed off to a level such
that, (Coach Achievable Demand-Error)<=(Coach Optimized AU+#
Coach Upgrade Seats).
[0155] If the EMSR of excess coach demand exceeds the EMSR of
first/envoy class, additional seats are made available to the coach
cabin (Step 625). In various embodiments, MARS 115 mitigates the
risk of a double sell; within a predefined timeframe before a
scheduled departure, MARS 115 analyzes flight booking, forecasting
and cost data every half hour to adjust the number of upgrade seats
being authorized by MARS 115.
[0156] With reference now to FIG. 5, in various embodiments,
Upgrade Analyzer 146 obtains an achievable coach seat demand for a
flight (demand.sub.coach) of an airplane. There are a number of
seats on the airplane and the seats are associated with at least
one of a first class of service (first) and a second class of
service (coach). Achievable demand.sub.coach may be calculated, in
various embodiments, as bookings for coach seats plus the demand
for coach seats for a timeframe from an analysis date to a date of
departure of the flight (Step 505). In various embodiments,
achievable demand.sub.coach is adjusted to account for an error in
a forecast, wherein the achievable demand is based upon the
forecast.
[0157] Upgrade Analyzer 146 executes an upgrade analysis to
determine that an upgrade seat should be sold, the upgrade process
includes:
[0158] i) determining that there is excess demand in coach
(demand.sub.coach); in various embodiments, determining that there
is excess demand.sub.coach includes determining that the achievable
demand.sub.coach>the total number of seats in coach (CAP) (Step
510);
[0159] ii) determining an expected marginal seat revenue for a sale
of an additional first class seat (EMSR.sub.first) on the flight
EMSR.sub.first (=a seat.sub.first demand price.times.a probability
that seat.sub.first will be sold) (Step 515);
[0160] iii) determining an expected marginal seat revenue for a
sale of an additional coach seat (EMSR.sub.coach) on the flight as
EMSR.sub.coach (=a seat.sub.coach demand price.times.a probability
that seat.sub.coach will be sold) (Step 520); and,
[0161] iv) if EMSR.sub.coach>EMSR.sub.first, updating an upgrade
authorization parameter indicating that an additional upgrade seat
on the flight should be offered for sale.
[0162] In various embodiments, Upgrade Analyzer obtains
seat.sub.coach demand price and the seat.sub.first demand price
from an external system such as a pricing system or a revenue
management system. The demand prices may be determined based upon a
timeframe from an analysis date to a date of departure of the
flight; e.g., the number of days until the flight departs.
[0163] In various embodiments, Upgrade Analyzer 146 repeats the
upgrade analysis for all unbooked first class seats. In various
embodiments, Upgrade Analyzer 146 repeats the upgrade analysis
until at least one of: EMSR.sub.coach<=EMSR.sub.first; the total
upgrade seats>=a predetermined maximum; the total upgrade
seats>=a predetermined percentage of the total number of seats
in coach (CAP); and the total upgrade seats>=a predetermined
percentage of the total number of seats in first class.
[0164] Traditionally, overbooking systems make first class cabin
seats available for sale as an "upgrade seat" immediately, based on
the forecast of front cabin and coach demand meeting the conditions
described above, i.e., seats are released for sale after the excess
demand is managed off to a level such that, (Coach Achievable
Demand-Error)<=(Coach Optimized AU+# Coach Upgrade Seats). In
various embodiments, MARS 115 may be configured to recognize that
demand forecasts generally improve closer to departure (a seat
demand forecast 200 days prior to departure is much less reliable
than one 14 days prior). In various embodiments, MARS 115 releases
additional seats for sale in the coach cabin when the conditions
above for managing excess demand are met AND coach cabin demand
approaches the optimal total coach seats to sell (with a margin of
error for over forecasts).
[0165] In various embodiments, Upgrade Analyzer 146 determines an
optimal time to authorize the total number of upgrade seats to be
sold and, at the optimal time, update the upgrade authorization
parameter to equal the total upgrade seats. Determining the optimal
time may include determining that achievable
demand.sub.coach<=an authorized number of seats to be sold in
coach (AU)+total upgrade seats.
[0166] By implementing just in time inventory, MARS 115 increases
yields on the added seats and reduces the risk of incorrect
allocation of upgrade seats on a flight without enough demand to
justify the added seats, which can have the effect of lowering
yields.
[0167] While the steps outlined above represent specific
embodiments of the invention, practitioners will appreciate that
there are any number of computing algorithms and user interfaces
that may be applied to create similar results. The steps are
presented for the sake of explanation only and are not intended to
limit the scope of the invention in any way. Benefits, other
advantages, and solutions to problems have been described herein
with regard to specific embodiments. However, the benefits,
advantages, solutions to problems, and any element(s) that may
cause any benefit, advantage, or solution to occur or become more
pronounced are not to be construed as critical, required, or
essential features or elements of any or all of the claims of the
invention.
[0168] Systems, methods and computer program products are provided.
In the detailed description herein, references to "various
embodiments", "one embodiment", "an embodiment", "an example
embodiment", etc., indicate that the embodiment described may
include a particular feature, structure, or characteristic, but
every embodiment may not necessarily include the particular
feature, structure, or characteristic. Moreover, such phrases are
not necessarily referring to the same embodiment. Further, when a
particular feature, structure, or characteristic is described in
connection with an embodiment, it is submitted that it is within
the knowledge of one skilled in the art to effect such feature,
structure, or characteristic in connection with other embodiments
whether or not explicitly described. After reading the description,
it will be apparent to one skilled in the relevant art(s) how to
implement the disclosure in alternative embodiments.
[0169] It should be understood that the detailed description and
specific examples, indicating embodiments of the invention, are
given for purposes of illustration only and not as limitations.
Many changes and modifications within the scope of the instant
invention may be made without departing from the spirit thereof,
and the invention includes all such modifications. Corresponding
structures, materials, acts, and equivalents of all elements are
intended to include any structure, material, or acts for performing
the functions in combination with other elements. Reference to an
element in the singular is not intended to mean "one and only one"
unless explicitly so stated, but rather "one or more." Moreover,
when a phrase similar to "at least one of A, B, or C" or "at least
one of A, B, and C" is used in the claims or the specification, the
phrase is intended to mean any of the following: (1) at least one
of A; (2) at least one of B; (3) at least one of C; (4) at least
one of A and at least one of B; (5) at least one of B and at least
one of C; (6) at least one of A and at least one of C; or (7) at
least one of A, at least one of B, and at least one of C.
* * * * *
References