U.S. patent application number 14/688214 was filed with the patent office on 2017-11-23 for electrochemical energy storage devices.
The applicant listed for this patent is Ambri Inc.. Invention is credited to David J. Bradwell, Hari Nayar.
Application Number | 20170338451 14/688214 |
Document ID | / |
Family ID | 50485618 |
Filed Date | 2017-11-23 |
United States Patent
Application |
20170338451 |
Kind Code |
A9 |
Bradwell; David J. ; et
al. |
November 23, 2017 |
ELECTROCHEMICAL ENERGY STORAGE DEVICES
Abstract
Provided herein are energy storage devices. In some cases, the
energy storage devices are capable of being transported on a
vehicle and storing a large amount of energy. An energy storage
device is provided comprising at least one liquid metal electrode,
an energy storage capacity of at least about 1 MWh and a response
time less than or equal to about 100 milliseconds (ms).
Inventors: |
Bradwell; David J.;
(Arlington, MA) ; Nayar; Hari; (Woburn,
MA) |
|
Applicant: |
Name |
City |
State |
Country |
Type |
Ambri Inc. |
Cambridge |
MA |
US |
|
|
Prior
Publication: |
|
Document Identifier |
Publication Date |
|
US 20150249274 A1 |
September 3, 2015 |
|
|
Family ID: |
50485618 |
Appl. No.: |
14/688214 |
Filed: |
April 16, 2015 |
Related U.S. Patent Documents
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Application
Number |
Filing Date |
Patent Number |
|
|
13801333 |
Mar 13, 2013 |
9312522 |
|
|
14688214 |
|
|
|
|
61715821 |
Oct 18, 2012 |
|
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61763925 |
Feb 12, 2013 |
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Current U.S.
Class: |
1/1 |
Current CPC
Class: |
H01M 4/387 20130101;
H01M 4/56 20130101; H01M 4/46 20130101; H01M 4/382 20130101; H01M
2/10 20130101; H01M 4/381 20130101; H01M 4/38 20130101; H01M
2220/10 20130101; H01M 2300/0048 20130101; H01M 10/399 20130101;
Y02E 60/10 20130101 |
International
Class: |
H01M 2/10 20060101
H01M002/10; H01M 4/46 20060101 H01M004/46; H01M 10/39 20060101
H01M010/39; H01M 4/38 20060101 H01M004/38; H01M 4/56 20060101
H01M004/56 |
Claims
1. An electrochemical energy storage device comprising a container
including a negative electrode, a positive electrode and an
electrolyte disposed between the negative electrode and positive
electrode, wherein the electrochemical energy storage device has a
first potential difference between the negative electrode and
positive electrode at a first temperature that is less than about
50.degree. C. and a second potential difference between the
negative electrode and positive electrode at a second temperature
of at least about 250.degree. C., wherein the second potential
difference is greater than the first potential difference, wherein
at least two of the positive electrode, electrolyte and negative
electrode are liquid at the second temperature, and wherein over a
charge/discharge cycle, the electrochemical energy storage device
undergoes sustained self-heating.
2. The electrochemical energy storage device of claim 1, wherein
the positive electrode and/or negative electrode is liquid at the
second temperature.
3. The electrochemical energy storage device of claim 2, wherein
the positive electrode, electrolyte and negative electrode are
liquid at the second temperature.
4. The electrochemical energy storage device of claim 2, wherein,
during charge/discharge, reactants and products of reactions that
occur at the negative electrode and positive electrode are
liquid.
5. The electrochemical energy storage device of claim 1, wherein at
least a portion of the electrochemical energy storage device is
solid at the first temperature.
6. The electrochemical energy storage device of claim 5, wherein
the negative electrode comprises a material that is solid at the
first temperature and liquid at the second temperature.
7. The electrochemical energy storage device of claim 5, wherein
the positive electrode, electrolyte and negative electrode are
solid at the first temperature and liquid at the second
temperature.
8. The electrochemical energy storage device of claim 1, further
comprising a current collector in contact with the positive
electrode or negative electrode, wherein the positive electrode or
negative electrode is consumed in a reaction during operation of
the electrochemical energy storage device, and wherein an amount of
the positive electrode or negative electrode is in stoichiometric
excess relative to other reactants of the reaction such that the
current collector is in contact with the positive electrode or
negative electrode when the reaction has proceeded to
completion.
9. The electrochemical energy storage device of claim 8, wherein
the current collector is a negative current collector and the
operation comprises discharging of the electrochemical energy
storage device.
10. The electrochemical energy storage device of claim 1, wherein
the electrochemical energy storage device maintains a substantially
constant temperature over the charge/discharge cycle.
11. The electrochemical energy storage device of claim 1, wherein
the container contains one or more electrochemical cells, and
wherein an individual electrochemical cell of the one or more
electrochemical cells includes the negative electrode, the positive
electrode and the electrolyte.
12. The electrochemical energy storage device of claim 11, wherein,
over the charge/discharge cycle, a rate of heat generation in the
individual electrochemical cell is greater than or about equal to a
rate of heat loss from the individual electrochemical cell.
13. The electrochemical energy storage device of claim 11, wherein,
over the charge/discharge cycle, a rate of heat generation in the
individual electrochemical cell is less than or equal to about 150%
of a rate of heat loss from the individual electrochemical
cell.
14. (canceled)
15. The electrochemical energy storage device of claim 1, wherein
(i) the negative electrode comprises lithium, sodium, potassium,
magnesium and/or calcium, and/or (ii) the positive electrode
comprises antimony, tin, tellurium, bismuth and/or lead.
16. The electrochemical energy storage device of claim 1, wherein
the electrochemical energy storage device (i) is not capable of
conducting ions through the electrolyte at the first temperature,
and (ii) is capable of conducting ions through the electrolyte at
the second temperature.
17. The electrochemical energy storage device of claim 1, wherein
the electrochemical energy storage device is transportable at the
first potential difference.
18. The electrochemical energy storage device of claim 17, wherein
the first potential difference is less than about 1 Volt.
19. The electrochemical energy storage device of claim 1, wherein
the electrochemical energy storage device has a positive terminal
and a negative terminal, and shorting the positive terminal and
negative terminal at the first temperature does not discharge the
electrochemical energy storage device.
20. The electrochemical energy storage device of claim 1, wherein,
at the first temperature, the positive electrode, electrolyte and
negative electrode do not mix.
21. (canceled)
22. (canceled)
23. The electrochemical energy storage device of claim 1, wherein
the electrochemical energy storage device does not include a
separator.
24. (canceled)
25. The electrochemical energy storage device of claim 1, wherein
the electrochemical energy storage device has an energy storage
capacity of at least about 1 kWh.
26. (canceled)
27. (canceled)
28. The electrochemical energy storage device of claim 1, wherein
the electrochemical energy storage device maintains at least about
90% of its energy storage capacity after 100 charge/discharge
cycles.
29. The electrochemical energy storage device of claim 28, wherein
the electrochemical energy storage device maintains at least about
90% of its energy storage capacity after 500 charge/discharge
cycles.
30. An energy storage system comprising an array of energy storage
devices, each energy storage device comprising a container
including a negative electrode, a positive electrode and an
electrolyte disposed between the negative electrode and positive
electrode, wherein the electrochemical energy storage device has a
first potential difference between the negative electrode and
positive electrode at a first temperature that is less than about
50.degree. C. and a second potential difference between the
negative electrode and positive electrode at a second temperature
of at least about 250.degree. C., wherein the second potential
difference is greater than the first potential difference, wherein
at least two of the positive electrode, electrolyte and negative
electrode are liquid at the second temperature, and wherein over a
charge/discharge cycle, the electrochemical energy storage device
undergoes sustained self-heating.
31. The energy storage system of claim 30, wherein the
electrochemical energy storage device is an electrochemical energy
storage cell, and wherein the energy storage system comprises a
plurality of electrochemical energy storage cells.
Description
CROSS-REFERENCE
[0001] This application is a continuation application of U.S.
application Ser. No. 13/801,333, filed Mar. 13, 2013, which claims
the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/715,821, filed
Oct. 18, 2012, each of which is incorporated herein by reference in
its entirety.
BACKGROUND
[0002] A battery is a device capable of converting stored chemical
energy into electrical energy. Batteries are used in many household
and industrial applications. In some instances, batteries are
rechargeable such that electrical energy is capable of being stored
in the battery as chemical energy (i.e., charging the battery). The
battery can be coupled to a load (e.g., electrical appliance) and
employed for use in performing work.
SUMMARY
[0003] The present disclosure recognizes a need for energy storage
devices (e.g., batteries) that are capable of storing a large
amount of energy and are transportable on a vehicle (e.g., truck).
Several aspects of the energy storage devices are described.
[0004] An aspect of the present disclosure provides an energy
storage device comprising at least one liquid metal electrode,
wherein the energy storage device has an energy storage capacity of
at least about 1 kWh and a response time less than or equal to
about 100 milliseconds (ms).
[0005] Another aspect of the present disclosure provides an energy
storage device comprising at least one liquid metal electrode
stored in a container at a temperature greater than or equal to
about 250.degree. C., wherein the energy storage device has an
energy storage capacity of at least about 1 kWh, and wherein the
container has a surface area-to-volume ratio that is less than or
equal to about 10 m.sup.-1.
[0006] Another aspect of the present disclosure provides an energy
storage device comprising at least one liquid metal electrode,
wherein the energy storage device maintains at least 90% of its
energy storage capacity after 100 charge/discharge cycles, and
wherein the energy storage device has an energy storage capacity of
at least about 1 kWh.
[0007] Another aspect of the present disclosure provides an energy
storage device comprising at least one liquid metal electrode,
wherein the device is transportable on a vehicle and has an energy
storage capacity of at least about 1 kWh, and wherein the energy
storage device is transportable with at least any two of an anode,
cathode and electrolyte of the energy storage device in solid
state.
[0008] Another aspect of the present disclosure provides an energy
storage device comprising a container containing one or more cells,
an individual cell of the one or more cells containing at least one
liquid metal electrode, wherein a rate of heat generation in the
cell during charge/discharge is about equal to a rate of heat loss
from the cell.
[0009] Another aspect of the present disclosure provides a
separator-less energy storage device comprising a container with at
least one liquid metal electrode, wherein the container has a
surface area-to-volume ratio that is less than or equal to about 10
m.sup.-1, and the separator-less energy storage device has (i) a
response time less than or equal to about 100 milliseconds (ms),
and/or (ii) an energy storage capacity of at least about 1 kWh.
[0010] Another aspect of the present disclosure provides a method
for forming an energy storage device, comprising shipping a
container comprising an energy storage material in solid state to a
destination location, and at the destination location supplying
energy to the energy storage material to form at least one of a
liquid metal anode, liquid metal cathode, and liquid electrolyte,
thereby forming the energy storage device.
[0011] Another aspect of the present disclosure provides an energy
storage system, comprising: (a) a container comprising one or more
energy storage cells, wherein an individual energy storage cell of
the one or more energy storage cells comprises an energy storage
material comprising at least one liquid metal electrode; and (b) a
control system comprising a processor with machine-executable code
for monitoring at least one temperature of the one or more energy
storage cells and/or the container, wherein the processor regulates
the flow of electrical energy into at least a subset of the one or
more energy storage cells such that the energy storage material
undergoes sustained self heating during charge/discharge.
[0012] Another aspect of the present disclosure provides an energy
storage device comprising at least one electrochemical cell having
an operating temperature, the at least one electrochemical cell
comprising: (a) a liquid negative electrode comprising a first
metal; (b) a liquid electrolyte adjacent to the liquid negative
electrode; and (c) a liquid positive electrode adjacent to the
liquid electrolyte, the liquid positive electrode comprising a
second elemental metal that is different than the first metal,
wherein the liquid electrolyte comprises a charged species of the
first metal and an oppositely charged species of the second metal,
and wherein the energy storage device is capable of being
transported on a vehicle.
[0013] Another aspect of the present disclosure provides an energy
storage device comprising a molten salt, wherein a liquid
electronic conductor is extracted from the molten salt by oxidation
and metal is extracted from the molten salt by reduction, and
wherein the energy storage device is capable of being transported
on a vehicle.
[0014] Another aspect of the present disclosure provides an
electrometallurgical cell comprising a positive electrode and a
negative electrode, wherein the electrodes are liquid, the
reactants of reactions that occur at the electrodes are liquid, and
the products of reactions that occur at the electrodes are liquid,
and wherein the electrometallurgical cell is capable of being
transported on a vehicle.
[0015] Another aspect of the present disclosure provides an energy
storage device capable of being transported on a vehicle and having
a power capacity of greater than 1 MW and: (a) a physical footprint
smaller than about 100 m.sup.2/MW; (b) a cycle life greater than
3000 deep discharge cycles; (c) a lifespan of at least 10 years;
(d) a DC-to-DC efficiency of at least 65%; (e) a discharge capacity
of at most 10 hours; and (f) a response time of less than 100
milliseconds.
[0016] Another aspect of the present disclosure provides an energy
storage device comprising a liquid electrode, the electrode
comprising an additive, wherein the electrode is consumed and the
additive is concentrated by operation of the device, and wherein a
property of the device is determined by of the concentration of the
additive, and wherein the energy storage device is capable of being
transported on a vehicle.
[0017] Another aspect of the present disclosure provides an energy
storage device comprising a liquid antimony electrode, a steel
container and a layer of iron antimonide disposed therebetween,
wherein the device is operated at less than 738.degree. C., and
wherein the energy storage device is capable of being transported
on a vehicle.
[0018] Another aspect of the present disclosure provides an energy
storage device comprising a liquid electrode and a current
collector in contact with the electrode, wherein the liquid
electrode is consumed in a reaction during operation of the device,
and wherein the amount of liquid electrode is in stoichiometric
excess relative to other reactants of the reaction such that the
current collector is in contact with the liquid electrode when the
reaction has proceeded to completion, and wherein the energy
storage device is capable of being transported on a vehicle.
[0019] Another aspect of the present disclosure provides an energy
storage device comprising an alkaline earth metal present in each
of a positive electrode, a negative electrode and a liquid
electrolyte, wherein the energy storage device is capable of being
transported on a vehicle.
[0020] Another aspect of the present disclosure provides an energy
storage device comprising an alkaline earth metal present in each
of an elemental form, an alloy form and a halide form, wherein the
energy storage device is capable of being transported on a
vehicle.
[0021] Another aspect of the present disclosure provides an energy
storage device comprising a liquid anode, a liquid cathode and a
liquid electrolyte disposed therebetween, wherein the thickness of
the electrolyte is substantially constant through a
charge-discharge cycle of the device, and wherein the energy
storage device is capable of being transported on a vehicle.
[0022] Another aspect of the present disclosure provides an energy
storage device comprising a liquid anode, a liquid cathode and a
liquid electrolyte disposed therebetween, wherein the thickness of
the electrolyte is less than 50% of the thickness of the cathode or
the anode, and wherein the energy storage device is capable of
being transported on a vehicle.
[0023] Another aspect of the present disclosure provides an energy
storage device comprising a liquid electrode comprising an
elemental alkaline earth metal and an electrolyte comprising a
halide of the alkaline earth metal, wherein the electrolyte further
comprises complexing ligands, and wherein the energy storage device
is capable of being transported on a vehicle.
[0024] Another aspect of the present disclosure provides an energy
storage device comprising a conductive housing comprising a
conductive liquid anode, a conductive liquid cathode and an
electrolyte disposed therebetween, wherein the interior surface of
the container is not electrically insulated, and wherein the energy
storage device is capable of being transported on a vehicle.
[0025] Another aspect of the present disclosure provides an energy
storage device comprising an anode comprising a first
electronically conductive liquid and a cathode comprising a second
electronically conductive liquid, wherein the device is configured
to impede mixing of the electronically conductive liquids, and
wherein the energy storage device is capable of being transported
on a vehicle.
[0026] Another aspect of the present disclosure provides an energy
storage device comprising a negative electrode comprising an alkali
metal, a positive electrode comprising the alkali metal and one or
more additional elements and a liquid electrolyte disposed between
the electrodes, wherein the electrolyte is not depleted upon
charging or discharging of the device, and wherein the energy
storage device is capable of being transported on a vehicle.
[0027] Another aspect of the present disclosure provides an energy
storage device comprising a liquid metal electrode, a second metal
electrode that is a liquid and an electrolyte disposed between the
electrodes, wherein the electrolyte is a paste, and wherein the
energy storage device is capable of being transported on a
vehicle.
[0028] Another aspect of the present disclosure provides an energy
storage device comprising a liquid negative electrode comprising an
alkali metal, a liquid positive electrode comprising an alloy of
the alkali metal and an electrolyte disposed between the
electrodes, wherein the electrolyte comprises a salt of the alkali
metal and particles, and wherein the energy storage device is
capable of being transported on a vehicle.
[0029] Another aspect of the present disclosure provides an energy
storage device comprising a metal anode, a metal cathode and an
electrolyte disposed between the electrodes, wherein the anode,
cathode and electrolyte are liquids at an operating temperature of
the device and the operating temperature of the device is less than
500.degree. C., and wherein the energy storage device is capable of
being transported on a vehicle.
[0030] Another aspect of the present disclosure provides a method
for charging an energy storage device comprising connecting an
external charging circuit to terminals of the energy storage device
that is capable of being transported on a vehicle such that an
active alkali metal moves from a positive electrode, through an
electrolyte, to a negative electrode comprising a metal having a
higher chemical potential than the positive electrode.
[0031] Another aspect of the present disclosure provides a method
for discharging an energy storage device comprising connecting an
external load to terminals of the energy storage device that is
capable of being transported on a vehicle such that an active
alkali metal moves from a negative electrode, through an
electrolyte as cations, to a positive electrode where the active
alkali metal forms a neutral metal having a lower chemical
potential than the negative electrode.
[0032] Another aspect of the present disclosure provides an energy
storage device comprising a liquid metal electrode, an electrolyte
and a current collector in contact with the electrode, wherein the
current collector comprises a material that has a greater
wetability with the liquid metal than with the electrolyte.
[0033] Another aspect of the present disclosure provides an
electrochemical energy storage device comprising an anode, a
cathode and an electrolyte between said anode and said cathode,
wherein the device is not capable of conducting ions through said
electrolyte at a first temperature, and wherein the device is
capable of conducting ions through said electrolyte at a second
temperature that is greater than said first temperature, and
wherein said device is configured to be transported at the first
temperature at a potential difference between said anode and said
cathode that is less than 1 volt.
[0034] Another aspect of the present disclosure provides an
electrochemical energy storage device comprising a negative
electrode and a positive electrode and an electrolyte disposed
between said negative and positive electrodes, wherein the
electrochemical energy storage device has a first potential
difference between the negative and positive electrodes at a first
temperature that is less than about 50.degree. C. and a second
potential difference between the negative and positive electrodes
at a second temperature of at least about 250.degree. C., wherein
the second potential difference is greater than the first potential
difference.
[0035] Another aspect of the present disclosure provides a method
for forming an energy storage system, comprising: (a) forming, at a
first location, an energy storage device comprising a negative
electrode and a positive electrode, and an electrolyte between the
negative electrode and the positive electrode, wherein the negative
electrode, positive electrode and electrolyte are in the liquid at
an operating temperature of the energy storage device; and (b)
placing the energy storage device on a vehicle that is configured
to transport the energy storage device from the first location to a
second location.
[0036] Additional aspects and advantages of the present disclosure
will become readily apparent to those skilled in this art from the
following detailed description, wherein only illustrative
embodiments of the present disclosure are shown and described. As
will be realized, the present disclosure is capable of other and
different embodiments, and its several details are capable of
modifications in various obvious respects, all without departing
from the disclosure. Accordingly, the drawings and description are
to be regarded as illustrative in nature, and not as
restrictive.
INCORPORATION BY REFERENCE
[0037] All publications, patents, and patent applications mentioned
in this specification are herein incorporated by reference to the
same extent as if each individual publication, patent, or patent
application was specifically and individually indicated to be
incorporated by reference.
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS
[0038] The novel features of the invention are set forth with
particularity in the appended claims. A better understanding of the
features and advantages of the present invention will be obtained
by reference to the following detailed description that sets forth
illustrative embodiments, in which the principles of the invention
are utilized, and the accompanying drawings or figures (also "FIG."
and "FIGS." herein), of which:
[0039] FIG. 1 is a illustration of an electrochemical cell (A) and
a compilation (i.e., battery) of electrochemical cells (B and
C);
[0040] FIG. 2 is a schematic cross sectional illustration of a
battery housing having a conductor in electrical communication with
a current collector pass through an aperture in the housing;
[0041] FIG. 3 is a cross-sectional side view of an electrochemical
cell or battery;
[0042] FIG. 4 is a cross-sectional side view of an electrochemical
cell or battery with an intermetallic layer;
[0043] FIG. 5 is an illustration of a computer system;
[0044] FIG. 6 is an illustration of an electrochemical energy
storage device being transported on a truck; and
[0045] FIG. 7 illustrates a method for forming an energy storage
system.
DETAILED DESCRIPTION
[0046] While various embodiments of the invention have been shown
and described herein, it will be obvious to those skilled in the
art that such embodiments are provided by way of example only.
Numerous variations, changes, and substitutions may occur to those
skilled in the art without departing from the invention. It should
be understood that various alternatives to the embodiments of the
invention described herein may be employed.
[0047] The term "surface area," as used herein, generally refers to
the geometric surface area of an object.
[0048] The term "vehicle," as used herein, generally refers to a
car, truck, train, motorcycle, helicopter, plane, ship, boat, or
robot. A vehicle can be manned or unmanned. A vehicle can be
configured to travel alone a road or other pathway, such as a
waterway. A vehicle can be coupled to a trailer or other container
that is configured to house an energy storage device or a container
having the energy storage device.
Electrochemical Energy Storage Cells, Devices and Systems
[0049] The disclosure provides electrochemical energy storage
devices (batteries) and systems. An electrochemical energy storage
device generally includes at least one electrochemical cell, also
"cell" and "battery cell" herein, sealed (e.g., hermetically
sealed) within a housing.
[0050] An electrochemical cell of the disclosure may include a
negative electrode, an electrolyte adjacent to the negative
electrode, and a positive electrode adjacent to the electrolyte.
The negative electrode can be separated from the positive electrode
by the electrolyte. The negative electrode can be an anode during
discharging. The positive electrode can be a cathode during
discharging. In some examples, an electrochemical cell is a liquid
metal battery cell. In some examples, a liquid metal battery cell
can include a liquid electrolyte arranged between a negative liquid
(e.g., molten) metal electrode and a positive liquid (e.g., molten)
metal, metalloid and/or non-metal electrode. In some cases, a
liquid metal battery cell has a molten alkali metal (e.g., lithium,
magnesium, sodium) negative electrode, an electrolyte, and a molten
metal positive electrode. The molten metal positive electrode can
include one or more of tin, lead, bismuth, antimony, tellurium and
selenium. Any description of a metal or molten metal positive
electrode, or a positive electrode, herein may refer to an
electrode including one or more of a metal, a metalloid and a
non-metal. The positive electrode may contain one or more of the
listed examples of materials. In an example, the molten metal
positive electrode can include lead and antimony. In some examples,
the molten metal positive electrode may include an alkali metal
alloyed in the positive electrode.
[0051] In some examples, an electrochemical energy storage device
includes a liquid metal negative electrode, a liquid metal positive
electrode, and a liquid metal electrolyte separating the liquid
metal negative electrode and the liquid metal positive electrode.
The negative electrode can include an alkali metal, such as
lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, cesium, or combinations
thereof. The positive electrode can include elements selected from
Group IIIA, IVA, VA and VIA of the periodic table of the elements,
such as aluminum, gallium, indium, silicon, germanium, tin, lead,
pnicogens (e.g., arsenic, bismuth and antimony), chalcogens (e.g.,
tellurium and selenium), or combinations thereof. The electrolyte
can include a salt (e.g., molten salt), such as an alkali metal
salt. The alkali metal salt can be a halide, such as a fluoride,
chloride, bromide, or iodide of the active alkali metal, or
combinations thereof. In an example, the electrolyte includes
lithium chloride. As an alternative, the salt of the active alkali
metal can be, for example, a non-chloride halide, bistriflimide,
fluorosulfano-amine, perchlorate, hexaflourophosphate,
tetrafluoroborate, carbonate, hydroxide, or combinations
thereof.
[0052] In some cases, the negative electrode and the positive
electrode of an electrochemical energy storage device are in the
liquid state at an operating temperature of the energy storage
device. To maintain the electrodes in the liquid states, the
battery cell may be heated to any suitable temperature. In some
examples, the battery cell is heated to and/or maintained at a
temperature of about 200.degree. C., about 250.degree. C., about
300.degree. C., about 350.degree. C., about 400.degree. C., about
450.degree. C., about 500.degree. C., about 550.degree. C., about
600.degree. C., about 650.degree. C., or about 700.degree. C. The
battery cell may be heated to and/or maintained at a temperature of
at least about 200.degree. C., at least about 250.degree. C., at
least about 300.degree. C., at least about 350.degree. C., at least
about 400.degree. C., at least about 450 .degree. C., at least
about 500.degree. C., at least about 550.degree. C., at least about
600.degree. C., at least about 650.degree. C., or at least about
700.degree. C. In some situations, the battery cell is heated to
between 200.degree. C. and about 500.degree. C., or between about
300.degree. C. and 450.degree. C.
[0053] Electrochemical cells of the disclosure may be adapted to
cycle between charged (or energy storage) modes and discharged
modes. In some examples, an electrochemical cell can be fully
charged, partially charged or partially discharged, or fully
discharged.
[0054] In some implementations, during a charging mode of an
electrochemical energy storage device, electrical current received
from an external power source (e.g., a generator or an electrical
grid) may cause metal atoms in the metal positive electrode to
release one or more electrons, dissolving into the electrolyte as a
positively charged ion (i.e., cation). Simultaneously, cations of
the same species can migrate through the electrolyte, and may
accept electrons at the negative electrode, causing the cations to
transition to a neutral metal species, thereby adding to the mass
of the negative electrode. The removal of the active metal species
from the positive electrode and the addition of the active metal to
the negative electrode stores electrochemical energy. During an
energy discharge mode, an electrical load is coupled to the
electrodes and the previously added metal species in the negative
electrode can be released from the metal negative electrode, pass
through the electrolyte as ions, and alloy with the positive
electrode, with the flow of ions accompanied by the external and
matching flow of electrons through the external circuit/load. This
electrochemically facilitated metal alloying reaction discharges
the previously stored electrochemical energy to the electrical
load.
[0055] In a charged state, the negative electrode can include
negative electrode material and the positive electrode can include
positive electrode material. During discharging (e.g., when the
battery is coupled to a load), the negative electrode material
yields one or more electrons and cations of the negative electrode
material. The cations migrate through the electrolyte to the
positive electrode material and react with the positive electrode
material to form an alloy. During charging, the alloy at the
positive electrode disassociates to yield cations of the negative
electrode material, which migrates through the electrolyte to the
negative electrode.
[0056] In some examples, ions can migrate through an electrolyte
from an anode to a cathode, or vice versa. In some cases, ions can
migrate through an electrolyte in a push-pop fashion in which an
entering ion of one type ejects an ion of the same type from the
electrolyte. For example, during discharge, a lithium anode and a
lithium chloride electrolyte can contribute a lithium cation to a
cathode by a process in which a lithium cation formed at the anode
interacts with the electrolyte to eject a lithium cation from the
electrolyte into the cathode. The lithium cation formed at the
anode in such a case may not necessarily migrate through the
electrolyte to the cathode. The cation can be formed at an
interface between the anode and the electrolyte, and accepted at an
interface of the cathode and the electrolyte.
[0057] Electrochemical cells of the disclosure can include housings
that may be suited for various uses and operations. A housing can
include one cell or a plurality of cells. A housing can be
configured to electrically couple the electrodes to a switch, which
can be connected to the external power source and the electrical
load. The cell housing may include, for example, an electrically
conductive container that is electrically coupled to a first pole
of the switch and/or another cell housing, and an electrically
conductive container lid, a portion of which is electrically
coupled to a second pole of the switch and/or another cell housing.
The cell can be arranged within a cavity of the container. A first
one of the electrodes of the cell can contact and be electrically
coupled with an endwall of the container. An electrically
insulating sheath (e.g., alumina sheath) may electrically insulate
remaining portions of the cell from other portions of the
container. A conductor can electrically couple a second one of the
electrodes of the battery cell to the container lid, which can seal
(e.g., hermetically seal) the battery cell within the cavity. The
container and the container lid can be electrically isolated. As an
alternative, a housing does not include an electrically insulating
sheath. In some cases, a housing and/or container may be a battery
housing and/or container. An electrically conductive sheath (e.g.
graphite sheath) may prevent the cathode from wetting up the side
walls of the container.
[0058] A battery, as used herein, can comprise a plurality of
electrochemical cells. Individual cells of the plurality can be
electrically coupled to one another in series and/or in parallel
and/or a combination of series and parallel connections. In serial
connectivity, the positive terminal of a first cell is connected to
a negative terminal of a second cell. In parallel connectivity, the
positive terminal of a first cell can be connected to a positive
terminal of a second cell.
[0059] Reference will now be made to the figures, wherein like
numerals refer to like parts throughout. It will be appreciated
that the figures and features therein are not necessarily drawn to
scale.
[0060] With reference to FIG. 1, an electrochemical cell (A) is a
unit comprising an anode and a cathode. The cell may comprise an
electrolyte and be sealed in a housing as described herein. In some
cases, the electrochemical cells can be stacked (B) to form a
battery (i.e., a compilation of electrochemical cells). The cells
can be arranged in parallel, in series, or both in parallel and in
series (C).
[0061] Electrochemical cells of the disclosure may be capable of
storing and/or receiving input of ("taking in") substantially large
amounts of energy. In some instances, a cell is capable of storing
and/or taking in about 1 watt hour (Wh), about 5 Wh, 25 Wh, about
50 Wh, about 100 Wh, about 500 Wh, about 1 kilo-Wh (kWh), about 1.5
kWh, about 2 kWh, about 3 kWh, about 5 kWh, about 10 kWh, about 100
kWh, about 500 kWh, about 1 MWh, about 5 MWh, about 10 MWh, about
50 MWh, or about 100 MWh. In some instances, the battery is capable
of storing and/or taking in at least about 1 Wh, at least about 5
Wh, at least about 25 Wh, at least about 50 Wh, at least about 100
Wh, at least about 500 Wh, at least about 1 kWh, at least about 1.5
kWh, at least about 2 kWh, at least about 3 kWh, at least about 5
kWh, at least about 10 kWh, at least about 100 kWh, at least about
500 kWh, at least about 1 MWh, at least about 5 MWh, at least about
10 MWh, at least about 50 MWh, or at least about 100 MWh.
[0062] A compilation or array of cells (i.e., battery) can include
any suitable number of cells, such as at least about 2, at least
about 5, at least about 10, at least about 50, at least about 100,
at least about 500, at least about 1000, at least about 5000, at
least about 10000, and the like. In some examples, a battery
includes 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70,
80, 90, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, 900, 1000, 2000,
5000, 10,000, 20,000, 50,000, 100,000, 500,000, or 1,000,000
cells.
[0063] Batteries of the disclosure may be capable of storing and/or
taking in a substantially large amount of energy for use with a
power grid (i.e., a grid-scale battery) or other loads or uses. In
some instances, a battery is capable of storing and/or taking in
about 5 kWh, 25 kWh, about 50 kWh, about 100 kWh, about 500 kWh,
about 1 megawatt hour (MWh), about 1.5 MWh, about 2 MWh, about 3
MWh, about 5 MWh, or about 10 MWh. In some instances, the battery
is capable of storing and/or taking in at least about 1 kWh, at
least about 5 kWh, at least about 25 kWh, at least about 50 kWh, at
least about 100 kWh, at least about 500 kWh, at least about 1 MWh,
at least about 1.5 MWh, at least about 2 MWh, at least about 3 MWh,
or at least about 5 MWh, or at least about 10 MWh.
[0064] In some instances, the cells and cell housings are
stackable. Any suitable number of cells can be stacked. Cells can
be stacked side-by-side, on top of each other, or both. In some
instances, at least about 10, 50, 100, or 500 cells are stacked. In
some cases, a stack of about 1000 cells is capable of storing
and/or taking in at least 50 kWh of energy. A first stack of cells
(e.g., 10 cells) can be electrically connected to a second stack of
cells (e.g., another 10 cells) to increase the number of cells in
electrical communication (e.g., 20 in this instance).
[0065] An electrochemical energy storage device can include one or
more individual electrochemical cells. An electrochemical cell can
be housed in a container, which can include a container lid. The
device can include at least 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 20, 30,
40, 50, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 1000, 10,000, 20,000, or 50,000
cells. The container lid may utilize, for example, a gasket (e.g.,
annular dielectric gasket) to electrically isolate the container
from the container lid. Such a gasket may be constructed from a
relatively hard electrically insulating material, such as, for
example, glass, silicon oxide, aluminum oxide, boron nitride,
aluminum nitride, or other oxides comprising of lithium oxide,
calcium oxide, barium oxide, yttrium oxide, silicon oxide, aluminum
oxide, or lithium nitride. The gasket may be subject to relatively
high compressive forces (e.g., greater than 10,000 psi) between the
container lid and the container in order to provide a seal in
addition to electrical isolation. In order to subject the
dielectric gasket to such high compressive forces, the fasteners
may have relatively large diameters and may be closely spaced
together. Such large diameter fasteners may be expensive and, thus,
may significantly increase the cost to build a relatively large
diameter container. In addition, as the diameter of the dielectric
gasket is increased to accommodate a large diameter container, the
gasket may become more and more fragile and difficult to
maneuver.
[0066] FIG. 2 schematically illustrates a battery that comprises an
electrically conductive housing 201 and a conductor 202 in
electrical communication with a current collector 203. The
conductor can be electrically isolated from the housing and can
protrude through the housing through an aperture in the housing
such that the conductor of a first cell contacts the housing of a
second cell when the first and second cells are stacked.
[0067] A cell housing can comprise an electrically conductive
container and a conductor in electrical communication with a
current collector. The conductor may protrude through the housing
through an aperture in the container and may be electrically
isolated from the container. The conductor of a first housing may
contact the container of a second housing when the first and second
housings are stacked.
[0068] In some instances, the area of the aperture through which
the conductor protrudes from the housing and/or container is small
relative to the area of the housing and/or container. In some
cases, the ratio of the area of the aperture to the area of the
housing is about 0.001, about 0.005, about 0.01, about 0.05, about
0.1, about 0.15, or about 0.2. In some cases, the ratio of the area
of the aperture to the area of the housing is less than or equal to
0.001, less than or equal to 0.005, less than or equal to 0.01,
less than or equal to 0.05, less than or equal to 0.1, less than or
equal to 0.15, or less than or equal to 0.2.
[0069] A cell can comprise an electrically conductive housing and a
conductor in electrical communication with a current collector. The
conductor protrudes through the housing through an aperture in the
housing and may be electrically isolated from the housing. The
ratio of the area of the aperture to the area of the housing may be
less than about 0.1.
[0070] A cell housing can comprise an electrically conductive
container and a conductor in electrical communication with a
current collector. The conductor protrudes through the container
through an aperture in the container and is electrically isolated
from the container. The ratio of the area of the aperture to the
area of the container may be less than 0.1. The housing can be
capable of enclosing a cell that is capable of storing and/or
taking in less than 100 Wh of energy, about 100 Wh of energy, or
more than 100 Wh of energy.
[0071] FIG. 3 is a cross-sectional side view of an electrochemical
cell or battery 300 comprising a housing 301, a conductive
feed-through (i.e., conductor, such as a conductor rod) 302 that
passes through an aperture in the housing and is in electronic
communication with a liquid metal negative electrode 303, a liquid
metal positive electrode 305, and a liquid metal electrolyte
between the electrodes 303, 305. The conductor 302 may be
electrically isolated from the housing 301 (e.g., using
electrically insulating gaskets). The negative current collector
303 may be a foam that behaves like a sponge, and is "soaked" in
liquid metal. The negative liquid metal electrode 303 is in contact
with the molten salt electrolyte 304, which is in contact with the
positive liquid metal electrode 305. The positive liquid metal
electrode 305 can contact the housing 301 along the side walls
and/or along the bottom end wall of the housing.
[0072] The housing 301 can be constructed from an electrically
conductive material such as, for example, steel, iron, stainless
steel, graphite, nickel, nickel based alloys, titanium, aluminum,
molybdenum, or tungsten. The housing may also comprise a thinner
lining component of a separate metal or electrically insulating
coating, such as, for example, a steel housing with a graphite
lining, or a steel housing with a boron or boron nitride
coating.
[0073] The housing 301 may include a thermally and/or electrically
insulating sheath 306. In this configuration, the negative
electrode 303 may extend laterally between the side walls of the
housing 301 defined by the sheath without being electrically
connected (i.e., shorted) to the positive electrode 305.
Alternatively, the negative electrode 303 may extend laterally
between a first negative electrode end 303a and a second negative
electrode end 303b. When the sheath 306 is not provided, the
negative electrode 303 may have a diameter (or other characteristic
dimension, illustrated in FIG. 3 as the distance from 303a to 303b)
that is less than the diameter (or other characteristic dimension
such as width for a cuboid container, illustrated in FIG. 3 as the
distance D) of the cavity defined by the housing 301.
[0074] The sheath 306 can be constructed from a thermally
insulating and/or electrically insulating material such as, for
example, alumina, titania, silica, magnesia, boron nitride, or a
mixed oxide including calcium oxide, aluminum oxide, silicon oxide,
lithium oxide, magnesium oxide, etc. As shown in FIG. 3, the sheath
306 has an annular, square, or rectangular cross-sectional geometry
that can extend laterally between a first sheath end 306a and a
second sheath end 306b. The sheath may be dimensioned (illustrated
in FIG. 3 as the distance from 306a to 306b) such that the sheath
is in contact and pressed up against the side walls of the cavity
defined by the housing cavity 301. As an alternative, the sheath
can be used to prevent corrosion of the container and/or prevent
wetting of the cathode material up the side wall, and may be
constructed out of an electronically conductive material, such as
steel, stainless steel, tungsten, molybdenum, nickel, nickel based
alloys, graphite, or titanium. The sheath may be very thin and
could be a coating. The coating can cover just the inside of the
walls, and/or, can also cover the bottom of the inside of the
container.
[0075] The housing 301 can also include a first (e.g., negative)
current collector 307 and a second (e.g., positive) current
collector 308. The negative current collector 307 may be
constructed from an electrically conductive material such as, for
example, nickel-iron (Ni--Fe) foam, perforated steel disk, sheets
of corrugated steel, sheets of expanded metal mesh, etc. The
negative current collector 307 may be configured as a plate that
can extend laterally between a first collector end 307a and a
second collector end 307b. The negative current collector 307 may
have a collector diameter that is less than or equal to the
diameter of the cavity defined by the housing 301. In some cases,
the negative current collector 307 may have a collector diameter
(or other characteristic dimension, illustrated in FIG. 3 as the
distance from 307a to 307b) that is less than, equal to, or more
than the diameter (or other characteristic dimension, illustrated
in FIG. 3 as the distance from 303a to 303b) of the negative
electrode 303. The positive current collector 308 may be configured
as part of the housing 301; for example, the bottom end wall of the
housing may be configured as the positive current collector 308, as
illustrated in FIG. 3. Alternatively, the current collector may be
discrete from the battery housing and may be electrically connected
to the battery housing. In some cases, the positive current
collector may not be electrically connected to the battery housing.
The present invention is not limited to any particular
configurations of the negative and/or positive current collector
configurations.
[0076] The negative electrode 303 can be contained within the
negative current collector (e.g., foam) 307. In this configuration,
the electrolyte layer comes up in contact with the bottom and sides
of the foam 307, and the metal contained in the foam (i.e., the
negative electrode material) can be held away from the sidewalls of
the housing 301, thus allowing the cell to run without the
insulating sheath 306. In some cases, a graphite sheath may be used
to prevent the positive electrode from wetting up along the side
walls, which can prevent shorting of the cell.
[0077] Current may be distributed substantially evenly across a
positive and/or negative liquid metal electrode in contact with an
electrolyte along a surface (i.e., the current flowing across the
surface may be uniform such that the current flowing through any
portion of the surface does not substantially deviate from an
average current density). In some examples, the maximum density of
current flowing across an area of the surface is less than about
105%, less than about 115%, less than about 125%, less than about
150%, less than about 175%, less than about 200%, less than about
250%, or less than about 300% of the average density of current
flowing across the surface. In some examples, the minimum density
of current flowing across an area of the surface is greater than
about 50%, greater than about 60%, greater than about 70%, greater
than about 80%, greater than about 90%, or greater than about 95%
of the average density of current flowing across the surface.
[0078] The housing may include a container and a container lid as
described elsewhere herein. The container and container lid may be
connected mechanically and isolated electrically (e.g., using
electrically insulating gaskets, fasteners with electrically
insulating sleeves and/or electrically insulating washers
constructed from a dielectric such as, for example, mica or
vermiculite). In some examples, the electrochemical cell or battery
300 may comprise two or more conductors passing through one or more
apertures and in electrical communication with the liquid metal
negative electrode 303. In some instances, a separator structure
(not shown) may be arranged within the electrolyte 304 between the
liquid negative electrode 303 and the (liquid) positive electrode
305.
[0079] Viewed from a top or bottom direction, as indicated
respectively by "TOP VIEW" and "BOTTOM VIEW" in FIG. 3, the
cross-sectional geometry of the cell or battery 300 can be
circular, elliptical, square, rectangular, polygonal, curved,
symmetric, asymmetric or any other compound shape based on design
requirements for the battery. In one example, the cell or battery
300 is axially symmetric with a circular cross-section. Components
of cell or battery 300 (e.g., component in FIG. 3) may be arranged
within the cell or battery in an axially symmetric fashion. In some
cases, one or more components may be arranged asymmetrically, such
as, for example, off the center of the axis 309.
[0080] The combined volume of positive and negative electrode
material may be about 20%, about 30%, about 40%, about 50%, about
60%, about 70%, about 80%, about 90%, or about 95% of the volume of
the battery (e.g., as defined by the outer-most housing of the
battery, such as a shipping container). In some cases, the combined
volume of anode and cathode material is at least 20%, at least 30%,
at least 40%, at least about 50%, at least about 60%, at least
about 70%, at least about 80%, at least about 90%, or at least
about 95% of the volume of the battery. The combined volume of the
positive and negative electrodes material may expand or contract
during operation due to the expansion or contraction of the
positive or negative electrode. In an example, during discharge,
the volume of the negative electrode (anode during discharge) may
be reduced due to transfer of the negative electrode material to
the positive electrode (cathode during discharge), wherein the
volume of the positive electrode is increased (e.g., as a result of
an alloying reaction). The volume reduction of the negative
electrode may or may not equal the volume increase of the positive
electrode. The positive and negative electrode materials may react
with each other to form a solid or semi-solid mutual reaction
compound (also "mutual reaction product" herein), which may have a
density that is the same, lower, or higher than the densities of
the positive and/or negative electrode materials. Although the mass
of material in the electrochemical cell or battery 300 may be
constant, one, two or more phases (e.g., liquid or solid) may be
present, and each such phase may comprise a certain material
composition (e.g., an alkali metal may be present in the materials
and phases of the cell at varying concentrations: a liquid metal
negative electrode may contain a high concentration of an alkali
metal, a liquid metal positive electrode may contain an alloy of
the alkali metal and the concentration of the alkali metal may vary
during operation, and a mutual reaction product of the positive and
negative liquid metal electrodes may contain the alkali metal at a
fixed or variable stoichiometry). The phases and/or materials may
have different densities. As material is transferred between the
phases and/or materials of the electrodes, a change in combined
electrode volume may result.
[0081] FIG. 4 is a cross-sectional side view of an electrochemical
cell or battery 400 with an intermetallic layer 410. The
intermetallic layer 410 can include a mutual reaction compound that
may be formed during discharging at an interface between a positive
liquid metal electrode (liquid metal cathode in this configuration)
405 and a liquid metal electrolyte 404. The mutual reaction
compound (or product) can be solid or semi-solid. The intermetallic
layer 410 can form at the interface between the liquid metal
cathode 405 and the liquid metal electrolyte 404. In some cases,
the intermetallic layer 410 may exhibit liquid properties (e.g.,
the intermetallic may be semi-solid, or it may be of a higher
viscosity or density than one or more adjacent
phases/materials).
[0082] In some cases, a negative liquid metal electrode 403
includes lithium, sodium, potassium, magnesium, and/or calcium, the
positive liquid metal electrode 405 includes lead, antimony, tin,
tellurium and/or bismuth. The intermetallic layer 410 can include
any suitable compound such as magnesium antimonide
(Mg.sub.3Sb.sub.2), calcium antimonide (Ca.sub.3Sb.sub.2), lithium
antimonide (Li.sub.3Sb), lithium bismuthide (Li.sub.3Bi), sodium
antimonide (Na.sub.3Sb) or compounds that contain two or more of K,
Li, Na, Pb, Bi, Sb, Te, Sn and the like.
[0083] The solid intermetallic layer may develop by growing and
expanding horizontally along a direction x. The expansion may be
axially symmetrical or asymmetrical with respect to an axis of
symmetry 409 located at the center of the cell or battery 400.
Alternatively, the solid intermetallic layer may develop and expand
starting from one or more locations (also "nucleation sites"
herein) along a surface parallel to the direction x (i.e., the
interface between the liquid metal cathode and the liquid metal
electrolyte). The nucleation sites may be located in a
predetermined pattern along the surface; alternatively, the
location of the nucleation sites may be stochastic (random), or
determined by natural or induced defects at the interface between
the liquid metal cathode and the liquid metal electrolyte, or
elsewhere within the cell or battery 400. In some examples, the
solid intermetallic layer may not grow and expand horizontally. For
example, the solid intermetallic layer may form evenly across the
interface.
[0084] The solid intermetallic layer may begin developing at or
near a vertical location corresponding to the location of the upper
surface of the liquid metal cathode at the commencement of
discharging (i.e., the interface between the liquid metal cathode
and the liquid metal electrolyte at the commencement of
discharging), and may then grow in a downward direction y. Thus,
the solid intermetallic layer may have an upper interface or
surface 410a and a lower interface or surface 410b. The upper
interface 410a may remain in an approximately fixed location along
the axis 409, while the lower interface 410b moves in a downward
direction during discharge. In some cases, the solid intermetallic
layer may grow and/or deform in the downward direction (i.e.,
intermetallic material is added to the layer from the downward
direction opposite to vector y). Material buildup along the
interface 410b may cause pressure to build up from below. The
pressure may exert a force on the intermetallic layer. The pressure
may be hydraulic pressure from the liquid metal cathode 405. In
some cases, the pressure may be due to material stresses in the
intermetallic layer 410. This may, for example, cause the
intermetallic layer 410 to bulge or bow upward. In some cases, the
liquid metal cathode may break through the intermetallic layer and
some liquid metal cathode material may eject into the liquid metal
electrolyte past the upper surface of the intermetallic layer,
forming fingers or dendritic outgrowths. The intermetallic layer
may be partially distorted, and may be ruptured or cracked in one
or more locations along the interface 410a.
[0085] In some cases, a combination of horizontal and downward
growth may occur. For example, a layer having a thickness t may
develop in a downward direction along the central axis, and expand
horizontally during discharge at a thickness of less than t, about
t, or larger than t. The thickness t may also change as a function
of discharge or discharge time. The morphology of the interfaces
410a, 410b may not be as uniform as shown in FIG. 4. For example,
the interfaces may be lumpy, jagged, uneven, spongy or have
offshoots, fingers or dendritic characteristics. For example, the
interface 410a can be undulating. Depending on the lateral extent
of the intermetallic layer 410 with respect to the dimension of the
cavity defined by the side walls of sheath 406 or housing 401
and/or the morphology of the intermetallic layer 410, one or more
interfaces between the liquid metal electrolyte 404 and the liquid
metal cathode 405 may exist. The interfaces may provide a means for
reduction reactions to proceed at the liquid metal cathode. The
solid intermetallic layer may grow by the addition of material
formed at or near the interfaces.
[0086] During discharge, the cathode may comprise the liquid metal
cathode 405, and the solid intermetallic layer 410 is formed
adjacent to the cathode. As previously described, material can be
transferred to the cathode during discharge such that the mass of
the cathode grows. The cathode volume may expand as a result of the
material addition. The volume expansion may be affected by the
alloying reaction. For example, the cathode volume increase after
alloying may be about 30% less than expected from adding together
the volume of material added to the cathode and the material
originally present in the cathode. In some cases, the densities of
the intermetallic layer 410 and the liquid metal cathode 405 may be
about the same. Alternatively, the density of the intermetallic
layer may be higher or lower than the density of the liquid metal
cathode 405. For example, the density of the intermetallic layer
may be a function of the phase structure of the solid formed. As
the cathode volume increases during discharging, individually, the
intermetallic layer 410 may grow, but the liquid metal cathode 405
may be consumed. The intermetallic layer 410 may grow at the
expense of the liquid metal cathode 405. Alternatively, the volumes
of both the intermetallic layer 410 and the liquid metal cathode
405 may increase, but the increase in volume of the liquid metal
cathode 405 is less than it would otherwise be in the absence of an
intermetallic layer. In some examples, the alloy in the liquid
metal cathode 405, and the alloy in the intermetallic layer 410 may
be formed independently at the interfaces between the liquid metal
electrolyte and the liquid metal cathode. Alternatively, the
formation of the intermetallic layer 410 may consume alloy first
formed in the liquid metal cathode 405. The expansion of the liquid
metal cathode 405 confined by an intermetallic layer 410, and the
sheath 406 or housing 401 may lead to hydraulic pressure buildup in
the liquid metal cathode 405.
[0087] With continued reference to FIG. 4, the intermetallic 410
can be located between the liquid metal electrolyte 404 and the
liquid metal cathode 405. During normal operation, the cell or
battery 400 can be oriented in the direction shown in FIG. 4, such
that any gravitational pull affecting the cell is oriented downward
in the direction of the vector y. A hydrostatic pressure from the
liquid metal electrolyte 404 may exert a downward force (in the
direction of y) on the intermetallic layer 410. This force may
remain constant during discharge, as the mass of the liquid metal
electrolyte may not change. The upper interface 410a of the
intermetallic layer may be stationary. As the intermetallic layer
410 grows, a hydraulic pressure may build up in the liquid metal
cathode 405, and may exert an upward force (in the opposite
direction from y) on the intermetallic layer 410.
[0088] In another aspect, an energy storage device comprises at
least one liquid metal electrode. The energy storage device can
have a high energy storage capacity and a fast response time. The
liquid metal electrode can be an anode or a cathode of the energy
storage device. In some embodiments, the energy storage devices
comprises a liquid metal anode (e.g., lithium, sodium, calcium,
and/or potassium) and a liquid metal cathode (e.g., antinomy,
bismuth, tellurium, tin, and/or lead). The energy storage device
can also comprise a liquid electrolyte. In some embodiments, the
reactions that occur at the electrode and liquid metal electrode
interfaces are extremely facile, permitting high current density
operation with minimal electrode overpotentials and extremely fast
response times.
[0089] The energy storage capacity can be any suitably large value
(e.g., suitable for grid-scale energy storage), including about 1
kWh, about 10 kWh, about 20 kWh, about 30 kWh, about 100 kWh, about
500 kWh, about 1 MWh, about 5 MWh, about 10 MWh, about 50 MWh,
about 100 MWh, and the like. In some embodiments, the energy
storage capacity is at least about 1 kWh, at least about 10 kWh, at
least about 20 kWh, at least about 30 kWh, at least about 100 kWh,
at least about 500 kWh, at least about 1 MWh, at least about 5 MWh,
at least about 10 MWh, at least about 50 MWh, at least about 100
MWh and the like.
[0090] The response time can be any suitable value (e.g., suitable
for responding to disturbances in the power grid). In some
instances, the response time is about 100 milliseconds (ms), about
50 ms, about 10 ms, about 1 ms, and the like. In some cases, the
response time is at most about 100 milliseconds (ms), at most about
50 ms, at most about 10 ms, at most about 1 ms, and the like.
[0091] In some embodiments, the liquid metal electrode comprises an
alkali earth metal, a metalloid, or combinations thereof. In some
embodiments, the liquid metal electrode comprises lithium, sodium,
potassium, magnesium, calcium, or any combination thereof. In some
cases, the liquid metal electrode comprises antimony, lead, tin,
tellurium, bismuth or combinations thereof.
[0092] In some embodiments, the device is comprised in an array of
energy storage devices as part of an energy storage system. The
device can be an energy storage cell, and the energy storage system
comprises a plurality of energy storage cells.
[0093] In an aspect, an energy storage device comprises at least
one liquid metal electrode stored in a container at a temperature
greater than or equal to about 250.degree. C. The energy storage
device can have a high energy storage capacity and the container
can have a surface area-to-volume ratio that is less than or equal
to about 10 m.sup.-1.
[0094] The energy storage capacity can be any suitably large value
(e.g., suitable for grid-scale energy storage), including about 1
kWh, about 10 kWh, about 20 kWh, about 30 kWh, about 100 kWh, about
500 kWh, about 1 MWh, about 5 MWh, about 10 MWh, about 50 MWh,
about 100 MWh, and the like. In some embodiments, the energy
storage capacity is at least about 1 kWh, at least about 10 kWh, at
least about 20 kWh, at least about 30 kWh, at least about 100 kWh,
at least about 500 kWh, at least about 1 MWh, at least about 5 MWh,
at least about 10 MWh, at least about 50 MWh, at least about 100
MWh and the like.
[0095] In some embodiments, the surface area-to-volume ratio is
about 1 m.sup.-1, about 0.5 m.sup.-1, about 0.1 m.sup.-1, about
0.01 m.sup.-1, or about 0.001 m.sup.-1. In some cases, the surface
area-to-volume ratio is less than about 1 m.sup.-1, less than about
0.5 m.sup.-1, less than about 0.1 m.sup.-1, less than about 0.01
m.sup.-1, or less than about 0.001 m.sup.-1.
[0096] The temperature can be any suitable temperature (e.g., for
maintaining the electrodes in a molten state). In some embodiments,
the at least one liquid metal electrode is stored in the container
at a temperature greater than or equal to about 250.degree. C.,
greater than or equal to about 400.degree. C., greater than or
equal to about 450.degree. C. greater than or equal to about
500.degree. C. or greater than or equal to about 550.degree. C.
[0097] In an aspect, an energy storage device comprises at least
one liquid metal electrode and the energy storage device maintains
at least 90% of its energy storage capacity after 100
charge/discharge cycles.
[0098] In some cases, the energy storage device has an energy
storage capacity of at least about 1 kWh. In some embodiments, the
energy storage device has an energy storage capacity of at least
about 2 kWh, 3 kWh, 4 kWh, 5 kWh, 6 kWh, 7 kWh, 8 kWh, 9 kWh, 10
kWh, 20 kWh, 30 kWh, 100 kWh, 200 kWh, 300 kWh, 400 kWh, 500 kWh, 1
MWh, 5 MWh, or 10 MWh.
[0099] In some embodiments, the energy storage device maintains at
least 90%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% of its energy storage
capacity after 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, or 1000, 3000, 5000, 10,000
charge/discharge cycles.
[0100] In some embodiments, an energy storage device comprises at
least one liquid metal electrode, the device is transportable on a
vehicle and has an energy storage capacity of at least about 1 kWh.
The energy storage device is transportable with at least any two of
an anode, cathode and electrolyte of the energy storage device in
solid state.
[0101] An energy storage device can be transported if it has less
than a certain weight. In some embodiments, the energy storage
device has a weight of about 10 kg, 100 kg, 500 kg, 1,000 kg, 2,000
kg, 3,000 kg, 4,000 kg, 5,000 kg, 10,000 kg, or 50,000 kg. In some
embodiments, an individual cell of the energy storage device has a
weight of about 0.1 kg, 0.5 kg, 1 kg, 2 kg, 3 kg, 4 kg, 5 kg, 10
kg, 100 kg, 1,000 kg, or 10,000 kg. In some embodiments, the energy
storage device has a weight of at least about 10 kg, 100 kg, 500
kg, 1,000 kg, 2,000 kg, 3,000 kg, 4,000 kg, 5,000 kg, 10,000 kg, or
50,000 kg. In some embodiments, an individual cell of the energy
storage device has a weight of at least about 0.1 kg, 0.5 kg, 1 kg,
2 kg, 3 kg, 4 kg, 5 kg, 10 kg, 100 kg, 1,000 kg, or 10,000 kg.
[0102] In some embodiments, an energy storage device comprises a
container containing one or more cells, an individual cell of the
one or more cells containing at least one liquid metal electrode,
where a rate of heat generation in the cell during charge/discharge
is about equal to a rate of heat loss from the cell.
[0103] The rate of heat generation can be any suitable value
compared to the rate of heat loss from the cell (e.g., such that
the battery is self-heating and/or maintains a constant
temperature). In some cases, the ratio of the rate of heat
generation to the rate of heat loss from the cell is about 50%,
about 75%, about 80%, about 85%, about 90%, about 100%, about 110%,
about 120%, or about 150%. In some instances, the ratio of the rate
of heat generation to the rate of heat loss from the cell is at
least about 50%, at least about 75%, at least about 80%, at least
about 85%, at least about 90%, at least about 100%, at least about
110%, at least about 120%, or at least about 150%. In some
instances, the ratio of the rate of heat generation to the rate of
heat loss from the cell is at most about 50%, at most about 75%, at
most about 80%, at most about 85%, at most about 90%, at most about
100%, at most about 110%, at most about 120%, or at most about
150%.
[0104] In an aspect, a separator-less energy storage device
comprises a container with at least one liquid metal electrode,
where the container has a surface area-to-volume ratio that is less
than or equal to about 10 m.sup.-1, and the separator-less energy
storage device has (i) a response time less than or equal to about
100 milliseconds (ms), and/or (ii) an energy storage capacity of at
least about 1 kWh. In some embodiments, the separator-less energy
storage devices comprises (i) and (ii). In some embodiments, the
separator-less energy storage device does not include a
separator.
[0105] The energy storage capacity can be any suitably large value
(e.g., suitable for grid-scale energy storage), including about 1
kWh, about 10 kWh, about 20 kWh, about 30 kWh, about 100 kWh, about
500 kWh, about 1 MWh, about 5 MWh, about 10 MWh, about 50 MWh,
about 100 MWh, and the like. In some embodiments, the energy
storage capacity is at least about 1 kWh, at least about 10 kWh, at
least about 20 kWh, at least about 30 kWh, at least about 100 kWh,
at least about 500 kWh, at least about 1 MWh, at least about 5 MWh,
at least about 10 MWh, at least about 50 MWh, at least about 100
MWh, and the like.
[0106] The response time can be any suitable value (e.g., suitable
for responding to disturbances in the power grid). In some
instances, the response time is about 100 milliseconds (ms), about
50 ms, about 10 ms, about 1 ms, and the like. In some cases, the
response time is at most about 100 milliseconds (ms), at most about
50 ms, at most about 10 ms, at most about 1 ms, and the like.
[0107] In some embodiments, the surface area-to-volume ratio is
about 1 m.sup.-1, about 0.5 m.sup.-1, about 0.1 m.sup.-1, about
0.01 m.sup.-1, or about 0.001 m.sup.-1. In some cases, the surface
area-to-volume ratio is less than about 1 m.sup.-1, less than about
0.5 m.sup.-1, less than about 0.1 m.sup.-1, less than about 0.01
m.sup.-1, or less than about 0.001 m.sup.-1.
[0108] In an aspect, a method for forming an energy storage device
comprises shipping a container comprising an energy storage
material in solid state to a destination location, and at the
destination location supplying energy to the energy storage
material to form at least one of a liquid metal anode, liquid metal
cathode, and liquid electrolyte, thereby forming the energy storage
device.
[0109] In some instances, the energy storage material is not mixed
during shipping. In some cases, the energy storage device does not
include a separator. In some embodiments, during shipping, the
energy storage material comprises at least one of a solid state
anode, solid state cathode and solid state electrolyte.
[0110] In another aspect, an energy storage system comprises: (a) a
container comprising one or more energy storage cells, where an
individual energy storage cell of the one or more energy storage
cells comprises an energy storage material comprising at least one
liquid metal electrode; and (b) a control system comprising a
processor with machine-executable code for monitoring at least one
temperature of the one or more energy storage cells and/or the
container. The processor can regulate the flow of electrical energy
into at least a subset of the one or more energy storage cells such
that the energy storage material undergoes sustained self-heating
during charge/discharge. In some embodiments, the container
comprises a plurality of energy storage cells.
[0111] In some embodiments, the processor regulates one or more
process parameters of the individual energy storage cell such that
a rate of heat dissipation from the individual energy storage cell
during charge/discharge is greater than a rate of heat loss from
the individual energy storage cell. In some embodiments, at least
one liquid metal electrode is stored in the container at a
temperature greater than or equal to about 250.degree. C., greater
than or equal to about 300.degree. C., greater than or equal to
about 350.degree. C., greater than or equal to about 400.degree.
C., greater than or equal to about 450.degree. C. greater than or
equal to about 500.degree. C. or greater than or equal to about
550.degree. C.
[0112] Another aspect of the present disclosure provides a system
that is programmed or otherwise configured to implement the methods
of the disclosure. FIG. 5 shows a system 500 programmed or
otherwise configured to one or more process parameters of an energy
storage system. The system 500 includes a computer server
("server") 501 that is programmed to implement methods disclosed
herein. The server 501 includes a central processing unit (CPU,
also "processor" and "computer processor" herein) 505, which can be
a single core or multi core processor, or a plurality of processors
for parallel processing. The server 501 also includes memory 510
(e.g., random-access memory, read-only memory, flash memory),
electronic storage unit 515 (e.g., hard disk), communication
interface 520 (e.g., network adapter) for communicating with one or
more other systems, and peripheral devices 525, such as cache,
other memory, data storage and/or electronic display adapters. The
memory 510, storage unit 515, interface 520 and peripheral devices
525 are in communication with the CPU 505 through a communication
bus (solid lines), such as a motherboard. The storage unit 515 can
be a data storage unit (or data repository) for storing data. The
server 501 can be operatively coupled to a computer network
("network") 530 with the aid of the communication interface 520.
The network 530 can be the Internet, an internet and/or extranet,
or an intranet and/or extranet that is in communication with the
Internet. The network 530 in some cases is a telecommunication
and/or data network. The network 530 can include one or more
computer servers, which can enable distributed computing, such as
cloud computing. The network 530, in some cases with the aid of the
server 501, can implement a peer-to-peer network, which may enable
devices coupled to the server 501 to behave as a client or a
server. The server 501 can be coupled to an energy storage system
535 either directly or through the network 530.
[0113] The storage unit 515 can store process parameters of the
energy storage system 535. The server 501 in some cases can include
one or more additional data storage units that are external to the
server 501, such as located on a remote server that is in
communication with the server 501 through an intranet or the
Internet.
[0114] The server 501 can communicate with one or more remote
computer systems through the network 530. In the illustrated
example, the server 501 is in communication with a remote computer
system 540. The remote computer system 540 can be, for example, a
personal computers (e.g., portable PC), slate or tablet PC (e.g.,
Apple.RTM. iPad, Samsung.RTM. Galaxy Tab), telephone, Smart phone
(e.g., Apple.RTM. iPhone, Android-enabled device, Blackberry.RTM.),
or personal digital assistant.
[0115] In some situations, the system 500 includes a single server
501. In other situations, the system 500 includes multiple servers
in communication with one another through an intranet and/or the
Internet.
[0116] Methods as described herein can be implemented by way of
machine (or computer processor) executable code (or software)
stored on an electronic storage location of the server 501, such
as, for example, on the memory 510 or electronic storage unit 515.
During use, the code can be executed by the processor 505. In some
cases, the code can be retrieved from the storage unit 515 and
stored on the memory 510 for ready access by the processor 505. In
some situations, the electronic storage unit 515 can be precluded,
and machine-executable instructions are stored on memory 510.
Alternatively, the code can be executed on the second computer
system 540.
[0117] The code can be pre-compiled and configured for use with a
machine have a processer adapted to execute the code, or can be
compiled during runtime. The code can be supplied in a programming
language that can be selected to enable the code to execute in a
pre-compiled or as-compiled fashion.
[0118] Aspects of the systems and methods provided herein, such as
the server 501, can be embodied in programming. Various aspects of
the technology may be thought of as "products" or "articles of
manufacture" typically in the form of machine (or processor)
executable code and/or associated data that is carried on or
embodied in a type of machine readable medium. Machine-executable
code can be stored on an electronic storage unit, such memory
(e.g., read-only memory, random-access memory, flash memory) or a
hard disk. "Storage" type media can include any or all of the
tangible memory of the computers, processors or the like, or
associated modules thereof, such as various semiconductor memories,
tape drives, disk drives and the like, which may provide
non-transitory storage at any time for the software programming.
All or portions of the software may at times be communicated
through the Internet or various other telecommunication networks.
Such communications, for example, may enable loading of the
software from one computer or processor into another, for example,
from a management server or host computer into the computer
platform of an application server. Thus, another type of media that
may bear the software elements includes optical, electrical and
electromagnetic waves, such as used across physical interfaces
between local devices, through wired and optical landline networks
and over various air-links. The physical elements that carry such
waves, such as wired or wireless links, optical links or the like,
also may be considered as media bearing the software. As used
herein, unless restricted to non-transitory, tangible "storage"
media, terms such as computer or machine "readable medium" refer to
any medium that participates in providing instructions to a
processor for execution.
[0119] Hence, a machine readable medium, such as
computer-executable code, may take many forms, including but not
limited to, a tangible storage medium, a carrier wave medium or
physical transmission medium. Non-volatile storage media include,
for example, optical or magnetic disks, such as any of the storage
devices in any computer(s) or the like, such as may be used to
implement the databases, etc. shown in the drawings. Volatile
storage media include dynamic memory, such as main memory of such a
computer platform. Tangible transmission media include coaxial
cables; copper wire and fiber optics, including the wires that
comprise a bus within a computer system. Carrier-wave transmission
media may take the form of electric or electromagnetic signals, or
acoustic or light waves such as those generated during radio
frequency (RF) and infrared (IR) data communications. Common forms
of computer-readable media therefore include for example: a floppy
disk, a flexible disk, hard disk, magnetic tape, any other magnetic
medium, a CD-ROM, DVD or DVD-ROM, any other optical medium, punch
cards paper tape, any other physical storage medium with patterns
of holes, a RAM, a ROM, a PROM and EPROM, a FLASH-EPROM, any other
memory chip or cartridge, a carrier wave transporting data or
instructions, cables or links transporting such a carrier wave, or
any other medium from which a computer may read programming code
and/or data. Many of these forms of computer readable media may be
involved in carrying one or more sequences of one or more
instructions to a processor for execution.
[0120] Various parameters of an energy storage system can be
presented to a user on a user interface (UI) of an electronic
device of the user. Examples of UI's include, without limitation, a
graphical user interface (GUI) and web-based user interface. The UI
(e.g., GUI) can be provided on a display of an electronic device of
the user. The display can be a capacitive or resistive touch
display. Such displays can be used with other systems and methods
of the disclosure.
[0121] Methods of the disclosure can be facilitated with the aid of
applications (apps) that can be installed on electronic devices of
a user. An app can include a GUI on a display of the electronic
device of the user. The app can be programmed or otherwise
configured to perform various functions of the system.
Methods for Transporting Energy Storage Systems
[0122] Another aspect of the present disclosure provides methods
for transporting energy storage systems. In some cases, the energy
storage devices are transported with molten metal electrodes (e.g.,
at a high temperature of at least 250.degree. C., at least
400.degree. C., at least 500.degree. C., or at least 600.degree.
C.). The energy storage devices can also be transported at ambient
temperature (e.g., with the electrodes being solid and not molten)
and heated at the site of operation to melt the metal
electrodes.
[0123] The energy storage devices can be transported in any
suitable manner including fully assembled or in pieces to be
assembled at the site of operation. The energy storage devices can
be transported on any suitable vehicle, such as a truck (including
on a trailer pulled by a truck), on a train, on a ship, on an
airplane, on a helicopter, by a robot, and the like. FIG. 6 shows
an energy storage device 605 that is assembled 600 and placed on a
vehicle 610. In this case the vehicle includes a truck 615 and a
trailer 620 pulled by the truck. The vehicle can transport the
energy storage device 625 from an initial location 630 to a site of
installation and/or operation 635 along any suitable path (e.g.,
along roads, railroad tracks, shipping routes, and the like).
[0124] The energy storage devices can be transported any distance
such as at least about 1 mile, at least about 10 miles, at least
about 100 miles, at least about 1,000 miles or at least about
10,000 miles. The energy storage devices can be transported at any
speed including at least about 5 miles per hour (mph), at least
about 10 mph, at least about 20 mph, at least about 40 mph, at
least about 60 mph, at least about 150 mph, or at least about 500
mph.
[0125] An energy storage device of the present disclosure,
including an electrochemical cell ("cell") of the energy storage
device, can be configured for transport. In some cases, the cell
does not have a voltage and cannot pass current while being
transported (e.g., on a truck at room temperature). The cell may
not have an appreciable or detectable voltage during transport, and
the cell may not pass an appreciable or detectable current during
transport. This can be advantageous since the cells are
electrically inert and cannot short.
[0126] An electrochemical cell can comprise chemical components
that generate a potential difference when a system comprising the
cell is heated (e.g., to approximately 250.degree. C. or
450.degree. C. or 500.degree. C.). While at room temperature, the
electrolyte in the cell can be solid and/or incapable of conducting
ions necessary to facilitate either the charge of discharge
reactions. The system does not pass current (e.g., even if the
electrode terminals are shorted), and does not have an inherent
cell voltage. When the temperature is elevated, the non-aqueous
(non water based) electrolyte melts and/or becomes an ionic
conductor, thus enabling the cell to accept or provide current and
charge or discharge. When at operating temperature and when the
electrolyte is molten or ionically conductive and if the cell is
above 0% state of charge, the battery can have a non-zero cell
voltage of around 0.9 volts in some cases.
[0127] An advantage of a cell that does not exhibit a cell voltage
and is unable to accept or supply current while at room temperature
is that the safety risks associated with shipping batteries are
reduced. Even in the event that the cells are jostled and are
externally shorted, the cells do not discharge and cannot be
charged.
[0128] In some cases, the system comprises a metallic crucible that
acts as one electrode and a dielectrically separated region that
forms the second electrode. At room temperature, the electrodes are
physically separated by solid chemicals that are inert and do not
inherently generate a potential between the two electrodes. As
temperature is raised portions of the solid electrolyte can undergo
a change in electrical characteristics (such as a phase transition)
that results in a potential difference forming between the
electrodes. When temperature is maintained at approximately this
range, the system can be capable of sourcing (discharging) or
sinking (recharging) current. When the temperature is brought back
to room temperature, the chemical media can undergo another phase
transition that brings potential difference to zero between the
electrodes and also increases ionic resistance preventing flow of
current.
[0129] Energy storage devices (or batteries) of the present
disclosure can be reliably safe during transportation and handling
from a pickup location to a delivery location. Physical short
circuits or other externally induced abuse conditions (e.g.,
puncture, shock, vibration, etc.) have little to no effect on
safety or operation of the system when these conditions are induced
at room temperature.
[0130] An electrochemical energy storage device (including a cell
of the device) may not be capable of being charged, being
discharged, or having an electrical potential during transport.
This may be accomplished by transporting (or shipping) the energy
storage device at a temperature that is reduced with respect to an
operating temperature of the energy storage device.
[0131] For example, an electrochemical energy storage device can
comprise an anode and a cathode, and an electrolyte between the
anode and the cathode. The device may not be capable of conducting
ions at a first temperature and capable of conducting ions at a
second temperature. The first temperature may be maintained during
transport of the electrochemical energy storage device.
[0132] The anode can comprise lithium, potassium, magnesium and/or
calcium. The cathode can comprise antinomy, tin, tellurium, bismuth
and/or lead.
[0133] In some embodiments, at least part of the device is a solid
at the first temperature and a liquid at the second temperature.
The at least part of the device can be an electrolyte.
[0134] In some cases, the first temperature is room temperature. In
some cases, the first temperature is less than about 100.degree. C.
In some cases, the second temperature is at least about 250.degree.
C. In some cases, the second temperature is at least about
500.degree. C.
[0135] The device may not be capable of being charged, being
discharged, or having an electrical potential at the first
temperature. In some instances, the device has a positive terminal
and a negative terminal, and shorting the terminals does not
discharge the device at the first temperature. In some cases, the
device does not discharge when the device is punctured, vibrated,
shorted, or shocked.
[0136] In an aspect, an electrochemical energy storage device
comprises a negative electrode and a positive electrode, and an
electrolyte between the negative and positive electrodes. The
device has a first potential difference between the electrodes at a
first temperature of less than about 50.degree. C. and a second
potential difference between the electrodes at a second temperature
of at least about 250.degree. C. The second potential difference is
greater than the first potential difference.
[0137] In some cases, the first potential difference is less than
or equal to about 2.5 volts, 2 volts, 1.5 volts, 1.2 volts, 1 volt,
0.9 volts, 0.8 volts, 0.7 volts, 0.6 volts, 0.5 volts, 0.4 volts,
0.3 volts, 0.2 volts, 0.1 volts, or less. The first potential
difference can be about 0 volts.
[0138] The second voltage can be greater than 0 volts, or greater
than or equal to about 0.1 volts, 0.2 volts, 0.3 volts, 0.4 volts,
0.5 volts, 0.6 volts, 0.7 volts, 0.8 volts, 0.9 volts, 1 volt, 1.2
volts, 1.5 volts, 2 volts, or 2.5 volts.
[0139] The negative electrode can comprise lithium, potassium,
magnesium and/or calcium. The positive electrode can comprise
antinomy, tin, tellurium, bismuth and/or lead.
[0140] The electrochemical energy storage device can be comprised
in an array of energy storage devices as part of an energy storage
system. In some cases, the electrochemical energy storage device is
an energy storage cell, and the energy storage system comprises a
plurality of energy storage cells.
[0141] The present disclosure provides methods for transporting
energy storage devices, and installing the energy storage devices
for use in an energy storage system. The energy storage system can
be electrically coupled to a power source and a load, such as, for
example, a power grid. The energy storage system can store energy
from the power source for use with the load.
[0142] FIG. 7 illustrates a method 700 for forming an energy
storage system. The method 700 comprises, in a first operation 701,
forming, at a first location, an energy storage device comprising a
negative electrode and a positive electrode, and an electrolyte
between the negative electrode and the positive electrode, and
placing the energy storage device on a vehicle (e.g., truck, train)
that is configured to transport the energy storage device from the
first location to a second location. The energy storage device can
be as described elsewhere herein. For instance, the negative
electrode, positive electrode and electrolyte can each be formed of
a material that is in the liquid at an operating temperature of the
energy storage device.
[0143] Next, in a second operation 702, the method 700 comprises
using the vehicle to transport the energy storage device from the
first location to the second location. Next, in a third operation
703, at the second location the energy storage device can be
removed from the vehicle. The energy storage device can be
subsequently positioned at an installation location, and in some
cases installed into the energy storage system at the installation
location.
[0144] In some examples, the energy storage device can be
electrically coupled to a power source. The power source can be
selected from the group consisting of a power plant (e.g., nuclear
power plant, coal-fired power plant, fuel-fired power plant), a
wind turbine, a photovoltaic system, a geothermal system, and a
wave energy system. The power source can be configured to generate
power from a renewable energy source or non-renewable energy
source.
[0145] The energy storage device can be electrically coupled to a
load, such as a power grid. The energy storage device can then be
employed to deliver power to the load and/or store energy from the
power source.
[0146] During transport, a potential difference between the
positive electrode and the negative electrode can be less than
about 1 volt, 0.9 volts, 0.8 volts, 0.7 volts, 0.6 volts, 0.5
volts, 0.4 volts, 0.3 volts, 0.2 volts, 0.1 volts, or less. In some
examples, the potential difference can be about 0 volts. The
potential difference can be less than 1 volt, 0.9 volts, 0.8 volts,
0.7 volts, 0.6 volts, 0.5 volts, 0.4 volts, 0.3 volts, 0.2 volts,
0.1 volts, or less (e.g., 0 volts) at a temperature ("transport
temperature") that is less than the operating temperature of the
energy storage device. The energy storage device can be transported
with the energy storage device at the transport temperature.
Liquid Metal Electrochemical Energy Storage Devices
[0147] Electrochemical cells having molten electrodes having an
alkali metal can provide receipt and delivery of power by
transporting atoms of the alkali metal between electrode
environments of disparate chemical potentials through an
electrochemical pathway comprising a salt of the alkali metal. The
chemical potential of the alkali metal is decreased when combined
with one or more non-alkali metals, thus producing a voltage
between an electrode comprising the molten alkali metal and the
electrode comprising the combined alkali/non-alkali metals.
Additional details of the batteries can be found in U.S. Patent
Publication No. 2012/0104990, which is hereby incorporated by
reference in its entirety.
[0148] In some cases, an electrochemical cell has three distinct
phases. The first phase defines a positive electrode having at
least one element other than an alkali metal. The second phase
includes cations of the alkali metal, and defines two separate
interfaces. The first phase is in contact with the second phase at
one of the interfaces. The third phase defines a negative electrode
and includes the alkali metal. It is separate from the first phase
and in contact with the second phase at the other interface. The
first and third phases have respective volumes which decrease or
increase at the expense of one another during operation of the
cell. As a result the second phase is displaced from a first
position to a second position. The first, second, and third phases
may be solid, liquid, or in a combination of solid or liquid
states. In preferred embodiments, the alkali metal is present at
respective disparate chemical potentials in the first and third
phases, originating a voltage between the first and third
phases.
[0149] An embodiment includes an electrochemical cell having two
distinct phases. The first phase defines a positive electrode and
includes an alkali metal, and two other elements other than the
alkali metal. The second liquid phase includes cations of the
alkali metal, and defines two separate interfaces. The first phase
is in contact with the second phase at one of the interfaces. In
some embodiments, the first and second phases are solid. In other
embodiments, the first and second phases are liquid. In other
embodiments, the phases are in a combination of solid or liquid
states. The alkali metal preferably is selected to exhibit a change
in chemical potential when combined with the first and second
elements. During operation of the cell to deliver or draw
electrical energy to drive transfer of the alkali metal to or from
the second liquid phase to or from the first liquid phase, the
first phase has a volume which increases or decreases thus
transferring energy to or from the electrochemical cell to or from
an external circuit. As a result the second phase is displaced from
a first position to a second position.
[0150] In some cases, the two elements other than the alkali metal
are independently selected from group IVA, VA and VIA elements of
the chemical periodic table. In some embodiments, these elements
are selected independently from one of tin, lead, bismuth,
antimony, tellurium and selenium. In other embodiments, these
elements are lead and antimony. The alkali metal may be sodium or
lithium or potassium. The second phase may include refractory
particles distributed throughout the second liquid phase. Moreover,
the refractory particles may include a metal oxide or metal
nitride, or combinations thereof.
[0151] The second phase can include a salt of the alkali metal. The
salt of the alkali metal may be selected from one or more of
halide, bistriflimide, fluorosulfano-amine, perchlorate,
hexaflourophosphate, tetrafluoroborate, carbonate or hydroxide.
[0152] In some instances, a method stores electrical energy
transferred from an external circuit. To that end, the method
provides at least one electrochemical cell having three liquid
phases. The first liquid phase defines a positive electrode and
includes at least one element other than an alkali metal. The
second liquid phase includes cations of the alkali metal, and
defines two separate interfaces. The first phase is in contact with
the second phase at one of the interfaces. The third liquid phase
defines a negative electrode and includes the alkali metal. It is
separate from the first phase and in contact with the second phase
at the other interface. The electrochemical cell is configured to
connect with the external circuit. The external circuit is
electrically connected to a negative pole and a positive pole of
electrochemical cell. The external circuit is operated which drives
electrical energy that drives transfer of the alkali metal to or
from the first liquid phase, through the second liquid phase, and
to or from the third liquid phase. The first phase has a volume
which decreases or increases while the third phase has a volume
which decreases or increases respectively thus transferring energy
to and from the external circuit to the electrochemical cell. As a
result the second phase is displaced from a first position to a
second position.
[0153] A method can release electrical energy from the
electrochemical cell to an external circuit. The method includes
providing at least one electrochemical cell having three liquid
phases. The first liquid phase defines a positive electrode and
includes two elements other than an alkali metal. The second liquid
phase includes cations of the alkali metal, and defines two
separate interfaces. The first phase is in contact with the second
phase at one of the interfaces. The third liquid phase defines a
negative electrode and includes the alkali metal. It is separate
from the first phase and in contact with the second phase at the
other interface. The electrochemical cell is configured to connect
sequentially with external circuits. The external circuits are
electrically connected to a negative pole and a positive pole of
electrochemical cell. The external circuits are sequentially
operated to drive electrical energy to drive transfer of the alkali
metal to or from the third liquid phase, through the second liquid
phase, and to or from the first liquid phase, the first phase has a
volume which increases or decreases while the third phase has a
volume which decreases or increases respectively thus transferring
energy to or from the electrochemical cell to or from the external
circuits. As a result the second phase is displaced from a first
position to a second position.
[0154] An electrochemical method and apparatus for high-amperage
electrical energy storage feature a high-temperature, all-liquid
chemistry. The reaction products created during charging can remain
part of the electrodes during storage for discharge on demand. In a
simultaneous ambipolar electrodeposition cell, a reaction compound
can electrolyzed to effect transfer from an external power source
The electrode elements are electrodissolved during discharge.
Additional details of the liquid metal batteries can be found in
U.S. Patent Publication No. 2008/0044725, which is herein
incorporated by reference in its entirety.
[0155] Electrochemical cells having molten electrodes comprising an
alkaline earth metal provide receipt and delivery of power by
transporting atoms of the alkaline earth metal between electrode
environments of disparate the alkaline earth metal chemical
potentials. Additional details of the alkaline earth metal
batteries can be found in U.S. Patent Publication No. 2011/0014503,
which is herein incorporated by reference in its entirety.
[0156] In an aspect, an energy storage device comprises at least
one electrochemical cell having an operating temperature, the at
least one electrochemical cell comprising: (a) a liquid negative
electrode comprising a first metal; (b) a liquid electrolyte
adjacent to the liquid negative electrode; and (c) a liquid
positive electrode adjacent to the liquid electrolyte, the liquid
positive electrode comprising a second elemental metal that is
different than the first metal. The liquid electrolyte comprises a
charged species of the first metal and an oppositely charged
species of the second metal, and the energy storage device is
capable of being transported on a truck.
[0157] The first metal and/or the second metal can be an elemental
metal (i.e., not an alloy or compound).
[0158] In an aspect, an energy storage device comprises a first
material and a second material, where the materials are liquid at
the operating temperature of the device, the materials conduct
electricity, the materials have different densities and the
materials react with each other to form a mutual reaction compound,
and the energy storage device is capable of being transported on a
truck.
[0159] In some instances, the electrolyte has a free energy of
formation more negative than that of the mutual reaction compound.
In some embodiments, the electrolyte further comprises additives
that lower the melting temperature of the electrolyte, reduces the
viscosity of the electrolyte, enhance ionic conductivity through
the electrolyte, inhibit electronic conductivity through the
electrolyte or any combination thereof.
[0160] The first material or second material can further comprise
additives that enable electrochemical monitoring of the extent of
discharge of the device.
[0161] In an aspect, an energy storage device comprises a molten
salt, where a liquid electronic conductor is extracted from the
molten salt by oxidation and metal is extracted from the molten
salt by reduction and the energy storage device is capable of being
transported on a truck.
[0162] In some cases, the liquid electronic conductor is antimony.
In some embodiments, the liquid electronic metal is magnesium.
[0163] In an aspect, an electrometallurgical cell comprises a
positive electrode and a negative electrode, where the electrodes
are liquid, the reactants of reactions that occur at the electrodes
are liquid, and the products of reactions that occur at the
electrodes are liquid, and where the electrometallurgical cell is
capable of being transported on a truck.
[0164] In some cases, an electrode comprises a material and a
reaction that occurs at the electrode produces the material,
thereby enlarging the electrode. In some embodiments, an electrode
comprises a material and a reaction that occurs at the electrode
consumes the material, thereby consuming the electrode. In some
embodiments, the electrodes do not comprise a solid.
[0165] The products of reactions that occur at the electrodes may
not comprise a gas. In some embodiments, the cell has a current
density of at least 100 mA/cm.sup.2 and an efficiency of at least
60%, at least 70%, at least 80%, or at least 90%.
[0166] In an aspect, an energy storage device capable of being
transported on a truck and having a power capacity of greater than
1 MW comprises: (a) a physical footprint smaller than about 100
m.sup.2/MW; (b) a cycle life greater than 3000 deep discharge
cycles; (c) a lifespan of at least 10 years; (d) a DC-to-DC
efficiency of at least 65%; (e) a discharge capacity of at most 10
hours; and (f) a response time of less than 100 milliseconds.
[0167] The energy storage device may comprise a liquid metal. In
some cases, the device comprises a liquid metal anode, a liquid
metal cathode, and a liquid metal electrolyte. The device can be
transported with some or all of the anode, cathode and electrolyte
being in the solid state.
[0168] In an aspect, an energy storage device comprises a liquid
electrode, the electrode comprising an additive, where the
electrode is consumed and the additive is concentrated by operation
of the device, and where a property of the device is determined by
of the concentration of the additive, and where the energy storage
device is capable of being transported on a truck.
[0169] In some cases, the property of the device is the extent of
discharge of the device. In some embodiments, the additive
comprises lead. In some embodiments, the open voltage of the cell
drops when the additive is concentrated.
[0170] In an aspect, an energy storage device comprises a liquid
antimony electrode, a steel container and a layer of iron
antimonide disposed therebetween, where the device is operated at
less than 738.degree. C., and where the energy storage device is
capable of being transported on a truck.
[0171] In some instances, the iron antimonide is electronically
conductive and protects the steel from corrosion.
[0172] In an aspect, an energy storage device comprises a liquid
electrode and a current collector in contact with the electrode,
where the liquid electrode is consumed in a reaction during
operation of the device, and where the amount of liquid electrode
is in stoichiometric excess relative to other reactants of the
reaction such that the current collector is in contact with the
liquid electrode when the reaction has proceeded to completion, and
where the energy storage device is capable of being transported on
a truck.
[0173] The current collector can be a negative current collector
and the reaction comprises discharging the device.
[0174] In an aspect, an energy storage device comprises an alkaline
earth metal present in each of a positive electrode, a negative
electrode and a liquid electrolyte, where the energy storage device
is capable of being transported on a truck.
[0175] In some instances, the alkaline earth metal is at three
disparate chemical potentials in the positive electrode, the
negative electrode and the liquid electrolyte. In some cases, the
alkaline earth metal is a halide in the electrolyte. In some
instances, the alkaline earth metal is an alloy in the positive
electrode. In some cases, the alkaline earth metal is elemental in
the negative electrode.
[0176] In an aspect, an energy storage device comprises an alkaline
earth metal present in each of an elemental form, an alloy form and
a halide form, where the energy storage device is capable of being
transported on a truck.
[0177] In some cases, the elemental form (e.g., not alloyed or a
salt) is found in a negative electrode of the device. In some
embodiments, the alloy form is found in a positive electrode of the
device. In some embodiments, the halide form (e.g., chloride salt)
is found in an electrolyte of the device.
[0178] In an aspect, an energy storage device comprises a liquid
anode, a liquid cathode and a liquid electrolyte disposed
therebetween, where the thickness of the electrolyte is
substantially constant through a charge-discharge cycle of the
device, and the energy storage device is capable of being
transported on a truck. The thickness can vary by any suitable
amount during the operation of the device including varying by less
than 20%, less than 10%, less than 5%, or less than 2%.
[0179] In an aspect, an energy storage device comprises a liquid
anode, a liquid cathode and a liquid electrolyte disposed
therebetween, where the thickness of the electrolyte is less than
50% of the thickness of the cathode or the anode, and the energy
storage device is capable of being transported on a truck.
[0180] In an aspect, an energy storage device comprises a liquid
anode, a liquid cathode, a liquid electrolyte, and a circulation
producer configured to generate circulation within at least one of
the liquids, where the energy storage device is capable of being
transported on a truck.
[0181] In some embodiments, the temperature inside the device is
greater than the temperature outside the device and the circulation
producer is a thermally conductive material extending from the
inside of the device to the outside of the device.
[0182] In an aspect, an energy storage device comprises a liquid
electrode comprising an elemental alkaline earth metal and an
electrolyte comprising a halide of the alkaline earth metal, where
the electrolyte further comprises complexing ligands, and the
energy storage device is capable of being transported on a
truck.
[0183] The complexing ligands can reduce the solubility of the
elemental alkaline earth metal in the halide of the alkaline earth
metal.
[0184] In an aspect, an energy storage device comprises a
conductive housing comprising a conductive liquid anode, a
conductive liquid cathode and an electrolyte disposed therebetween,
where the interior surface of the container is not electrically
insulated, and the energy storage device is capable of being
transported on a truck.
[0185] In some cases, the device further comprises an electrically
conductive structure that holds the conductive liquid anode or the
conductive liquid cathode away from the interior surface of the
container. In some cases, the conductive liquid anode or the
conductive liquid cathode is associated with the structure at least
in part by surface tension forces.
[0186] In an aspect, an energy storage device comprises an anode
comprising a first electronically conductive liquid and a cathode
comprising a second electronically conductive liquid, where the
device is configured to impede mixing of the electronically
conductive liquids, and the energy storage device is capable of
being transported on a truck.
[0187] In some instances, the electronically conductive liquids do
not mix when the device is shaken or tipped. In some cases, the
device further comprises an electrode separator disposed between
the electronically conductive liquids. In some instances, the
device further comprises a liquid electrolyte, the liquid
electrolyte wets the electrode separator, and the electronically
conductive liquids do not wet the separator. In some embodiments,
the electrode separator floats in or on the electrolyte when the
device is charged or discharged.
[0188] In an aspect, an energy storage device comprises a negative
electrode comprising an alkali metal, a positive electrode
comprising the alkali metal and one or more additional elements and
a liquid electrolyte disposed between the electrodes, where the
electrolyte is not depleted upon charging or discharging of the
device, and the energy storage device is capable of being
transported on a truck.
[0189] At least one of the electrodes can be liquid at an operating
temperature of the device. In some cases, the positive electrode
comprises at least two additional elements such that the positive
electrode comprises at least two elements when the positive
electrode is fully depleted of the alkali metal. In some instances,
the alkali metal is lithium, sodium, potassium, or any combination
thereof.
[0190] In some cases, the one or more additional elements form an
alloy with the alkali metal or exist in a compound with the alkali
metal at an operating temperature of the device. In some
embodiments, the one or more additional elements have a lower
electronegativity than the alkali metal. In some instances, the
electrolyte comprises a salt of the alkali metal. The operating
temperature of the device is any suitable temperature such that the
electrodes are molten (e.g., less than 600.degree. C.).
[0191] In an aspect, an energy storage device comprises a liquid
metal electrode, a second metal electrode that can be a liquid and
an electrolyte disposed between the electrodes, where the
electrolyte is a paste, and the energy storage device is capable of
being transported on a truck.
[0192] In an aspect, an energy storage device comprises a liquid
negative electrode comprising an alkali metal, a liquid positive
electrode comprising an alloy of the alkali metal and an
electrolyte disposed between the electrodes, where the electrolyte
comprises a salt of the alkali metal and particles and the energy
storage device is capable of being transported on a truck.
[0193] The particles can comprise alumina or magnesia. In some
cases, the electrolyte is a paste.
[0194] In an aspect, an energy storage device comprises a metal
anode, a metal cathode and an electrolyte disposed between the
electrodes, where the anode, cathode and electrolyte are liquids at
an operating temperature of the device and the operating
temperature of the device is less than 500.degree. C., and the
energy storage device is capable of being transported on a
truck.
[0195] In some cases, the operating temperature of the device is
less than 250.degree. C.
[0196] In an aspect, a method for charging an energy storage device
comprises connecting an external charging circuit to terminals of
the energy storage device that is capable of being transported on a
truck such that an active alkali metal moves from a positive
electrode, through an electrolyte, to a negative electrode
comprising a metal having a higher chemical potential than the
positive electrode.
[0197] In some instances, the active alkali metal is lithium,
sodium, potassium, or any combination thereof.
[0198] In an aspect, a method for discharging an energy storage
device comprises connecting an external load to terminals of the
energy storage device that is capable of being transported on a
truck such that an active alkali metal moves from a negative
electrode, through an electrolyte as cations, to a positive
electrode where the active alkali metal forms a neutral metal
having a lower chemical potential than the negative electrode.
[0199] In some cases, the active alkali metal is lithium, sodium,
potassium, or any combination thereof.
[0200] In an aspect, an energy storage device comprises a liquid
metal electrode, an electrolyte and a current collector in contact
with the electrode, where the current collector comprises a
material that has a higher wetability with the liquid metal than
with the electrolyte. In some embodiments, the material is a
foam.
[0201] Energy storage devices of the present disclosure may be used
in grid-scale settings or stand-alone settings. Energy storage
device of the disclosure can, in some cases, be used to power
vehicles, such as scooters, motorcycles, cars, trucks, trains,
helicopters, airplanes, and other mechanical devices, such as
robots.
[0202] Systems, apparatuses and methods of the disclosure may be
combined with or modified by other systems, apparatuses and/or
methods, such as batteries and battery components described, for
example, in U.S. Pat. No. 3,663,295 ("STORAGE BATTERY
ELECTROLYTE"), U.S. Pat. No. 8,268,471 ("HIGH-AMPERAGE ENERGY
STORAGE DEVICE WITH LIQUID METAL NEGATIVE ELECTRODE AND METHODS"),
U.S. Patent Publication No. 2011/0014503 ("ALKALINE EARTH METAL ION
BATTERY"), U.S. Patent Publication No. 2011/0014505 ("LIQUID
ELECTRODE BATTERY"), and U.S. Patent Publication No. 2012/0104990
("ALKALI METAL ION BATTERY WITH BIMETALLIC ELECTRODE"), which are
entirely incorporated herein by reference.
[0203] It is to be understood that the terminology used herein is
used for the purpose of describing specific embodiments, and is not
intended to limit the scope of the present invention. It should be
noted that as used herein, the singular forms of "a", "an" and
"the" include plural references unless the context clearly dictates
otherwise. In addition, unless defined otherwise, all technical and
scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as commonly
understood by one of ordinary skill in the art to which this
invention belongs.
[0204] It should be understood from the foregoing that, while
particular implementations have been illustrated and described,
various modifications can be made thereto and are contemplated
herein. It is also not intended that the invention be limited by
the specific examples provided within the specification. While the
invention has been described with reference to the aforementioned
specification, the descriptions and illustrations of the preferable
embodiments herein are not meant to be construed in a limiting
sense. Furthermore, it shall be understood that all aspects of the
invention are not limited to the specific depictions,
configurations or relative proportions set forth herein which
depend upon a variety of conditions and variables. Various
modifications in form and detail of the embodiments of the
invention will be apparent to a person skilled in the art. It is
therefore contemplated that the invention shall also cover any such
modifications, variations and equivalents. It is intended that the
following claims define the scope of the invention and that methods
and structures within the scope of these claims and their
equivalents be covered thereby.
* * * * *