U.S. patent application number 15/617241 was filed with the patent office on 2017-09-28 for method and structures for processing materials.
The applicant listed for this patent is XYLECO, INC.. Invention is credited to Thomas Craig MASTERMAN, Marshall MEDOFF.
Application Number | 20170275463 15/617241 |
Document ID | / |
Family ID | 54141174 |
Filed Date | 2017-09-28 |
United States Patent
Application |
20170275463 |
Kind Code |
A1 |
MEDOFF; Marshall ; et
al. |
September 28, 2017 |
METHOD AND STRUCTURES FOR PROCESSING MATERIALS
Abstract
Materials (e.g., plant biomass, animal biomass, and municipal
waste biomass) are processed to produce useful intermediates and
products, such as energy, fuels, foods or materials. For example,
systems equipment, and methods are described that can be used to
treat feedstock materials, such as cellulosic and/or
lignocellulosic materials, where the feedstock is enclosed in a
web.
Inventors: |
MEDOFF; Marshall;
(Wakefield, MA) ; MASTERMAN; Thomas Craig;
(Rockport, MA) |
|
Applicant: |
Name |
City |
State |
Country |
Type |
XYLECO, INC. |
Wakefield |
MA |
US |
|
|
Family ID: |
54141174 |
Appl. No.: |
15/617241 |
Filed: |
June 8, 2017 |
Related U.S. Patent Documents
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Application
Number |
Filing Date |
Patent Number |
|
|
14664010 |
Mar 20, 2015 |
9701838 |
|
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15617241 |
|
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Current U.S.
Class: |
1/1 |
Current CPC
Class: |
C08H 6/00 20130101; C08H
8/00 20130101; C08B 1/00 20130101; C08L 97/02 20130101; B01J 19/12
20130101; Y10T 428/2991 20150115; B01J 2219/12 20130101; D21B 1/02
20130101; B01J 2219/0879 20130101; C08L 97/005 20130101 |
International
Class: |
C08L 97/02 20060101
C08L097/02; C08H 8/00 20060101 C08H008/00; C08H 7/00 20060101
C08H007/00; C08L 97/00 20060101 C08L097/00 |
Claims
1. A preformed web carrying an irradiated material, wherein the web
consists of a series of discrete spaced apart sachets arranged
longitudinally, the sachets configured to enclose therein the
irradiated material.
2. The preformed web as in claim 1, wherein the sachets are spaced
apart along the longitudinal length by between about 0.5 cm and
about 50 cm.
3. The preformed web as in claim 1, wherein the sachets are spaced
apart along a lateral length of from about 0.5 cm and about 50
cm.
4. The preformed web as in claim 1, wherein the sachets include an
upper and a lower sheet and the material is disposed between the
upper and lower sheet.
5. The preformed web as in claim 1, wherein the irradiated material
comprises cellulosic or lignocellulosic material.
6. The performed web as in claim 1, wherein the irradiated material
has been irradiated with an average dose of ionizing radiation
between about 10 and 150 Mrad.
Description
CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS
[0001] This application is a continuation application of U.S.
patent application Ser. No. 14/664,010, filed Mar. 20, 2015, which
is a National Phase application of PCT Application Serial No.
PCT/US2015/019119, filed Mar. 6, 2015, which claims the benefit of
priority under 35 U.S.C. .sctn.119(e) to co-pending U.S.
application Ser. No. 61/968,405, filed Mar. 21, 2014, the contents
of which are incorporated by reference in its entirety.
BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION
[0002] Many potential lignocellulosic feedstocks are available
today, including agricultural residues, woody biomass, municipal
waste, oilseeds/cakes and seaweed, to name a few. At present, these
materials are often under-utilized, being used, for example, as
animal feed, biocompost materials, burned in a co-generation
facility or even landfilled.
[0003] Lignocellulosic biomass includes crystalline cellulose
fibrils embedded in a hemicellulose matrix, surrounded by lignin.
This produces a compact matrix that is difficult to access by
enzymes and other chemical, biochemical and/or biological
processes. Cellulosic biomass materials (e.g., biomass material
from which the lignin has been removed) is more accessible to
enzymes and other conversion processes, but even so,
naturally-occurring cellulosic materials often have low yields
(relative to theoretical yields) when contacted with hydrolyzing
enzymes. Lignocellulosic biomass is even more recalcitrant to
enzyme attack. Furthermore, each type of lignocellulosic biomass
has its own specific composition of cellulose, hemicellulose and
lignin.
SUMMARY
[0004] Generally, the inventions relate to enclosures, e.g.,
enclosures or structures formed by a web, for treating materials,
such as biomass materials and hydrocarbon containing materials.
This inventions also relate to equipment, methods and systems for
producing products, (e.g., from a biomass material or another
feedstock. The methods and systems include utilizing a continuous
web for enclosing a material and treating the material with
ionizing radiation. Generally, many methods include treating a
recalcitrant material (e.g., a biomass), that is enclosed in a
structure, with electron beams, to reduce its recalcitrance. The
reduced recalcitrance material can then be biochemically and/or
chemically processed to products, for example, ethanol, xylitol,
hydrocarbons and other useful products.
[0005] In one aspect, the invention relates to a method of treating
a material including conveying a web carrying a material through an
area of ionizing radiation. Optionally the web carries the material
in discrete spaced apart sachets or pouches along its longitudinal
length. For example, the sachets can be spaced apart along the
longitudinal length by between about 0.5 cm and about 50 cm (e.g.,
between about 1 cm and about 25 cm, between about 2 cm and about 10
cm). The web can optionally carry the material in discrete spaced
apart sachets along its lateral length, which is substantially
perpendicular to its longitudinal length. For example, the sachets
can be spaced apart along a lateral length of from about 0.5 cm and
about 50 cm (e.g., from about 1 cm and about 25 cm, from about 2 cm
and about 10 cm). The sachets can optionally include an upper and a
lower sheet and the material is disposed between the upper and
lower sheet. Each upper and lower sheet can have a thickness of
from about 1 mil and about 10 mil (e.g., from about 2 mil and about
6 mil). Each upper and lower sheet can include apertures defined
therein, wherein each aperture can have a diameter of from about
0.01 mil and about 5 mil (e.g., from about 0.1 mil and about 3 mil,
from about 0.5 mil and about 2 mil). In some embodiments the web is
formed from a thermoplastic material. For example, the
thermoplastic material includes a polyolefin configured to
crosslink upon irradiation and/or the thermoplastic material
includes a polyolefin configured to not degrade upon irradiation.
Optionally the thermoplastic material includes a polyolefin, for
example, a polyethylene, such as a polyethylene selected from the
group consisting of polyethylene homopolymer, linear low density
polyethylene, low density polyethylene and high density
polyethylene. Optionally, the ionizing radiation comprises a beam
of electrons directed at the web. Optionally, the area of
irradiation (e.g., just prior to the irradiation and/or during
irradiation) has a portion that includes a vibration, (e.g.,
configured to evenly spread the material inside sachets or
pouches.
[0006] In some embodiments, the web is formed to enclose a material
(e.g., forming the web carrying material) as the web carrying
material is conveyed through the area of ionizing radiation. For
example, a system for forming the sachets (e.g., forming, filling
and sealing) is integrated with and/or leads directly to (e.g.,
without a storing stage therebetween) to the area of ionizing
radiation. Therefore, for example, in this embodiment the web is
formed into sachets or pouches and then the web formed into the
sachets or pouches is conveyed through the ionizing area wherein
the time between the forming and irradiation of individual sachets
or pouches is short (e.g., less than an hour, less than 30 min,
less than 20 min, less than 10 min, less than 5 min or even less
than a minute).
[0007] In alternate embodiments the web is formed to enclose a
material, forming the web carrying material, prior to it being
conveyed through the ionizing radiation. For example, a system for
forming the sachets is not integrated with and/or does not lead
directly to the ionizing radiation. For example, in this embodiment
the sachets are stored for a time (e.g., at least an hour, at least
6 hours, at least 24 hours, at least 48 hours, at least for a week,
or at least for even a month) before being conveyed in the ionizing
radiation). The storage can include transporting the web formed
into the sachets or pouches, for example, to and/or between sites
for different processing.
[0008] In some embodiments, the ionizing radiation is contained in
a vault. For example, the vault comprises a steel, such as a
lead/steel composite. Optionally the vault can be small, for
example, defining an irradiation space having a volume of less than
about 250 ft.sup.3 (e.g., less than about 150 ft.sup.3, less than
about 125 ft.sup.3, less than about 100 ft.sup.3, less than about
64 ft.sup.3) and/or the vault has an internal length and width of
less than about 6 feet (e.g., less than about 5 feet, less than
about 4 feet, less than about 3 feet). In some embodiments the
vault can be small, for example, wherein the vault has an internal
length and width of between about 2 feet and about 7 feet (e.g.,
between about 2 feet and about 6 feet, between about 3 feet and
about 5 feet.
[0009] In another aspect, the invention relates to a method of
treating a material including conveying a web and an enclosed
material through a beam of ionizing radiation. For example, the
material can be conveyed on a substantially flat surface in a
direction substantially perpendicular to the beam of ionizing
radiation. Optionally, the enclosed material is a lignocellulosic
or cellulosic material. Optionally, the web includes a synthetic
material (e.g., a synthetic polymer). Optionally, the enclosed
material receives a dose of radiation between about 10 and 150 Mrad
of radiation (e.g., between about 15 and about 50 Mrad). In some
embodiments the ionizing radiation is an electron beam radiation.
For example, the average energy of the electrons in the electron
beam can be between about 0.5 MeV and about 2 MeV. Optionally, the
web is in the form of a plurality of sachets or pouches that
enclose the material. In some embodiments, the web enclosed
material forms a substantially uniform layer of the enclosed
material.
[0010] In some implementations, the web enclosed material forms a
substantially uniform layer of the enclosed material. For example,
the layer thickness is less than about 1'' thick (e.g., less than
about 0.5'' thick, between about 0.5'' and 0.1'' thick).
Optionally, the material has an average particle size between about
5 and about 0.1 mm. Optionally, the web includes a plurality of
perforations or apertures through the enclosing web. For example,
the enclosing web includes a plurality of perforations through the
enclosing web and the average size of the perforations is less than
the average particle size of the enclosed material. Optionally, the
methods further include releasing the material from the enclosing
web and saccharifying the material.
[0011] In yet another aspect, the invention is a preformed web
carrying an irradiated material, wherein the web consists of a
series of discrete spaced apart sachets arranged longitudinally,
the sachets configured to enclose therein the irradiated material.
In some implementations, the sachets are spaced apart along the
longitudinal length by between about 0.5 cm and about 50 cm. In
some implementations, the sachets are spaced apart along a lateral
length of from about 0.5 cm and about 50 cm. Optionally, the
sachets include an upper and a lower sheet and the material is
disposed between the upper and lower sheet. Optionally, the
irradiated material comprises cellulosic or lignocellulosic
material. In some implementation the irradiated material has been
irradiated with an average dose of ionizing radiation between about
10 and about 150 Mrad. In some implementations, the cellulosic or
lignocellulosic material that is enclosed in a web, sachet and/or
pouch include, wood, particle board, forestry wastes (e.g.,
sawdust, aspen wood, wood chips), grasses, (e.g., switchgrass,
miscanthus, cord grass, reed canary grass), grain residues, (e.g.,
rice hulls, oat hulls, wheat chaff, barley hulls), agricultural
waste (e.g., silage, canola straw, wheat straw, barley straw, oat
straw, rice straw, jute, hemp, flax, bamboo, sisal, abaca, corn
cobs, corn stover, soybean stover, corn fiber, alfalfa, hay,
coconut hair), sugar processing residues (e.g., bagasse, beet pulp,
agave bagasse), algae, seaweed, manure, sewage, and mixtures of any
of these.
[0012] The methods and systems described herein can be small
relative to larger systems, for example, some systems for
irradiation of water or food that may require large vaults and or
large irradiators. The small size makes these easy to house in, for
example, existing plants or new plants for processing materials.
The small size also makes the systems easy to transport and can be
utilized at one site for a time and then moved to another site
(e.g., optionally disassembled prior to moving and then
re-assembled at a new location). The material handling systems are
also provides easy handling of the material to be treated; for
example, the materials to be treated are easy to transport before,
after and during the treatment processes. The systems also can be
assembled entirely or partially from existing components (e.g., off
the shelf components), and or modified off the shelf components can
be utilized. Some implementations of the invention allow for
processing of comminuted (e.g., particulate) material without the
generation of lofted fine particles. Such particles can be
detrimental to equipment, such as the widow foils of electron
irradiation devices. The invention also can be implemented in such
a manner as to provide a very uniform thickness of material that
improves dose averaging through the material when it is irradiated.
Other advantages include ease of transporting material to be
treated and conveying ease, such as conveying under an electron
beam during treatment.
[0013] Implementations of the invention can optionally include one
or more of the following summarized features. In some
implementations, the selected features can be applied or utilized
in any order while in other implementations a specific selected
sequence is applied or utilized. Individual features can be applied
or utilized more than once in any sequence and even continuously.
In addition, an entire sequence, or a portion of a sequence, of
applied or utilized features can be applied or utilized once,
repeatedly or continuously in any order. In some optional
implementations, the features can be applied or utilized with
different, or where applicable the same, set or varied,
quantitative or qualitative parameters as determined by a person
skilled in the art. For example, parameters of the features such as
size, individual dimensions (e.g., length, width, height), location
of, degree (e.g., to what extent such as the degree of
recalcitrance), duration, frequency of use, density, concentration,
intensity and speed can be varied or set, where applicable as
determined by a person of skill in the art.
[0014] Features, for example, include: a method of treating a
material; conveying a web carrying a material through an area of
ionizing radiation; a web carries the material in discrete spaced
apart sachets or pouches along its longitudinal length; sachets are
spaced apart along the longitudinal length by between about 0.5 cm
and about 50 cm; sachets are spaced apart along the longitudinal
length between about 1 cm and about 25 cm; sachets are spaced apart
along the longitudinal length between about 2 cm and about 10 cm; a
web carries the material in discrete spaced apart sachets along its
lateral length which is substantially perpendicular to its
longitudinal length; sachets are spaced apart along a lateral
length of from about 0.5 cm and about 50 cm; sachets are spaced
apart along a lateral length of from about 1 cm and about 25 cm;
sachets are spaced apart along a lateral length of from about 2 cm
and about 10 cm; sachets include an upper and a lower sheet wherein
a material is disposed between the upper and lower sheet; each
upper and lower sheet of a sachet has a thickness of from about 1
mil and about 10 mil; each upper and lower sheet of a sachet has a
thickness of from about 2 mil and about 6 mil; each upper and lower
sheet of a sachet includes apertures defined therein; apertures in
a sheet has a diameter of from about 0.01 mil and about 5 mil;
aperture in a sheet has a diameter of from about 0.1 mil and about
3 mil; aperture in a sheet has a diameter of from about 0.5 mil and
about 2 mil; a web is formed from a thermoplastic material; a
thermoplastic material includes a polyolefin configured to
crosslink upon irradiation; a thermoplastic material includes a
polyolefin configured to not degrade upon irradiation; a
thermoplastic material includes a polyolefin comprising
polyethylene; polyethylene utilized is polyethylene homopolymer;
polyethylene utilized is linear low density polyethylene;
polyethylene utilized is low density polyethylene; polyethylene
utilized is high density polyethylene; a web is formed to enclose a
material, forming a web carrying material, as the web carrying
material is conveyed through an area of ionizing radiation; a web
is formed to enclose a material, forming a web carrying material,
prior to it being conveyed through the ionizing radiation; ionizing
radiation comprises a beam of electrons directed at a web; an area
or ionizing radiation has a portion that includes a vibration; an
area or ionizing radiation has a portion that includes a vibration
configured to evenly spread a material inside sachets or pouches;
ionizing radiation is contained in a vault; a vault comprises a
steel; a vault comprises a lead/steel composite; a vault defines an
irradiation space having a volume of less than about 250 ft.sup.3;
a vault defines an irradiation space having a volume of less than
about 150 ft.sup.3; a vault defines an irradiation space having a
volume of less than about 125 ft.sup.3; a vault defines an
irradiation space having a volume of less than about 100 ft.sup.3;
a vault defines an irradiation space having a volume of less than
about 64 ft.sup.3; a vault has an internal length and width of less
than about 6 feet; a vault has an internal length and width of less
than about 5 feet; a vault has an internal length and width of less
than about 4 feet; a vault has an internal length and width of less
than about 3 feet; a vault has an internal length and width of
between about 2 feet and about 7 feet; a vault has an internal
length and width of between about 2 feet and about 6 feet; a vault
has an internal length and width of between about 3 feet and about
5 feet.
[0015] Features, for example, can further include: a method of
treating a material; conveying a web and an enclosed material
through a beam of ionizing radiation; a material is conveyed on a
substantially flat surface in a direction substantially
perpendicular to the beam of ionizing radiation; an enclosed
material is a lignocellulosic or cellulosic material; a web
comprises a synthetic material; a web comprises a synthetic
polymer; an enclosed material receives a dose of radiation between
about 10 and 150 Mrad of radiation; an enclosed material receives a
dose of radiation between about 15 and about 50 Mrad; ionizing
radiation is an electron beam radiation; the average energy of
electrons in an electron beam is between about 0.5 MeV and about 2
MeV; a web is in the form of a plurality of sachets or pouches that
enclose the material; a web enclosed material forms a substantially
uniform layer of the enclosed material; a layer thickness of an
enclosed material is less than about 1'' thick; a layer thickness
of an enclosed material is less than about 0.5'' thick; a layer
thickness of an enclosed material is between about 0.5'' and 0.1''
thick; a material has an average particle size between about 5 and
about 0.1 mm; a web includes a plurality of perforations through an
enclosing web; an enclosing web includes a plurality of perforation
through the enclosing web and the average size of the perforations
is less than average particle size of the enclosed material;
releasing a material from an enclosing web and saccharifying the
material.
[0016] Features, for example, can further include a web consisting
of a series of discrete spaced apart sachets arranged
longitudinally, the sachets configured to enclose therein an
irradiated material; sachets are spaced apart along the
longitudinal length by between about 0.5 cm and about 50 cm;
sachets are spaced apart along a lateral length of from about 0.5
cm and about 50 cm; sachets include an upper and a lower sheet and
the material is disposed between the upper and lower sheet;
irradiated material comprises cellulosic or lignocellulosic
material; irradiated material has been irradiated with an average
dose of ionizing radiation between about 10 and 150 Mrad.
[0017] Other features and advantages of the invention will be
apparent from the following detailed description, and from the
claims.
DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWING
[0018] FIG. 1 is a flow diagram showing processes for manufacturing
sugar solutions and products derived therefrom.
[0019] FIG. 2A shows a front view of a method for treating a
material. FIG. 2B shows the same method from a top view.
[0020] FIG. 3A shows an embodiment of the invention. FIG. 3B is a
detailed view of a possible web opening configuration. FIG. 3C
shows an alternative detailed view of a possible web opening
configuration.
[0021] FIG. 4A shows possible configuration of a web enclosure
structure. FIG. 4B shows an alternative web enclosure
structure.
[0022] FIG. 5A shows a system for producing a web enclosed
material. FIG. 5B is a detailed view of a sealed pouch or sachet.
FIG. 5C is an alternative detailed view of a sealed pouch. FIG. 5D
shows an isometric view of a rotary micro-perforation die. FIG. 5E
is a top view of a section of a sachet or pouch with apertures.
[0023] FIG. 6 is a diagrammatic depiction of a self-shielded type
irradiator that can be used for irradiating a web enclosed
material.
DETAILED DESCRIPTION
[0024] Using the methods, equipment and or systems described
herein, a feedstock (e.g., a cellulosic, lignocellulosic or
hydrocarbon containing material), for example, that can be sourced
from biomass (e.g., plant biomass, animal biomass, paper, and
municipal waste biomass) and hydrocarbon containing material that
is often readily available but difficult to process, can be turned
into useful products (e.g., sugars such as xylose and glucose,
alcohols such as ethanol and butanol, and low molecular weight
extractable hydrocarbons). Included are methods and systems for
treating materials (e.g., biomass and hydrocarbon-containing
materials) utilizing enclosures or structures made with a
continuous web to contain the materials while treating the
materials with ionizing radiation.
[0025] In one or more embodiments, a web is employed to enclose a
material that is to be treated by ionizing radiation. The web can
be a continuous length that is introduced, e.g., from a spool or
mandrel, into and through an ionizing zone. The web can be taken
up, e.g., by a mandrel or other device, as the web exits the
ionizing zone. The web advantageously encloses the material, e.g.,
a particulate material, and facilitates its introduction and
removal from an ionizing zone. By enclosing the material to be
treated in a web, one or more advantages can be realized.
[0026] The web contains the particulate material, which reduces the
level of airborne particulates. Lowering airborne particulate
levels can improve health conditions of humans in proximity to the
equipment. In addition, reducing dust levels during processing
reduces chances of combustion by airborne particulates. In
particular, enclosing the material to be irradiated in a web
reduces the chances of overheating the material particles which can
damage the irradiation equipment.
[0027] Using a continuous web that can be continuously introduced
into the ionizing zone, eliminates the need for an additional
conveying means, such a tray or conveyor belt, for transport of the
material into and out of the ionizing zone. Conveyances used with
the ionizing radiation typically are resistant to the high energy
and destructive nature of the ionizing radiation, and may require
addition shielding or use of equipment specifically adapted to be
used in high ionizing environments. The web according to one or
more embodiments eliminates the need for costly conveyances, as it
can serve to both convey the material through ionizing radiation
and contain dust and other airborne particulates.
[0028] In addition, the web can be made of a material that is
discarded after use, thereby allowing the use of inexpensive webs.
In other embodiments, the web can be recycled and reused.
[0029] Referring to FIG. 1, processes for manufacturing sugar
solutions and products include, for example, optionally physically
treating a cellulosic and/or lignocellulosic feedstock 100, for
example, mechanically treating the material to reduce its size
(e.g., comminuting). The feedstock can then be enclosed in a
structure 110, for example, a continuous web that surrounds the
biomass. The enclosed biomass can then be treated with another
physical treatment, for example, treated with ionizing radiation,
to reduce or further reduce its recalcitrance 120. For example, the
enclosed biomass can be conveyed (e.g., using one or more of a
belt, rollers and/or vibratory conveyor) under an electron beam.
The physical treatment 120 can be repeated until the desired
recalcitrance reduction has been achieved, for example, using one
irradiation device applied multiple times and/or using multiple
devices (e.g., optionally applied one or more times for
irradiation). The feedstock can then be released from its enclosure
130, for example, by cutting open the enclosure and allowing the
material to spill out of the enclosure into a collecting container.
A treated biomass feedstock can then be saccharified 140, for
example, by combining the feedstock with water and a chemical
and/or biochemical agent. For example, saccharification efficiency
and/or extent of saccharification can be improved by the use of
acids (e.g., sulfuric, phosphoric, acetic, nitric and/or
hydrochloric) and/or enzyme (e.g., cellulase, xylanase and/or
protease). Optional steps during saccharification include mixing
(e.g., with a jet mixer) and heating; both of which can be applied
before, after or while combining with the chemical and/or
biochemical agents. Optionally, steps 130 and 140 can be combined;
for example, the enclosed biomass material can be fed to a
saccharification tank wherein shearing (e.g., by mixing blades),
chemical degradation, biochemical degradation and or dissolution of
the enclosure web material releases the biomass into solution and
the biomass can then be saccharified as described. The enclosing
web material (e.g., sheared and/or made into particulates, fibers
or other shredded pieces such as sheets), if it is less dense than
the biomass material and is present during saccharification or part
of the saccharification (e.g., before saccharification commences)
can be removed after saccharification by skimming off the surface
of the saccharification solution, or it can be removed by other
methods described herein (e.g., filtering including vacuum drum
filtration). A product can be derived from the sugar solution, for
example, by fermentation to an alcohol 150. Further processing can
include purifying the solution, for example, by distillation. If
desired; the steps of measuring lignin content and setting or
adjusting process parameters based on the measurement can be
performed at various stages of the process, for example, as
described in U.S. Pat. No. 8,415,122 issued Apr. 9, 2013, the
entire disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference. It
is understood that the methods described with reference to FIG. 1
can be used or modified to be applicable to treat a wide range of
materials. For example, the methods described by steps 100 through
130 can be applied for the treatment of hydrocarbon containing
materials, synthetic polymeric materials and/or other items from
another manufacturing process. For example, the treatment steps can
be useful steps in the recycling of a polymeric material because
the step can breakdown polymeric materials to more fundamental
units or easier to process materials (e.g., oligomers, monomers,
CO2, oxidized material, or de-toxified materials).
[0030] FIG. 2A shows a front side view of a method for treating a
material. A material 210 that is enclosed (e.g., wrapped and/or
sealed) in a structure made with a continuous web 220. The
continuous web and enclosed material are moved under a beam of
ionizing radiation 230 and irradiated. The movement can be
continuous or incremental. The average conveying direction is shown
240, although the material can be moved in the opposite direction
(e.g., for repeated irradiations) or any other direction (e.g., up
and down in the direction of the irradiation, or from side to side
perpendicular to the irradiation direction and the average
conveying direction; for example, to aid in dose averaging). The
irradiated material 250 is moved out of the irradiation zone and
optionally further processed. FIG. 2B shows the top view to further
illustrate the method. The dashed lines indicate a rastering
pattern of ionizing radiation, e.g., an electron beam raster
pattern, across the surface of the web enclosure containing the
material.
[0031] FIG. 3A shows an embodiment of the invention. A biomass
material enclosed in a web 310 can be conveyed on a conveyor belt
320 in the average direction indicated 305. The web can be rolled
up, for example, on a spool which unwinds at a rate commensurate
with the conveyor belt 320. In this way the spool feeds the web
enclosed material to the conveyor belt and other downstream
equipment and processes in a controlled manner. Alternative methods
can also be utilized, for example, the web and enclosed material
can be in a bin and the material feed to the conveyor 320 with, for
example, tensioning rollers disposed opposite each other to
compress and pull the material 310 out of the bin. The material 310
can also be placed on the conveyor 320 by a mechanoid (e.g., a
robot) and/or a human operator. Clearly, in the option using a
human operator, this operation must be done with adequate shielding
from and radiation (e.g., with the operator outside of a
containment vault where the irradiation processing occurs). In an
alternative embodiment, the web material enclosing biomass is
formed and then, without any delay (e.g., less than about an hour
of delay, less than about 30 min, less than about 20 min, less than
about 10 min, less than about 1 min) the web material and biomass
are irradiated.
[0032] Other conveyor belts or rollers can be used to aid in
feeding the enclosed material to the conveyor belt 320. For
example, a series of rollers 330 that are tensioned can be helpful
to ensure the material in the enclosure is uniformly distributed in
the enclosure as well as delivering the material to the conveyor at
the correct tension. Additionally, some vibrations can be induced
by appropriate equipment (e.g., vibratory conveyors, vibrating
rollers, vibrating surfaces) to help distribute the material in the
enclosure evenly. The conveyor 310 conveys the web and enclosed
material 310 under an electron beam 340 supplied by an irradiation
device 350, a part of which at least is suspended from a vault
ceiling. Other possible configurations include irradiation from any
other side, e.g., the bottom and/or any side and at any angle.
Irradiation can even occur simultaneously from multiple directions
and/or from different sources (e.g., even mixing the irradiation
such as electron beam and gamma radiation).
[0033] After irradiation, the web and enclosed material is conveyed
to a web opening area 360, where the enclosed material is released
by providing openings to the bottom of the web enclosure, allowing
the material to drop by gravity into a collection container 370. A
conduit 380 can aid in directing the material to the collection
container. Additionally or alternatively, a vacuum can be supplied
to the collection container to aid in removing the material from
the web material. The substantially opened web is then conveyed
further downstream, aided by a second conveyor belt 322 as well as
conveyors 324 to pull and direct the web into a collection
container (e.g., a bin). The conveyor 324 can be pressed against
conveyor 322 (e.g., tensioned with a spring, pneumatically or
simply weighted) to aid in pulling the web forward.
[0034] In some embodiments the web contains an opening or structure
(e.g., a zip-lock or fold) that opening area 360 simply operates
on. For example, the opening area can unfold a folded structure or
open a zip-lock structure. Alternatively, the opening structure on
the enclosure can include a mechanical weakness, e.g., a
perforation, a weak seal and/or be thinner, so that the opening
area can create an opening in the structure more easily by
mechanically stressing the material.
[0035] Other methods can additionally or optionally be used to aid
in pulling or pushing the material through the radiation beam and
associated processing (e.g., web opening, web collection). For
example, the conveyor belt (e.g., one or more) can be equipped with
gripping elements such as sharp pointed pins sticking up from the
surface of the conveyor belt that can become imbedded or puncture
the enclosure thus gripping the enclosure and pulling it forward.
Other methods include a surface that can supply a vacuum under the
enclosure, such as a conveyor surface with perforation that can
allow a vacuum to be applied underneath the web and enclosed
material.
[0036] FIG. 3B is a bottom detailed view of the web opening area
360. Web opening, 360, can be accomplished, for example, by a blade
362. The blade, as depicted in FIG. 3B, is wedge shaped, which
helps open up a wide gap 366 in the web through which the enclosed
material can exit. An alternative configuration is shown by FIG. 3C
wherein a series of cutting blades 364 are arranged to cut into the
bottom of the web 368. The slitting and shredding of the material
allows the enclosed material to exit. In addition or alternatively,
other methods of opening the enclosure can be used. For example,
the material can be stretched, pulled, ground and/or ripped open,
shattered (e.g., after cooling) or ripped with one or more hooks,
squeezed out (e.g., extruded through an opening) and/or
sheared.
[0037] FIG. 4A and FIG. 4B show some possible configurations of the
material and web enclosure structures. The material can be
contained in a series of sachets or pouches 410 or connected pillow
pouches or sachets that are isolated from each other and by a seal
420. The pouches can be arranged in a variety of configurations,
for example, the simple series shown in FIG. 4A or the array shown
in FIG. 4B. For example, a web material can be arranged as spaced
apart sachets or pouches along its longitudinal length wherein the
sachets are spaced apart along the longitudinal length by between
about 0.5 cm and about 50 cm, e.g., between about 1 cm and about 35
cm, or between about 2 cm and about 10 cm. The web also can be
arranged as a series of sachets or pouches in discrete spaced apart
sachets or pouches along its lateral length, where the sachets are
spaced apart along a lateral length of from about 0.5 cm and about
50 cm, e.g., between about 1 cm and about 25 cm, or between about 2
cm and about 10 cm. For example, the space between the pouches or
sachets can be a seal.
[0038] Although the sachets or pouches can be rectangular in shape,
other shapes can be used. Some optional shapes (e.g., as seen from
above or a top view) include circular, square, elliptical or random
shapes as well as combinations of shapes can be used. Preferably,
the sachets or pouches are designed so that the biomass thickness
in the sachets or pouches will be uniform during the irradiation
process. As discussed below, in some embodiments the thickness of
the biomass material is less than about 1 inch (e.g., less than
about 0.75 inches, less than about 0.5 inches, less than about 0.25
inches, less than about 0.1 inches, between about 0.1 and 1 inch,
between about 0.2 and 0.3 inches).
[0039] Sealing can be, for example, by heat sealing, stitching,
application of pressure sensitive adhesive or combinations of
these. With regards to the seal, the seal can optionally be made
weak by design so as to be mechanically easy to open.
[0040] Although in some embodiments, the web material forming the
enclosure is made of a single sheet of a single composition, in
alternative embodiments, the enclosure can be constructed with more
than one sheet and include more than one type of material. For
example, a top sheet (e.g., an upper sheet) and a bottom sheet
(e.g., a lower sheet) can be made of the same or a different type
of material. In some embodiments more than one layer of material
can be used to make the sheets, for example, to provide mechanical
strength and or chemical protection.
[0041] Preferably, the material to be treated is a particulate
material and it placed in the enclosure so that it can be conveyed
under the irradiation beam as a uniform layer of material. The
average particle size of the material can be above at least about
0.25 mm (e.g., at least about 0.5 mm, at least about 0.75 mm) and
below about 10 mm (e.g., below about 6 mm, below about 5 mm, below
about 4 mm, below about 3 mm, below about 2 mm).
[0042] Although roughly spherical particles are often applicable in
the embodiments, other shapes such as more fibrous elongated
shapes, plate like shapes, cylindrical shaped, ellipsoid, lozenge,
can also be used or combinations of these morphologies or other
morphologies can be used. More important than the actual shape of
the individual particles, is that it is preferable that the
material can form a uniform layer in the enclosure that presents a
substantially uniformly thick profile to the irradiation beam as
previously discussed.
[0043] The material to be treated is enclosed in a web by any
useful method. Preferred embodiments include continuous methods
such as form fill and seal methods or modifications thereof. The
methods can be implemented by using commercial or modifying
existing commercial equipment. For example, commercial equipment
used for forming pillow bags, tray sealers, blister packages or
other kinds of enclosures used in the confectionary, feed,
pharmaceutical and/or food industries. For example, equipment made
by Ossid Corporation (NC, USA), SACMI IMOLA (Italy), Bosch USA
(Michigan, USA), Starview Packaging Inc. (Quebec, Canada), Circle
Packaging Machinery Inc. (WI, USA) and Reiser (MA, USA).
[0044] Form, fill and seal methods are continuous methods that are
convenient methods that can be used. Two types of form fill and
seal machines are vertical form fill seal machines and horizontal
form fill and seal machines. Vertical Form Fill and Seal machines
are particularly useful for enclosing products where gravity can
assist in the filling, such as liquids and flowable particle
materials. Horizontal type enclosing machines benefit from the fact
that products can be conveyed positively into a pack and so
position and speed can be controlled more accurately. However,
Horizontal Form Fill Seal machines require the material to be
enclosed to either be a single part or it must be placed in a tray
or some other supporting structure. For example, a single part
could be a particulate feedstock that has been compressed into a
shape optionally with a binder, for example, a sheet, pellet or
brick of compressed material.
[0045] FIG. 5A shows Vertical Form Fill Seal system and how this
system can be used to produce an enclosed material in a continuous
web. In this method a forming collar 502 shapes a flat film 504
(e.g., of web material) around a forming tube 506 into a round film
tube 508. Vertical sealing bars 510 seal the edges of the film tube
together. For example, a web material that includes a thermoplastic
can be heat sealed. A film transport system such as one or more
film transport belts 512 increments the film forward between sachet
or pouch sealing steps. A cross sealing jaw 514 can seal the bottom
of a sachet or pouch before it is filled 516 while sealing a top of
a filled sachet or pouch 518. The material is portioned into a
sachet or pouch 516 in the filling step. The material can be
portioned by any useful method such as by weight, flow control or
volume control. For example, a hopper (not shown) can meter the
correct volume or weight of material into the forming tube, or a
weighing system can be integrated with the sealing jaws to
increment the system (e.g., biomass adding systems, film transport
belts and sealing bars/jaws) forward. The filled pouches are
collected or further processed 530, for example, by winding onto a
spool or placing in a container. Optionally the pouches are
transported directly using, for example, a conveyer for further
processing (e.g., such as irradiation).
[0046] Optionally, as shown in FIG. 5A, the sachets or pouches can
be perforated. For example, a perforating jaw 520 can be connected
to the Cross sealing jaws (e.g., mechanically connected or actuated
by) so that each individual pouch is perforated with a plurality of
holes or apertures. These holes are preferably made to be smaller
than the particles of the material in the pouches. For example,
they can be less than 80% of the average particle size (e.g., less
than about 50%, less than about 10%). For example, the perforations
or apertures can have diameters from about 0.01 mil and about 5
mil, e.g., about 0.1 mil and about 3 mil or between about 0.5 mil
and about 2 mil. The perforations can all be approximately equal in
size and shape (for example, within 5% in diameter) or the
perforations can be different in size and shape. The perforations
can be on a top sheet, bottom sheet and or the sides of a sachet or
pouch. The holes should be large enough to allow gas molecules
(e.g., air, volatile organic compounds, vapor) to pass in and/or
out of the sachets or pouches. The perforating jaws or other
perforation device can cover the entire sachet or pouch or just a
portion of the sachet or pouch (e.g., making holes on the entire
surface or on just a portion of the surface area of the sachet or
pouch. The holes can be made on one or more sides of the sachet or
pouch. Other configurations for producing a perforated sachet or
pouch include, but are not limited to, using a belt system (e.g.,
the film transport belts can have sharp dimples or pins thereupon
for cutting into the film as it is moved forward) or rollers with
sharp dimples, pins and/or blades. For example, a rolling
micro-perforator and/or rotary die cutting tools and systems.
Micro-perforators, for example, can be purchased from Shober (USA).
A die for a rotary micro-perforation system is shown I FIG. 5D. For
example, cutting blades 517 are arranged pointing radially outwards
from the cylindrical die. The die has an interior cylindrical
surface 519 that can be mounted on a stationary fit with bearings
or an axel that rotates with the die. For example, the perforating
systems described here can be used to make perforations in a sachet
or pouch, for example, as shown in FIG. 5E. In this figure a
portion of a sachet or pouch (defined by the boundary line 521) is
shown as a top view wherein the outline of perforations 523 are
shown. The sharp dimples, blades or pins (for example, on a
conveyor or roller) can even serve the purpose of helping convey
the web and enclosed material forward as described previously.
Optionally, the film can be provided in a perforated form or
perforated just prior to its being formed into the tube by the form
fill seal system.
[0047] The sachets, pouches and/or web enclosing a material, can be
formed and then immediately irradiated. For example, as system as
describe with reference to FIG. 5A can feed the continuous web
directly to a vault for irradiation. In such a configuration, the
enclosed material is not stored prior to irradiation.
[0048] Two kinds of pillows or pouches are shown for the embodiment
represented by FIG. 5A. The system as described with reference to
FIG. 5A can at least make these two kinds of pouches, preferably
one kind of pouch is made in series at one time since some
adjustments of the equipment and material can be required to change
the pouch type. The pouches are shown as detailed views FIG. 5B and
FIG. 5C. FIG. 5B shows a standard pouch while FIG. 5C shows a pouch
with a side Gusset. The side gusset pouches can help in forming a
more uniform layer of material in the pouch when they are laid
down, for example, on a conveying surface. The cross seal 550
produced by the cross sealing jaw and vertical seal 560 produced by
the vertical sealing jaw are shown in FIGS. 5B and 5C.
[0049] The irradiation methods generally require shielding from
potential harmful radiation. In some embodiment large vaults can be
utilized. In alternative embodiments, self-shielded type
irradiators can be utilized. FIG. 6 shows a self-shielded type
irradiator 600 that can be used for irradiating a web enclosed
material. The shielding material 602 is effective in reducing or
preferably eliminating any radiation (e.g., X-rays) from exiting
the irradiator. For example, the shielding walls 602 can be made of
lead and/or steel (e.g., lead steel composites), or, for example,
any material as described in this disclosure used for irradiation
vaults. In this particular embodiment of the invention, a web
enclosing material can be made to enter (e.g., conveyed) into a
shielding room 610 of the self-shielded irradiator 600, for
example, through ingress 612. The web enclosed material is then
conveyed into a radiation chamber 620 through ingress 622. The web
enclosed material can be directed, for example, by tensioning
rollers 614 through the ingress 612 and ingress 622 and onto
conveyor 624. The conveyor is optional and can be a conveyor as
previously described (e.g., a belt conveyor, vibratory conveyor).
The web enclosed material is irradiated, for example, with electron
beam 626. The beam can be rastered across the surface and into the
web enclosed material using scanning horn 628. Electron accelerator
630 and DC power supply 632 can be placed outside of the shielding
material 602 and an electron conduit, e.g., 634 allows the
accelerated electrons to enter the irradiation chamber. The
irradiated web enclosed material is conveyed out of the irradiation
chamber through egress 636, through a shielding room 613 and out
through egress 638. Other features shown in the figure include a
beam dump/beam catcher 640 which is disposed below the scanning
horn to adsorb any irradiation that is not adsorbed by the material
to be treated or conveyor. Beam dumps can be, for example, as
described below. A cooling system that blows a cooling gas using a
blower 642 (e.g., air, nitrogen, argon, helium and mixtures
thereof) across the window foils of the electron extractor of the
scanning horn is shown, the direction of flow indicated by the
unfilled arrows. The gas conduit 644 and manifold 646 are shown. An
egress 648 for the process gasses (e.g., including ozone and
volatile organic compounds) is connected to a chimney and/or a
process gas mitigation system (e.g., ozone abatement system).
[0050] There can be more than one shielding room 612 before the web
enclosed material enters the irradiation chamber 620. There can
also be more than one shielding room 613 after the irradiated
enclosed material exits the irradiation chamber. The purpose of the
shielding room is to provide a non-linear path between any point
source of radiation in the irradiation chamber and ingress 612 or
egress 638. For example, a point source can be produced on the
conveyor, the beam dump, or the irradiated material where an
electron undergoes breaking radiation and produced X-rays which
emanated radially out of these point sources. The arrangements of
the egress/ingress 612, 622, 636 and 638 as well as the positioning
of any equipment such as the conveyor, beam dump and scanning horn
can be arranged to ensure no radiation escapes from the
self-shielded irradiator.
[0051] The self-shielded irradiator can include more than one
irradiation chamber, for example, with a cooling system between
irradiation chambers.
[0052] The shelf-shielded type irradiator can be substantially kept
under an inert gas, such as nitrogen, argon and/or He to reduce or
eliminate the production of ozone. For example, the window cooling
gas can be an inert gas than, along with cooling the window foils,
keeps a positive pressure of inert gas in interior of the
self-shielded irradiator. The can be done, for example, by
controlling the flow of the inert gas into self-shielded irradiator
and out of the irradiated, to maintain a positive pressure of inert
gas in the irradiator.
[0053] Self-shielding irradiators or any type of vault for
irradiation in the methods and systems described herein can be
small, having a volume of less than about 250 ft.sup.3 (e.g., less
than about 150, 125, 100 or even less than 64 ft.sup.3). These can
also have an internal length and width of less than about 6 feet,
e.g., less than about 5, 4 or even 3 feet, such as between 2 feet
and 7 feet or between 2 feet and 6 feet or between 3 feet and 5
feet.
[0054] The self-shielding irradiators or vaults for irradiation can
be made utilizing steel, for example, a lead/steel composite.
[0055] Optionally the individual pouches can be separated, for
example, by cutting through the center (e.g., approximately through
the center, so that the cut does not actually open the enclosure)
of the cross seal. This can be an integrated step done with the
cross sealing step or a separate step. It can be advantageous to
not separate the pouches since keeping them together can make it
easier to further process the material since they are trained
together in a connected series (e.g., a train of pouches).
[0056] Optionally the enclosure with material can be filled with a
gas, for example, an inert gas such as argon, hydrogen, helium or
mixtures thereof. The enclosures with enclosed material can also
optionally be evacuated, (e.g., vacuum sealed). The
enclosures/enclosed material can be compressed, for example, in a
press to 30 psig or more (e.g., more than 100 psig, more than 200
psig, more than 500 psig, more than 1000 psig). The compression can
be applied with heating and/or evacuation of gases in the
pouch.
[0057] The enclosures are preferably made of a web material. For
example, the web material can include polymers such as thermoset
and thermoplastics. For example, polymers that can be used include
Polyamideimide (PAI e.g., Torion.RTM.); Polyimide (PI e.g.,
Aurum.RTM.); Polyethersulfone (PES); Polyetherimide (PEI);
Polysulfone (PSO); Polycarbonate (PC); Polyetheretherketone (e.g.,
PEEK.RTM.); Polyphthalamide (PPA); Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE);
Polystyrene (PS); Acrylonitrilebutadienestyrene (ABS);
Polyphenylene Sulfide (PPS); Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC); Polyamide
(PA); Polyamide 6/6 (PA-6,6); Polyamide 4,6 (PA);
Acrylonitrilebutadienestyrene (ABS); Fluoropolymers (FP); high
density polyethylene (HDPE); liquid crystal polymers (LCP); low
density polyethylene (LDPE); polyarylate (PAR); polybutylene
terephthalate (PBT); polycarbonate (PC); polyethylene terephthalate
(PET); polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA); polyoxymethylene (POM);
polypropylene (PP); polyphthalate carbonate (PPC); polyphenylene
oxide (PPO); polyphenylsulfone (PPSU); polysulfone (PSF);
polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF); styrene acrylonitrile (SAN);
styrene maleic anhydride (SMA); thermoplastic polyimide (TPI),
polyvinyl alcohols (PVA), polyurethanes (PU), polyvinyl acetate
(PVA) and polysaccharides. Some preferred web materials include
thermoplastics such as polyolefin, such as polyethylene homopolymer
(PE), linear low density polyethylene (LLDPE), low density
polyethylene (LDPE) and high density polyethylene (HDPE). For
example, polyolefin configured to crosslink upon irradiation and
not degrade upon irradiation.
[0058] The polymers used to make the web can be cross linked, for
example, to improve structural properties and/or decrease
permeability to gases and liquids.
[0059] Biodegradable polymers can also be used as the web material,
for example, poly esters such as those based on polylactic acid
(PLA), polyglycolide (PGA), polycaprolactone (PCL). Other bio and
environmentally degradable polymers include
poly(hydroxyalkanoates)s; modified poly(saccharides) such as
starch, cellulose and chitosan; and lignin or combinations and/or
mixtures thereof. For example, polymers that can be utilized
include Poly(ethylene glycol) methyl ether-block-poly(D,L lactide);
Poly(ethylene glycol) methyl ether-block-poly(D,L
lactide)-block-decane; Poly(ethylene glycol)-block-polylactide
methyl ether; Poly(ethylene glycol)-block-polylactide methyl ether;
Poly(ethylene oxide)-block-polylactide, 4-arm poly(ethylene oxide);
Poly(L-lactide)-block-poly(ethylene glycol)methyl ether
polylactide; Poly(ethylene glycol) methyl
ether-block-poly(lactide-co-glycolide); Poly(ethylene glycol)
methyl ether-block-poly(lactide-co-glycolide); Poly(ethylene
glycol) methyl ether-block-poly(lactide-co-glycolide);
Poly(ethylene glycol)-block-poly(s-caprolactone) methyl ether;
Poly(ethylene oxide)-block-polycaprolactone, 4-arm;
Polylactide-block-poly(ethylene glycol)-block-polylactide;
Polylactide-block-poly(ethylene glycol)-block-polylactide and
Poly(lactide-co-glycolide)-block-poly(ethylene
glycol)-block-poly(lactide-co-glycolide). Some biodegradable
polymers that are derived from non-petroleum sources can be used
and are discussed in U.S. Provisional Application 61/816,664 filed
Apr. 26, 2013 the entire disclosure of which is incorporated herein
by reference. In some embodiments, the treatment (e.g.,
irradiation) helps degrade the polymer that can then be utilized in
further processing, such as a nutrient for an organism.
[0060] The web can also include fibrous material including
cellulose, lignocellulose carbon fibers, metal fibers and ceramic
fibers. The web material can include paper and all compounds
typically associated with paper such as fillers.
[0061] The web material can comprise of a woven material, for
example, made from woven natural or synthetic threads. For example,
web material can be made of burlap or canvas (e.g., Jute, hemp or
cotton). The web material can be in the form of a net.
[0062] The enclosures can be coated and/or infused, for example,
with low molecular weight polymers and waxes. The coating can be
applied to improve structural or mechanical properties, to improve
chemical resistance, to impart water resistance, to make the
material impervious to gases, to increase the friction of the outer
and/or inner surface, to decrease the friction of the inner and/or
outer surface, to decrease static charge that might develop, to
improve sealing properties (e.g., heat sealing) and/or to interact
with the irradiation (e.g., to scatter the radiation and create
heating). The coatings can be uniformly applied or non-uniformly
applied on the surface, applied as a pattern (e.g., strips) or
applied only to portions of the pouch.
[0063] Typically the web is made to be as thin as possible to save
costs and reduce wasted energy due to irradiation of the enclosure
material. For example, the material is made thick enough to have
enough structural integrity to withstand the processing, but not so
thick as to impact the irradiation of the material inside the
enclosure significantly. In selecting the exact thickness, the kind
of material and treatment can be taken into consideration. For
example, materials with higher electron contents (electrons per
unit mass) will have higher absorbed doses near the entrance
surface when treated with an electron beams, but the electron
ranges will be lower. For example, materials with higher hydrogen
contents, such as polyethylene (H.sub.4C.sub.2).sub.n and
polypropylene (H.sub.6C.sub.3).sub.n, will have higher surface
doses and shorter electron ranges than some other materials, such
as polystyrene (H.sub.8C.sub.8).sub.n, polycarbonate
(H.sub.i4C.sub.i6O.sub.3).sub.n and polytetrafluoroethylene
(C.sub.2F.sub.4).sub.n. With regards to mechanical strength,
polyethylene can be made as made less than about 30 miles thick
(e.g., less than about 20 mils, less than about 10 mils, less than
about 5 mils, less than about 4 mils, less than about 3 mils thick,
less than about 2 mils thick, less than about 1 mils thick or even
less than about half a mill thick). In some preferred embodiments,
the web material (e.g., for making sachets or pouches) has a sheet
thickness between 1 mil and about 10 mil (e.g., between about 1 mil
and about 8 mil, between about 2 mil and about 6 mil). As an
example, a 5 mil thick polyethylene can provide a high degree of
protection and tear resistance during shipping, while a 0.5 mil
thick material will have minimal structural integrity and a very
low electron adsorption.
[0064] The enclosing web material can include one or more layers.
For example, the layers can be compositionally equivalent or
compositionally different.
[0065] In some embodiments material that readily degrades under the
processing (e.g., irradiation) is favored for making the web since
it can be more easily comminuted or ripped opened for further
processing. In these embodiments it may be preferable to utilize
web materials that will typically undergo chain scissioning when
treated with ionizing radiation, for example, polyisobutylene,
polymethacrylates, polymethylstyrene, polymethacrylamides,
polyvinylidene chloride, polytetrafluoroethylene, polypropylene
ether, cellulose
[0066] In some embodiments the web and enclosed material are stored
prior to processing. In these embodiments, material that cross
links during processing can be preferred since such cross linking
can improve the strength of the material that might be useful
during any shipping, storage or conveying. In these embodiments it
may be preferable to utilize web materials that typically will
cross link during irradiation with ionizing radiation, for example,
polyethylene, polyacrylates, polyvinyl chlorides, polysiloxanes,
polyamides, polystyrenes, polyacrylamides, and ethylene
vinylacetate.
[0067] A combination of the above materials can produce a material
that is both strengthened (e.g., cross linked) and degraded (e.g.,
chain scission). For example, an enclosure in the form of a pouch
with one area (e.g., a first surface or side) made of polyethylene
and a different area (e.g., an facing surface or side to the first
surface or side) made of a cellulosic material. The irradiation can
strengthen the polyethylene web while degrade the cellulosic web.
The cellulosic web can then be more easily opened (e.g., ripped or
cut), to remove the contents in the enclosure.
[0068] Biodegradable polymers or polymers that can supply a
nutrient useful for further processing such as fermentation can be
useful.
[0069] In some embodiments, the enclosed material is treated, e.g.,
with electron beam irradiation, and then the treated material is
contacted with an enzyme without releasing the treated feedstock
from the enclosure. For example, after treating the material, the
enclosure is combined with a solution containing an enzyme and the
saccharification is allowed to proceed partially or completely
while enclosed. To contact the treated material an opening is
supplied to the enclosed material, for example, by a slit or by,
for example, an injection of the enzyme solution into the enclosure
using an injection system (e.g., a syringe). For example, the
enclosures can be separated into individual pouches that can be
utilized as individual bioreactor for the saccharification step.
Other steps can be performed using the enclosure after or before
saccharification e.g., fermentation by the addition of an organism
such as a yeast. A possible embodiment includes the enclosure
forming a liner so that the enclosure and treated material are
placed into a reactor with walls/bottom that can support the
enclosure and contents. The top of the enclosure can be opened so
as to allow a mixing shaft with mixer to be inserted or any other
equipment (e.g., temperature probe, atmosphere probe such as an
oxygen probe, pH probe and selective or non-selective ion probe).
The opening can also allow sampling, e.g., for the purpose of
monitoring the progress of the reaction, or the opening can also be
used for the addition of nutrients, adjusting of pH, adjusting of
electrolytes adding of enzymes.
[0070] Some more details and reiterations of processes for treating
a feedstock that can be utilized, for example, with the embodiments
already discussed above, or in other embodiments, are described in
the following disclosures.
Systems for Treating a Feedstock
[0071] Processes for conversion of a feedstock to sugars and other
products, in which the conveying methods discuss above may be used,
can include physically pre-treating the feedstock, e.g., to reduce
its size, before and/or after this treatment, optionally or
additional treating the feedstock to reduce or further reduce its
recalcitrance (e.g., by irradiation, sonication, pyrolysis,
oxidation, steam explosion), and saccharifying the feedstock to
form a sugar solution. Saccharification can be performed by mixing
a dispersion of the feedstock (e.g., the feedstock provided from
the enclosed material as previously discussed) in a liquid medium,
e.g., water with an enzyme, as will be discussed in detail herein.
Prior to treatment with an enzyme, pretreated biomass can be
subjected to hot water and pressure (e.g., 100-150 deg C., 100-140
deg C. or 11-130 deg C. and associated pressure), and/or an acid
(e.g., about 0.01 to 1% H.sub.3PO.sub.4, about 0.05 to 0.5%
H.sub.3PO.sub.4 e.g. about 0.1% H.sub.3PO.sub.4). During or after
saccharification, the mixture (if saccharification is to be
partially or completely performed en route) or solution can be
transported, e.g., by pipeline, railcar, truck or barge, to a
manufacturing plant. The saccharification can even occur in the
enclosures, as previously discussed. At the plant, the solution can
be bioprocessed, e.g., fermented, to produce a desired product or
intermediate, which can then be processed further, e.g., by
distillation. The individual processing steps, materials used, and
examples of products and intermediates that may be formed will be
described in detail below.
Radiation Treatment
[0072] The feedstock can be treated with radiation to modify its
structure to reduce its recalcitrance. Such treatment can, for
example, reduce the average molecular weight of the feedstock,
change the crystalline structure of the feedstock, and/or increase
the surface area and/or porosity of the feedstock. Radiation can be
by, for example, electron beam, ion beam, 100 nm to 28 nm
ultraviolet (UV) light, gamma or X-ray radiation. Radiation
treatments and systems for treatments are discussed in U.S. Pat.
No. 8,142,620 and U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/417,731, the
entire disclosures of which are incorporated herein by
reference.
[0073] Each form of radiation ionizes the biomass via particular
interactions, as determined by the energy of the radiation. Heavy
charged particles primarily ionize matter via Coulomb scattering;
furthermore, these interactions produce energetic electrons that
may further ionize matter. Alpha particles are identical to the
nucleus of a helium atom and are produced by the alpha decay of
various radioactive nuclei, such as isotopes of bismuth, polonium,
astatine, radon, francium, radium, several actinides, such as
actinium, thorium, uranium, neptunium, curium, californium,
americium, and plutonium. Electrons interact via Coulomb scattering
and bremsstrahlung radiation produced by changes in the velocity of
electrons.
[0074] When particles are utilized, they can be neutral
(uncharged), positively charged or negatively charged. When
charged, the charged particles can bear a single positive or
negative charge, or multiple charges, e.g., one, two, three or even
four or more charges. In instances in which chain scission is
desired to change the molecular structure of the carbohydrate
containing material, positively charged particles may be desirable,
in part, due to their acidic nature. When particles are utilized,
the particles can have the mass of a resting electron, or greater,
e.g., 500, 1000, 1500, or 2000 or more times the mass of a resting
electron. For example, the particles can have a mass of from about
1 atomic unit to about 150 atomic units, e.g., from about 1 atomic
unit to about 50 atomic units, or from about 1 to about 25, e.g.,
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 10, 12 or 15 atomic units.
[0075] Gamma radiation has the advantage of a significant
penetration depth into a variety of material in the sample.
[0076] In embodiments in which the irradiating is performed with
electromagnetic radiation, the electromagnetic radiation can have,
e.g., energy per photon (in electron volts) of greater than
10.sup.2 eV, e.g., greater than 10.sup.3, 10.sup.4, 10.sup.5,
10.sup.6, or even greater than 10.sup.7 eV. In some embodiments,
the electromagnetic radiation has energy per photon of between
10.sup.4 and 10.sup.7, e.g., between 10.sup.5 and 10.sup.6 eV. The
electromagnetic radiation can have a frequency of, e.g., greater
than 10.sup.16 Hz, greater than 10.sup.17 Hz, 10.sup.18, 10.sup.19,
10.sup.20, or even greater than 10.sup.21 Hz. In some embodiments,
the electromagnetic radiation has a frequency of between 10.sup.18
and 10.sup.22 Hz, e.g., between 10.sup.19 to 10.sup.21 Hz.
[0077] Electron bombardment may be performed using an electron beam
device that has a nominal energy of less than 10 MeV, e.g., less
than 7 MeV, less than 5 MeV, or less than 2 MeV, e.g., from about
0.5 to 1.5 MeV, from about 0.8 to 1.8 MeV, or from about 0.7 to 1
MeV. In some implementations the nominal energy is about 500 to 800
keV.
[0078] The electron beam may have a relatively high total beam
power (the combined beam power of all accelerating heads, or, if
multiple accelerators are used, of all accelerators and all heads),
e.g., at least 25 kW, e.g., at least 30, 40, 50, 60, 65, 70, 80,
100, 125, or 150 kW. In some cases, the power is even as high as
500 kW, 750 kW, or even 1000 kW or more. In some cases the electron
beam has a beam power of 1200 kW or more, e.g., 1400, 1600, 1800,
or even 3000 kW.
[0079] This high total beam power is usually achieved by utilizing
multiple accelerating heads. For example, the electron beam device
may include two, four, or more accelerating heads. The use of
multiple heads, each of which has a relatively low beam power,
prevents excessive temperature rise in the material, thereby
preventing burning of the material, and also increases the
uniformity of the dose through the thickness of the layer of
material.
[0080] It is generally preferred that the bed of biomass material
has a relatively uniform thickness. In some embodiments the
thickness is less than about 1 inch (e.g., less than about 0.75
inches, less than about 0.5 inches, less than about 0.25 inches,
less than about 0.1 inches, between about 0.1 and 1 inch, between
about 0.2 and 0.3 inches).
[0081] It is desirable to treat the material as quickly as
possible. In general, it is preferred that treatment be performed
at a dose rate of greater than about 0.25 Mrad per second, e.g.,
greater than about 0.5, 0.75, 1, 1.5, 2, 5, 7, 10, 12, 15, or even
greater than about 20 Mrad per second, e.g., about 0.25 to 20 Mrad
per second. Higher dose rates allow a higher throughput for a
target (e.g., the desired) dose. Higher dose rates generally
require higher line speeds, to avoid thermal decomposition of the
material. In one implementation, the accelerator is set for 3 MeV,
50 mA beam current, and the line speed is 24 feet/minute, for a
sample thickness of about 20 mm (e.g., comminuted corn cob material
with a bulk density of 0.5 g/cm.sup.3).
[0082] In some embodiments, electron bombardment is performed until
the material receives a total dose of at least 0.1 Mrad, 0.25 Mrad,
1 Mrad, 5 Mrad, e.g., at least 10, 20, 30 or at least 40 Mrad. In
some embodiments, the treatment is performed until the material
receives a dose of from about 10 Mrad to about 50 Mrad, e.g., from
about 20 Mrad to about 40 Mrad, or from about 25 Mrad to about 30
Mrad. In some implementations, a total dose of 25 to 35 Mrad is
preferred, applied ideally over a couple of passes, e.g., at 5
Mrad/pass with each pass being applied for about one second.
Cooling methods, systems and equipment can be used before, during,
after and in between radiations, for example, utilizing a cooling
screw conveyor and/or a cooled vibratory conveyor.
[0083] Using multiple heads as discussed above, the material can be
treated in multiple passes, for example, two passes at 10 to 20
Mrad/pass, e.g., 12 to 18 Mrad/pass, separated by a few seconds of
cool-down, or three passes of 7 to 12 Mrad/pass, e.g., 5 to 20
Mrad/pass, 10 to 40 Mrad/pass, 9 to 11 Mrad/pass. As discussed
herein, treating the material with several relatively low doses,
rather than one high dose, tends to prevent overheating of the
material and also increases dose uniformity through the thickness
of the material. In some implementations, the material is stirred
or otherwise mixed during or after each pass and then smoothed into
a uniform layer again before the next pass, to further enhance
treatment uniformity.
[0084] In some embodiments, electrons are accelerated to, for
example, a speed of greater than 75 percent of the speed of light,
e.g., greater than 85, 90, 95, or 99 percent of the speed of
light.
[0085] In some embodiments, any processing described herein occurs
on lignocellulosic material that remains dry as acquired or that
has been dried, e.g., using heat and/or reduced pressure. For
example, in some embodiments, the cellulosic and/or lignocellulosic
material has less than about 25 wt. % retained water, measured at
25.degree. C. and at fifty percent relative humidity (e.g., less
than about 20 wt. %, less than about 15 wt. %, less than about 14
wt. %, less than about 13 wt. %, less than about 12 wt. %, less
than about 10 wt. %, less than about 9 wt. %, less than about 8 wt.
%, less than about 7 wt. %, less than about 6 wt. %, less than
about 5 wt. %, less than about 4 wt. %, less than about 3 wt. %,
less than about 2 wt. %, less than about 1 wt. %, or less than
about 0.5 wt. %.
[0086] In some embodiments, two or more ionizing sources can be
used, such as two or more electron sources. For example, samples
can be treated, in any order, with a beam of electrons, followed by
gamma radiation and UV light having wavelengths from about 100 nm
to about 280 nm. In some embodiments, samples are treated with
three ionizing radiation sources, such as a beam of electrons,
gamma radiation, and energetic UV light. The biomass is conveyed
through the treatment zone where it can be bombarded with
electrons.
[0087] It may be advantageous to repeat the treatment to more
thoroughly reduce the recalcitrance of the biomass and/or further
modify the biomass. In particular the process parameters can be
adjusted after a first (e.g., second, third, fourth or more) pass
depending on the recalcitrance of the material. In some
embodiments, a conveyor can be used which includes a circular
system where the biomass is conveyed multiple times through the
various processes described above. In some other embodiments
multiple treatment devices (e.g., electron beam generators) are
used to treat the biomass multiple (e.g., 2, 3, 4 or more) times.
In yet other embodiments, a single electron beam generator may be
the source of multiple beams (e.g., 2, 3, 4 or more beams) that can
be used for treatment of the biomass.
[0088] The effectiveness in changing the molecular/supermolecular
structure and/or reducing the recalcitrance of the
carbohydrate-containing biomass depends on the electron energy used
and the dose applied, while exposure time depends on the power and
dose. In some embodiments, the dose rate and total dose are
adjusted so as not to destroy (e.g., char or burn) the biomass
material. For example, the carbohydrates should not be damaged in
the processing so that they can be released from the biomass
intact, e.g. as monomeric sugars.
[0089] In some embodiments, the treatment (with any electron source
or a combination of sources) is performed until the material
receives a dose of at least about 0.05 Mrad, e.g., at least about
0.1, 0.25, 0.5, 0.75, 1.0, 2.5, 5.0, 7.5, 10.0, 15, 20, 25, 30, 40,
50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 125, 150, 175, or 200 Mrad. In some
embodiments, the treatment is performed until the material receives
a dose of between 0.1-100 Mrad, 1-200, 5-200, 10-200, 5-150, 50-150
Mrad, 5-100, 5-50, 5-40, 10-50, 10-75, 15-50, 20-35 Mrad.
[0090] In some embodiments, relatively low doses of radiation are
utilized, e.g., to increase the molecular weight of a cellulosic or
lignocellulosic material (with any radiation source or a
combination of sources described herein). For example, a dose of at
least about 0.05 Mrad, e.g., at least about 0.1 Mrad or at least
about 0.25, 0.5, 0.75, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0, 3.5, 4.0, or at
least about 5.0 Mrad. In some embodiments, the irradiation is
performed until the material receives a dose of between 0.1 Mrad
and 2.0 Mrad, e.g., between 0.5 Mrad and 4.0 Mrad or between 1.0
Mrad and 3.0 Mrad.
[0091] It also can be desirable to irradiate from multiple
directions, simultaneously or sequentially, in order to achieve a
desired degree of penetration of radiation into the material. For
example, depending on the density and moisture content of the
material, such as wood, and the type of radiation source used
(e.g., gamma or electron beam), the maximum penetration of
radiation into the material may be only about 0.75 inch. In such
instances, a thicker section (up to 1.5 inch) can be irradiated by
first irradiating the material from one side, and then turning the
material over and irradiating from the other side. Irradiation from
multiple directions can be particularly useful with electron beam
radiation, which irradiates faster than gamma radiation but
typically does not achieve as great a penetration depth.
Radiation Opaque Materials
[0092] As previously discussed, the invention can include
processing the material in a vault and/or bunker that is
constructed using radiation opaque materials. In some
implementations, the radiation opaque materials are selected to be
capable of shielding the components from X-rays with high energy
(short wavelength), which can penetrate many materials. One
important factor in designing a radiation shielding enclosure is
the attenuation length of the materials used, which will determine
the required thickness for a particular material, blend of
materials, or layered structure. The attenuation length is the
penetration distance at which the radiation is reduced to
approximately 1/e (e=Euler's number) times that of the incident
radiation. Although virtually all materials are radiation opaque if
thick enough, materials containing a high compositional percentage
(e.g., density) of elements that have a high Z value (atomic
number) have a shorter radiation attenuation length and thus if
such materials are used a thinner, lighter shielding can be
provided. Examples of high Z value materials that are used in
radiation shielding are tantalum and lead. Another important
parameter in radiation shielding is the halving distance, which is
the thickness of a particular material that will reduce gamma ray
intensity by 50%. As an example for X-ray radiation with an energy
of 0.1 MeV the halving thickness is about 15.1 mm for concrete and
about 2.7 mm for lead, while with an X-ray energy of 1 MeV the
halving thickness for concrete is about 44.45 mm and for lead is
about 7.9 mm. Radiation opaque materials can be materials that are
thick or thin so long as they can reduce the radiation that passes
through to the other side. Thus, if it is desired that a particular
enclosure have a low wall thickness, e.g., for light weight or due
to size constraints, the material chosen should have a sufficient Z
value and/or attenuation length so that its halving length is less
than or equal to the desired wall thickness of the enclosure.
[0093] In some cases, the radiation opaque material may be a
layered material, for example, having a layer of a higher Z value
material, to provide good shielding, and a layer of a lower Z value
material to provide other properties (e.g., structural integrity,
impact resistance, etc.). In some cases, the layered material may
be a "graded-Z" laminate, e.g., including a laminate in which the
layers provide a gradient from high-Z through successively lower-Z
elements. In some cases the radiation opaque materials can be
interlocking blocks, for example, lead and/or concrete blocks can
be supplied by NELCO Worldwide (Burlington, Mass.), and
reconfigurable vaults can be utilized.
[0094] A radiation opaque material can reduce the radiation passing
through a structure (e.g., a wall, door, ceiling, enclosure, a
series of these or combinations of these) formed of the material by
about at least about 10%, (e.g., at least about 20%, at least about
30%, at least about 40%, at least about 50%, at least about 60%, at
least about 70%, at least about 80%, at least about 90%, at least
about 95%, at least about 96%, at least about 97%, at least about
98%, at least about 99%, at least about 99.9%, at least about
99.99%, at least about 99.999%) as compared to the incident
radiation. Therefore, an enclosure made of a radiation opaque
material can reduce the exposure of equipment/system/components by
the same amount. Radiation opaque materials can include stainless
steel, metals with Z values above 25 (e.g., lead, iron), concrete,
dirt, sand and combinations thereof. Radiation opaque materials can
include a barrier in the direction of the incident radiation of at
least about 1 mm (e.g., 5 mm, 10 mm, 5 cm, 10 cm, 100 cm, 1 m and
even at least 10 m).
Radiation Sources
[0095] The type of radiation determines the kinds of radiation
sources used as well as the radiation devices and associated
equipment. The methods, systems and equipment described herein, for
example, for treating materials with radiation, can utilize sources
as described herein as well as any other useful source.
[0096] Sources of gamma rays include radioactive nuclei, such as
isotopes of cobalt, calcium, technetium, chromium, gallium, indium,
iodine, iron, krypton, samarium, selenium, sodium, thallium, and
xenon.
[0097] Sources of X-rays include electron beam collision with metal
targets, such as tungsten or molybdenum or alloys, or compact light
sources, such as those produced commercially by Lyncean.
[0098] Alpha particles are identical to the nucleus of a helium
atom and are produced by the alpha decay of various radioactive
nuclei, such as isotopes of bismuth, polonium, astatine, radon,
francium, radium, several actinides, such as actinium, thorium,
uranium, neptunium, curium, californium, americium, and
plutonium.
[0099] Sources for ultraviolet radiation include deuterium or
cadmium lamps.
[0100] Sources for infrared radiation include sapphire, zinc, or
selenide window ceramic lamps.
[0101] Sources for microwaves include klystrons, Slevin type RF
sources, or atom beam sources that employ hydrogen, oxygen, or
nitrogen gases.
[0102] Accelerators used to accelerate the particles (e.g.,
electrons or ions) can be DC (e.g., electrostatic DC or
electrodynamic DC), RF linear, magnetic induction linear or
continuous wave. For example, various irradiating devices may be
used in the methods disclosed herein, including field ionization
sources, electrostatic ion separators, field ionization generators,
thermionic emission sources, microwave discharge ion sources,
recirculating or static accelerators, dynamic linear accelerators,
van de Graaff accelerators, Cockroft Walton accelerators (e.g.,
PELLETRON.RTM. accelerators), LINACS, Dynamitrons (e.g.,
DYNAMITRON.RTM. accelerators), cyclotrons, synchrotrons, betatrons,
transformer-type accelerators, microtrons, plasma generators,
cascade accelerators, and folded tandem accelerators. For example,
cyclotron type accelerators are available from IBA, Belgium, such
as the RHODOTRON.TM. system, while DC type accelerators are
available from RDI, now IBA Industrial, such as the
DYNAMITRON.RTM.. Other suitable accelerator systems include, for
example: DC insulated core transformer (ICT) type systems,
available from Nissin High Voltage, Japan; S-band LINACs, available
from L3-PSD (USA), Linac Systems (France), Mevex (Canada), and
Mitsubishi Heavy Industries (Japan); L-band LINACs, available from
Iotron Industries (Canada); and ILU-based accelerators, available
from Budker Laboratories (Russia). Ions and ion accelerators are
discussed in Introductory Nuclear Physics, Kenneth S. Krane, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. (1988), Krsto Prelec, FIZIKA B 6 (1997) 4,
177-206, Chu, William T., "Overview of Light-Ion Beam Therapy",
Columbus-Ohio, ICRU-IAEA Meeting, 18-20 Mar. 2006, Iwata, Y. et
al., "Alternating-Phase-Focused IH-DTL for Heavy-Ion Medical
Accelerators", Proceedings of EPAC 2006, Edinburgh, Scotland, and
Leitner, C M. et al., "Status of the Superconducting ECR Ion Source
Venus", Proceedings of EPAC 2000, Vienna, Austria. Some particle
accelerators and their uses are disclosed, for example, in U.S.
Pat. No. 7,931,784 to Medoff, the complete disclosure of which is
incorporated herein by reference.
[0103] Electrons may be produced by radioactive nuclei that undergo
beta decay, such as isotopes of iodine, cesium, technetium, and
iridium. Alternatively, an electron gun can be used as an electron
source via thermionic emission and accelerated through an
accelerating potential. An electron gun generates electrons, which
are then accelerated through a large potential (e.g., greater than
about 500 thousand, greater than about 1 million, greater than
about 2 million, greater than about 5 million, greater than about 6
million, greater than about 7 million, greater than about 8
million, greater than about 9 million, or even greater than 10
million volts) and then scanned magnetically in the x-y plane,
where the electrons are initially accelerated in the z direction
down the accelerator tube and extracted through a foil window.
Scanning the electron beams is useful for increasing the
irradiation surface when irradiating materials, e.g., a biomass,
that is conveyed through the scanned beam. Scanning the electron
beam also distributes the thermal load homogenously on the window
and helps reduce the foil window rupture due to local heating by
the electron beam. Window foil rupture is a cause of significant
down-time due to subsequent necessary repairs and re-starting the
electron gun.
[0104] Various other irradiating devices may be used in the methods
disclosed herein, including field ionization sources, electrostatic
ion separators, field ionization generators, thermionic emission
sources, microwave discharge ion sources, recirculating or static
accelerators, dynamic linear accelerators, van de Graaff
accelerators, and folded tandem accelerators. Such devices are
disclosed, for example, in U.S. Pat. No. 7,931,784 to Medoff, the
complete disclosure of which is incorporated herein by
reference.
[0105] A beam of electrons can be used as the radiation source. A
beam of electrons has the advantages of high dose rates (e.g., 1,
5, or even 10 Mrad per second), high throughput, less containment,
and less confinement equipment. Electron beams can also have high
electrical efficiency (e.g., 80%), allowing for lower energy usage
relative to other radiation methods, which can translate into a
lower cost of operation and lower greenhouse gas emissions
corresponding to the smaller amount of energy used. Electron beams
can be generated, e.g., by electrostatic generators, cascade
generators, transformer generators, low energy accelerators with a
scanning system, low energy accelerators with a linear cathode,
linear accelerators, and pulsed accelerators.
[0106] Electrons can also be more efficient at causing changes in
the molecular structure of carbohydrate-containing materials, for
example, by the mechanism of chain scission. In addition, electrons
having energies of 0.5-10 MeV can penetrate low density materials,
such as the biomass materials described herein, e.g., materials
having a bulk density of less than 0.5 g/cm.sup.3, and a depth of
0.3-10 cm. Electrons as an ionizing radiation source can be useful,
e.g., for relatively thin piles, layers or beds of materials, e.g.,
less than about 0.5 inch, e.g., less than about 0.4 inch, 0.3 inch,
0.25 inch, or less than about 0.1 inch. In some embodiments, the
energy of each electron of the electron beam is from about 0.3 MeV
to about 2.0 MeV (million electron volts), e.g., from about 0.5 MeV
to about 1.5 MeV, or from about 0.7 MeV to about 1.25 MeV. Methods
of irradiating materials are discussed in U.S. Pat. App. Pub.
2012/0100577 A1, filed Oct. 18, 2011, the entire disclosure of
which is herein incorporated by reference.
[0107] Electron beam irradiation devices may be procured
commercially or built. For example, elements or components such
inductors, capacitors, casings, power sources, cables, wiring,
voltage control systems, current control elements, insulating
material, microcontrollers and cooling equipment can be purchased
and assembled into a device. Optionally, a commercial device can be
modified and/or adapted. For example, devices and components can be
purchased from any of the commercial sources described herein
including Ion Beam Applications (Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium), Wasik
Associates Inc. (Dracut, Mass.), NHV Corporation (Japan), the Titan
Corporation (San Diego, Calif.), Vivirad High Voltage Corp
(Billerica, Mass.) and/or Budker Laboratories (Russia). Typical
electron energies can be 0.5 MeV, 1 MeV, 2 MeV, 4.5 MeV, 7.5 MeV,
or 10 MeV. Typical electron beam irradiation device power can be 1
kW, 5 kW, 10 kW, 20 kW, 50 kW, 60 kW, 70 kW, 80 kW, 90 kW, 100 kW,
125 kW, 150 kW, 175 kW, 200 kW, 250 kW, 300 kW, 350 kW, 400 kW, 450
kW, 500 kW, 600 kW, 700 kW, 800 kW, 900 kW or even 1000 kW.
Accelerators that can be used include NHV irradiators medium energy
series EPS-500 (e.g., 500 kV accelerator voltage and 65, 100 or 150
mA beam current), EPS-800 (e.g., 800 kV accelerator voltage and 65
or 100 mA beam current), or EPS-1000 (e.g., 1000 kV accelerator
voltage and 65 or 100 mA beam current). Also, accelerators from
NHV's high energy series can be used such as EPS-1500 (e.g., 1500
kV accelerator voltage and 65 mA beam current), EPS-2000 (e.g.,
2000 kV accelerator voltage and 50 mA beam current), EPS-3000
(e.g., 3000 kV accelerator voltage and 50 mA beam current) and
EPS-5000 (e.g., 5000 and 30 mA beam current). Tradeoffs in
considering electron beam irradiation device power specifications
include cost to operate, capital costs, depreciation, and device
footprint. Tradeoffs in considering exposure dose levels of
electron beam irradiation would be energy costs and environment,
safety, and health (ESH) concerns. Typically, generators are housed
in a vault, e.g., of lead or concrete, especially for production
from X-rays that are generated in the process. Tradeoffs in
considering electron energies include energy costs.
[0108] The electron beam irradiation device can produce either a
fixed beam or a scanning beam. A scanning beam may be advantageous
with large scan sweep length and high scan speeds, as this would
effectively replace a large, fixed beam width. Further, available
sweep widths of 0.5 m, 1 m, 2 m or more are available. The scanning
beam is preferred in most embodiments described herein because of
the larger scan width and reduced possibility of local heating and
failure of the windows.
Electron Guns--Windows
[0109] The extraction system for an electron accelerator can
include two window foils. The cooling gas in the two foil window
extraction system can be a purge gas or a mixture, for example,
air, or a pure gas. In one embodiment, the gas is an inert gas such
as nitrogen, argon, helium and/or carbon dioxide. It is preferred
to use a gas rather than a liquid since energy losses to the
electron beam are minimized. Mixtures of pure gas can also be used,
either pre-mixed or mixed in line prior to impinging on the windows
or in the space between the windows. The cooling gas can be cooled,
for example, by using a heat exchange system (e.g., a chiller)
and/or by using boil off from a condensed gas (e.g., liquid
nitrogen, liquid helium). Window foils are described in
PCT/US2013/64332 filed Oct. 10, 2013 the full disclosure of which
is incorporated by reference herein.
Heating and Throughput During Radiation Treatment
[0110] Several processes can occur in biomass when electrons from
an electron beam interact with matter in inelastic collisions. For
example, ionization of the material, chain scission of polymers in
the material, cross linking of polymers in the material, oxidation
of the material, generation of X-rays ("Bremsstrahlung") and
vibrational excitation of molecules (e.g., phonon generation).
Without being bound to a particular mechanism, the reduction in
recalcitrance can be due to several of these inelastic collision
effects, for example, ionization, chain scission of polymers,
oxidation and phonon generation. Some of the effects (e.g.,
especially X-ray generation), necessitate shielding and engineering
barriers, for example, enclosing the irradiation processes in a
concrete (or other radiation opaque material) vault. Another effect
of irradiation, vibrational excitation, is equivalent to heating up
the sample. Heating the sample by irradiation can help in
recalcitrance reduction, but excessive heating can destroy the
material, as will be explained below.
[0111] The adiabatic temperature rise (.DELTA.T) from adsorption of
ionizing radiation is given by the equation: .DELTA.T=D/Cp: where D
is the average dose in kGy, Cp is the heat capacity in J/g .degree.
C., and .DELTA.T is the change in temperature in .degree. C. A
typical dry biomass material will have a heat capacity close to 2.
Wet biomass will have a higher heat capacity dependent on the
amount of water since the heat capacity of water is very high (4.19
J/g .degree. C.). Metals have much lower heat capacities, for
example, 304 stainless steel has a heat capacity of 0.5 J/g
.degree. C. The temperature change due to the instant adsorption of
radiation in a biomass and stainless steel for various doses of
radiation is shown in Table 1. At the higher temperatures biomass
will decompose causing extreme deviation from the estimated changes
in temperature.
TABLE-US-00001 TABLE 1 Calculated Temperature increase for biomass
and stainless steel. Dose (Mrad) Estimated Biomass .DELTA.T
(.degree. C.) Steel .DELTA.T (.degree. C.) 10 50 200 50 250
(decomposed) 1000 100 500 (decomposed) 2000 150 750 (decomposed)
3000 200 1000 (decomposed) 4000
[0112] High temperatures can destroy and/or modify the biopolymers
in biomass so that the polymers (e.g., cellulose) are unsuitable
for further processing. A biomass subjected to high temperatures
can become dark, sticky and give off odors indicating
decomposition. The stickiness can even make the material hard to
convey. The odors can be unpleasant and be a safety issue. In fact,
keeping the biomass below about 200.degree. C. has been found to be
beneficial in the processes described herein (e.g., below about
190.degree. C., below about 180.degree. C., below about 170.degree.
C., below about 160.degree. C., below about 150.degree. C., below
about 140.degree. C., below about 130.degree. C., below about
120.degree. C., below about 110.degree. C., between about
60.degree. C. and 180.degree. C., between about 60.degree. C. and
160.degree. C., between about 60.degree. C. and 150.degree. C.,
between about 60.degree. C. and 140.degree. C., between about
60.degree. C. and 130.degree. C., between about 60.degree. C. and
120.degree. C., between about 80.degree. C. and 180.degree. C.,
between about 100.degree. C. and 180.degree. C., between about
120.degree. C. and 180.degree. C., between about 140.degree. C. and
180.degree. C., between about 160.degree. C. and 180.degree. C.,
between about 100.degree. C. and 140.degree. C., between about
80.degree. C. and 120.degree. C.).
[0113] It has been found that irradiation above about 10 Mrad is
desirable for the processes described herein (e.g., reduction of
recalcitrance). A high throughput is also desirable so that the
irradiation does not become a bottle neck in processing the
biomass. The treatment is governed by a Dose rate equation:
M=FP/Dtime, where M is the mass of irradiated material (kg), F is
the fraction of power that is adsorbed (unit less), P is the
emitted power (kW=Voltage in MeV.times.Current in mA), time is the
treatment time (sec) and D is the adsorbed dose (kGy). In an
exemplary process where the fraction of adsorbed power is fixed,
the Power emitted is constant and a set dosage is desired, the
throughput (e.g., M, the biomass processed) can be increased by
increasing the irradiation time. However, increasing the
irradiation time without allowing the material to cool, can
excessively heat the material as exemplified by the calculations
shown above. Since biomass has a low thermal conductivity (less
than about 0.1 Wm"`K"`), heat dissipation is slow, unlike, for
example, metals (greater than about 10 Wm.sup.4K.sup.4) which can
dissipate energy quickly as long as there is a heat sink to
transfer the energy to.
Electron Guns--Beam Stops
[0114] In some embodiments the systems and methods include a beam
stop (e.g., a shutter). For example, the beam stop can be used to
quickly stop or reduce the irradiation of material without powering
down the electron beam device. Alternatively the beam stop can be
used while powering up the electron beam, e.g., the beam stop can
stop the electron beam until a beam current of a desired level is
achieved. The beam stop can be placed between the primary foil
window and a secondary foil window. For example, the beam stop can
be mounted so that it is movable, that is, so that it can be moved
into and out of the beam path. Even partial coverage of the beam
can be used, for example, to control the dose of irradiation. The
beam stop can be mounted to the floor, to a conveyor for the
biomass, to a wall, to the radiation device (e.g., at the scan
horn), or to any structural support. Preferably the beam stop is
fixed in relation to the scan horn so that the beam can be
effectively controlled by the beam stop. The beam stop can
incorporate a hinge, a rail, wheels, slots, or other means allowing
for its operation in moving into and out of the beam. The beam stop
can be made of any material that will stop at least 5% of the
electrons, e.g., at least 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, at
least 80%, 85%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99% or
even about 100% of the electrons.
[0115] The beam stop can be made of a metal including, but not
limited to, stainless steel, lead, iron, molybdenum, silver, gold,
titanium, aluminum, tin, or alloys of these, or laminates (layered
materials) made with such metals (e.g., metal-coated ceramic,
metal-coated polymer, metal-coated composite, multilayered metal
materials).
[0116] The beam stop can be cooled, for example, with a cooling
fluid such as an aqueous solution or a gas. The beam stop can be
partially or completely hollow, for example, with cavities.
Interior spaces of the beam stop can be used for cooling fluids and
gases. The beam stop can be of any shape, including flat, curved,
round, oval, square, rectangular, beveled and wedged shapes.
[0117] The beam stop can have perforations so as to allow some
electrons through, thus controlling (e.g., reducing) the levels of
radiation across the whole area of the window, or in specific
regions of the window. The beam stop can be a mesh formed, for
example, from fibers or wires. Multiple beam stops can be used,
together or independently, to control the irradiation. The beam
stop can be remotely controlled, e.g., by radio signal or hard
wired to a motor for moving the beam into or out of position.
Beam Dumps
[0118] The embodiments disclosed herein can also include a beam
dump when utilizing a radiation treatment. A beam dump's purpose is
to safely absorb a beam of charged particles. Like a beam stop, a
beam dump can be used to block the beam of charged particles.
However, a beam dump is much more robust than a beam stop, and is
intended to block the full power of the electron beam for an
extended period of time. They are often used to block the beam as
the accelerator is powering up.
[0119] Beam dumps are also designed to accommodate the heat
generated by such beams, and are usually made from materials such
as copper, aluminum, carbon, beryllium, tungsten, or mercury. Beam
dumps can be cooled, for example, using a cooling fluid that can be
in thermal contact with the beam dump.
Biomass Materials
[0120] Lignocellulosic materials include, but are not limited to,
wood, particle board, forestry wastes (e.g., sawdust, aspen wood,
wood chips), grasses, (e.g., switchgrass, miscanthus, cord grass,
reed canary grass), grain residues, (e.g., rice hulls, oat hulls,
wheat chaff, barley hulls), agricultural waste (e.g., silage,
canola straw, wheat straw, barley straw, oat straw, rice straw,
jute, hemp, flax, bamboo, sisal, abaca, corn cobs, corn stover,
soybean stover, corn fiber, alfalfa, hay, coconut hair), sugar
processing residues (e.g., bagasse, beet pulp, agave bagasse),
algae, seaweed, manure, sewage, and mixtures of any of these.
[0121] In some cases, the lignocellulosic material includes
corncobs. Ground or hammermilled corncobs can be spread in a layer
of relatively uniform thickness for irradiation, and after
irradiation are easy to disperse in the medium for further
processing. To facilitate harvest and collection, in some cases the
entire corn plant is used, including the corn stalk, corn kernels,
and in some cases even the root system of the plant.
[0122] Advantageously, no additional nutrients (other than a
nitrogen source, e.g., urea or ammonia) are required during
fermentation of corncobs or cellulosic or lignocellulosic materials
containing significant amounts of corncobs.
[0123] Corncobs, before and after comminution, are also easier to
convey and disperse, and have a lesser tendency to form explosive
mixtures in air than other cellulosic or lignocellulosic materials
such as hay and grasses.
[0124] Cellulosic materials include, for example, paper, paper
products, paper waste, paper pulp, pigmented papers, loaded papers,
coated papers, filled papers, magazines, printed matter (e.g.,
books, catalogs, manuals, labels, calendars, greeting cards,
brochures, prospectuses, newsprint), printer paper, polycoated
paper, card stock, cardboard, paperboard, materials having a high
a-cellulose content such as cotton, and mixtures of any of these.
For example, paper products as described in U.S. application Ser.
No. 13/396,365 ("Magazine Feedstocks" by Medoff et al., filed Feb.
14, 2012), the full disclosure of which is incorporated herein by
reference.
[0125] Cellulosic materials can also include lignocellulosic
materials which have been partially or fully de-lignified.
[0126] In some instances other biomass materials can be utilized,
for example, starchy materials. Starchy materials include starch
itself, e.g., corn starch, wheat starch, potato starch or rice
starch, a derivative of starch, or a material that includes starch,
such as an edible food product or a crop. For example, the starchy
material can be arracacha, buckwheat, banana, barley, cassava,
kudzu, ocra, sago, sorghum, regular household potatoes, sweet
potato, taro, yams, or one or more beans, such as favas, lentils or
peas. Blends of any two or more starchy materials are also starchy
materials. Mixtures of starchy, cellulosic and or lignocellulosic
materials can also be used. For example, a biomass can be an entire
plant, a part of a plant or different parts of a plant, e.g., a
wheat plant, cotton plant, a corn plant, rice plant or a tree. The
starchy materials can be treated by any of the methods described
herein.
[0127] Microbial materials that can be used as feedstock can
include, but are not limited to, any naturally occurring or
genetically modified microorganism or organism that contains or is
capable of providing a source of carbohydrates (e.g., cellulose),
for example, protists, e.g., animal protists (e.g., protozoa such
as flagellates, amoeboids, ciliates, and sporozoa) and plant
protists (e.g., algae such alveolates, chlorarachniophytes,
cryptomonads, euglenids, glaucophytes, haptophytes, red algae,
stramenopiles, and viridaeplantae). Other examples include seaweed,
plankton (e.g., macroplankton, mesoplankton, microplankton,
nanoplankton, picoplankton, and femptoplankton), phytoplankton,
bacteria (e.g., gram positive bacteria, gram negative bacteria, and
extremophiles), yeast and/or mixtures of these. In some instances,
microbial biomass can be obtained from natural sources, e.g., the
ocean, lakes, bodies of water, e.g., salt water or fresh water, or
on land. Alternatively or in addition, microbial biomass can be
obtained from culture systems, e.g., large scale dry and wet
culture and fermentation systems.
[0128] In other embodiments, the biomass materials, such as
cellulosic, starchy and lignocellulosic feedstock materials, can be
obtained from transgenic microorganisms and plants that have been
modified with respect to a wild type variety. Such modifications
may be, for example, through the iterative steps of selection and
breeding to obtain desired traits in a plant. Furthermore, the
plants can have had genetic material removed, modified, silenced
and/or added with respect to the wild type variety. For example,
genetically modified plants can be produced by recombinant DNA
methods, where genetic modifications include introducing or
modifying specific genes from parental varieties, or, for example,
by using transgenic breeding wherein a specific gene or genes are
introduced to a plant from a different species of plant and/or
bacteria. Another way to create genetic variation is through
mutation breeding wherein new alleles are artificially created from
endogenous genes. The artificial genes can be created by a variety
of ways including treating the plant or seeds with, for example,
chemical mutagens (e.g., using alkylating agents, epoxides,
alkaloids, peroxides, formaldehyde), irradiation (e.g., X-rays,
gamma rays, neutrons, beta particles, alpha particles, protons,
deuterons, UV radiation) and temperature shocking or other external
stressing and subsequent selection techniques. Other methods of
providing modified genes is through error prone PCR and DNA
shuffling followed by insertion of the desired modified DNA into
the desired plant or seed. Methods of introducing the desired
genetic variation in the seed or plant include, for example, the
use of a bacterial carrier, biolistics, calcium phosphate
precipitation, electroporation, gene splicing, gene silencing,
lipofection, microinjection and viral carriers. Additional
genetically modified materials have been described in U.S.
application Ser. No. 13/396,369 filed Feb. 14, 2012 the full
disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference.
[0129] Any of the methods described herein can be practiced with
mixtures of any biomass materials described herein.
Other Materials
[0130] Other materials (e.g., natural or synthetic materials), for
example, polymers, can be treated and/or made utilizing the
methods, equipment and systems described herein. For example,
polyethylene (e.g., linear low density ethylene and high density
polyethylene), polystyrenes, sulfonated polystyrenes, poly (vinyl
chloride), polyesters (e.g., nylons, DACRON.TM., KODEL.TM.),
polyalkylene esters, poly vinyl esters, polyamides (e.g.,
KEVLAR.TM.), polyethylene terephthalate, cellulose acetate, acetal,
poly acrylonitrile, polycarbonates (LEXAN.TM.), acrylics [e.g.,
poly (methyl methacrylate), poly(methyl methacrylate),
polyacrylonitrile], Poly urethanes, polypropylene, poly butadiene,
polyisobutylene, polyacrylonitrile, polychloroprene (e.g.
neoprene), poly(cis-1,4-isoprene) [e.g., natural rubber],
poly(trans-1,4-isoprene) [e.g., gutta percha], phenol formaldehyde,
melamine formaldehyde, epoxides, polyesters, poly amines,
polycarboxylic acids, polylactic acids, polyvinyl alcohols,
polyanhydrides, poly fluoro carbons (e.g., TEFLON.TM.), silicons
(e.g., silicone rubber), polysilanes, poly ethers (e.g.,
polyethylene oxide, polypropylene oxide), waxes, oils and mixtures
of these. Also included are plastics, rubbers, elastomers, fibers,
waxes, gels, oils, adhesives, thermoplastics, thermosets,
biodegradable polymers, resins made with these polymers, other
polymers, other materials and combinations thereof. The polymers
can be made by any useful method including cationic polymerization,
anionic polymerization, radical polymerization, metathesis
polymerization, ring opening polymerization, graft polymerization,
addition polymerization. In some cases the treatments disclosed
herein can be used, for example, for radically initiated graft
polymerization and cross linking.
[0131] Composites of polymers, for example, with glass, metals,
biomass (e.g., fibers, particles), ceramics can also be treated
and/or made.
[0132] Other materials that can be treated by using the methods,
systems and equipment disclosed herein are ceramic materials,
minerals, metals, inorganic compounds. For example, silicon and
germanium crystals, silicon nitrides, metal oxides, semiconductors,
insulators, cements and or conductors.
[0133] In addition, manufactured multipart or shaped materials
(e.g., molded, extruded, welded, riveted, layered or combined in
any way) can be treated, for example, cables, pipes, boards,
enclosures, integrated semiconductor chips, circuit boards, wires,
tires, windows, laminated materials, gears, belts, machines,
combinations of these. For example, treating a material by the
methods described herein can modify the surfaces, for example,
making them susceptible to further functionalization, combinations
(e.g., welding) and/or treatment can cross link the materials.
Biomass Material Preparation--Mechanical Treatments
[0134] The biomass can be in a dry form, for example, with less
than about 35% moisture content (e.g., less than about 20%, less
than about 15%, less than about 10% less than about 5%, less than
about 4%, less than about 3%, less than about 2% or even less than
about 1%). The biomass can also be delivered in a wet state, for
example, as a wet solid, a slurry or a suspension with at least
about 10 wt. % solids (e.g., at least about 20 wt. %, at least
about 30 wt. %, at least about 40 wt. %, at least about 50 wt. %,
at least about 60 wt. %, at least about 70 wt. %).
[0135] The processes disclosed herein can utilize low bulk density
materials, for example, cellulosic or lignocellulosic feedstocks
that have been physically pretreated to have a bulk density of less
than about 0.75 g/cm.sup.3, e.g., less than about 0.7, 0.65, 0.60,
0.50, 0.35, 0.25, 0.20, 0.15, 0.10, 0.05 or less, e.g., less than
about 0.025 g/cm.sup.3. Bulk density is determined using ASTM
D1895B. Briefly, the method involves filling a measuring cylinder
of known volume with a sample and obtaining a weight of the sample.
The bulk density is calculated by dividing the weight of the sample
in grams by the known volume of the cylinder in cubic centimeters.
If desired, low bulk density materials can be densified, for
example, by methods described in U.S. Pat. No. 7,971,809 to Medoff,
the full disclosure of which is hereby incorporated by
reference.
[0136] In some cases, the pre-treatment processing includes
screening of the biomass material. Screening can be through a mesh
or perforated plate with a desired opening size, for example, less
than about 6.35 mm (1/4 inch, 0.25 inch), (e.g., less than about
3.18 mm (1/8 inch, 0.125 inch), less than about 1.59 mm ( 1/16
inch, 0.0625 inch), is less than about 0.79 mm ( 1/32 inch, 0.03125
inch), e.g., less than about 0.51 mm ( 1/50 inch, 0.02000 inch),
less than about 0.40 mm ( 1/64 inch, 0.015625 inch), less than
about 0.23 mm (0.009 inch), less than about 0.20 mm ( 1/128 inch,
0.0078125 inch), less than about 0.18 mm (0.007 inch), less than
about 0.13 mm (0.005 inch), or even less than about 0.10 mm ( 1/256
inch, 0.00390625 inch)). In one configuration the desired biomass
falls through the perforations or screen and thus biomass larger
than the perforations or screen are not irradiated. These larger
materials can be reprocessed, for example, by comminuting, or they
can simply be removed from processing. In another configuration
material that is larger than the perforations is irradiated and the
smaller material is removed by the screening process or recycled.
In this kind of a configuration, the conveyor itself (for example,
a part of the conveyor) can be perforated or made with a mesh. For
example, in one particular embodiment the biomass material may be
wet and the perforations or mesh allow water to drain away from the
biomass before irradiation.
[0137] Screening of material can also be by a manual method, for
example, by an operator or mechanoid (e.g., a robot equipped with a
color, reflectivity or other sensor) that removes unwanted
material. Screening can also be by magnetic screening wherein a
magnet is disposed near the conveyed material and the magnetic
material is removed magnetically.
[0138] Optional pre-treatment processing can include heating the
material. For example, a portion of a conveyor conveying the
biomass or other material can be sent through a heated zone. The
heated zone can be created, for example, by IR radiation,
microwaves, combustion (e.g., gas, coal, oil, biomass), resistive
heating and/or inductive coils. The heat can be applied from at
least one side or more than one side, can be continuous or periodic
and can be for only a portion of the material or all the material.
For example, a portion of the conveying trough can be heated by use
of a heating jacket. Heating can be, for example, for the purpose
of drying the material. In the case of drying the material, this
can also be facilitated, with or without heating, by the movement
of a gas (e.g., air, oxygen, nitrogen, He, CO.sub.2, Argon) over
and/or through the biomass as it is being conveyed.
[0139] Optionally, pre-treatment processing can include cooling the
material. Cooling material is described in U.S. Pat. No. 7,900,857
to Medoff, the disclosure of which in incorporated herein by
reference. For example, cooling can be by supplying a cooling
fluid, for example, water (e.g., with glycerol), or nitrogen (e.g.,
liquid nitrogen) to the bottom of the conveying trough.
Alternatively, a cooling gas, for example, chilled nitrogen can be
blown over the biomass materials or under the conveying system.
[0140] Another optional pre-treatment processing method can include
adding a material to the biomass or other feedstocks. The
additional material can be added by, for example, by showering,
sprinkling and or pouring the material onto the biomass as it is
conveyed. Materials that can be added include, for example, metals,
ceramics and/or ions as described in U.S. Pat. App. Pub.
2010/0105119 A1 (filed Oct. 26, 2009) and U.S. Pat. App. Pub.
2010/0159569 A1 (filed Dec. 16, 2009), the entire disclosures of
which are incorporated herein by reference. Optional materials that
can be added include acids and bases. Other materials that can be
added are oxidants (e.g., peroxides, chlorates), polymers,
polymerizable monomers (e.g., containing unsaturated bonds), water,
catalysts, enzymes and/or organisms. Materials can be added, for
example, in pure form, as a solution in a solvent (e.g., water or
an organic solvent) and/or as a solution. In some cases the solvent
is volatile and can be made to evaporate e.g., by heating and/or
blowing gas as previously described. The added material may form a
uniform coating on the biomass or be a homogeneous mixture of
different components (e.g., biomass and additional material). The
added material can modulate the subsequent irradiation step by
increasing the efficiency of the irradiation, damping the
irradiation or changing the effect of the irradiation (e.g., from
electron beams to X-rays or heat). The method may have no impact on
the irradiation but may be useful for further downstream
processing. The added material may help in conveying the material,
for example, by lowering dust levels.
[0141] Biomass can be delivered to a conveyor (e.g., vibratory
conveyors that can be used in the vaults herein described) by a
belt conveyor, a pneumatic conveyor, a screw conveyor, a hopper, a
pipe, manually or by a combination of these. The biomass can, for
example, be dropped, poured and/or placed onto the conveyor by any
of these methods. In some embodiments the material is delivered to
the conveyor using an enclosed material distribution system to help
maintain a low oxygen atmosphere and/or control dust and fines.
Lofted or air suspended biomass fines and dust are undesirable
because these can form an explosion hazard or damage the window
foils of an electron gun (if such a device is used for treating the
material).
[0142] The material can be leveled to form a uniform thickness
between about 0.0312 and 5 inches (e.g., between about 0.0625 and
2.000 inches, between about 0.125 and 1 inches, between about 0.125
and 0.5 inches, between about 0.3 and 0.9 inches, between about 0.2
and 0.5 inches between about 0.25 and 1.0 inches, between about
0.25 and 0.5 inches, 0.100+/-0.025 inches, 0.150+/-0.025 inches,
0.200+/-0.025 inches, 0.250+/-0.025 inches, 0.300+/-0.025 inches,
0.350+/-0.025 inches, 0.400+/-0.025 inches, 0.450+/-0.025 inches,
0.500+/-0.025 inches, 0.550+/-0.025 inches, 0.600+/-0.025 inches,
0.700+/-0.025 inches, 0.750+/-0.025 inches, 0.800+/-0.025 inches,
0.850+/-0.025 inches, 0.900+/-0.025 inches, 0.900+/-0.025
inches.
[0143] Generally, it is preferred to convey the material as quickly
as possible through the electron beam to maximize throughput. For
example, the material can be conveyed at rates of at least 1
ft/min, e.g., at least 2 ft/min, at least 3 ft/min, at least 4
ft/min, at least 5 ft/min, at least 10 ft/min, at least 15 ft/min,
20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50 ft/min. The rate of conveying is related
to the beam current, for example, for a 1/4 inch thick biomass and
100 mA, the conveyor can move at about 20 ft/min to provide a
useful irradiation dosage, at 50 mA the conveyor can move at about
10 ft/min to provide approximately the same irradiation dosage.
[0144] After the biomass material has been conveyed through the
radiation zone, optional post-treatment processing can be done. The
optional post-treatment processing can, for example, be a process
described with respect to the pre-irradiation processing. For
example, the biomass can be screened, heated, cooled, and/or
combined with additives. Uniquely to post-irradiation, quenching of
the radicals can occur, for example, by the addition of fluids or
gases (e.g., oxygen, nitrous oxide, ammonia and/or liquids), using
pressure, heat, and/or the addition of radical scavengers. For
example, the biomass can be conveyed out of the enclosed conveyor
and exposed to a gas (e.g., oxygen) where it is quenched, forming
carboxylated groups. In one embodiment, the biomass is exposed
during irradiation to the reactive gas or fluid. Quenching of
biomass that has been irradiated is described in U.S. Pat. No.
8,083,906 to Medoff, the entire disclosure of which is incorporate
herein by reference.
[0145] If desired, one or more mechanical treatments can be used in
addition to irradiation to further reduce the recalcitrance of the
carbohydrate-containing material. These processes can be applied
before, during and/or after irradiation.
[0146] In some cases, the mechanical treatment may include an
initial preparation of the feedstock as received, e.g., size
reduction of materials, such as by comminution, e.g., cutting,
grinding, shearing, pulverizing or chopping. For example, in some
cases, loose feedstock (e.g., recycled paper, starchy materials, or
switchgrass) is prepared by shearing or shredding. Mechanical
treatment may reduce the bulk density of the
carbohydrate-containing material, increase the surface area of the
carbohydrate-containing material and/or decrease one or more
dimensions of the carbohydrate-containing material.
[0147] Alternatively, or in addition, the feedstock material can be
treated with another treatment, for example, chemical treatments,
such as an acid (HCl, H.sub.2SO.sub.4, H.sub.3PO.sub.4), a base
(e.g., KOH and NaOH), a chemical oxidant (e.g., peroxides,
chlorates, ozone), irradiation, steam explosion, pyrolysis,
sonication, oxidation, chemical treatment. The treatments can be in
any order and in any sequence and combinations. For example, the
feedstock material can first be physically treated by one or more
treatment methods, e.g., chemical treatment including and in
combination with acid hydrolysis (e.g., utilizing HCl,
H.sub.2SO.sub.4, H.sub.3PO.sub.4), radiation, sonication,
oxidation, pyrolysis or steam explosion, and then mechanically
treated. This sequence can be advantageous since materials treated
by one or more of the other treatments, e.g., irradiation or
pyrolysis, tend to be more brittle and, therefore, it may be easier
to further change the structure of the material by mechanical
treatment. As another example, a feedstock material can be conveyed
through ionizing radiation using a conveyor as described herein and
then mechanically treated. Chemical treatment can remove some or
all of the lignin (for example, chemical pulping) and can partially
or completely hydrolyze the material. The methods also can be used
with pre-hydrolyzed material. The methods also can be used with
material that has not been pre-hydrolyzed. The methods can be used
with mixtures of hydrolyzed and non-hydrolyzed materials, for
example, with about 50% or more non-hydrolyzed material, with about
60% or more non-hydrolyzed material, with about 70% or more
non-hydrolyzed material, with about 80% or more non-hydrolyzed
material or even with 90% or more non-hydrolyzed material.
[0148] In addition to size reduction, which can be performed
initially and/or later in processing, mechanical treatment can also
be advantageous for "opening up," "stressing," breaking or
shattering the carbohydrate-containing materials, making the
cellulose of the materials more susceptible to chain scission
and/or disruption of crystalline structure during the physical
treatment.
[0149] Methods of mechanically treating the carbohydrate-containing
material include, for example, milling or grinding. Milling may be
performed using, for example, a hammer mill, ball mill, colloid
mill, conical or cone mill, disk mill, edge mill, Wiley mill, grist
mill or other mill. Grinding may be performed using, for example, a
cutting/impact type grinder. Some exemplary grinders include stone
grinders, pin grinders, coffee grinders, and burr grinders.
Grinding or milling may be provided, for example, by a
reciprocating pin or other element, as is the case in a pin mill.
Other mechanical treatment methods include mechanical ripping or
tearing, other methods that apply pressure to the fibers, and air
attrition milling. Suitable mechanical treatments further include
any other technique that continues the disruption of the internal
structure of the material that was initiated by the previous
processing steps.
[0150] Mechanical feed preparation systems can be configured to
produce streams with specific characteristics such as, for example,
specific maximum sizes, specific length-to-width, or specific
surface areas ratios. Physical preparation can increase the rate of
reactions, improve the movement of material on a conveyor, improve
the irradiation profile of the material, improve the radiation
uniformity of the material, or reduce the processing time required
by opening up the materials and making them more accessible to
processes and/or reagents, such as reagents in a solution.
[0151] The bulk density of feedstocks can be controlled (e.g.,
increased). In some situations, it can be desirable to prepare a
low bulk density material, e.g., by densifying the material (e.g.,
densification can make it easier and less costly to transport to
another site) and then reverting the material to a lower bulk
density state (e.g., after transport). The material can be
densified, for example, from less than about 0.2 g/cc to more than
about 0.9 g/cc (e.g., less than about 0.3 to more than about 0.5
g/cc, less than about 0.3 to more than about 0.9 g/cc, less than
about 0.5 to more than about 0.9 g/cc, less than about 0.3 to more
than about 0.8 g/cc, less than about 0.2 to more than about 0.5
g/cc). For example, the material can be densified by the methods
and equipment disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 7,932,065 to Medoff and
International Publication No. WO 2008/073186 (which was filed Oct.
26, 2007, was published in English, and which designated the United
States), the full disclosures of which are incorporated herein by
reference. Densified materials can be processed by any of the
methods described herein, or any material processed by any of the
methods described herein can be subsequently densified.
[0152] In some embodiments, the material to be processed is in the
form of a fibrous material that includes fibers provided by
shearing a fiber source. For example, the shearing can be performed
with a rotary knife cutter.
[0153] For example, a fiber source, e.g., that is recalcitrant or
that has had its recalcitrance level reduced, can be sheared, e.g.,
in a rotary knife cutter, to provide a first fibrous material. The
first fibrous material is passed through a first screen, e.g.,
having an average opening size of 1.59 mm or less ( 1/16 inch,
0.0625 inch), provide a second fibrous material. If desired, the
fiber source can be cut prior to the shearing, e.g., with a
shredder. For example, when a paper is used as the fiber source,
the paper can be first cut into strips that are, e.g., 1/4- to
1/2-inch wide, using a shredder, e.g., a counter-rotating screw
shredder, such as those manufactured by Munson (Utica, N.Y.). As an
alternative to shredding, the paper can be reduced in size by
cutting to a desired size using a guillotine cutter. For example,
the guillotine cutter can be used to cut the paper into sheets that
are, e.g., 10 inches wide by 12 inches long.
[0154] In some embodiments, the shearing of the fiber source and
the passing of the resulting first fibrous material through a first
screen are performed concurrently. The shearing and the passing can
also be performed in a batch-type process.
[0155] For example, a rotary knife cutter can be used to
concurrently shear the fiber source and screen the first fibrous
material. A rotary knife cutter includes a hopper that can be
loaded with a shredded fiber source prepared by shredding a fiber
source.
[0156] In some implementations, the feedstock is physically treated
prior to saccharification and/or fermentation. Physical treatment
processes can include one or more of any of those described herein,
such as mechanical treatment, chemical treatment, irradiation,
sonication, oxidation, pyrolysis or steam explosion. Treatment
methods can be used in combinations of two, three, four, or even
all of these technologies (in any order). When more than one
treatment method is used, the methods can be applied at the same
time or at different times. Other processes that change a molecular
structure of a biomass feedstock may also be used, alone or in
combination with the processes disclosed herein.
[0157] Mechanical treatments that may be used, and the
characteristics of the mechanically treated carbohydrate-containing
materials, are described in further detail in U.S. Pat. App. Pub.
2012/0100577 A1, filed Oct. 18, 2011, the full disclosure of which
is hereby incorporated herein by reference.
Sonication, Pyrolysis, Oxidation, Steam Explosion
[0158] If desired, one or more sonication, pyrolysis, oxidative, or
steam explosion processes can be used, instead of or in addition
to, irradiation to reduce or further reduce the recalcitrance of
the carbohydrate-containing material. For example, these processes
can be applied before, during and/or after irradiation. These
processes are described in detail in U.S. Pat. No. 7,932,065 to
Medoff, the full disclosure of which is incorporated herein by
reference
Intermediates and Products
[0159] Using the processes described herein, the biomass material
can be converted to one or more products, such as energy, fuels,
foods and materials. For example, intermediates and products such
as organic acids, salts of organic acids, anhydrides, esters of
organic acids and fuels, e.g., fuels for internal combustion
engines or feedstocks for fuel cells. Systems and processes are
described herein that can use as feedstock cellulosic and/or
lignocellulosic materials that are readily available, but often can
be difficult to process, e.g., municipal waste streams and waste
paper streams, such as streams that include newspaper, Kraft paper,
corrugated paper or mixtures of these.
[0160] Specific examples of products include, but are not limited
to, hydrogen, sugars (e.g., glucose, xylose, arabinose, mannose,
galactose, fructose, disaccharides, oligosaccharides and
polysaccharides), alcohols (e.g., monohydric alcohols or dihydric
alcohols, such as ethanol, n-propanol, isobutanol, sec-butanol,
tert-butanol or n-butanol), hydrated or hydrous alcohols (e.g.,
containing greater than 10%, 20%, 30% or even greater than 40%
water), biodiesel, organic acids, hydrocarbons (e.g., methane,
ethane, propane, isobutene, pentane, n-hexane, biodiesel,
bio-gasoline and mixtures thereof), co-products (e.g., proteins,
such as cellulolytic proteins (enzymes) or single cell proteins),
and mixtures of any of these in any combination or relative
concentration, and optionally, in combination with any additives
(e.g., fuel additives). Other examples include carboxylic acids,
salts of a carboxylic acid, a mixture of carboxylic acids and salts
of carboxylic acids and esters of carboxylic acids (e.g., methyl,
ethyl and n-propyl esters), ketones (e.g., acetone), aldehydes
(e.g., acetaldehyde), alpha and beta unsaturated acids (e.g.,
acrylic acid) and olefins (e.g., ethylene). Other alcohols and
alcohol derivatives include propanol, propylene glycol,
1,4-butanediol, 1,3-propanediol, sugar alcohols (e.g., erythritol,
glycol, glycerol, sorbitol threitol, arabitol, ribitol, mannitol,
dulcitol, fucitol, iditol, isomalt, maltitol, lactitol, xylitol and
other polyols), and methyl or ethyl esters of any of these
alcohols. Other products include methyl acrylate,
methylmethacrylate, lactic acid, citric acid, formic acid, acetic
acid, propionic acid, butyric acid, succinic acid, valeric acid,
caproic acid, 3-hydroxypropionic acid, palmitic acid, stearic acid,
oxalic acid, malonic acid, glutaric acid, oleic acid, linoleic
acid, glycolic acid, gamma-hydroxybutyric acid, and mixtures
thereof, salts of any of these acids, mixtures of any of the acids
and their respective salts.
[0161] Any combination of the above products with each other,
and/or of the above products with other products, which other
products may be made by the processes described herein or
otherwise, may be packaged together and sold as products. The
products may be combined, e.g., mixed, blended or co-dissolved, or
may simply be packaged or sold together.
[0162] Any of the products or combinations of products described
herein may be sanitized or sterilized prior to selling the
products, e.g., after purification or isolation or even after
packaging, to neutralize one or more potentially undesirable
contaminants that could be present in the product(s). Such
sanitation can be done with electron bombardment, for example, be
at a dosage of less than about 20 Mrad, e.g., from about 0.1 to 15
Mrad, from about 0.5 to 7 Mrad, or from about 1 to 3 Mrad.
[0163] The processes described herein can produce various
by-product streams useful for generating steam and electricity to
be used in other parts of the plant (co-generation) or sold on the
open market. For example, steam generated from burning by-product
streams can be used in a distillation process. As another example,
electricity generated from burning by-product streams can be used
to power electron beam generators used in pretreatment.
[0164] The by-products used to generate steam and electricity are
derived from a number of sources throughout the process. For
example, anaerobic digestion of wastewater can produce a biogas
high in methane and a small amount of waste biomass (sludge). As
another example, post-saccharification and/or post-distillate
solids (e.g., unconverted lignin, cellulose, and hemicellulose
remaining from the pretreatment and primary processes) can be used,
e.g., burned, as a fuel.
[0165] Other intermediates and products, including food and
pharmaceutical products, are described in U.S. Pat. App. Pub.
2010/0124583 A1, published May 20, 2010, to Medoff, the full
disclosure of which is hereby incorporated by reference herein.
Lignin Derived Products
[0166] The spent biomass (e.g., spent lignocellulosic material)
from lignocellulosic processing by the methods described are
expected to have a high lignin content and in addition to being
useful for producing energy through combustion in a Co-Generation
plant, may have uses as other valuable products. For example, the
lignin can be used as captured as a plastic, or it can be
synthetically upgraded to other plastics. In some instances, it can
also be converted to lignosulfonates, which can be utilized as
binders, dispersants, emulsifiers or sequestrants.
[0167] When used as a binder, the lignin or a lignosulfonate can,
e.g., be utilized in coal briquettes, in ceramics, for binding
carbon black, for binding fertilizers and herbicides, as a dust
suppressant, in the making of plywood and particle board, for
binding animal feeds, as a binder for fiberglass, as a binder in
linoleum paste and as a soil stabilizer.
[0168] When used as a dispersant, the lignin or lignosulfonates can
be used, for example in, concrete mixes, clay and ceramics, dyes
and pigments, leather tanning and in gypsum board.
[0169] When used as an emulsifier, the lignin or lignosulfonates
can be used, e.g., in asphalt, pigments and dyes, pesticides and
wax emulsions.
[0170] As a sequestrant, the lignin or lignosulfonates can be used,
e.g., in micro-nutrient systems, cleaning compounds and water
treatment systems, e.g., for boiler and cooling systems.
[0171] For energy production lignin generally has a higher energy
content than holocellulose (cellulose and hemicellulose) since it
contains more carbon than homocellulose. For example, dry lignin
can have an energy content of between about 11,000 and 12,500 BTU
per pound, compared to 7,000 an 8,000 BTU per pound of
holocellulose. As such, lignin can be densified and converted into
briquettes and pellets for burning. For example, the lignin can be
converted into pellets by any method described herein. For a slower
burning pellet or briquette, the lignin can be crosslinked, such as
applying a radiation dose of between about 0.5 Mrad and 5 Mrad.
Crosslinking can make a slower burning form factor. The form
factor, such as a pellet or briquette, can be converted to a
"synthetic coal" or charcoal by pyrolyzing in the absence of air,
e.g., at between 400 and 950.degree. C. Prior to pyrolyzing, it can
be desirable to crosslink the lignin to maintain structural
integrity.
Saccharification
[0172] In order to convert the feedstock to a form that can be
readily processed, the glucan- or xylan-containing cellulose in the
feedstock can be hydrolyzed to low molecular weight carbohydrates,
such as sugars, by a saccharifying agent, e.g., an enzyme or acid,
a process referred to as saccharification. The low molecular weight
carbohydrates can then be used, for example, in an existing
manufacturing plant, such as a single cell protein plant, an enzyme
manufacturing plant, or a fuel plant, e.g., an ethanol
manufacturing facility.
[0173] The feedstock can be hydrolyzed using an enzyme, e.g., by
combining the materials and the enzyme in a solvent, e.g., in an
aqueous solution.
[0174] Alternatively, the enzymes can be supplied by organisms that
break down biomass, such as the cellulose and/or the lignin
portions of the biomass, contain or manufacture various
cellulolytic enzymes (cellulases), ligninases or various small
molecule biomass-degrading metabolites. These enzymes may be a
complex of enzymes that act synergistically to degrade crystalline
cellulose or the lignin portions of biomass. Examples of
cellulolytic enzymes include: endoglucanases, cellobiohydrolases,
and cellobiases (beta-glucosidases).
[0175] During saccharification, a cellulosic substrate can be
initially hydrolyzed by endoglucanases at random locations
producing oligomeric intermediates. These intermediates are then
substrates for exo-splitting glucanases such as cellobiohydrolase
to produce cellobiose from the ends of the cellulose polymer.
Cellobiose is a water-soluble 1,4-linked dimer of glucose. Finally,
cellobiase cleaves cellobiose to yield glucose. The efficiency
(e.g., time to hydrolyze and/or completeness of hydrolysis) of this
process depends on the recalcitrance of the cellulosic
material.
[0176] Therefore, the treated biomass materials can be
saccharified, generally by combining the material and a cellulase
enzyme in a fluid medium, e.g., an aqueous solution. In some cases,
the material is boiled, steeped, or cooked in hot water prior to
saccharification, as described in U.S. Pat. App. Pub. 2012/0100577
A1 by Medoff and Masterman, published on Apr. 26, 2012, the entire
contents of which are incorporated herein.
[0177] The saccharification process can be partially or completely
performed in a tank (e.g., a tank having a volume of at least 4000,
40,000, or 500,000 L) in a manufacturing plant, and/or can be
partially or completely performed in transit, e.g., in a rail car,
tanker truck, or in a supertanker or the hold of a ship. The time
required for complete saccharification will depend on the process
conditions and the carbohydrate-containing material and enzyme
used. If saccharification is performed in a manufacturing plant
under controlled conditions, the cellulose may be substantially
entirely converted to sugar, e.g., glucose in about 12-96 hours. If
saccharification is performed partially or completely in transit,
saccharification may take longer.
[0178] It is generally preferred that the tank contents be mixed
during saccharification, e.g., using jet mixing as described in
International App. No. PCT/US2010/035331, filed May 18, 2010, which
was published in English as WO 2010/135380 and designated the
United States, the full disclosure of which is incorporated by
reference herein.
[0179] The addition of surfactants can enhance the rate of
saccharification. Examples of surfactants include non-ionic
surfactants, such as a Tween.RTM. 20 or Tween.RTM. 80 polyethylene
glycol surfactants, ionic surfactants, or amphoteric
surfactants.
[0180] It is generally preferred that the concentration of the
sugar solution resulting from saccharification be relatively high,
e.g., greater than 40%, or greater than 50, 60, 70, 80, 90 or even
greater than 95% by weight. Water may be removed, e.g., by
evaporation, to increase the concentration of the sugar solution.
This reduces the volume to be shipped, and also inhibits microbial
growth in the solution.
[0181] Alternatively, sugar solutions of lower concentrations may
be used, in which case it may be desirable to add an antimicrobial
additive, e.g., a broad spectrum antibiotic, in a low
concentration, e.g., 50 to 150 ppm. Other suitable antibiotics
include amphotericin B, ampicillin, chloramphenicol, ciprofloxacin,
gentamicin, hygromycin B, kanamycin, neomycin, penicillin,
puromycin, streptomycin. Antibiotics will inhibit growth of
microorganisms during transport and storage, and can be used at
appropriate concentrations, e.g., between 15 and 1000 ppm by
weight, e.g., between 25 and 500 ppm, or between 50 and 150 ppm. If
desired, an antibiotic can be included even if the sugar
concentration is relatively high. Alternatively, other additives
with anti-microbial preservative properties may be used. Preferably
the antimicrobial additive(s) are food-grade.
[0182] A relatively high concentration solution can be obtained by
limiting the amount of water added to the carbohydrate-containing
material with the enzyme. The concentration can be controlled,
e.g., by controlling how much saccharification takes place. For
example, concentration can be increased by adding more
carbohydrate-containing material to the solution. In order to keep
the sugar that is being produced in solution, a surfactant can be
added, e.g., one of those discussed above. Solubility can also be
increased by increasing the temperature of the solution. For
example, the solution can be maintained at a temperature of
40-50.degree. C., 60-80.degree. C., or even higher.
Saccharifying Agents
[0183] Suitable cellulolytic enzymes include cellulases from
species in the genera Bacillus, Coprinus, Myceliophthora,
Cephalosporium, Scytalidium, Penicillium, Aspergillus, Pseudomonas,
Humicola, Fusarium, Thielavia, Acremonium, Chrysosporium and
Trichoderma, especially those produced by a strain selected from
the species Aspergillus (see, e.g., EP Pub. No. 0 458 162),
Humicola insolens (reclassified as Scytalidium thermophilum, see,
e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 4,435,307), Coprinus cinereus, Fusarium
oxysporum, Myceliophthora thermophila, Meripilus giganteus,
Thielavia terrestris, Acremonium sp. (including, but not limited
to, A. persicinum, A. acremonium, A. brachypenium, A.
dichromosporum, A. obclavatum, A. pinkertoniae, A. roseogriseum, A.
incoloratum, and A. furatum). Preferred strains include Humicola
insolens DSM 1800, Fusarium oxysporum DSM 2672, Myceliophthora
thermophila CBS 117.65, Cephalosporium sp. RYM-202, Acremonium sp.
CBS 478.94, Acremonium sp. CBS 265.95, Acremonium persicinum CBS
169.65, Acremonium acremonium AHU 9519, Cephalosporium sp. CBS
535.71, Acremonium brachypenium CBS 866.73, Acremonium
dichromosporum CBS 683.73, Acremonium obclavatum CBS 311.74,
Acremonium pinkertoniae CBS 157.70, Acremonium roseogriseum CBS
134.56, Acremonium incoloratum CBS 146.62, and Acremonium furatum
CBS 299.70H. Cellulolytic enzymes may also be obtained from
Chrysosporium, preferably a strain of Chrysosporium lucknowense.
Additional strains that can be used include, but are not limited
to, Trichoderma (particularly T. viride, T. reesei, and T.
koningii), alkalophilic Bacillus (see, for example, U.S. Pat. No.
3,844,890 and EP Pub. No. 0 458 162), and Streptomyces (see, e.g.,
EP Pub. No. 0 458 162).
[0184] In addition to or in combination to enzymes, acids, bases
and other chemicals (e.g., oxidants) can be utilized to saccharify
lignocellulosic and cellulosic materials. These can be used in any
combination or sequence (e.g., before, after and/or during addition
of an enzyme). For example, strong mineral acids can be utilized
(e.g. HCl, H.sub.2SO.sub.4, H.sub.3PO.sub.4) and strong bases
(e.g., NaOH, KOH).
Sugars
[0185] In the processes described herein, for example, after
saccharification, sugars (e.g., glucose and xylose) can be
isolated. For example, sugars can be isolated by precipitation,
crystallization, chromatography (e.g., simulated moving bed
chromatography, high pressure chromatography), centrifugation,
extraction, any other isolation method known in the art, and
combinations thereof.
Hydrogenation and Other Chemical Transformations
[0186] The processes described herein can include hydrogenation.
For example, glucose and xylose can be hydrogenated to sorbitol and
xylitol, respectively. Hydrogenation can be accomplished by use of
a catalyst (e.g., Pt/gamma-Al.sub.2O.sub.3, Ru/C, Raney Nickel, or
other catalysts known in the art) in combination with H.sub.2 under
high pressure (e.g., 10 to 12000 psi). Other types of chemical
transformation of the products from the processes described herein
can be used, for example, production of organic sugar derived
products (e.g., furfural and furfural-derived products). Chemical
transformations of sugar derived products are described in U.S.
Ser. No. 13/934,704 filed Jul. 3, 2013, the entire disclosure of
which is incorporated herein by reference.
Fermentation
[0187] Yeast and Zymomonas bacteria, for example, can be used for
fermentation or conversion of sugar(s) to alcohol(s). Other
microorganisms are discussed below. The optimum pH for
fermentations is about pH 4 to 7. For example, the optimum pH for
yeast is from about pH 4 to 5, while the optimum pH for Zymomonas
is from about pH 5 to 6. Typical fermentation times are about 24 to
168 hours (e.g., 24 to 96 hrs) with temperatures in the range of
20.degree. C. to 40.degree. C. (e.g., 26.degree. C. to 40.degree.
C.); however thermophilic microorganisms prefer higher
temperatures.
[0188] In some embodiments, e.g., when anaerobic organisms are
used, at least a portion of the fermentation is conducted in the
absence of oxygen, e.g., under a blanket of an inert gas such as
N.sub.2, Ar, He, CO.sub.2 or mixtures thereof. Additionally, the
mixture may have a constant purge of an inert gas flowing through
the tank during part of or all of the fermentation. In some cases,
anaerobic conditions can be achieved or maintained by carbon
dioxide production during the fermentation and no additional inert
gas is needed.
[0189] In some embodiments, all or a portion of the fermentation
process can be interrupted before the low molecular weight sugar is
completely converted to a product (e.g., ethanol). The intermediate
fermentation products include sugar and carbohydrates in high
concentrations. The sugars and carbohydrates can be isolated via
any means known in the art. These intermediate fermentation
products can be used in preparation of food for human or animal
consumption. Additionally or alternatively, the intermediate
fermentation products can be ground to a fine particle size in a
stainless-steel laboratory mill to produce a flour-like substance.
Jet mixing may be used during fermentation, and in some cases
saccharification and fermentation are performed in the same
tank.
[0190] Nutrients for the microorganisms may be added during
saccharification and/or fermentation, for example, the food-based
nutrient packages described in U.S. Pat. App. Pub. 2012/0052536,
filed Jul. 15, 2011, the complete disclosure of which is
incorporated herein by reference.
[0191] "Fermentation" includes the methods and products that are
disclosed in application Nos. PCT/US2012/71093 published Jun. 27,
2013, PCT/US2012/71907 published Jun. 27, 2012, and
PCT/US2012/71083 published Jun. 27, 2012 the contents of which are
incorporated by reference herein in their entirety.
[0192] Mobile fermenters can be utilized, as described in
International App. No. PCT/US2007/074028 (which was filed Jul. 20,
2007, was published in English as WO 2008/011598 and designated the
United States) and has a U.S. Pat. No. 8,318,453, the contents of
which are incorporated herein in its entirety. Similarly, the
saccharification equipment can be mobile. Further, saccharification
and/or fermentation may be performed in part or entirely during
transit.
Fermentation Agents
[0193] The microorganism(s) used in fermentation can be
naturally-occurring microorganisms and/or engineered
microorganisms. For example, the microorganism can be a bacterium
(including, but not limited to, e.g., a cellulolytic bacterium), a
fungus, (including, but not limited to, e.g., a yeast), a plant, a
protist, e.g., a protozoa or a fungus-like protest (including, but
not limited to, e.g., a slime mold), or an alga. When the organisms
are compatible, mixtures of organisms can be utilized.
[0194] Suitable fermenting microorganisms have the ability to
convert carbohydrates, such as glucose, fructose, xylose,
arabinose, mannose, galactose, oligosaccharides or polysaccharides
into fermentation products. Fermenting microorganisms include
strains of the genus Saccharomyces spp. (including, but not limited
to, S. cerevisiae (baker's yeast), S. distaticus, S. uvarum), the
genus Kluyveromyces, (including, but not limited to, K. marxianus,
K. fragilis), the genus Candida (including, but not limited to, C.
pseudotropicalis, and C. brassicae), Pichia stipitis (a relative of
Candida shehatae), the genus Clavispora (including, but not limited
to, C. lusitaniae and C. opuntiae), the genus Pachysolen
(including, but not limited to, P. tannophilus), the genus
Bretannomyces (including, but not limited to, e.g., B. clausenii
(Philippidis, G. P., 1996, Cellulose Bioconversion Technology, in
Handbook on Bioethanol: Production and Utilization, Wyman, C. E.,
ed., Taylor & Francis, Washington, D.C., 179-212)). Other
suitable microorganisms include, for example, Zymomonas mobilis,
Clostridium spp. (including, but not limited to, C. thermocellum
(Philippidis, 1996, supra), C. saccharobutylacetonicum, C.
tyrobutyricum C. saccharobutylicum, C. Puniceum, C. beijernckii,
and C. acetobutylicum), Moniliella spp. (including but not limited
to M. pollinis, M. tomentosa, M. madida, M. nigrescens, M.
oedocephali, M. megachiliensis), Yarrowia lipolytica, Aureobasidium
sp., Trichosporonoides sp., Trigonopsis variabilis, Trichosporon
sp., Moniliellaacetoabutans sp., Typhula variabilis, Candida
magnoliae, Ustilaginomycetes sp., Pseudozyma tsukubaensis, yeast
species of genera Zygosaccharomyces, Debaryomyces, Hansenula and
Pichia, and fungi of the dematioid genus Torula (e.g., T.
corallina).
[0195] Many such microbial strains are publicly available, either
commercially or through depositories such as the ATCC (American
Type Culture Collection, Manassas, Va., USA), the NRRL
(Agricultural Research Service Culture Collection, Peoria, Ill.,
USA), or the DSMZ (Deutsche Sammlung von Mikroorganismen and
Zellkulturen GmbH, Braunschweig, Germany), to name a few.
[0196] Commercially available yeasts include, for example, RED
STAR.RTM./Lesaffre Ethanol Red (available from Red Star/Lesaffre,
USA), FALI.RTM. (available from Fleischmann's Yeast, a division of
Burns Philip Food Inc., USA), SUPERSTART.RTM. (available from
Alltech, now Lalemand), GERT STRAND.RTM. (available from Gert
Strand AB, Sweden) and FERMOL.RTM. (available from DSM
Specialties).
Distillation
[0197] After fermentation, the resulting fluids can be distilled
using, for example, a "beer column" to separate ethanol and other
alcohols from the majority of water and residual solids. The vapor
exiting the beer column can be, e.g., 35% by weight ethanol and can
be fed to a rectification column. A mixture of nearly azeotropic
(92.5%) ethanol and water from the rectification column can be
purified to pure (99.5%) ethanol using vapor-phase molecular
sieves. The beer column bottoms can be sent to the first effect of
a three-effect evaporator. The rectification column reflux
condenser can provide heat for this first effect. After the first
effect, solids can be separated using a centrifuge and dried in a
rotary dryer. A portion (25%) of the centrifuge effluent can be
recycled to fermentation and the rest sent to the second and third
evaporator effects. Most of the evaporator condensate can be
returned to the process as fairly clean condensate with a small
portion split off to waste water treatment to prevent build-up of
low-boiling compounds.
Hydrocarbon-Containing Materials
[0198] In other embodiments utilizing the methods and systems
described herein, hydrocarbon-containing materials can be
processed. Any process described herein can be used to treat any
hydrocarbon-containing material herein described.
"Hydrocarbon-containing materials," as used herein, is meant to
include oil sands, oil shale, tar sands, coal dust, coal slurry,
bitumen, various types of coal, and other naturally-occurring and
synthetic materials that include both hydrocarbon components and
solid matter. The solid matter can include wood, rock, sand, clay,
stone, silt, drilling slurry, or other solid organic and/or
inorganic matter. The term can also include waste products such as
drilling waste and by-products, refining waste and by-products, or
other waste products containing hydrocarbon components, such as
asphalt shingling and covering, asphalt pavement, etc.
Wood and Wood-Containing Materials
[0199] In yet other embodiments utilizing the methods and systems
described herein, wood and wood containing products can be
processed. For example, lumber products can be processed, e.g.
boards, sheets, laminates, beams, particle boards, composites,
rough cut wood, soft wood and hard wood. In addition cut trees,
bushes, wood chips, saw dust, roots, bark, stumps, decomposed wood
and other wood containing biomass material can be processed.
Conveying Systems
[0200] Various conveying systems can be used to convey the biomass
material, for example, as discussed, to a vault, and under an
electron beam in a vault. Exemplary conveyors are belt conveyors,
pneumatic conveyors, screw conveyors, carts, trains, trains or
carts on rails, elevators, front loaders, backhoes, cranes, various
scrapers and shovels, trucks, and throwing devices can be used. For
example, vibratory conveyors can be used in various processes
described herein. Vibratory conveyors are described in
PCT/US2013/64289 filed Oct. 10, 2013 the full disclosure of which
is incorporated by reference herein.
[0201] Vibratory conveyors are particularly useful for spreading
the material when it is a sachet or pouch or prior to it being
formed into a sealed web. Vibratory conveyors are also useful for
spreading material and producing a uniform layer on the conveyor
trough surface that is not in a sachet or pouch. For example, the
initial feedstock can form a pile of material that can be at least
four feet high (e.g., at least about 3 feet, at least about 2 feet,
at least about 1 foot, at least about 6 inches, at least about 5
inches, at least about, 4 inches, at least about 3 inches, at least
about 2 inches, at least about 1 inch, at least about 1/2 inch) and
spans less than the width of the conveyor (e.g., less than about
10%, less than about 20%, less than about 30%, less than about 40%,
less than about 50%, less than about 60%, less than about 70%, less
than about 80%, less than about 90%, less than about 95%, less than
about 99%). The vibratory conveyor can spread the material to span
the entire width of the conveyor trough and have a uniform
thickness, preferably as discussed above. In some cases, an
additional spreading method can be useful. For example, a spreader
such as a broadcast spreader, a drop spreader (e.g., a CHRISTY
SPREADER.TM.) or combinations thereof can be used to drop (e.g.,
place, pour, spill and/or sprinkle) the feedstock over a wide area.
Optionally, the spreader can deliver the biomass as a wide shower
or curtain onto the vibratory conveyor. Additionally, a second
conveyor, upstream from the first conveyor (e.g., the first
conveyor is used in the irradiation of the feedstock), can drop
biomass onto the first conveyor, where the second conveyor can have
a width transverse to the direction of conveying smaller than the
first conveyor. In particular, when the second conveyor is a
vibratory conveyor, the feedstock is spread by the action of the
second and first conveyor. In some optional embodiments, the second
conveyor ends in a bias cross cut discharge (e.g., a bias cut with
a ratio of 4:1) so that the material can be dropped as a wide
curtain (e.g., wider than the width of the second conveyor) onto
the first conveyor. The initial drop area of the biomass by the
spreader (e.g., broadcast spreader, drop spreader, conveyor, or
cross cut vibratory conveyor) can span the entire width of the
first vibratory conveyor, or it can span part of this width. Once
dropped onto the conveyor, the material is spread even more
uniformly by the vibrations of the conveyor so that, preferably,
the entire width of the conveyor is covered with a uniform layer of
biomass. In some embodiments combinations of spreaders can be used.
Some methods of spreading a feed stock are described in U.S. Pat.
No. 7,153,533, filed Jul. 23, 2002 and published Dec. 26, 2006, the
entire disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference.
[0202] Generally, it is preferred to convey the material as quickly
as possible through an electron beam to maximize throughput. For
example, the material can be conveyed at rates of at least 1
ft/min, e.g., at least 2 ft/min, at least 3 ft/min, at least 4
ft/min, at least 5 ft/min, at least 10 ft/min, at least 15 ft/min,
at least 20 ft/min, at least 25 ft/min, at least 30 ft/min, at
least 40 ft/min, at least 50 ft/min, at least 60 ft/min, at least
70 ft/min, at least 80 ft/min, at least 90 ft/min The rate of
conveying is related to the beam current and targeted irradiation
dose, for example, for a 1/4 inch thick biomass spread over a 5.5
foot wide conveyor and 100 mA, the conveyor can move at about 20
ft/min to provide a useful irradiation dosage (e.g. about 10 Mrad
for a single pass), at 50 mA the conveyor can move at about 10
ft/min to provide approximately the same irradiation dosage.
[0203] The rate at which material can be conveyed depends on the
shape and mass of the material being conveyed. Flowing materials
e.g., particulate materials, are particularly amenable to conveying
with vibratory conveyors. Conveying speeds can, for example be, at
least 100 lb/hr (e.g., at least 500 lb/hr, at least 1000 lb/hr, at
least 2000 lb/hr, at least 3000 lb/hr, at least 4000 lb/hr, at
least 5000 lb/hr, at least 10,000 lb/hr, at least 15, 000 lb/hr, or
even at least 25,000 lb/hr). Some typical conveying speeds can be
between about 1000 and 10,000 lb/hr, (e.g., between about 1000
lb/hr and 8000 lb/hr, between about 2000 and 7000 lb/hr, between
about 2000 and 6000 lb/hr, between about 2000 and 5000 lb/hr,
between about 2000 and 4500 lb/hr, between about 1500 and 5000
lb/hr, between about 3000 and 7000 lb/hr, between about 3000 and
6000 lb/hr, between about 4000 and 6000 lb/hr and between about
4000 and 5000 lb/hr). Typical conveying speeds depend on the
density of the material. For example, for a biomass with a density
of about 35 lb/ft3, and a conveying speed of about 5000 lb/hr, the
material is conveyed at a rate of about 143 ft3/hr, if the material
is 1/4'' thick and is in a trough 5.5 ft wide, the material is
conveyed at a rate of about 1250 ft/hr (about 21 ft/min). Rates of
conveying the material can therefore vary greatly. Preferably, for
example, a 1/4'' thick layer of biomass, is conveyed at speeds of
between about 5 and 100 ft/min (e.g. between about 5 and 100
ft/min, between about 6 and 100 ft/min, between about 7 and 100
ft/min, between about 8 and 100 ft/min, between about 9 and 100
ft/min, between about 10 and 100 ft/min, between about 11 and 100
ft/min, between about 12 and 100 ft/min, between about 13 and 100
ft/min, between about 14 and 100 ft/min, between about 15 and 100
ft/min, between about 20 and 100 ft/min, between about 30 and 100
ft/min, between about 40 and 100 ft/min, between about 2 and 60
ft/min, between about 3 and 60 ft/min, between about 5 and 60
ft/min, between about 6 and 60 ft/min, between about 7 and 60
ft/min, between about 8 and 60 ft/min, between about 9 and 60
ft/min, between about 10 and 60 ft/min, between about 15 and 60
ft/min, between about 20 and 60 ft/min, between about 30 and 60
ft/min, between about 40 and 60 ft/min, between about 2 and 50
ft/min, between about 3 and 50 ft/min, between about 5 and 50
ft/min, between about 6 and 50 ft/min, between about 7 and 50
ft/min, between about 8 and 50 ft/min, between about 9 and 50
ft/min, between about 10 and 50 ft/min, between about 15 and 50
ft/min, between about 20 and 50 ft/min, between about 30 and 50
ft/min, between about 40 and 50 ft/min). It is preferable that the
material be conveyed at a constant rate, for example, to help
maintain a constant irradiation of the material as it passes under
the electron beam (e.g., shower, field).
[0204] The vibratory conveyors described can include screens used
for sieving and sorting materials. Port openings on the side or
bottom of the troughs can be used for sorting, selecting or
removing specific materials, for example, by size or shape. Some
conveyors have counterbalances to reduce the dynamic forces on the
support structure. Some vibratory conveyors are configured as
spiral elevators, are designed to curve around surfaces and/or are
designed to drop material from one conveyor to another (e.g., in a
step, cascade or as a series of steps or a stair). Along with
conveying materials conveyors can be used, by themselves or coupled
with other equipment or systems, for screening, separating,
sorting, classifying, distributing, sizing, inspection, picking,
metal removing, freezing, blending, mixing, orienting, heating,
cooking, drying, dewatering, cleaning, washing, leaching,
quenching, coating, de-dusting and/or feeding. The conveyors can
also include covers (e.g., dust-tight covers), side discharge
gates, bottom discharge gates, special liners (e.g., anti-stick,
stainless steel, rubber, custom steal, and or grooved), divided
troughs, quench pools, screens, perforated plates, detectors (e.g.,
metal detectors), high temperature designs, food grade designs,
heaters, dryers and or coolers. In addition, the trough can be of
various shapes, for example, flat bottomed, vee shaped bottom,
flanged at the top, curved bottom, flat with ridges in any
direction, tubular, half pipe, covered or any combinations of
these. In particular, the conveyors can be coupled with an
irradiation systems and/or equipment.
[0205] The conveyors (e.g., vibratory conveyor) can be made of
corrosion resistant materials. The conveyors can utilize structural
materials that include stainless steel (e.g., 304, 316 stainless
steel, HASTELLOY.RTM. ALLOYS and INCONEL.RTM. Alloys). For example,
HASTELLOY.RTM. Corrosion-Resistant alloys from Hynes (Kokomo, Ind.,
USA) such as HASTELLOY.RTM. B-3.RTM. ALLOY, HASTELLOY.RTM.
HYBRID-BC1.RTM. ALLOY, HASTELLOY.RTM. C-4 ALLOY, HASTELLOY.RTM.
C-22.RTM. ALLOY, HASTELLOY.RTM. C-22HS.RTM. ALLOY, HASTELLOY.RTM.
C-276 ALLOY, HASTELLOY.RTM. C-2000.RTM. ALLOY, HASTELLOY.RTM.
G-30.RTM. ALLOY, HASTELLOY.RTM. G-35.RTM. ALLOY, HASTELLOY.RTM. N
ALLOY and HASTELLOY.RTM. ULTIMET.RTM. alloy.
[0206] The vibratory conveyors can include non-stick release
coatings, for example, TUFFLON.TM. (Dupont, Del., USA). The
vibratory conveyors can also include corrosion resistant coatings.
For example, coatings that can be supplied from Metal Coatings Corp
(Houston, Tex., USA) and others such as Fluoropolymer, XYLAN.RTM.,
Molybdenum Disulfide, Epoxy Phenolic, Phosphate-ferrous metal
coating, Polyurethane-high gloss topcoat for epoxy, inorganic zinc,
Poly Tetrafluoro ethylene, PPS/RYTON.RTM., fluorinated ethylene
propylene, PVDF/DYKOR.RTM., ECTFE/HALAR.RTM. and Ceramic Epoxy
Coating. The coatings can improve resistance to process gases
(e.g., ozone), chemical corrosion, pitting corrosion, galling
corrosion and oxidation.
[0207] Optionally, in addition to the conveying systems described
herein, one or more other conveying systems can be enclosed. When
using an enclosure, the enclosed conveyor can also be purged with
an inert gas so as to maintain an atmosphere at a reduced oxygen
level. Keeping oxygen levels low avoids the formation of ozone
which in some instances is undesirable due to its reactive and
toxic nature. For example, the oxygen can be less than about 20%
(e.g., less than about 10%, less than about 1%, less than about
0.1%, less than about 0.01%, or even less than about 0.001%
oxygen). Purging can be done with an inert gas including, but not
limited to, nitrogen, argon, helium or carbon dioxide. This can be
supplied, for example, from a boil off of a liquid source (e.g.,
liquid nitrogen or helium), generated or separated from air in
situ, or supplied from tanks. The inert gas can be recirculated and
any residual oxygen can be removed using a catalyst, such as a
copper catalyst bed. Alternatively, combinations of purging,
recirculating and oxygen removal can be done to keep the oxygen
levels low.
[0208] The enclosed conveyor can also be purged with a reactive gas
that can react with the biomass. This can be done before, during or
after the irradiation process. The reactive gas can be, but is not
limited to, nitrous oxide, ammonia, oxygen, ozone, hydrocarbons,
aromatic compounds, amides, peroxides, azides, halides, oxyhalides,
phosphides, phosphines, arsines, sulfides, thiols, boranes and/or
hydrides. The reactive gas can be activated in the enclosure, e.g.,
by irradiation (e.g., electron beam, UV irradiation, microwave
irradiation, heating, IR radiation), so that it reacts with the
biomass. The biomass itself can be activated, for example, by
irradiation. Preferably the biomass is activated by the electron
beam, to produce radicals which then react with the activated or
unactivated reactive gas, e.g., by radical coupling or
quenching.
[0209] Purging gases supplied to an enclosed conveyor can also be
cooled, for example, below about 25.degree. C., below about
0.degree. C., below about -40.degree. C., below about -80.degree.
C., below about -120.degree. C. For example, the gas can be boiled
off from a compressed gas such as liquid nitrogen or sublimed from
solid carbon dioxide. As an alternative example, the gas can be
cooled by a chiller or part of or the entire conveyor can be
cooled.
Other Embodiments
[0210] Any material, processes or processed materials discussed
herein can be used to make products and/or intermediates such as
composites, fillers, binders, plastic additives, adsorbents and
controlled release agents. The methods can include densification,
for example, by applying pressure and heat to the materials. For
example, composites can be made by combining fibrous materials with
a resin or polymer. For example, radiation cross-linkable resin,
e.g., a thermoplastic resin can be combined with a fibrous material
to provide a fibrous material/cross-linkable resin combination.
Such materials can be, for example, useful as building materials,
protective sheets, containers and other structural materials (e.g.,
molded and/or extruded products). Absorbents can be, for example,
in the form of pellets, chips, fibers and/or sheets. Adsorbents can
be used, for example, as pet bedding, packaging material or in
pollution control systems. Controlled release matrices can also be
the form of, for example, pellets, chips, fibers and or sheets. The
controlled release matrices can, for example, be used to release
drugs, biocides, fragrances. For example, composites, absorbents
and control release agents and their uses are described in
International Serial No. PCT/US2006/010648, filed Mar. 23, 2006,
and U.S. Pat. No. 8,074,910 filed Nov. 22, 2011, the entire
disclosures of which are herein incorporated by reference.
[0211] In some instances the biomass material is treated at a first
level to reduce recalcitrance, e.g., utilizing accelerated
electrons, to selectively release one or more sugars (e.g.,
xylose). The biomass can then be treated to a second level to
release one or more other sugars (e.g., glucose). Optionally the
biomass can be dried between treatments. The treatments can include
applying chemical and biochemical treatments to release the sugars.
For example, a biomass material can be treated to a level of less
than about 20 Mrad (e.g., less than about 15 Mrad, less than about
10 Mrad, less than about 5 Mrad, less than about 2 Mrad) and then
treated with a solution of sulfuric acid, containing less than 10%
sulfuric acid (e.g., less than about 9%, less than about 8%, less
than about 7%, less than about 6%, less than about 5%, less than
about 4%, less than about 3%, less than about 2%, less than about
1%, less than about 0.75%, less than about 0.50%, less than about
0.25%) to release xylose. Xylose, for example, that is released
into solution, can be separated from solids and optionally the
solids washed with a solvent/solution (e.g., with water and/or
acidified water). Optionally, the Solids can be dried, for example,
in air and/or under vacuum optionally with heating (e.g., below
about 150 deg C., below about 120 deg C.) to a water content below
about 25 wt % (below about 20 wt. %, below about 15 wt. %, below
about 10 wt. %, below about 5 wt. %). The solids can then be
treated with a level of less than about 30 Mrad (e.g., less than
about 25 Mrad, less than about 20 Mrad, less than about 15 Mrad,
less than about 10 Mrad, less than about 5 Mrad, less than about 1
Mrad or even not at all) and then treated with an enzyme (e.g., a
cellulase) to release glucose. The glucose (e.g., glucose in
solution) can be separated from the remaining solids. The solids
can then be further processed, for example, utilized to make energy
or other products (e.g., lignin derived products).
Flavors, Fragrances and Colorants
[0212] Any of the products and/or intermediates described herein,
for example, produced by the processes, systems and/or equipment
described herein, can be combined with flavors, fragrances,
colorants and/or mixtures of these. For example, any one or more of
(optionally along with flavors, fragrances and/or colorants)
sugars, organic acids, fuels, polyols, such as sugar alcohols,
biomass, fibers and composites can be combined with (e.g.,
formulated, mixed or reacted) or used to make other products. For
example, one or more such product can be used to make soaps,
detergents, candies, syrup, drinks (e.g., cola, wine, beer, liquors
such as gin or vodka, sports drinks, coffees, teas),
pharmaceuticals, adhesives, sheets (e.g., woven, none woven,
filters, tissues) and/or composites (e.g., boards). For example,
one or more such product can be combined with herbs, flowers,
petals, spices, vitamins, potpourri, or candles. For example, the
formulated, mixed or reacted combinations can have
flavors/fragrances of grapefruit, orange, apple, raspberry, banana,
lettuce, celery, cinnamon, chocolate, vanilla, peppermint, mint,
onion, garlic, pepper, saffron, ginger, milk, wine, beer, tea, lean
beef, fish, clams, olive oil, coconut fat, pork fat, butter fat,
beef bouillon, legume, potatoes, marmalade, ham, coffee and
cheeses.
[0213] Flavors, fragrances and colorants can be added in any
amount, such as between about 0.001 wt. % to about 30 wt. %, e.g.,
between about 0.01 to about 20, between about 0.05 to about 10, or
between about 0.1 wt. % to about 5 wt. %. These can be formulated,
mixed and or reacted (e.g., with any one of more product or
intermediate described herein) by any means and in any order or
sequence (e.g., agitated, mixed, emulsified, gelled, infused,
heated, sonicated, and/or suspended). Fillers, binders, emulsifier,
antioxidants can also be utilized, for example, protein gels,
starches and silica.
[0214] In one embodiment the flavors, fragrances and colorants can
be added to the biomass immediately after the biomass is irradiated
such that the reactive sites created by the irradiation may react
with reactive compatible sites of the flavors, fragrances, and
colorants.
[0215] The flavors, fragrances and colorants can be natural and/or
synthetic materials. These materials can be one or more of a
compound, a composition or mixtures of these (e.g., a formulated or
natural composition of several compounds). Optionally the flavors,
fragrances, antioxidants and colorants can be derived biologically,
for example, from a fermentation process (e.g., fermentation of
saccharified materials as described herein). Alternatively, or
additionally these flavors, fragrances and colorants can be
harvested from a whole organism (e.g., plant, fungus, animal,
bacteria or yeast) or a part of an organism. The organism can be
collected and or extracted to provide color, flavors, fragrances
and/or antioxidant by any means including utilizing the methods,
systems and equipment described herein, hot water extraction,
supercritical fluid extraction, chemical extraction (e.g., solvent
or reactive extraction including acids and bases), mechanical
extraction (e.g., pressing, comminuting, filtering), utilizing an
enzyme, utilizing a bacteria such as to break down a starting
material, and combinations of these methods. The compounds can be
derived by a chemical reaction, for example, the combination of a
sugar (e.g., as produced as described herein) with an amino acid
(Maillard reaction). The flavor, fragrance, antioxidant and/or
colorant can be an intermediate and or product produced by the
methods, equipment or systems described herein, for example, and
ester and a lignin derived product.
[0216] Some examples of flavor, fragrances or colorants are
polyphenols. Polyphenols are pigments responsible for the red,
purple and blue colorants of many fruits, vegetables, cereal
grains, and flowers. Polyphenols also can have antioxidant
properties and often have a bitter taste. The antioxidant
properties make these important preservatives. On class of
polyphenols are the flavonoids, such as Anthocyanidines,
flavanonols, flavan-3-ols, s, flavanones and flavanonols. Other
phenolic compounds that can be used include phenolic acids and
their esters, such as chlorogenic acid and polymeric tannins.
[0217] Among the colorants inorganic compounds, minerals or organic
compounds can be used, for example, titanium dioxide, zinc oxide,
aluminum oxide, cadmium yellow (e.g., CdS), cadmium orange (e.g.,
CdS with some Se), alizarin crimson (e.g., synthetic or
non-synthetic rose madder), ultramarine (e.g., synthetic
ultramarine, natural ultramarine, synthetic ultramarine violet),
cobalt blue, cobalt yellow, cobalt green, viridian (e.g., hydrated
chromium(III)oxide), chalcophylite, conichalcite, cornubite,
cornwallite and liroconite. Black pigments such as carbon black and
self-dispersed blacks may be used.
[0218] Some flavors and fragrances that can be utilized include
ACALEA TBHQ, ACET C-6, ALLYL AMYL GLYCOLATE, ALPHA TERPINEOL,
AMBRETTOLJDE, AMBRINOL 95, ANDRANE, APHERMATE, APPLELIDE,
BACDANOL.RTM., BERGAMAL, BETA IONONE EPDXIDE, BETA NAPHTHYL
ISO-BUTYL ETHER, BICYCLONONALACTONE, BORNAFIX.RTM., CANTHOXAL,
CASHMERAN.RTM., CASHMERAN.RTM. VELVET, CASSIFFIX.RTM., CEDRAFIX,
CEDRAMBER.RTM., CEDRYL ACETATE, CELESTOLIDE, CINNAMALVA, CITRAL
DIMETHYL ACETATE, CITROLATE.TM., CITRONELLOL 700, CITRONELLOL 950,
CITRONELLOL COEUR, CITRONELLYL ACETATE, CITRONELLYL ACETATE PURE,
CITRONELLYL FORMATE, CLARYCET, CLONAL, CONIFERAN, CONIFERAN PURE,
CORTEX ALDEHYDE 50% PEOMOSA, CYCLABUTE, CYCLACET.RTM.,
CYCLAPROP.RTM., CYCLEMAX.TM., CYCLOHEXYL ETHYL ACETATE, DAMASCOL,
DELTA DAMASCONE, DIHYDRO CYCLACET, DIHYDRO MYRCENOL, DIHYDRO
TERPINEOL, DIHYDRO TERPINYL ACETATE, DIMETHYL CYCLORMOL, DIMETHYL
OCTANOL PQ, DIMYRCETOL, DIOLA, DIPENTENE, DULCINYL.RTM.
RECRYSTALLIZED, ETHYL-3-PHENYL GLYCIDATE, FLEURAMONE, FLEURANIL,
FLORAL SUPER, FLORALOZONE, FLORIFFOL, FRAISTONE, FRUCTONE,
GALAXOLIDE.RTM. 50, GALAXOLIDE.RTM. 50 BB, GALAXOLIDE.RTM. 50 IPM,
GALAXOLIDE.RTM. UNDILUTED, GALBASCONE, GERALDEHYDE, GERANIOL 5020,
GERANIOL 600 TYPE, GERANIOL 950, GERANIOL 980 (PURE), GERANIOL CFT
COEUR, GERANIOL COEUR, GERANYL ACETATE COEUR, GERANYL ACETATE,
PURE, GERANYL FORMATE, GRISALVA, GUAIYL ACETATE, HELIONAL.TM.,
HERBAC, HERBALIME.TM., HEXADECANOLIDE, HEXALON, HEXENYL SALICYLATE
CIS 3-, HYACINTH BODY, HYACINTH BODY NO. 3, HYDRATROPIC
ALDEHYDE.DMA, HYDROXYOL, INDOLAROME, INTRELEVEN ALDEHYDE,
INTRELEVEN ALDEHYDE SPECIAL, IONONE ALPHA, IONONE BETA, ISO CYCLO
CITRAL, ISO CYCLO GERANIOL, ISO E SUPER.RTM., ISOBUTYL QUINOLINE,
JASMAL, JESSEMAL.RTM., KHARISMAL.RTM., KHARISMAL.RTM. SUPER,
KHUSINIL, KOAVONE.RTM., KOHINOOL.RTM., LIFFAROME.TM., LIMOXAL,
LINDENOL.TM., LYRAL.RTM., LYRAME SUPER, MANDARIN ALD 10% TRI ETH,
CITR, MARITIMA, MCK CHINESE, MEIJIFF.TM., MELAFLEUR, MELOZONE,
METHYL ANTHRANILATE, METHYL IONONE ALPHA EXTRA, METHYL IONONE GAMMA
A, METHYL IONONE GAMMA COEUR, METHYL IONONE GAMMA PURE, METHYL
LAVENDER KETONE, MONTAVERDI.RTM., MUGUESIA, MUGUET ALDEHYDE 50,
MUSK Z4, MYRAC ALDEHYDE, MYRCENYL ACETATE, NECTARATE.TM., NEROL
900, NERYL ACETATE, OCIMENE, OCTACETAL, ORANGE FLOWER ETHER,
ORPVONE, ORRINIFF 25%, OXASPIRANE, OZOFLEUR, PAMPLEFLEUR.RTM.,
PEOMOSA, PHENOXANOL.RTM., PICONIA, PRECYCLEMONE B, PRENYL ACETATE,
PRISMANTOL, RESEDA BODY, ROSALVA, ROSAMUSK, SANJINOL,
SANTALIFF.TM., SYVERTAL, TERPINEOL,TERPINOLENE 20, TERPINOLENE 90
PQ, TERPINOLENE RECT., TERPINYL ACETATE, TERPINYL ACETATE JAX,
TETRAHYDRO, MUGUOL.RTM., TETRAHYDRO MYRCENOL, TETRAMERAN, TIMBERS
ILK.TM., TOBACAROL, TRIMOFIX.RTM. O TT, TRIPLAL.RTM.,
TRISAMBER.RTM., VANORIS, VERDOX.TM., VERDOX.TM. HC, VERTENEX.RTM.,
VERTENEX.RTM. HC, VERTOFIX.RTM. COEUR, VERTOLIFF, VERTOLIFF ISO,
VIOLIFF, VIVALDIE, ZENOLIDE, ABS INDIA 75 PCT MIGLYOL, ABS MOROCCO
50 PCT DPG, ABS MOROCCO 50 PCT TEC, ABSOLUTE FRENCH, ABSOLUTE
INDIA, ABSOLUTE MD 50 PCT BB, ABSOLUTE MOROCCO, CONCENTRATE PG,
TINCTURE 20 PCT, AMBERGRIS, AMBRETTE ABSOLUTE, AMBRETTE SEED OIL,
ARMOISE OIL 70 PCT THUYONE, BASIL ABSOLUTE GRAND VERT, BASIL GRAND
VERT ABS MD, BASIL OIL GRAND VERT, BASIL OIL VERVEINA, BASIL OIL
VIETNAM, BAY OIL TERPENELESS, BEESWAX ABS N G, BEESWAX ABSOLUTE,
BENZOIN RESINOID SIAM, BENZOIN RESINOID SIAM 50 PCT DPG, BENZOIN
RESINOID SIAM 50 PCT PG, BENZOIN RESINOID SIAM 70.5 PCT TEC,
BLACKCURRANT BUD ABS 65 PCT PG, BLACKCURRANT BUD ABS MD 37 PCT TEC,
BLACKCURRANT BUD ABS MIGLYOL, BLACKCURRANT BUD ABSOLUTE BURGUNDY,
BOIS DE ROSE OIL, BRAN ABSOLUTE, BRAN RESINOID, BROOM ABSOLUTE
ITALY, CARDAMOM GUATEMALA CO2 EXTRACT, CARDAMOM OIL GUATEMALA,
CARDAMOM OIL INDIA, CARROT HEART, CASSIE ABSOLUTE EGYPT, CASSIE
ABSOLUTE MD 50 PCT IPM, CASTOREUM ABS 90 PCT TEC, CASTOREUM ABS C
50 PCT MIGLYOL, CASTOREUM ABSOLUTE, CASTOREUM RESINOID, CASTOREUM
RESINOID 50 PCT DPG, CEDROL CEDRENE, CEDRUS ATLANTICA OIL REDIST,
CHAMOMILE OIL ROMAN, CHAMOMILE OIL WILD, CHAMOMILE OIL WILD LOW
LIMONENE, CINNAMON BARK OIL CEYLAN, CISTE ABSOLUTE, CISTE ABSOLUTE
COLORLESS, CITRONELLA OIL ASIA IRON FREE, CIVET ABS 75 PCT PG,
CPVET ABSOLUTE, CIVET TINCTURE 10 PCT, CLARY SAGE ABS FRENCH DECOL,
CLARY SAGE ABSOLUTE FRENCH, CLARY SAGE C'LESS 50 PCT PG, CLARY SAGE
OIL FRENCH, COPAIBA BALSAM, COPAIBA BALSAM OIL, CORIANDER SEED OIL,
CYPRESS OIL, CYPRESS OIL ORGANIC, DAVANA OIL, GALBANOL, GALBANUM
ABSOLUTE COLORLESS, GALBANUM OIL, GALBANUM RESINOID, GALBANUM
RESINOID 50 PCT DPG, GALBANUM RESINOID HERCOLYN BHT, GALBANUM
RESINOID TEC BHT, GENTIANE ABSOLUTE MD 20 PCT BB, GENTIANE
CONCRETE, GERANIUM ABS EGYPT MD, GERANIUM ABSOLUTE EGYPT, GERANIUM
OIL CHINA, GERANIUM OIL EGYPT, GINGER OIL 624, GINGER OIL RECTIFIED
SOLUBLE, GUAIACWOOD HEART, HAY ABS MD 50 PCT BB, HAY ABSOLUTE, HAY
ABSOLUTE MD 50 PCT TEC, HEALINGWOOD, HYSSOP OIL ORGANIC, IMMORTELLE
ABS YUGO MD 50 PCT TEC, IMMORTELLE ABSOLUTE SPAIN, IMMORTELLE
ABSOLUTE YUGO, JASMIN ABS INDIA MD, JASMIN ABSOLUTE EGYPT, JASMIN
ABSOLUTE INDIA, ASMIN ABSOLUTE MOROCCO, JASMIN ABSOLUTE SAMBAC,
JONQUILLE ABS MD 20 PCT BB, JONQUILLE ABSOLUTE France, JUNIPER
BERRY OIL FLG, JUNIPER BERRY OIL RECTIFIED SOLUBLE, LABDANUM
RESINOID 50 PCT TEC, LABDANUM RESINOID BB, LABDANUM RESINOID MD,
LABDANUM RESINOID MD 50 PCT BB, LAVANDIN ABSOLUTE H, LAVANDIN
ABSOLUTE MD, LAVANDIN OIL ABRIAL ORGANIC, LAVANDIN OIL GROSSO
ORGANIC, LAVANDIN OIL SUPER, LAVENDER ABSOLUTE H, LAVENDER ABSOLUTE
MD, LAVENDER OIL COUMARIN FREE, LAVENDER OIL COUMARIN FREE ORGANIC,
LAVENDER OIL MAILLETTE ORGANIC, LAVENDER OIL MT, MACE ABSOLUTE BB,
MAGNOLIA FLOWER OIL LOW METHYL EUGENOL, MAGNOLIA FLOWER OIL,
MAGNOLIA FLOWER OIL MD, MAGNOLIA LEAF OIL, MANDARIN OIL MD,
MANDARIN OIL MD BHT, MATE ABSOLUTE BB, MOSS TREE ABSOLUTE MD TEX
IFRA 43, MOSS-OAK ABS MD TEC IFRA 43, MOSS-OAK ABSOLUTE IFRA 43,
MOSS-TREE ABSOLUTE MD IPM IFRA 43, MYRRH RESINOID BB, MYRRH
RESINOID MD, MYRRH RESINOID TEC, MYRTLE OIL IRON FREE, MYRTLE OIL
TUNISIA RECTIFIED, NARCISSE ABS MD 20 PCT BB, NARCISSE ABSOLUTE
FRENCH, NEROLI OIL TUNISIA, NUTMEG OIL TERPENELESS, OEILLET
ABSOLUTE, OLIBANUM RESINOID, OLIBANUM RESINOID BB, OLIBANUM
RESINOID DPG, OLIBANUM RESINOID EXTRA 50 PCT DPG, OLIBANUM RESINOID
MD, OLIBANUM RESINOID MD 50 PCT DPG, OLIBANUM RESINOID TEC,
OPOPONAX RESINOID TEC, ORANGE BIGARADE OIL MD BHT, ORANGE BIGARADE
OIL MD SCFC, ORANGE FLOWER ABSOLUTE TUNISIA, ORANGE FLOWER WATER
ABSOLUTE TUNISIA, ORANGE LEAF ABSOLUTE, ORANGE LEAF WATER ABSOLUTE
TUNISIA, ORRIS ABSOLUTE ITALY, ORRIS CONCRETE 15 PCT IRONE, ORRIS
CONCRETE 8 PCT IRONE, ORRIS NATURAL 15 PCT IRONE 4095C, ORRIS
NATURAL 8 PCT IRONE 2942C, ORRIS RESINOID, OSMANTHUS ABSOLUTE,
OSMANTHUS ABSOLUTE MD 50 PCT BB, PATCHOULI HEART N.degree. 3,
PATCHOULI OIL INDONESIA, PATCHOULI OIL INDONESIA IRON FREE,
PATCHOULI OIL INDONESIA MD, PATCHOULI OIL REDIST, PENNYROYAL HEART,
PEPPERMINT ABSOLUTE MD, PETITGRAIN BIGARADE OIL TUNISIA, PETITGRAIN
CITRONNIER OIL, PETITGRAIN OIL PARAGUAY TERPENELESS, PETITGRAIN OIL
TERPENELESS STAB, PIMENTO BERRY OIL, PIMENTO LEAF OIL, RHODINOL EX
GERANIUM CHINA, ROSE ABS BULGARIAN LOW METHYL EUGENOL, ROSE ABS
MOROCCO LOW METHYL EUGENOL, ROSE ABS TURKISH LOW METHYL EUGENOL,
ROSE ABSOLUTE, ROSE ABSOLUTE BULGARIAN, ROSE ABSOLUTE DAMASCENA,
ROSE ABSOLUTE MD, ROSE ABSOLUTE MOROCCO, ROSE ABSOLUTE TURKISH,
ROSE OIL BULGARIAN, ROSE OIL DAMASCENA LOW METHYL EUGENOL, ROSE OIL
TURKISH, ROSEMARY OIL CAMPHOR ORGANIC, ROSEMARY OIL TUNISIA,
SANDALWOOD OIL INDIA, SANDALWOOD OIL INDIA RECTIFIED, SANTALOL,
SCHINUS MOLLE OIL, ST JOHN BREAD TINCTURE 10 PCT, STYRAX RESINOID,
STYRAX RESINOID, TAGETE OIL, TEA TREE HEART, TONKA BEAN ABS 50 PCT
SOLVENTS, TONKA BEAN ABSOLUTE, TUBEROSE ABSOLUTE INDIA, VETIVER
HEART EXTRA, VETIVER OIL HAITI, VETIVER OIL HAITI MD, VETIVER OIL
JAVA, VETIVER OIL JAVA MD, VIOLET LEAF ABSOLUTE EGYPT, VIOLET LEAF
ABSOLUTE EGYPT DECOL, VIOLET LEAF ABSOLUTE FRENCH, VIOLET LEAF
ABSOLUTE MD 50 PCT BB, WORMWOOD OIL TERPENELESS, YLANG EXTRA OIL,
YLANG III OIL and combinations of these.
[0219] The colorants can be among those listed in the Color Index
International by the Society of Dyers and Colourists. Colorants
include dyes and pigments and include those commonly used for
coloring textiles, paints, inks and inkjet inks. Some colorants
that can be utilized include carotenoids, arylide yellows,
diarylide yellows, .beta.-naphthols, naphthols, benzimidazolones,
disazo condensation pigments, pyrazolones, nickel azo yellow,
phthalocyanines, quinacridones, perylenes and perinones,
isoindolinone and isoindoline pigments, triarylcarbonium pigments,
diketopyrrolo-pyrrole pigments, thioindigoids. Cartenoids include,
for example, alpha-carotene, beta-carotene, gamma-carotene,
lycopene, lutein and astaxanthin, Annatto extract, Dehydrated beets
(beet powder), Canthaxanthin, Caramel, .beta.-Apo-8'-carotenal,
Cochineal extract, Carmine, Sodium copper chlorophyllin, Toasted
partially defatted cooked cottonseed flour, Ferrous gluconate,
Ferrous lactate, Grape color extract, Grape skin extract
(enocianina), Carrot oil, Paprika, Paprika oleoresin, Mica-based
pearlescent pigments, Riboflavin, Saffron, Titanium dioxide, Tomato
lycopene extract; tomato lycopene concentrate, Turmeric, Turmeric
oleoresin, FD&C Blue No. 1, FD&C Blue No. 2, FD&C Green
No. 3, Orange B, Citrus Red No. 2, FD&C Red No. 3, FD&C Red
No. 40, FD&C Yellow No. 5, FD&C Yellow No. 6, Alumina
(dried aluminum hydroxide), Calcium carbonate, Potassium sodium
copper chlorophyllin (chlorophyllin-copper complex),
Dihydroxyacetone, Bismuth oxychloride, Ferric ammonium
ferrocyanide, Ferric ferrocyanide, Chromium hydroxide green,
Chromium oxide greens, Guanine, Pyrophyllite, Talc, Aluminum
powder, Bronze powder, Copper powder, Zinc oxide, D&C Blue No.
4, D&C Green No. 5, D&C Green No. 6, D&C Green No. 8,
D&C Orange No. 4, D&C Orange No. 5, D&C Orange No. 10,
D&C Orange No. 11, FD&C Red No. 4, D&C Red No. 6,
D&C Red No. 7, D&C Red No. 17, D&C Red No. 21, D&C
Red No. 22, D&C Red No. 27, D&C Red No. 28, D&C Red No.
30, D&C Red No. 31, D&C Red No. 33, D&C Red No. 34,
D&C Red No. 36, D&C Red No. 39, D&C Violet No. 2,
D&C Yellow No. 7, Ext. D&C Yellow No. 7, D&C Yellow No.
8, D&C Yellow No. 10, D&C Yellow No. 11, D&C Black No.
2, D&C Black No. 3 (3), D&C Brown No. 1, Ext. D&C,
Chromium-cobalt-aluminum oxide, Ferric ammonium citrate,
Pyrogallol, Logwood extract,
1,4-Bis[(2-hydroxy-ethyl)amino]-9,10-anthracenedione
bis(2-propenoic)ester copolymers, 1,4-Bis
[(2-methylphenyl)amino]-9,10-anthracenedione,
1,4-Bis[4-(2-methacryloxyethyl) phenylamine] anthraquinone
copolymers, Carbazole violet, Chlorophyllin-copper complex,
Chromium-cobalt-aluminum oxide, C.I. Vat Orange 1,
2-[[2,5-Diethoxy-4-[(4-methylphenyl)thiol]
phenyl]azo]-1,3,5-benzenetriol, 16,23-Dihydrodinaphtho
[2,3-a:2',3'-i] naphth [2',3':6,7] indolo [2,3-c]
carbazole-5,10,15,17,22,24-hexone,
N,N'-(9,10-Dihydro-9,10-dioxo-1,5-anthracenediyl) bisbenzamide,
7,16-Dichloro-6,15-dihydro-5,9,14,18-anthrazinetetrone,
16,17-Dimethoxydinaphtho (1,2,3-cd:3',2',1'-lm)
perylene-5,10-dione, Poly(hydroxyethyl methacrylate)-dye
copolymers(3), Reactive Black 5, Reactive Blue 21, Reactive Orange
78, Reactive Yellow 15, Reactive Blue No. 19, Reactive Blue No. 4,
C.I. Reactive Red 11, C.I. Reactive Yellow 86, C.I. Reactive Blue
163, C.I. Reactive Red 180,
4-[(2,4-dimethylphenyl)azo]-2,4-dihydro-5-methyl-2-phenyl-3H-pyrazol-3-on-
e (solvent Yellow 18), 6-Ethoxy-2-(6-ethoxy-3-oxobenzo[b]
thien-2(3H)-ylidene) benzo[b]thiophen-3(2H)-one, Phthalocyanine
green, Vinyl alcohol/methyl methacrylate-dye reaction products,
C.I. Reactive Red 180, C.I. Reactive Black 5, C.I. Reactive Orange
78, C.I. Reactive Yellow 15, C.I. Reactive Blue 21, Disodium
1-amino-4-[[4-[(2-bromo-1-oxoallyllamino]-2-sulphonatophenyl]amino]-9,10--
dihydro-9,10-di oxoanthracene-2-sulphonate (Reactive Blue 69),
D&C Blue No. 9, [Phthalocyaninato(2-)] copper and mixtures of
these.
[0220] Other than in the examples herein, or unless otherwise
expressly specified, all of the numerical ranges, amounts, values
and percentages, such as those for amounts of materials, elemental
contents, times and temperatures of reaction, ratios of amounts,
and others, in the following portion of the specification and
attached claims may be read as if prefaced by the word "about" even
though the term "about" may not expressly appear with the value,
amount, or range. Accordingly, unless indicated to the contrary,
the numerical parameters set forth in the following specification
and attached claims are approximations that may vary depending upon
the desired properties sought to be obtained by the present
invention. At the very least, and not as an attempt to limit the
application of the doctrine of equivalents to the scope of the
claims, each numerical parameter should at least be construed in
light of the number of reported significant digits and by applying
ordinary rounding techniques.
[0221] Notwithstanding that the numerical ranges and parameters
setting forth the broad scope of the invention are approximations,
the numerical values set forth in the specific examples are
reported as precisely as possible. Any numerical value, however,
inherently contains error necessarily resulting from the standard
deviation found in its underlying respective testing measurements.
Furthermore, when numerical ranges are set forth herein, these
ranges are inclusive of the recited range end points (e.g., end
points may be used). When percentages by weight are used herein,
the numerical values reported are relative to the total weight.
[0222] Also, it should be understood that any numerical range
recited herein is intended to include all sub-ranges subsumed
therein. For example, a range of "1 to 10" is intended to include
all sub-ranges between (and including) the recited minimum value of
1 and the recited maximum value of 10, that is, having a minimum
value equal to or greater than 1 and a maximum value of equal to or
less than 10. The terms "one," "a," or "an" as used herein are
intended to include "at least one" or "one or more," unless
otherwise indicated.
[0223] Any patent, publication, or other disclosure material, in
whole or in part, that is said to be incorporated by reference
herein is incorporated herein only to the extent that the
incorporated material does not conflict with existing definitions,
statements, or other disclosure material set forth in this
disclosure. As such, and to the extent necessary, the disclosure as
explicitly set forth herein supersedes any conflicting material
incorporated herein by reference. Any material, or portion thereof,
that is said to be incorporated by reference herein, but which
conflicts with existing definitions, statements, or other
disclosure material set forth herein will only be incorporated to
the extent that no conflict arises between that incorporated
material and the existing disclosure material.
[0224] The entire disclosures of the following applications are
incorporated herein by reference: PCT/US13/064317, filed Oct. 10,
2013; PCT/US13/064320, filed Oct. 10, 2013; PCT/US 14/21584, filed
Mar. 7, 2014; PCT/US 14/21634, filed Mar. 7, 2014; PCT/US 14/21604,
filed Mar. 7, 2014; PCT/US 14/21609, filed Mar. 7, 2014; PCT/US
14/21616, filed Mar. 7, 2014; PCT/US 14/21629, filed Mar. 7, 2014;
PCT/US 14/21630, filed Mar. 7, 2014; PCT/US 14/21632, filed Mar. 7,
2014; PCT/US 14/21638, filed Mar. 7, 2014; PCT/US 14/21815, filed
Mar. 7, 2014; PCT/US14/21813, filed Mar. 7, 2014; PCT/US 14/21796,
filed Mar. 7, 2014.
[0225] While this invention has been particularly shown and
described with references to preferred embodiments thereof, it will
be understood by those skilled in the art that various changes in
form and details may be made therein without departing from the
scope of the invention encompassed by the appended claims.
* * * * *