U.S. patent application number 14/749339 was filed with the patent office on 2016-12-15 for remotely controlled photovoltaic string combiner.
The applicant listed for this patent is Paul Wilkinson Dent. Invention is credited to Paul Wilkinson Dent.
Application Number | 20160365731 14/749339 |
Document ID | / |
Family ID | 47090125 |
Filed Date | 2016-12-15 |
United States Patent
Application |
20160365731 |
Kind Code |
A9 |
Dent; Paul Wilkinson |
December 15, 2016 |
REMOTELY CONTROLLED PHOTOVOLTAIC STRING COMBINER
Abstract
A remote-controlled photovoltaic string combiner is described
that selects strings to be combined to a first photovoltaic output
circuit or to a second photovoltaic output for the purpose of
either controlling the charging of a battery connected to the first
photovoltaic output circuit or for diverting current to a diversion
load such as a grid-tie inverter. Strings are selected by
energizing relays from one or other inverter such that when neither
inverter is operating, all strings are deselected and both
photovoltaic outpout circuits are de-energized.
Inventors: |
Dent; Paul Wilkinson;
(Pittsboro, NC) |
|
Applicant: |
Name |
City |
State |
Country |
Type |
Dent; Paul Wilkinson |
Pittsboro |
NC |
US |
|
|
Prior
Publication: |
|
Document Identifier |
Publication Date |
|
US 20150295413 A1 |
October 15, 2015 |
|
|
Family ID: |
47090125 |
Appl. No.: |
14/749339 |
Filed: |
June 24, 2015 |
Related U.S. Patent Documents
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Application
Number |
Filing Date |
Patent Number |
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14062884 |
Oct 24, 2013 |
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14749339 |
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13103070 |
May 8, 2011 |
8937822 |
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14062884 |
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Current U.S.
Class: |
1/1 |
Current CPC
Class: |
Y02B 10/10 20130101;
H02J 3/005 20130101; Y02E 10/56 20130101; H02J 3/007 20200101; Y02A
30/00 20180101; H02M 1/32 20130101; H02M 7/537 20130101; H02J
2300/00 20200101; H02J 7/0068 20130101; H02J 7/35 20130101; H02H
3/16 20130101; H02M 1/36 20130101; H02M 7/53871 20130101; H02J
2300/22 20200101; H02J 9/061 20130101; H02J 3/00 20130101; H02J
3/383 20130101; H02J 3/38 20130101 |
International
Class: |
H02J 3/38 20060101
H02J003/38 |
Claims
1. A remote-controlled string combiner configured for use in a
photovoltaic energy collection system to combine the photovoltaic
source circuit current from strings of solar cells to produce a
combined output current in the photovoltaic output circuit,
comprising:-- Pairs of positive and negative input terminals for
receiving photovoltaic source-circuit current from respective
strings of photovoltaic cells connected thereto; a first pair of
positive and negative output terminals for the connection of the
photovoltaic output circuit wiring and for outputting the combined
source circuit current from said strings to a remote load connected
to said photovoltaic output circuit; at least one connector or
suitable terminals for the attachment of at least one remote
control cable; at least one relay having normally open contacts,
the control coil of said relay being wired to receive an electrical
energizing signal along said at least one remote control cable from
a remote power source, the energizing signal when present causing
said normally open contacts to close, thereby allowing said
combined source circuit current to be output from said first pair
of positive and negative output terminals of said photovoltaic
output circuit, and the combined source circuit current being
inhibited from being output to said photovoltaic output circuit
when said energizing signal is not present.
2. The remote-controlled string combiner of claim 1, wherein said
at least one relay comprises at least one relay in series with said
source circuit from each of said strings, and said remote control
cable is configured such that each relay coil may be independently
energized or not energized from said remote power source.
3. The remote-controlled string combiner of claim 1, wherein said
at least one relay comprises two-pole relays having normally open
contacts in series with the positive and negative paths from each
of said pairs of input terminals, such that when said relay coils
are not energized, both the negative and positive paths from each
of said input terminal pairs to said first pair of output terminals
are broken.
4. The remote-controlled string combiner of claim 1, wherein said
at least one relay having normally open contacts also has normally
closed contacts, such that when said at least one relay's coil is
not energized, source circuit current from said input terminals is
diverted to a secondary circuit connected to said normally closed
contacts.
5. The remote-controlled string combiner of claim 1, wherein said
at least one relay comprises two-pole relays having normally open
contacts in series with the positive and negative paths from each
of said input terminal pairs, wired such that when said relay coils
are not energized, both the negative and positive paths from each
of said input terminal pairs to said first pair of positive and
negative output terminals are broken, and said relays also have
normally closed contacts, wired such that when one of said relay
coils is not energized, source circuit current from the
corresponding pair of said input terminals is diverted to a
secondary circuit connected to said normally closed contacts.
6. The remote-controlled string combiner of claim 1, further
comprising a second pair of positive and negative output terminals,
and wherein said at least one relay comprises two-pole relays
having normally open contacts in series with the positive and
negative paths from each of said input terminal pairs, wired such
that when said relay coils are not energized, both the negative and
positive paths from each of said input terminal pairs to said first
pair of positive and negative output terminals are broken, and said
relays also have normally closed contacts wired such that when the
coil of one of said relays is not energized, source circuit current
from the corresponding input terminal pair is diverted to a
secondary combining circuit connected to said normally closed
contacts to deliver the combined current produced by said secondary
combining circuit to said second pair of positive and negative
output terminals.
7. The remote-controlled string combiner of claim 1, further
comprising a second pair of positive and negative output terminals
and a second connection for a second remote control cable, and
wherein said at least one relay comprises a first set of two-pole
relays each having normally open contacts connected in series with
the source circuit positive and negative paths from a corresponding
pair of said input terminal pairs, wired such that when said relay
coils are not energized, both the negative and positive paths from
each of said input terminal pairs to said first pair of positive
and negative output terminals are broken, and said relays also have
normally closed contacts wired such that when the coil of one of
said relays is not energized, source circuit current from the
corresponding input terminal pair is diverted to a corresponding
one of a second set of two-pole relays, the coils of said second
set of two-pole relays being wired to receive energizing power
along said second remote control cable.
8. A remote-controlled string combiner configured for use in a
photovoltaic energy collection system to selectively combine the
photovoltaic source circuit current from strings of solar cells to
produce a combined output current in one or more photovoltaic
output circuits, comprising:-- Pairs of positive and negative input
terminals for connecting to respective ones of said strings of
solar cells; a first pair of output terminals for the connection of
photovoltaic output circuit wiring, the photovoltaic output circuit
receiving the combined source circuit current from selected
strings; a pair of fuses connected at their first ends to the
positive and negative terminals respectively of each of said pairs
of input terminals and connected at their second ends to a snubber
circuit, the snubber circuit comprising a capacitor in series with
a diode and the diode being shunted with a resistor, the second
ends of the fuses also being connected to the moving contacts of a
two pole relay through a diode, the two pole relay having normally
open fixed contacts connected together to said pair of output
terminals; a connector or suitable terminals for the connection of
a remote control cable, the coils of said two-pole relays being
selectively energized through said remote control cable in order to
select the strings, the photovoltaic source current of which shall
be combined at said first pair of output terminals.
9. The remote-controlled string combiner of claim 8 further
comprising a second pair of photovoltaic output circuit terminals,
connections for a corresponding additional remote control cable,
and additional relays for selecting the strings the source circuit
currents of which are to be combined either to said first pair of
output terminals or alternatively, if not selected to be combined
at said first pair of output terminals, to be combined at said
second pair of output terminals.
10. A photovoltaic string combiner configured to be mounted as
close as possible to a solar array for selectively combining the
currents from strings of the array to be output to a photovoltaic
output circuit under control from a remote location via a remote
control cable by receiving relay coil energizing currents from a
power source at said remote location, and further configured such
that when no relay coil energizing currents are received from said
remote power source, no string currents are selected to be combined
and said photovoltaic output circuit is thereby de-energized.
11. The photovoltaic string combiner of claim 10 further configured
such that all relay energizing currents may be inhibited by a
switch at any one of multiple locations including any one of a
switch located on said string combiner itself; a switch located at
a remote DC to AC converter connected to said photovoltaic output
circuit, and a switch located close to the service entrance for
power from an electric utility, thereby allowing any of said
switches to be used to de-energize the photovoltaic output
circuit.
12. The photovoltaic string combiner of claim 10 configured to be
used as a battery charge controller by remotely selecting the
string currents to be combined based on the charge state of a
battery connected to said photovoltaic output circuit.
13. A method of rapidly de-energizing the Direct Current wiring
leading from a solar array to a remote load, including the steps
of:-- Configuring a photovoltaic string combiner to be located in
close proximity to said array and facilitating the connecting of
each string of solar cells of said solar array to input terminals
of said combiner; providing said photovoltaic combiner with a pair
of output terminals for connecting the combiner output to said
remote load; within said photovoltaic string combiner, providing a
pair of normally open relay contacts in series with the input from
each string of solar cells of said solar array such that no input
current from any string reaches said output terminals unless at
least one of said relays is energized to close its normally open
contacts; providing said photovoltaic combiner with a remote
control interface for a remote control cable to supply energizing
current to the coils of said relays from a remote power source;
configuring said remote control interface such that the current to
all relay coils may be interrupted simultaneously by any one of a
number of switches located at any one of multiple locations,
including a switch located on said photovoltaic combiner itself; a
switched co-located with said remote load, and a switch located at
the service entrance for power from an electric utility.
14. The remote-controlled string combiner of claim 1, further
comprising a diode in series with the moving contact of each of
said at least one relays to prevent a shadowed one of said strings
from robbing current from illuminated ones of said strings.
15. The photovoltaic string combiner of claim 10, further
comprising a diode in series with each of the current paths from
each of said strings to limit reverse inrush current from said
photovoltaic output circuit when said relays are energized and said
photovoltaic output circuit is already energized from another
source.
16. A residential photovoltaic energy installation comprising:--
Solar panels attached to a sun-facing roof; a remote controlled
photovoltaic string combiner located in the attic space of said
roof directly under said solar panels for selectively combining
currents from selected strings of solar panels under remote control
via a remote control cable and providing the combined current at a
photovoltaic output circuit connected to a remote load, and a DC to
AC inverter for converting DC power originating from said solar
panels to AC household current, said DC to AC inverter being
connected via said remote control cable to said string combiner and
configured such that, when said DC to AC inverter is off, no string
of solar panels is selected to be combined to said photovoltaic
output circuit and the photovoltaic output circuit is thereby
de-energized.
17. The Residential photovoltaic energy installation of claim 16,
in which said remote load comprises a rechargeable storage battery
connected to said photovoltaic output circuit and to said DC to AC
inverter, the DC to AC inverter monitoring the charge state of said
battery and remotely controlling said string combiner to select
more or fewer ones of said strings to be combined to said
photovoltaic output circuit based on the charge state of said
battery.
18. The Residential photovoltaic energy installation of claim 16 in
which said remote controlled photovoltaic string combiner has two
independent photovoltaic output circuits, two corresponding remote
control cables, two DC to AC inverters connected to respective
remote control cables, and two batteries, each connected to one of
said two photovoltaic output circuits and to one of said DC to AC
inverters, the DC to AC inverters each controlling said
photovoltaic string combiner via the associated remote control
cable to select the strings to be combined to charge its associated
battery, one DC to AC inverter having priority control over a first
group of said strings and secondary control over a second group
comprised of the remaining strings, while the second DC to AC
inverter has priority control over said second group of strings and
secondary control over said first group of strings.
19. The residential photovoltaic energy installation of claim 16 in
which said AC household current produced by said DC to AC inverter
is fed to a Smart Load Center along with an electric supply from
the utility grid, and said Smart Load Center selects which
household circuits to power from utility grid power and which
circuits to power with said AC household current from said DC to AC
converter at least partly based on said combined current at said
photovoltaic output circuit.
Description
BACKGROUND
[0001] The present invention relates to DC-to-AC converters for
electric power systems. Lower cost, high-power, efficient, DC-to-AC
converters are of interest for solar energy economics. In the prior
art, DC-AC inverters are the second highest cost item next to the
photovoltaic panels. For high efficiency and low heat dissipation,
commutation of DC to produce AC preferably uses solid state
switches that are either fully on or fully off, and do not dwell
more than a microsecond or so in an intermediate state. Therefore
it is more complicated to produce a sine wave that takes on all
values between the negative peak and the positive peak. On the
other hand, producing a square wave which switches between the
positive peak and the negative peak produces a form of AC that is
not suitable for all loads.
[0002] Various manufacturers provide prior art DC-AC converters,
that fall into one of a few broad classes and operating modes. The
class of "modified sine wave" converters maintains both the same
rms and the same peak voltage as a sine wave, while still employing
only on-off commutation. This is done by switching the voltage
between the desired positive peak, zero and the negative peak,
spending 50% of the repetition period at zero, therefore achieving
both the same peak and the same rms values as a true sine wave, and
being compatible with a greater variety of loads.
[0003] Still, there are loads that do not tolerate the modified
sine wave; for example appliances that present inductive loads,
such as induction motors, some cellphone and laptop battery
chargers, fluorescent lamps and tumble dryers, and any device with
an internal power supply that uses capacitive reactance as a
lossless voltage-dropping means, can malfunction on modified sine
waveforms. Moreover, there is a potential problem with radio and TV
interference due to the high level of harmonics of the modified
square wave converter. Such a waveform is therefore not a candidate
for coupling solar-generated power into the utility network or into
house wiring.
[0004] "True sine wave" is another class of prior art DC-AC
converter. Linear amplifiers provide the absolute cleanest AC power
waveforms, but their inefficiencies cause high heat dissipation in
converters of several kilowatts capacity. Moreover, linear
amplifiers lose efficiency rapidly when operating into non-unity
power factor loads. Some sine wave inverters overcome the problems
with linear amplifiers by using digitally-synthesized waveforms,
which are multi-step approximations to a smooth sine wave. One
example of a step-approximation sine wave inverter is the XANTREX
(formerly Trace) SW4048.
[0005] In U.S. Pat. No. 5,930,128 by current Inventor, a power
waveform generator was disclosed that involved expressing the
sinusoidal waveform as a series of numerical samples in a number
base comprising a plurality of digits; selecting corresponding
digits from each numerical sample and generating therefrom a
waveform corresponding to the sequence of each digit, then using
combining means to form a weighted combination of the
digit-corresponding waveforms, the weights being chosen in relation
to the numerical significance of each digit. For example, using a
ternary number base, the weighting means would add the digit
Waveforms in the Ratios 1:1/3:1/9 and could for Example be a
Transformer with these turns ratios.
[0006] U.S. Pat. No. 5,373,433 also describes using series
connected, turns-ratio weighted transformer coupling of 3-level
waveforms to produce a 27-level step approximation to a sine wave.
The principle described therein is similar to that used in the
aforementioned XANTREX SW4048 inverter. The combining means
disclosed in the '128 patent for combining digit-corresponding
waveforms was, in a low-frequency case, a series connection of
transformers having turns ratios in the ratios of corresponding
numerical digits, and in a high-frequency case, comprised a set of
quarter wave lines having characteristic impedances in the ratios
of corresponding digits.
[0007] In a device built in accordance with the '128 patent, the
series-connected transformer is the appropriate version for 60 Hz,
as 1/4 wavelength lines are impractical at 60 Hz; however, the
transformers needed for the inventions of the '128 and '533 patents
represent a significant fraction of the total cost and weight of
medium-power converters, and also account for a few percent loss in
total efficiency. Therefore, other solutions that avoid the
disadvantages and pitfalls of the above prior art would be useful,
and in particular, a solution avoiding these low-frequency
transformers would be a benefit.
[0008] Transformerless inverters are known in the prior art,
particularly for utility-interactive inverters, which use
high-frequency switching or pulse width modulation to approximate a
sinewave. However, a disadvantage that arises in these prior art
converters is the imposition of the high-frequency switching
waveform on the solar array, which can capacitively couple through
the glass cover upon touching it, potentially causing RF burn to
personnel or damage to the solar panel, as well as causing the
solar array to radiate substantial radio interference. Thus a
design is required that can create a more benign voltage
fluctuation on the solar array DC conductors.
[0009] Another categorization of convertor relates to whether they
are designed to power loads directly, or whether they are designed
to feed and sell power back into the electricity grid. A load
inverter that can power loads directly is said to operate in
standalone mode, and is also called a "standalone inverter", while
a grid-tie inverter is said to operate in grid-interactive mode and
is also called a "grid-interactive inverter".
[0010] For safety and other reasons, the latter have to meet
different specifications than the former, especially under fault
conditions. In particular, a load inverter should be a constant
voltage source, while a grid-tie inverter does not have a constant
voltage output but must adapt to the voltage of the grid, and is a
current source. Moreover, a load inverter is always used with
battery storage, and should maintain efficiency at both light and
heavy loads and have low no-load power consumption, so that the
battery is not discharged while the inverter is idling at night.
Grid-tie inverters however do not have the same a requirement for
no-load power consumption, as they do not operate at night.
[0011] A complete alternative energy installation may thus comprise
a number of functions, including load inverters, grid-tie
inverters, load management for manually or automatically
transferring load between the utility and alternative energy
supplies, storage batteries, battery chargers, circuit breakers,
surge protectors and other safety devices to protect equipment and
wiring and eliminate the risk of electrical mishaps under
conceivable fault conditions. Other than the inverters and the
array these additional components are known as "balance-of-system"
components.
[0012] For high power grid-tie installations, typically 20 kw and
above, 3-phase inverters are preferable in order to keep the gauge
and cost of wiring down and to assist in maintaining balance
between the three phases of the electricity grid. For converters
over 100 Kw, 3-phase is often mandated by the utility company.
Three phase inverters using pulse width modulation are known from
the art of solid state Motor Drives, but they are not suitable for
grid-interactive use for many reasons, and Motor Drives do not need
or have ground leak detection on the DC bus, which is internal.
[0013] The total cost of balance-of-system components required in
an installation can be significant; therefore it is an objective of
this disclosure to describe novel designs of inverters, safety
devices and automatic load management devices that provide a more
efficient and cost effective complete installation, and which
achieve cost reductions in the electronics to complement the
currently falling cost of photovoltaic panels.
SUMMARY
[0014] This application is a Continuation of U.S. patent
application Ser. No. 13/103,070, filed May 8, 2011, and claims
priority therefrom. New methods and apparatus for the conversion of
DC power to AC power are disclosed herein, together with smart
energy management technology to provide an efficient `green` energy
installation. In a first implementation, a novel DC to AC convertor
comprises a waveform generator based on expressing the desired
output voltage waveform as a series of numerical samples in a
number base, each sample being expressed as a plurality of digits
in the number base; one or more high-frequency, bidirectional,
isolating DC to DC converters to convert input DC power at a first
voltage to a series of relatively floating DC output voltages, the
floating voltages being in the same ratio to one another as powers
of the number base; switches connected to each of the floating DC
supplies and controlled according to a corresponding digit of a
numerical sample to generate a corresponding floating output
voltage waveform, the floating output waveforms then being directly
connected in series to form the desired power output waveform
having a desired repetition frequency thereby eliminating the need
for further low frequency transformers or other weighting means. In
a preferred embodiment, one of the DC voltages may be chosen to
equal the input source voltage so that no isolating DC-DC convertor
is required for that supply. Preferably it is the supply from which
the greatest average power is drawn, which is typically the highest
supply voltage corresponding to the most significant digit of the
given number base. The DC source, which may be a
solar-array-charged battery, is configured to allow its positive
and negative terminals to be alternately interchanged so that the
positive and negative terminals are alternately connected to the
grounded neutral conductor, or reference potential terminal, which
facilitates detection of ground leakage faults in the DC circuit
using an AC ground leak detector. While one of the DC input
conductors is connected to the ground, neutral or reference
potential terminal, the other DC input is routed to and processed
by circuits which produce the desired output waveform, such as a
sine wave, that is output from at least one live or "hot" AC output
terminal.
[0015] A second implementation couples power produced by a solar
array into the electricity grid. In a single-phase,
grid-interactive inverter according to the second implementation, a
switch connects the negative terminal of the solar array to line
neutral and thus to ground, or else to a reference potential
terminal, when the required output to the utility grid hot leg is
instantaneously positive, and a second switch, which is inhibited
from operating at the same time as the first switch, connects the
solar array positive terminal to line neutral and thus to the
ground or reference potential terminal when the required output to
the utility grid hot leg is instantaneously negative. Third and
fourth switches alternately connect or disconnect the solar array
terminal not connected to line neutral to or from smoothing and
inverter hash filters supplying at least one AC output terminal
that is connected to the utility hot leg, the pattern of connects
and disconnects being determined by a high frequency digital
waveform generator such as a delta-sigma modulator, pulse-width
modulator or similar, such that the current delivered to the
utility approximates a sinusoidal current with low harmonic
content. The waveform generator timing is controlled such that the
power delivered to the utility substantially equals the solar power
available from the array, and such that the delivered current is
substantially in-phase with the utility voltage. Output relays
connects the inverter to the utility only when certain conditions
such as utility voltage limits, array voltage limits and utility
frequency limits are satisfied. When the relays are not connecting
the inverter to the electric utility, energy originating from the
photovoltaic array may be used for other purposes, such as charging
a battery for operating a load inverter. The utility connection may
be made via a two-pole AC GFCI breaker such that any ground fault
on either solar array terminal throws the breaker and isolates the
array, preventing electrical mishap. Thus the second inverter
configuration may be used alone in grid-interactive mode, or may be
used together with the first inverter implementation and a
rechargeable battery in order also to provide utility backup in the
event of a power outage. Such a bimodal installation may be
programmed to prioritize battery charging, and when fully charged,
excess solar array power is then fed to the electric utility via
the grid-tie inverter.
[0016] A three-phase grid-tie inverter according to the second
implementation is also described. The three phase inverter
comprises switches to connect the negative of the DC source, to one
of the set of three phase output terminals for the whole of the
period during which it is instantaneously negative relative to a
mean voltage or to a ground, neutral or reference potential, while
the other terminals of the set of AC output terminals are zero or
relatively positive compared to the mean, ground, neutral or
reference potential terminal, alternating in a rotating sequence
with connecting the positive of the DC source to one the set of
three phase AC output terminals for the whole of the period during
which it is instantaneously positive relative to the mean, ground,
neutral or reference potential and the other terminals of the set
of AC output terminals are zero or relatively negative to the mean,
ground, neutral or reference potential. The AC output voltages from
each of the set of AC output terminals has a unique phase, which,
in the case of two AC output terminals may be zero and 90 degrees,
or, for three AC output terminals, may be 0, 120 and degrees, while
in a single phase case the unique phase is simply 0 degrees.
[0017] A common characteristic of the inventive converters is that
a common-mode AC signal is created in-phase on both the positive
and negative DC input terminals and on all DC conductors. The AC
signal is of the same frequency as the AC output in the single
phase case, three times the AC output frequency in the three-phase
case, and two times the AC output frequency in a quadriphase (0 and
90) case. A ground leakage fault in the DC circuit is thus
detectable by detecting an AC leakage current at this
characteristic frequency, which is technically much easier than
detecting a DC leakage current.
[0018] A smart load management center is also described which can
selectively power each load or branch circuit either from the load
converter, when solar or battery power or other alternative energy
source is sufficient, or from the utility supply. The smart load
center may be end-user configured to prioritize which loads are
preferentially powered from the alternative energy source, and may
be configured to permit deeper battery charge-discharge cycles in
utility back-up mode only during the hopefully very infrequent
utility outages, than when utility power is available, thus
maximizing the life of the battery before replacement is needed.
The smart load center also has provision to shed load in a
prioritized order during a prolonged outage when limited solar
energy is being received.
[0019] A solar combiner is normally a simple junction box for
connecting the outputs of several solar panels or strings of panels
in parallel. When strings are connected in parallel, it is
desirable to use blocking diodes such that a shaded panel does not
rob current from the total. Many combiners ignore the potential for
differential shading and omit these diodes. An advantageous solar
combiner is described that selectively transfers the output current
of each string to a first priority load, such as battery charging,
a second priority load, such as a grid-tie inverter, or disconnects
both loads. The solar combiner described may thus be controlled to
progressively increase or decrease a battery charging current while
diverting current not used for battery charging to a grid tie
inverter or other diversion load. By disconnecting all strings from
both battery charging and the diversion load, the solar combiner
also provides a local and/or remote-controlled DC disconnect
function. In residential installations, DC wiring from a solar
array is required by the NEC to be enclosed in metallic conduit up
to the first DC disconnect. By providing a remote DC disconnect
function, the combiner described can be located right at the solar
array, for example attached to the inside of the attic roof behind
a roof-mounted array. By this means, the internal wiring need not
be in metallic conduit. The solar combiner communicates with the
inventive load convertor, which monitors battery state, in order to
provide a battery charge controller function.
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS
[0020] FIG. 1 shows a top-level block diagram of a DC-AC load
converter
[0021] FIG. 2 shows a bidirectional DC-DC converter
[0022] FIG. 3 shows a floating H-bridge for commutating a floating
DC supply
[0023] FIG. 4 shows the waveforms of four ternary digits over a
repetition cycle
[0024] FIG. 5 shows waveforms of the 120 volt H-bridge and on the
DC supply
[0025] FIG. 6 shows a common mode hash filter
[0026] FIG. 7 shows details of the transient response of the common
mode hash filter
[0027] FIG. 8 shows an RFI filter used to suppress high frequencies
on the output
[0028] FIGS. 9A and 9B show the difference between a correct and an
erroneous RFI filter
[0029] FIG. 10 shows more detail of a load inverter design
according to the invention
[0030] FIG. 11 shows the start up circuit for limiting inrush
current
[0031] FIG. 12 shows the output sinusoidal waveform from an
inventive converter.
[0032] FIG. 13 shows the output spectrum from the converter before
RFI filtering
[0033] FIG. 14 shows the converter output noise spectrum after RFI
filtering
[0034] FIG. 15 shows the principle of a single-phase grid intertie
inverter.
[0035] FIG. 16 shows the principle of a 3-phase grid intertie
inverter
[0036] FIG. 17 shows a complete solar installation for
grid-interactive use only.
[0037] FIG. 18 shows a complete solar installation using a
standalone inverter.
[0038] FIG. 19 shows a bimodal solar electric installation
[0039] FIG. 20 Equivalent circuit of a photovoltaic (solar)
cell
[0040] FIG. 20A shows the I-V characteristics of a solar panel
[0041] FIG. 20B shows temperature dependence of solar panel
characteristics
[0042] FIGS. 21A, B and C show the DC-DC converter waveforms for
reducing standby current
[0043] FIG. 22 shows the outline schematic of a smart load
center
[0044] FIG. 23 Shows three phase waveforms
[0045] FIG. 24 shows another arrangement of a 3-phase grid intertie
inverter
[0046] FIG. 25 shows a modified doublet and core flux
waveforms.
[0047] FIG. 26 shows a vector diagram of a generator back-feeding
the grid
[0048] FIG. 26A shows the vector diagram for rectifier mode
[0049] FIG. 27 shows a remote-controlled solar combiner and DC
disconnect
DETAILED DESCRIPTION
[0050] Referring to FIG. 1, a DC-to-AC conversion apparatus
according to a first implementation comprises an input (100) for a
floating DC power source, for example volts DC from ten 12-volt
rechargeable batteries connected in series; a pair of output
terminals (150) for the AC output, one of which may be connected to
the grounded conductor or neutral of the AC load; a bidirectional
DC-DC converter (110) for converting the DC input to a number of
floating DC output voltages, and a set of reversing switches
120a-120d controlled by opto-isolated driver circuit 200. While one
of a pair of single phase power conductors is normally a grounded
neutral conductor, the inventive converter may alternatively
provide a floating output relative to an arbitrary reference
potential terminal. The bidirectional property of the DC-DC
convertor 110 implies that power may instantaneously flow in either
direction at any pair of input or output terminals. If the current
flows out of a positive terminal, the direction of power flow is
"out", while if current flows into a positive terminal, the
direction of power flow is "in". The DC-DC convertor is of a
substantially lossless, switching type, implying that all power
that flows in must come out, although the convertor may optionally
contain energy storage capacitors such there may be an
instantaneous imbalance between input and output power according as
the capacitors are accumulating or releasing energy. In this
example, it is assumed that the inverter output waveform to be
generated is represented as a sequence of numerical samples, each
numerical sample value being expressed with four digits in the
ternary number system, e.g. (T4, T3, T2, T1), wherein each digit Ti
(i=1 . . . 4) can only take on one of the three values -1, 0 or +1.
In correspondence with the place significance of the different
ternary digits, a number of floating DC supplies are generated with
ratios 1:1/3:1/9:1/27. Assuming a 120-volt DC input source, The
floating DC supplies generated by converter 100 are therefore 40v,
13.33v and 4.44 volts which are respectively 1/3rd, 1/9th and
1/27th of the nominally 120 volt floating DC power source. The sum
of the DC input and all outputs of the DC-DC converter is
120+40+13.33+4.44=177.77 volts. This is the peak voltage that could
be generated at the AC output (150), and corresponds to a useful
sine wave output voltage of 125.7 volts rms. If necessary, all the
voltages can be scaled to produce other output voltages, for
example 100v, 115, 120v, 125 v, 220v etc, while still maintaining
the power-of-3 ratios between the floating supply voltages. Other
voltage outputs or waveforms (within the maximum available peak
voltage of all DC supplies added together) may alternatively be
generated by choosing the appropriate sequence of ternary digits.
For example, the invention could be used to produce an output
waveform for driving a vibration table for mechanical testing
purposes, the waveform being either non-repetitive, or having a
desired repetition frequency.
[0051] Other number systems than ternary could be used; for
example, the binary number system could be used, or the quaternary
number system could be used in which digits take on the values
-3,-1,+1 or +3. However, ternary is of slightly lower component
complexity per waveform step and is therefore the preferred
choice.
[0052] Continuing to refer to FIG. 1, the floating DC input and the
floating outputs from DC-DC converter (110) each feed respective
polarity reversing switches 120a, 120b, 120c and 120d. The outputs
of the switches are directly connected in series to the AC output
150, so that, by either inverting the selected polarity of each DC
supply or not, or not selecting it, in accordance with a respective
one of the ternary digits T4,T3,T2,T1, the series-connected output
can be any of the 81 values
(120T4+40T3+13.33T2+4.44T1)volts.
[0053] For example, if all switches select the positive polarity,
the output voltage will be 120+40+13.33+4.44=177.77 volts. If
however the 4.44 volt switch is controlled to feed straight
through, the output voltage will be 120+40+13.33=173.33 volts.
[0054] If the 4.44v switch is controlled to reverse the polarity,
the output voltage will be 120+40+13.33-4.44=168.88 volts. By
appropriate control of the switches therefore, any output voltage
between -177.77 and +177.77 volts in steps of 4.44 volts. can be
produced. It is important to note that, when a DC source polarity
is selected to oppose the output voltage and therefore the current
flow, power is feeding backwards into the DC-DC converter, which
must therefore be of a bidirectional design using for example
synchronous rectifiers.
[0055] It is a significant advantage to arrange that the voltage
corresponding to the most significant ternary digit, or from which
the greatest power is drawn, comes directly from the DC input, and
does not pass through the DC-DC convertor, as the DC-DC convertor
then only has to convert the remaining fraction of the total power.
Most of the AC output power then comes directly from the DC input
source, which improves the total conversion efficiency.
[0056] In order to generate a 60 Hz step-approximation to a 125.7
volt rms sinewave, the switches are controlled to select
sequentially among the 3.sup.4=81 possible voltage levels from
-177.77 to +177.77 volts and back again, repetitively in the proper
sequence and at the proper times. One cycle therefore comprises
nominally 2.times.81 voltage steps, so that the number of level
changes per second is approximately 2.times.81.times.60=9720. This
is somewhat rapid for mechanical switching means such as relays,
rotary commutators or cam-actuated contacts, but is well within the
capability of semiconductor switches which can operate 100 times
faster than the required speed. The full H-bridge of N-type power
MOSFETs shown in FIG. 3 is the preferred switch. Referring to FIG.
3, four N-type MOSFET power transistors labeled Tr(a), Tr(b) Tr(c),
Tr(d) are connected between the DC input +ve terminal and the -ve
terminal. By turning on transistors Tr(a) and Tr(d) while turning
off transistors Tr(b) and Tr(c), the DC +ve input is connected to
output pin 163 while DC -ve input is connected to output pin 164.
Conversely, by turning on transistors Tr(b) and Tr(c) while keeping
transistors Tr(a) and Tr(d) off, the DC +ve input is connected to
output terminal 164 while the DC -ve input is connected to output
pin 163. A pass-though state is created either by turning on
transistors Tr(a) and Tr(c) while holding Tr(b) and Tr(d) off,
which connects the DC +ve input to both output terminals 163 and
164, or by turning on transistors Tr(b) and Tr(d) while holding
Tr(a) and Tr(c) off, which connects the DC -ve input to both output
terminals 163 and 164. These two pass through states both give zero
voltage output between terminals 163 and 164, but differ as to
which polarity of the floating DC input is connected to the output
terminals. Both pass-through states are used in the invention at
different times.
[0057] A MOSFET is turned on or off by applying a positive or
(negative or zero) voltage between its gate and its source. Since
the sources of the upper MOSFETs Tr(a) and Tr(c) of the H-bridge
are connected to different ones of the H-bridge outputs, and the
sources of the lower two MOSFETs Tr(b) and Tr(d) of the H-bridge
are connected to the negative of the DC supply, three different
relatively floating supplies are required for the gate drivers
IC(a), IC(b), IC(c) and IC(d). IC(b) and IC(d) may use the same
gate driver supply, but IC(a) and IC(c) create separate supplies
using bootstrap diodes D1 and D2 to charge capacitors C1 and C2
respectively. Further discussion of bootstrapping may be found in
FIG. 4 of Intersil Application Note AN9324.4 dated March 2003, by
George E. Danz.
[0058] Due to the reference potentials for the gate drivers being
different, even within the same H-bridge, all gate drivers are
preferably opto-isolated. A preferred opto-isolated gate driver is
Fairchild part number FOD3180. An opto-isolator comprises a
light-emitting diode illuminating a phototransistor. When current
is passed through the light emitting diode at its input, the output
will be enabled. Since it is important that TR(a) and TR(b) should
never be turned on at the same time, as this would short the DC
input, this is rendered impossible by connecting their gate driver
input LEDs back-to-back. Likewise the gate driver input LEDs for
TR(c) and TR(d) are connected back to back. A control input 161 is
conditioned by two inverting AND gates to produce opposite polarity
output signals which connect through resistors R3 and R4 to the
LEDs of gate drivers IC(c) and IC(d). A logic 0 at pin 161 will
enable IC(d) to turn on TR(d) and switch TR(c) off. A logic 1 at
pin 161 will enable IC(c) to turn on TR(c) and switch TR(d) off. A
logic 0 at input pin 162 will produce logic 1's at both NAND gate
outputs and thus no current will flow in either LED, turning both
TR(c) and TR(d) off. The latter state is useful for fast shutdown
upon fault events.
[0059] If the H-bridges of FIG. 1 are controlled according to a
fixed timing to generate step approximations to a sine wave, the
output voltage will simply be proportional to the DC input voltage,
e.g. 125.7 volts RMS out for 120 volts DC in, or 104.75 volts RMS
output for 100 volts DC input, or 146.65 volts RMS out for 140
volts DC input. The range 100 volts DC to 140 volts DC represents
the range of voltages that could be produced by 60 lead-acid cells
in series between the two extreme states of (a) substantially fully
discharged and (b) fully charged and receiving a bulk or absorption
charge. It may not be desirable to allow the AC output to vary so
much over this range of DC input voltages. Accordingly, a method is
used to maintain more constant AC output voltage in the face of
varying DC input. Instead of controlling the switches in a fixed
timing sequence, a controller determines the time at which a sine
wave output of desired amplitude passes from being nearer one
voltage step to being nearer an adjacent voltage step, given the
actual DC supply voltages, and may control the switches to change
from the previous voltage step to the adjacent voltage step at the
determined time. A simple implementation of the foregoing comprises
pre-computing a sequence of switching times for each of a number of
possible sub-ranges of the DC input voltage; for example, a first
series of switching times for the range 100-110 volts; a second
series for 110 to 120 volts; a third series for 120-130 volts, and
a fourth series for 130 to 140 volts. Moreover, the series of
switching times can be computed to give a nominal output voltage of
120 volts RMS instead of 125.7 volts. This method of determining a
series of switching times to produce a constant 120 volt AC sine
wave output with various DC input voltages may be extended to
operate over the DC input voltage range 100 to 327 volts. At 327
volts, the 170-volt peak value of a 120v rms AC sine wave is
produced with a 4-digit ternary number of 1,-1,-1,-1, which
illustrates that the highest voltage H-bridge still makes its
maximum voltage contribution of 327 volts, but with the other three
H-bridges backing-off this voltage by -109 volts, -36.3 and -12.1
volts respectively. Under these circumstances the highest voltage
H-bridge is only contributing current for short periods at the very
peaks, so the majority of power flow passes through the DC-DC
converter, reducing efficiency and maximum output rating. For such
a converter, the specification should indicate an efficiency and a
maximum power derating factor as a function of input voltage. Input
voltage ranges up to perhaps 200 volts may still be accommodated
however with most of the output power coming directly from the DC
input and only a fraction being supplied by the DC-DC converter,
and therefore without significant loss of efficiency or power
derating. Utilizing the extended input voltage capability is one
way to construct a bimodal system using the same array voltage for
both the grid-tie and the standalone modes, as will be described
later.
[0060] The above example of an extreme DC input voltage of 327
suggests another possible variation of the inverter. When the
highest H-bridge voltage is 327, the second highest is 109. This
suggests that an inverter could be constructed wherein the input
voltage was the second highest floating DC source, and the
bidirectional DC convertor generated floating outputs of 3 times,
1/3rd and 1/9th of the input. Thus it is possible to design an
inventive converter for a nominal 96-volt battery, which would
power the second highest voltage H-bridge directly, and the DC-DC
converter would generate 3.times.96=288 volts, 96/3=32 volts, and
32/3=10.67 volts for the other H-bridges. Each inverter design thus
should be optimized for an intended range of DC input voltages.
When the DC input voltage is outside the design range, a fault
detector may apply a logic zero to pin 162 of FIG. 3 and to a
corresponding pin on the other half of the H-bridge and to all
H-bridges, thus instantly halting operation of the converter until
the input voltage lies consistently within the design range once
more.
[0061] FIG. 12 shows the output sinusoidal waveform from the
converter produced by controlling the switches in the proper
sequence, when the DC input is volts (a fully charged, 60-cell lead
acid battery) and the desired AC output is 120 volts rms. For 60
amps AC output (7.2 kilowatts of output power), DC-to-DC convertor
(11) supplies only watts of the total power, the remainder coming
directly from the 126 volt DC input via only H-bridge 120a, which
switches at only 60 Hz. Switching losses are therefore negligible
for the bulk of the power flow.
[0062] The use of floating DC supplies of 120, 40, 13.33 and 4.44
volts to the inputs of the H-bridges, plus the use of
opto-isolators to isolate the power MOSFET control lines means that
the outputs provided from the H-bridges are also floating, and can
therefore be joined in series directly, that is without further
coupling means or weighting means, to provide an output voltage of
120.times.T4+40.times.T3+13.33.times.T2+4.44.times.T1 where
(T4,T3,T2,T1) is the four ternary digit representation of the
desired instantaneous output voltage from the converter. The
ability to join the H-bridge outputs in series directly confers the
benefit that the inventive DC-AC convertor scheme requires no 60 Hz
transformers, which reduces weight in particular, but the main
benefits are reduced cost and size and improved efficiency.
[0063] If the DC input voltage is not 120 volts, but in general is
denoted by Vdc, then the formula for the instantaneous output
voltage is
Vdc.(T4+T3/3+T2/9+T1/27).
[0064] For a greater number of digits than 4, for example n digits
T1 . . . T(n), the formula for instantaneous output voltage is
T(n)+T(n-1)/3+T(n-2)/9+ . . . T1/3.sup.(n-1)
[0065] times the DC input voltage if the direct current source
voltage is the greatest of the floating DC supplies or
alternatively
3T(n)+T(n-1)+T(n-1)/3+ . . . T1/3.sup.(n-2)
[0066] times the DC input voltage if the direct current source
voltage is the second greatest of the floating DC supplies, or even
more generally
3.sup.m[T(n)+T(n-1)/3+T(n-2)/9+ . . . T1/3.sup.(n-1)]
[0067] where the power m is zero if the highest voltage is directly
equal to the DC input voltage; m=1 if the DC input voltage is the
second highest of the floating supply voltages; m=2 if the DC
supply voltage is the third highest if the floating supply voltages
and so forth.
[0068] FIG. 4 illustrates the behavior of the four ternary digits
T4,T3,T2,T1 when generating a 120-volt RMS AC output when Vdc=126
volts, as was used to produce the output waveform of FIG. 12. For
this particular input and output voltage, it may be seen that the
desired peak voltage of 120 2=169.7 volts is approximated with
T4=T3=1 and T2=R1=0, giving 126(1+1/3)=168 volts. This is nearer
169.7 than the next higher step of 172.44 with T4=T3=T1=1 and T2=0.
Thus small changes in the DC input voltage may require substantial
changes in the waveform to maintain an absolutely constant 120 volt
RMS output; however such accuracy is not required and a finite
number of precomputed waveforms may be used as previously
described.
[0069] Some hysteresis in selecting the best waveform can be
provided so as to prevent the converter nurdling, which describes
the sound of periodic changes in inverter hum when inverters
alternate between different waveforms. In any case, a selected
waveform is used for at least an entire cycle to ensure symmetry
between the positive and negative half-cycles and to ensure zero
net DC bias on the output.
[0070] FIG. 4 also illustrates that the most significant DC supply
voltage is not used (i.e. T4=0) around the zero crossings of the
sine wave. Thus H-bridge 120a is programmed to the "pass through"
state when T4=0. In the pass through state, either the DC input
positive line or the DC input negative line is connected to both
outputs of H-bridge 120a. It is deliberately chosen that one
H-bridge 120a output provides the neutral or grounded conductor
output of the converter while the hot leg is provided by the end of
the series H-bridge string, i.e. from an output of H-bridge 120d.
This results in either the DC input positive line or the negative
line being connected to neutral (the grounded conductor) in the
pass through state. By choosing to form the pass through state by
connecting the positive DC input to neutral in the pass-through
period following a positive half cycle where T4 was previously
equal to 1, and choosing to form the pass though state by
connecting the negative of the DC supply to the neutral/ground
after a negative half cycle when T4 was equal to -1, the waveform
on each DC input terminal is a symmetrical square wave ranging from
0 to +120 on the positive terminal alternating with 0 to -120 on
the negative terminal. Each DC input terminal may therefore be
described as having a voltage of 60 volts DC mean with a 60 Hz, 60
volt peak square wave superimposed. When connected to a solar
array, such a configuration is in conformance with the NEC
electrical code (2008) providing a warning label is attached
indicating that both terminals of the array and DC circuit are
ungrounded and thus hot. An appropriate color code for wiring to
the array is black for negative and red for positive, as both
colors are standard colors for AC hot legs.
[0071] When the above-described pass-through states are used, the
resulting common-mode square wave on the DC inputs will be slightly
phase-shifted relative to the AC output. If the square wave shall
be in phase with the AC output, then the pass though state of
H-bridge 120a can be created by connecting the positive DC input
terminal to neutral/ground for the first half of the pass through
state after T4=1 and connecting the negative of the DC input to
neutral/ground for the second half, and vice-versa for the pass
through state following T4=-1. In this way, the square wave
positive-to-negative transition coincides with the zero crossings
of the AC output, as shown in FIG. 5. At time T1 on the left, the
AC output is negative and the most significant ternary digit equals
-1, and the DC supply +ve line is connected to neutral via MOSFET
Tr(a). Accordingly the TR(a) drive waveform is at a logic 1 level,
corresponding to MOSFET Tr(a) being ON. When TR(a) is ON, TR(b)
must be off to avoid shorting the DC supply, which is guaranteed by
connecting their opto-isolator LED's back-to-back. As the AC output
rises towards zero, the most significant ternary digit goes to zero
at time T2. At that point TR(c) is turned on and Tr(d) is turned
off so that a pass-through state is created while leaving the DC
positive line connected to neutral. The AC output goes through zero
at the center of the period during which the ternary digit is zero
at time T3. To synchronize the common mode AC component on the DC
supply lines with the AC output, the negative of the DC input shall
now be connected to neutral instead of the positive, while
maintaining a pass-through state. Thus Tr(b) turns on, and Tr(a)
off, while simultaneously Tr(c) turns back on and Tr(d) turns off.
This results in the negative of the DC input being connected to
neutral and also the H-bridge output is connected to the DC supply
so that there is no net voltage supplied to the output, in
conformity with the most significant digit still being zero
[0072] At time T4, the most significant ternary digit becomes +1.
At that point the negative of the DC input is left connected to
neutral while the H-bridge output shall be connected to positive.
Thus Tr(c) and Tr(d) change state. The situation now remains
constant until the ternary digit next goes to zero at time T5,
whereupon Tr(c) and Tr(d) change state again to create a
pass-through state. At time T6 in the middle of the period during
which the ternary digit is zero, Tr(a) and Tr(b) change state
requiring Tr(c) and Tr(d) also to change state to maintain the pass
through state until time T7. At time T7, Tr(c) and Tr(d) change
state to deliver a negative voltage to the H-bridge output when the
most significant ternary digit becomes equal to -1. The
just-described sequence then repeats indefinitely from time T8.
[0073] If an inverter is designed in which the supply voltage (100)
is not the greatest of the floating supply voltages, then the
common-mode waveform caused on the DC inputs will no longer be a
simple square wave corresponding to the most significant ternary
digit, but will have a waveform determined by the lesser
significant ternary digit associated with the lesser supply
voltage. Likewise, if the invention is used to produce other
waveforms for other applications, then a more complex common-mode
waveform related to the sequence of a particular ternary digit is
induced on the DC conductors. When such a waveform is used as the
probe signal for ground leak detection on the DC conductors, it may
then be beneficial to detect leakage current using a correlator
that correlates for that particular waveform.
[0074] To obtain a sine wave output voltage, controller 200 of FIG.
1 represents the sine wave as numerical samples expressed in the
ternary number system. When using a finite number of digits, it
might be necessary to approximate the desired output voltage by the
nearest ternary combination, and there are many ways in which an
approximation could be constructed. For example, a ternary digit
can be jittered between two adjacent values on successive instants
of a high-frequency clock in order to approximate an intermediate
value. This method is however reserved for a variation in the
inverter design in which one of the ternary digits, e.g. the least
significant digit T1, could be omitted, along with the associated
components and the 4.44 volt floating supply, the value of T2 then
being jittered between adjacent values at a high frequency so as to
create a mean voltage between the 13.33 volt steps, thereby
reducing component count. A low-pass LC interpolation filter is
then connected at H-bridge 120c output to smooth the waveform.
Frequent switching can be a source of additional switching losses,
however switching only a low voltage supply such as 13.33 volts
produces much less switching loss than jittering the 120-volt
supply. A second approach is to choose the nearest ternary
approximation to the desired instantaneous output voltage at a
sequence of successive, equi-spaced time intervals generated by a
sampling clock. Yet another approach, which is the preferred
approach, is to keep the ternary value fixed as long as it is the
nearest approximation to the exact voltage, and to increment it or
decrement it to the next adjacent value only at the instant that a
different value becomes the nearest approximation. Storing the
approximately 81 time-values of this sequence of switching instants
requires much less memory than storing the ternary digits at all
32768 clock instants.
[0075] One method of producing the ternary digit sequence is as
follows: Let controller 200 comprise a crystal reference oscillator
running at 2.sup.15.times.60=1,966,080 Hz. The oscillator clocks a
15-bit divider to produce a 15-bit address to a 32768.times.16-bit
Read Only Memory (ROM) containing the precomputed waveforms
required on the FET control lines of the H-bridges during one 60 Hz
cycle. Symmetries, such as +/- symmetry, could be exploited to
reduce memory size, if important. The buffered memory output bits
drive the opto-isolators that drive the FET gates of each H-bridge
to generate one of its three output voltage states at each instant
and in the correct sequence.
[0076] The preferred approach uses a time counter for counting of
the order of 32768 steps over a 60 Hz cycle, an address counter,
and memory to store a count and an associated set of MOSFET drive
signals. The address counter is initialized to the first address at
an appropriate point in the power-up procedure and a set of MOSFET
drive signals are read from the memory at that address, together
with the next count. When the time counter reaches the next count,
the address is incremented and the next set of MOSFET drive signals
is read from memory, together with the next count value. In this
way, the number of sets of signal values stored is only of the
order of the number of waveform steps. Either method can be
implemented in a suitable microcontroller, such as an 80C51, which
contains suitable time-counters.
[0077] Using the above methods, it is relatively easy to construct
a converter that can be selected to generate 50 Hz or 60 Hz, or
even 400 Hz power by varying the oscillator frequency, the memory
contents or both, or storing waveforms over a lowest common
multiple period of the desired frequency selections, or computing
the ternary digit sequences in real time.
[0078] The ternary representation of a sine wave of peak voltage Vo
volts when the DC input voltage is Vdc may be computed as follows:
[0079] Divide up one cycle of 360 degrees into 32768 equal
increments 0, .theta., 2.theta., 3.theta. . . . 32767.theta. where
.theta.=360/32768 degrees. [0080] Compute the value A equal to Vo
times the SINE of each angle. Then, for each angle: [0081] If A is
greater or equal to +Vdc/2, then T4=1; if A is less or equal to
-Vdc/2, then T4=-1; else T4=0 [0082] Subtract Vdc times the
just-determined value of T4 from A to obtain the remainder in A.
[0083] If the remainder in A is greater or equal to Vdc/6 volts,
then T3=1; if A is less or equal to -Vdc/6 volts, then T3=-1; else
T3=0 [0084] Subtract Vdc/3 times the just-determined value of T3
from the previous remainder A to get a new remainder A [0085] If
the new remainder A is greater or equal to Vdc/18 volts, then T2=1;
if A is less or equal to -Vdc/18 volts, then T2=-1; else T2=0
[0086] Subtract Vdc/9 times the just determined value of T2 from A
to get the final remainder in A [0087] If the final remainder A is
greater or equal to Vdc/54 volts, then T1=1; if A is less or equal
to -Vdc/54 volts, then T1=-1; else T1=0 [0088] Repeat the above
determination of ternary words (T4,T3,T2,T1) for each of the 32768
angular increments.
[0089] The above algorithm can also be executed using different
voltage thresholds, corresponding to other DC input voltage levels,
in order to determine a ternary digit sequence that will yield the
desired AC rms output voltage for the other DC input voltages.
[0090] Having determined the ternary values for each clock period,
the H-bridge drive signals required for that ternary value are then
stored along with the clock count at which they are invoked, thus
resulting in a much smaller memory. With four H-bridges, the drive
signals are conveniently packed into one byte, and slightly more
than 81 entries result due to using both pass-through states for
the most significant H-bridge around zero crossings, as shown in
FIG. 5, which correspond to the same ternary digit of zero. In
effect, two different forms of zero are used for the most
significant ternary digit. In some cases it is possible that
additional memory entries could be created in the event that small
timing differences were needed between switching different
H-bridges in order to minimize glitches.
[0091] The above ternary approximation algorithm can be executed
for any set of graduated supply voltages, and for any desired
output waveform or voltage. The peak output voltage should however
be less than the sum of the floating DC supply voltages if clipping
of the waveform is to be avoided.
[0092] A number of ternary representation sequences can be
precomputed and stored for different ratios of sine wave output
voltage to DC supply voltage, in steps of a few percent for
example, the selection among which then provides the means to
regulate the output sine wave voltage against changes in DC supply
voltage.
[0093] The algorithm may alternatively be executed in real time
using a microprocessor or digital signal processor. For self-test
purposes, the converter is equipped with an A-to-D converter that
measures and checks each voltage step against limits during the
start-up sequence, and may also periodically recheck each voltage
step during normal operation, for example, by sampling and
digitizing a voltage step level just before a step to the next
voltage level in sequence is taken. Then the time at which the
just-measured voltage step is the best approximation to the desired
instantaneous sine wave level can be computed, and if different
than the currently stored value, the stored value may be updated.
By stepping to a higher voltage step a little earlier, or a lower
voltage step a little later, a small increase in the output rms
voltage is achieved, while stepping to a lower voltage step earlier
or to a higher voltage step later, a small decrease in rms output
voltage is obtained. In this way, a continuous and fine regulation
of the output rms voltage may be obtained.
[0094] It is also possible to use a clock frequency that is
different than a power of times 60 Hz. There may then be more or
fewer than 32768 clock cycles in one converter cycle. In a
preferred implementation, an 80C51 microprocessor clock is 11.0592
MHz, giving an internal clock frequency of 11.0592/6 MHz, which is
30720 clocks in one 60 Hz cycle. Consequently the ternary digit
sequence is calculated in steps of 360 degrees divided by 30720.
The converter may also be provided with other stored sequences that
can be selected to generate 50 Hz or 400 Hz outputs, which have
repetition periods of 36864 and counts respectively, when using a
crystal frequency of 11.0592 MHz.
[0095] FIGS. 10 and 11 give more circuit detail of the load
convertor. FIG. 11 gives detail of the DC input circuit, showing
the entry of the DC +ve and -ve lines through a common mode filter
200 into a start-up circuit comprising start-up relay RLY1 (203),
100-watt lamp B1 (204), photo-sensor (206) and main power relay
RLY2 (205). DC power flows through main power relay RLY2 (205) when
closed and through 100 A current measuring shunt (206) to 60 KHz
bidirectional DC-DC inverter (110) and to 120-volt H-bridge 120a.
Bidirectional DC-DC inverter 110 generates the floating DC voltages
of 40v, 13.33v and 4.44 volts for the other three H-bridges 120b,c
an d. Each of the DC voltages produced by the bidirectional DC-DC
inverter is decoupled with a substantial reservoir capacitor, which
however is not essential to the operation of the inverter. There
are two advantages of using reservoir capacitors however: (1) To
reduce copper losses n the 60 KHz inverter transformer windings by
smoothing out current demand, and
(2) to reduce low-load or no-load standby power. Both of these will
be explained in more detail later. Upon switch on, these reservoir
capacitors would cause a substantial and potentially damaging
inrush current to flow for some fraction of a second, which it is
the purpose of the start-up circuit of FIG. 11 to reduce to safe
values. The start-up circuit also permits the whole inverter to be
powered up stage-by-stage while checking for faults at each stage
so that start up may be aborted if faults exist that could cause a
cascade of other component failures.
[0096] Referring to FIG. 11, the DC+ and - input terminals are
connected through common mode filter 200 to control circuit and
auxiliary power supply unit 202 via a 250 mA fuse 201. Upon
applying a DC input to the input terminals, auxiliary PSU 202
starts operating and powers up the control circuit, which may
contain a microprocessor. After performing self checks to verify
that the control circuit initialized itself correctly, ensuring
that all output relays and the start-up and main power relay are in
the OFF position, and all H-bridge transistors are off, the control
circuit closes start-up relay RLY1 (203), the coil of which is
powered from the already operating auxiliary PSU (202), to connect
the DC positive line through 100-watt lamp (204) to the input of
the 60 KHz bidirectional DC-DC convertor (110). The DC-DC convertor
power transistors and synchronous rectifier transistors are
commutated at this point so that DC flowing through lamp 204 will
be converted to the desired output voltages, charging all reservoir
capacitors at a rate determined by the limited lamp current. For
the purpose of analysis, the total reservoir capacitance
transformed through the 60 KHz inverter transformer ratio may be
just lumped into a single value, shown dotted in FIG. 11. The
current required to charge this capacitor is sufficient to light
the 100-watt lamp for a second or so, the lamp dimming as the
capacitor charges towards 120 volt. The lamp 204 thus limits the
inrush current to perhaps 7 amps when the filament is cold, falling
to 0.8 amps when the filament is at full brightness, and then
falling further as the capacitance charges up towards 120 volts.
The charging is faster than exponential, as the resistance of the
lamp reduces from 150 ohms at full brightness to about 18 ohms as
it cools. The use of a lamp instead of a series resistor has this
benefit of faster charging, and also is able to dissipate 100 watts
as long as necessary, whereas a 100 watt resistor would need
heat-sinking and would be more expensive.
[0097] If any fault exists which causes the 60 KHz inverter, or any
H-bridge, which is supposed to be off, to take current, then the
no-load current through the lamp will not drop to zero, and will be
high enough to cause the lamp to remain partially lit. After
allowing 2 seconds for normal start up, such a fault condition is
detected using phototransistor 206, which is in close proximity to
lamp 204, and the control circuit aborts start up and opens
start-up relay 203 upon detecting the abnormal condition. Assuming
however that the lamp does not remain lit, after two seconds the
control circuit concludes that all reservoir capacitors have been
successfully charged and that no abnormal no-load current exists.
The control circuit also requires to have seen the lamp light
briefly after the start-up relay is closed, thus verifying the
integrity of the lamp and the phototransistor. If the lamp does not
light briefly after closing the start-up relay, the start-up
sequence may be aborted. Automatic retries may optionally be
programmed to occur up to a limit.
[0098] After the reservoir capacitors are charged, the main
inverter H-bridges are operated off load with the AC output relays
open. FIG. 10 shows more detail of the complete single-phase load
converter. Referring to FIG. 10, the DC input enters via
common-mode filter 200 to the startup circuit just described with
the aid of FIG. 11. The start-up circuit switches the filtered DC
input through a 100-amp current shunt (101-5) to 60 KHz inverter
110-1 and 120 volt H-bridge 120a. 60 KHz inverter 110-1 together
with synchronous rectifiers 110-2, 110-2 and 110-4 constitute the
bidirectional DC-DC converter of FIG. 2. Each synchronous rectifier
has an output reservoir capacitor and is connected to an associated
H-bridge, 120b, c or d. The four H-bridges are driven by four
corresponding sets of four optoisolated MOSFET drivers (222). Each
synchronous rectifier uses two further MOSFET drives and the 60 KHz
inverter uses two MOSFET drivers, making 26 in total. The MOSFET
drivers require 12-15 volt power supplies. Two MOSFET drivers can
use the same 15-volt supply if they drive MOSFETs that have their
sources connected. Thus, using the transistor identifications of
FIG. 3, one 15-volt supply is required for H-bridge 120a TR(b) and
TR(d); another .is required for H-bridge 120b TR(b) and Tr(d) and
the transistors of its associated synchronous rectifier 110-2; a
third is required for H-bridge 120c and its associated synchronous
rectifier 110-3; a fourth for H-bridge 120d and rectifier 110-4 and
a fifth for 60 LHz inverter 110-1. Other isolated supplies may be
required for microprocessor controller and waveform generator 202-2
and for various overcurrent, undervoltage and overvoltage sensors.
All these supplies are produced by auxiliary power supply 202-1.
Auxiliary supply 202-1 comprises a low-power, switch-mode regulator
producing high frequency AC which is distributed to the location on
the printed circuit board at which an isolated supply is needed,
where it is transformed to the desired voltage using a small
toroidal isolating transformer followed by a diode rectifier.
Distributing AC and isolating and rectifying it at destination has
the benefit of reducing PCB tracking congestion.
[0099] The output from H-bridge 120d is coupled back to controller
202-2 where the instantaneous output voltage can be sampled and
digitized by an A-to-D convertor. Each ternary step can thus be
tested in turn during the start-up sequence by measuring the output
voltage produced. If all ternary steps look normal and lamp 204 did
not light in the process, the conclusion is that all H-bridge
transistors are operating normally with neither short nor open
circuits, giving a very low no-load current. The H-bridges are then
operated to generate the normal step approximation to a 120 volt
RMS sine wave. Again assuming that lamp 404 remains unlit, the
inverter is now generating the desired 60 Hz output with no
abnormal no-load current. The main power relay (205) is then
closed, which shorts out the lamp and start up relay to allow high
currents to flow when the AC load is connected. Note that relay 205
closes only when there is zero volts across its contacts and zero
current through it. This permits it to be a very much lower cost
relay than one with sufficiently robust contacts to make or break
full load many times. 60 Hz generation is then temporarily
suspended by controlling the four ternary H-bridges to the open
circuit condition so that the AC output relays may also be closed
with no voltage across them and no current though their contacts.
60 HZ generation is then resumed to deliver AC power to the load,
and if no current overload is detected, the inverter has
successfully executed a safe start-up. Both the main power relay
and the AC output relays derive their coil power from the 13.33
volt output of the 60 KHz inverter, so that any failure of the
DC-DC converter forces those relays to the open condition.
Moreover, the auxiliary PSU is diode-protected such that it will
neither power-on nor be damaged by connecting the DC input with
reverse polarity. The start-up relay cannot therefore be operated
if the DC input is of the reverse polarity, thus protecting
polarized electrolytic capacitors and the H-bridge switches from
accidental damage.
[0100] Power down of the inverter can be initiated by a user OFF
switch or by detection of any of the following fault conditions,
which are not necessarily exhaustive: [0101] Over- or undervoltage
at the DC input [0102] Overcurrent from the DC supply [0103]
Excessive AC current [0104] Overtemperature on the heat sink [0105]
Lamp 204 becoming lit [0106] Abnormal AC output voltage
waveform
[0107] The above fault conditions may be arranged to cause
substantially instantaneous cessation of inverter operation.
[0108] A normal Power down occurs in approximately the reverse
order to power-up. Firstly, commutation of the ternary H-bridges
ceases and they are switched to the open circuit condition. The AC
output relays 131 are then opened, which occurs with zero volts
across the contacts and zero current through them. The main power
relay (205) is then opened, which occurs with no current flowing
through it and zero volts across its contacts. Finally, the
start-up relay 203 is de-energized, which connects the reservoir
capacitance through the lamp to ground, discharging it. The 60 KHz
inverter continues to operate while the reservoir capacitors are
discharging, but is deactivated after a few seconds. The control
circuit can check whether lamp 204 lit momentarily during the
capacitor discharge sequence, as it should. The inverter is then
ready to begin a power-up cycle once any fault condition is
cleared. Automatic restart attempts can be programmed to occur up
to a specified number of retries, if desired.
[0109] FIG. 12 shows the ternary approximation of the sine wave
output from the inventive load convertor. A feature of this
invention is that all the voltage steps are of approximately the
same size, but have a varying dwell time according to how fast the
sine wave is changing. This gives a well-spread approximation error
spectrum with no dominant harmonics. FIG. 13 shows the amplitude of
each harmonic of 60 Hz up to 16384.times.60 Hz, which is in the
middle of the medium waveband.
[0110] The Medium Wave frequency band begins at about half way from
center, where the spectral energy in any 9 KHz AM radio channel is
seen to be 78 dB below the main 60 Hz component. For a 5 kW (+67
dBm) convertor, this is a level of -11 dBm in the 9 KHz bandwidth
of an AM radio. This is still a high level of radio noise, and
interference with radio and TV reception from Medium Wave all the
way up to VHF TV frequencies has been observed when using prior art
converters. Such interference is called "inverter hash" and has
been known since the days or rotary converters, or dynamotors,
where it was due to commutator/brush noise. Thus, despite the good
sine-approximation evident in FIG. 12, the sheer power of the
convertor requires that additional hash suppression be used when
operating close to sensitive radio receivers. Suppression of radio
interference shall be at least sufficient to meet FCC part 15
specifications, but greater suppression is often desirable.
[0111] FIG. 10 shows more detail of a complete load converter,
including RFI filters at both the DC input (200) and the convertor
output (131). The RFI filters are required, as the output will be
distributed around the house wiring in a residential application. A
suitable 2.sup.rd-order LC filter is shown in FIG. 8. FIG. 14 shows
the reduction in medium-wave interference to 98 dB below the
inverter output when using the filter. This additional 20 dB of
suppression of inverter hash .substantially eliminates interference
at medium wave and above with radio and TV in the same
location.
[0112] As later discussed in relation to common mode filtering on
the DC side, RFI filters preferably include damping resistors as
well as capacitors and inductors, to ensure that no high-Q
resonances occur at any frequency when connected to arbitrary house
wiring and appliances. This is the purpose of C2 and R1 in FIG. 8.
These components are chosen also to minimize ringing and overshoot
on no load.
[0113] FIG. 9 emphasizes the difference between a safe RFI
filtering circuit (9B) and an unsafe RFI filtering circuit (9A).
Unfortunately, the unsafe circuit of FIG. 9A is in widespread use
on the input power connectors of Personal Computers, VCRs and the
like, and electronic technicians quite commonly experience shock
from laboratory benches due to the use of such filters in
laboratory test equipment, when the ground is temporarily lost, as
can happen accidentally or deliberately in a dynamic R&D
environment for various reasons. It can also result in inadvertent
damage to expensive equipment upon accidental or deliberate
disconnection of the equipment ground.
[0114] With the prior art circuit of FIG. 9A, should the ground
connection to the equipment fail, the line voltage will be divided
in two by the potential divider formed by the filter capacitors,
and the chassis or case of the equipment will become live to the
touch, at about 60 volts 60 Hz AC (in the US) or 120 volts 50 Hz
(in Europe). The current is limited when the filter capacitors are
small, e.g. 0.01 uF, but can still be felt as an electric shock,
and is very unpleasant if the equipment is a medical device
attached to a catheter, for example. Moreover, when several pieces
of equipment are used together, as in a rack or a lab bench, the
net current can reach more dangerous levels. For an entire
household, the typical ground current that can be measured flowing
down the grounding rod is often as high as 50 mA, arising from all
installed appliances such as TV sets, computers, VCR's, washing
machines etc.
[0115] FIG. 9B shows the safer form of RFI filter. In FIG. 9B, the
filtering capacitors decouple the hot line to the neutral line, not
the equipment ground as in FIG. 9A. The neutral line is then
decoupled to the equipment ground with another capacitor. In this
way, should the ground become disconnected, the chassis or case of
the equipment is only connected via a capacitor to the neutral
line, not the hot line, thereby avoiding a safety hazard. It would
require both the ground and the neutral wire to fail while the hot
line remained intact, in order to cause the case or chassis of the
equipment to become live when using the RFI filtering circuit of
FIG. 9B, which is therefore a safer arrangement.
[0116] For the reasons given above, the output RFI filter comprises
a series inductor in the 120-volt AC hot leg output, and capacitors
C1 and C2 connect to neutral, not equipment ground. Furthermore,
the neutral output is decoupled to equipment ground through the
neutral output isolating relay contacts. In this way, when the
output relays are open, there is no path to ground for the
inverter, battery or array circuits, not even through the 1 uF
neutral-ground decoupling capacitor, thus ensuring complete
isolation of the DC circuits when the inverter is not
operating.
[0117] FIG. 6 shows the common mode hash filter used on the DC
input. This also returns the decoupling capacitors to neutral
rather than equipment ground for the reasons discussed above. A
common-mode filter is used due to the square wave exported to the
DC input lines being in phase on both terminals. The purpose of
this filter is to slow the rise and fall times of the edges of the
60 Hz square wave in order to avoid exporting radio interference to
DC equipment such as the solar array and battery. The DC lines from
the array may be protected against induced static during
thunderstorms by means of gas discharge surge arrestors, and it is
desired to avoid peak voltages due to filter overshoot under normal
operation that could cause premature ignition of the surge
arrestors. FIG. 7 shows the transient response of the common mode
hash filter of FIG. 6, after optimization of component values for
minimum overshoot.
[0118] FIG. 2 shows a bidirectional DC-DC convertor for providing
various floating DC output voltages such as Vdc/3. Vdc/9 and Vdc/27
using a DC source of Vdc volts. The DC-DC converter uses a high
switching frequency such as 60 KHz, enabling the transformer to be
much smaller than would be required for 60 Hz operation. The
transformer in FIG. 2 has four windings, which have turns ratios
N1:N2:N3:N4 in proportion to the voltage ratios V1:V2:V3:V4. For
the purposes of explanation, each winding has been shown as a
center tapped winding with the center taps connected to the
positive terminal of the DC inputs or outputs and the ends of the
windings connected to the drains of N-type MOSFET pairs. Power
MOSFETs generally comprise a drain-to source body diode which is
shown as part of the transistor.
[0119] One of the transistor pairs, for example TR1a and TR1b, is
commutated at 60 KHz and a voltage V1 is applied to that input. The
other transistor pairs are commutated in synchronism and form
synchronous rectifiers. For example, TR2a is switched on when the
transformer winding end to which its drain is connected goes
negative, thereby transferring the negative voltage to the -ve
terminal of the V2 output. Likewise TR2b is switched on when its
drain goes negative, and the drain of TR2a goes positive, TR2a is
switched off when its drain is positive and thus does not pass
current. Thus a DC voltage V2 is produced at the V2 output which is
N2/N1 times V1, where N2 and N1 are the numbers of turns on the
respective transformer windings. It can be seen that the input
circuit for V1 is indistinguishable from any output circuit. Thus
any one of the transistor pairs can function either as an inverter
commutating a DC input or as a synchronous rectifier producing a DC
output. Thus power flow can be from any port to any other port
depending on whether the port is sinking current or sourcing
current. This is important to the operation of the inventive load
converter as power flows in the reverse direction whenever a
ternary digit has the opposite sign to the instantaneous output
voltage, or if the AC output current is not in phase with the AC
output voltage due to the non-unity load power factor of a reactive
load.
[0120] In a preferred implementation of the converter, the
commutator used to connect the 120 volt supply to the transformer
is a full H-bridge, eliminating the primary center-tap and
simplifying the transformer. The 40 volt, 13.33 volt and 4.44 volt
windings are however center tapped and connected to synchronous
rectifier MOSFET pairs as shown in FIG. 2. Using a transformer
center tap is simpler than using a full H-bridge synchronous
rectifier, as each synchronous rectifier can share a gate driver
supply with the H-bridge it powers, since their sources are common.
Moreover, the transformer can be divided into two or three
transformers with their non-center-tapped primaries paralleled in
order to obtain convenient sizes and avoid wiring concentration. In
a preferred implementation, a first transformer has a 120 volt
primary and a center tapped 40-0-40 secondary, while a second
transformer has a volt primary and center tapped 4.44-0-4.44 and
13.33-0-13.33 volt secondaries. Providing the 40v supply from a
first transformer and the lower voltages from a second transformer
results in identically-sized, small transformers.
[0121] In designing a DC-to-DC converter, a trade off must be made
between switch losses, copper loss in the windings and hysteresis
loss in the core. Using a higher frequency gives fewer turns of
thicker wire, but core and switch losses increase. In the 60 KHz
region, skin-effect is significant for smaller wire than 23 AWG, so
Litz wire comprising many strands of 23 AWG is used to reduce
copper loss.
[0122] Core loss persists even when the output power is zero, which
can be a significant contributor to standby (no-load) current. In
the inventive load converter, standby current due to core and
switching losses in the DC-DC converter is reduced by use of a
novel waveform. Firstly, the 40, 13.33 and 4.44 volt outputs of the
DC-DC converter are provided with large reservoir capacitors. This
has the first benefit that current in the transformer windings is
proportional to the mean DC current of each output, rather than the
peak current, thereby reducing copper losses in the windings. A
second benefit is that the reservoir capacitors can supply the low
currents required for light loads for at least one or more cycles
of the 60 KHz switching frequency, enabling switching cycles to be
periodically omitted. For example, if the load current is only
1/10th the peak output capability, then every alternate DC-DC
converter switching cycle can be omitted and all the transistors of
FIG. 2 are held in the off state during the omitted cycle. In this
way, core and switching losses are halved at 1/10 maximum power
output. At even lower power outputs, for example 1/100th the
maximum, it may be chosen to omit 9 out of 10 DC-DC converter
switching cycles, which reduces the core and switching losses even
further. Upon detecting an increase in load current or reduction of
any voltage, the number of omitted switching cycles may be
instantaneously reduced in anticipation of the need to supply
greater current to the reservoir capacitors.
[0123] FIG. 21 exemplifies the novel DC-DC converter waveforms.
FIG. 21A shows the DC-DC converter switching waveforms when
operating continuously with no omitted cycles. FIG. 21B shows the
switching waveforms when alternate switching cycles are omitted,
and FIG. 21C shows omitting three out of every four switching
cycles. This method of reducing switching losses at light load is
different than merely reducing the switching frequency. If the
switching frequency were reduced instead, the volt-time integral
into the transformer on every half cycle would increase, increasing
the peak flux density and potentially causing core saturation.
Keeping the positive and negative half cycles the same length in
microseconds while omitting cycles does not increase the flux
density however.
[0124] An alternative waveform for reducing switching frequency
would be to space the on periods of TR1b----TR4b midway between the
on periods of TR1a . . . TR4a. However this has some consequences
for transformer and controller design and is not the preferred
method. The preferred method of omitting complete cycles has the
advantages that the transformer flux is reset to zero after each
non-omitted, complete cycle, and that all transistors can use the
same control waveforms.
[0125] An isolated positive pulse or half cycle followed by a
negative pulse or half cycle may be referred to as a "doublet". The
inventive power-saving waveform for light loads may therefore be
described as driving the DC-DC converter with doublets, the spacing
between successive doublets being increased as the current demand
reduces.
[0126] Power transformers exhibit an "inrush current" phenomenon,
which occurs when power is suddenly supplied to the transformer at
a voltage zero crossing. The flux in the core rises to a maximum
during the first half cycle, and then falls to zero during the
reverse-polarity half cycle. However, that implies a DC bias to the
flux, which therefore swings between zero and twice the normal
peak. This DC bias decays due to winding resistance after several
cycles, but meantime may cause core saturation and greatly
magnified inrush current. To prevent this, it is advantageous to
modify the waveform of the doublet by including the last
quarter-cycle of the previous (omitted) cycle and the first quarter
cycle of the following (omitted) cycle, thus preventing the flux
density in the core from exceeding its normal steady-state value.
The modified doublet and the attendant core-flux waveform are shown
in FIG. 25. It is known from the art of solid state relays to
employ peak switching of AC voltages into inductive loads precisely
for avoidance of inrush current, as just described.
[0127] Since high-frequency transformers must operate at much less
than saturation flux density in order to reduce core loss,
typically at around 100 to 200 milliTeslas, it may not be necessary
to use the more complex modified doublet waveform of FIG. 25 when
omitting cycles. The choice between the waveforms of FIGS. 21 and
25 should be made in dependence of the DC-DC transformer design and
the properties of the magnetic material used for its core.
[0128] A 7.2 kilowatt single-phase standalone inverter has been
designed according to the above principles using a single 4-layer
printed circuit board (PCB) of size 12''.times.14'' for all
higher-power and high-current components and one smaller 4-layer
PCB for microprocessor and control functions. The power board uses
a "maximum-copper" layout, in which heavy-current conductors are of
the widest possible dimensions, formed through removing copper in
narrow strips to isolate different circuit nodes, thereby leaving
the maximum amount of copper, rather than the conventional PCB
layout technique of defining narrow tracks of copper where
conductors are required and etching away everything else. Power
transistors requiring heat-sinking are contained within a
14''.times.5'' section in the middle of the board and have their
leads soldered to the board on the component side, so that no leads
or solder bumps protrude to the other side, which may then be
bolted flat to a metal heatsink forming part of the case of the
inverter. The inverter, as with other equipment designs described
herein, may be designed to be mounted flush with Sheetrock in the
14'' gap between two studs at the standard 16'' spacing in US
residential woodframe construction. The outer gridded surface of
the heatsink is inside the wall, and louvered vents may be placed
above and below the inverter to provide convective airflow as
necessary, the gap between studs acting as a chimney to enhance
convection. A thermistor on the heatsink protects the inverter from
overtemperature in the event of use at maximum power for prolonged
periods with restricted airflow.
[0129] While the above-described load converter provides some
proportion of a household or business electricity needs and
provides a desirable battery back-up facility, the timing of the
demand is not necessarily correlated with solar irradiation, which
is the purpose of storing energy in a battery for future use.
Currently, lead acid batteries are the only economic storage
solution, but this may change if electric vehicle battery research
and their large production volume succeeds in reducing the cost of
other battery types. In general, storage batteries, and lead acid
batteries in particular, survive only a finite number of
charge-discharge cycles before replacement becomes necessary. To
prolong life, it is desirable to avoid 100% depth of discharge on a
regular basis, and to allow normally only 20% depth of discharge,
except during the emergency situation of a utility outage. Using
10, 12-volt, 100 ampere-hour, deep-cycle batteries, the energy
storage available during a utility outage would thus be 12
kilowatt-hours, which will run essential household appliances for a
considerable period. Only 20% or 2.4 kilowatt hours should be used
regularly however. Thus it is only possible to defer 2.4 KwHrs of
consumption of solar energy to a later period of the day without
using a much bigger battery. Some of this supply-demand timing
mismatch can be resolved by using smart devices to start loads,
such as a dishwasher, according to a timer, or even according to
solar illumination. Another possibility is to divert solar energy
in excess of battery charging needs to HVAC or other diversionary
load. However, there is a limit to how much solar array energy can
be absorbed by a household immediately due to the very varying
demand and supply curves. To improve the supply-demand match, solar
energy can be diverted to the utility grid where the demand curve
is averaged over millions of users. This is the purpose of a grid
intertie inverter.
[0130] Before describing the inventive grid-tie inverter in more
detail, a solar combiner is described that assist smart energy
management in a complete installation. The circuit of solar
combiner 700 is shown on FIG. 27. A number of DC inputs 700-1 to
700-n may be connected to the terminals of individual solar panels
or different strings of solar panels. The inputs are isolated and
have separate -ve and +ve terminals for wiring to the solar array.
Each pair of input wires is connected to the input of a respective
per-string circuit 710-1 to 710-n. Each per-string circuit
comprises fuses 701a. 701b on both the positive line and the
negative line to protect wiring from fault conditions. Each DC
input line then proceeds through snubber circuit (702, 703, 704)
and blocking diode 705 to DPDT relay 706. Blocking diodes 705
prevent reverse current flow to any string or panel exhibiting
lower voltage than the other strings, for example when a panel is
shadowed. When properly selected, blocking diodes have a voltage
drop of around 0.6 volts, so there is a compromise between the
diode loss and the current loss due to shadowing without diodes.
For array voltages below about 36 volts, it may be more efficient
to omit the blocking diodes and tolerate shadowing loss, while it
is more efficient to employ them for higher array voltages. An
advantage of blocking diodes is that they also prevent blowing a
fuse if a string is accidentally short-circuited. Blocking diodes
may also be desirable for lower array voltages if a substantial
fraction of the total number of strings can be simultaneously
shadowed.
[0131] Snubber circuit comprising capacitor 702, diode 703 and
resistor 704 operates in conjunction with blocking diode 704 to
protect the contacts of relays 706,707 from high inrush current and
arcing on making or breaking. Consider for example that the load on
output 1 comprises a large capacitor, e.g. the reservoir capacitor
on an inverter. When relay 706 is closed to route current to output
1, the load may instantaneously appear like a short circuit,
pulling the voltage of the positive line down to the potential of
the negative line. This negative going transient passes through
capacitor 702 and reverse biasses diode 703, so that the only
current that flows is the array short circuit current, which is
inherently limited, plus the current flowing through resistor 704
to discharge capacitor 702. The load voltage then rises smoothly
with relay 706 contacts closed and capacitor 702 charges through
resistor 704 to the same voltage. When relay 706 contacts open to
disconnect the string from the load, the string voltage attempts to
rise, and the positive going transient passes through capacitor 702
to forward bias diode 703, which therefore caps the voltage rise at
about 0.7 volts. Thus the relay contacts are only required to break
load current with 0.7 volts across them. In another situation, the
load may already be charged or powered by other strings when relay
706 closes. If capacitor 702 is not already charged, blocking diode
706 will prevent a high back-inrush current from the load, leaving
capacitor 702 to be charged only by the inherently limited array
current. A suitable capacitor 702 is about 220 uF with a working
voltage above the highest open circuit string voltage with which
the combiner is intended to operate.
[0132] One positive and one negative output contact from each of
relays 706 are paralleled to the DC output bus connected to output
1 terminals 721. Each relay may be controlled, via control port 1,
to connect its associated string to output 1. Thus the combiner can
be remotely controlled via control port 1 to deliver the current of
0, 1, 2 . . . n strings to Output 1. Typically, 8 relays (706)
would b driven by a relay driver chip located in a controller. The
controller may be part of inverter 1000. A suitable relay driver
chip is the Texas Instruments part number TPL9201. Output 1 may be
connected to a battery and a load converter. The load converter can
monitor the battery voltage and optionally the battery net current
and, via control port 1, direct the combiner to output more or less
current to output 1 by selecting or deselecting strings in order to
keep the battery at an optimum state of charge. The load converter
can thereby achieve intelligent battery management, by implementing
in software different charge regimes such as bulk charge,
absorption charge, equalization charge and float charge in
dependence on the history of the battery state. Alternatively, a
separate charge controller can implement these functions in
cooperation with the solar combiner 700. The advantage of involving
the solar combiner in charge control is that any string not
required to achieve the desired instantaneous load inverter plus
battery charge current can have its current diverted to a secondary
output 2.
[0133] When relay 706 is not selected to output its associated
string current to output 1, the current is routed to relay 707.
Relay 707 may be programmed to divert the current to a second
output bus connected to output 2 terminals 722. Output 2 is
connected to a load that is of lower priority than the load on
output 1, as control port 1 must have caused a relay 706 to
relinquish current in order for output 2 to receive it. The second
priority load can comprise controls connected to control port 2 to
select any of the strings relinquished by the first priority load,
or none. When control port 2 does not select a string, its output
appears on associated string test points which are isolated from
all other strings and loads, which is useful for maintenance
purposes. A bleed resistor 708 is connected across each test point
so that, upon deselecting a string for maintenance purposes, the
charge on capacitor 702 is bled down to a safe value in about 30
seconds. If neither the first nor second priority load selects any
string, then all strings are isolated from each other and the
loads, thereby providing a DC disconnect function. DC disconnect
can be forced using switch 709 local to the combiner, which removes
power from all relay coils. Second or further switches can
optionally be provided at remote locations to force DC disconnect.
For example, a DC disconnect can be provided at an inverter, at the
main service entrance of a building, and so forth. In any case,
when the inventive load inverter is connected to output 1 and
control port 1, if the inverter ceases inverting for any reason,
relay power will not be supplied to control port 1 and DC from the
array will be disconnected from output 1. Likewise, if a grid-tie
inverter is connected to output 2 and control port 2, cessation of
inverting will disconnect relay power from control port 2 causing
all relays 707 to disconnect DC power from output port 2. An
inventive load converter and an inventive grid tie inverter may
also be coupled such that, if one ceases inverting, the other will
also cease inverting. Optionally, relays 707 can be replaced with
manual DPDT switches, and then the load on output 2 automatically
receives the current of any string not used for output 1, as long
as the associated manual switch has enabled it. However, the
disconnect function of manual switches cannot be remote-controlled
from another location.
[0134] Since each per-string circuit 710 is identical, a small
sub-board can be designed to accommodate the components, and only
as many installed in a particular combiner as there are strings to
be combined. Since no combiner is required for a single string, it
is logical to put at least two circuits 710 on a sub-board, and
then to install as many sub-boards as required to reach or exceed
the desired combining capacity. Parameters for a typical combiner
board are:
[0135] Absolute Maximum string voltage: 380 volts
[0136] Maximum number of strings per combiner: 8
[0137] Maximum current per string: 8 amps
[0138] Total maximum current: 64 amps
[0139] FIG. 15 illustrates an inventive single-phase grid intertie
inverter. As in the load convertor configuration, the circuitry is
simplified by the use of a floating solar array in which neither
terminal is permanently connected to ground or the neutral line.
The floating DC supply from the solar array is fed through
common-mode filter 200 to H-bridge 2010. The four MOSFET power
transistors of the H-bridge are able to be turned on and off by
opto-isolated controller 2020. Tr(a) and Tr(b) connect the positive
and the negative of the DC supply alternately to the AC output
neutral line, which is a grounded conductor. The DC- is connected
to the neutral when the AC output is required momentarily to be
positive, and the DC+ is connected to neutral when the AC output is
momentarily required to be negative. This switching is synchronized
with the utility grid so that the two solar array terminals are
alternately grounded at a 60 Hz repetition rate. Common mode filter
2000 slows the switching edges as previously described so as to
avoid the export of high frequency interference. The voltage on
each solar array terminal relative to ground thus comprises an
average of about 85 volts DC with an 85-volt peak square wave
superimposed. For the safety of electricians or other personnel who
may work on the solar system, the solar array and other parts of
the DC circuit shall, according to the National Electrical Code
(2008) be labeled with an indication that both DC conductors are
hot. An appropriate wire color coding is red for positive and black
for negative, both of which signify "hot" in an AC context, while
identifying positive and negative in a DC context.
[0140] When the DC -ve is connected to neutral, the other two
H-bridge transistors TR(c) and TR(d) operate at a high switching
frequency, for example 200 KHz, to connect the DC+ to the AC output
with a mark-space ratio varying in proportion to the desired
sinewave current waveform. The on-off switching can for example be
a delta-sigma modulation representation of the desired positive
half cycle. Thus TR(c) turns on for a time to cause current to
increase in L1. Tr(c) then turns off and TR(d) turns on to catch
the flyback from L1. TR(c) and Tr(d) operate in reverse for a
negative half cycle, when the DC+ is connected to neutral. The
required switching patterns may be precomputed and stored in
controller memory for one complete 60 Hz cycle, or else synthesized
in real time to create the desired current or to follow the utility
voltage. C1 further smooths the current from L1 to deliver a sine
wave current to the utility. A further RFI filter 2030 may be used
to reduce export of inverter hash which could otherwise cause radio
interference.
[0141] The inverter of FIG. 15 has in principle a high efficiency
when operating at normal power levels, but does not operate
efficiently at greatly reduced power levels. One reason for this is
that the impedances of L1 and C1 must be related to the output
current and thus values appropriate for the maximum current do not
provide proper smoothing at much lower currents. Moreover, the high
frequency switching losses, while being negligible at full power,
would be relatively more significant at lower powers. Also, this
type of inverter must deliver a current to the utility at whatever
voltage the utility exhibits, in contrast with the previously
described load convertor which must deliver a constant voltage to
the load, whatever current the load draws. For these reasons, a
grid-tie inverter does not make a good load converter, and
vice-versa, although it is possible to design an inverter, known as
a bimodal inverter, which can be wired up and operated in either
mode.
[0142] Both types of high-efficiency convertor have a number of
things in common however, as well as the inventive principles
described by the attached claims: In the single-phase case, the
instantaneous power delivered to the load or utility is
proportional to the square of the voltage, and therefore follows a
sin.sup.2 (wt) curve which is a double-frequency raised cosine
ranging from zero watts to twice the mean power. In the load
convertor case, the battery evens out this demand and allows the
solar array to charge the battery at a constant current. In the
case of the grid-intertie inverter however, without the battery,
there would be no means to even out the demand, and thus the solar
array would have to be sized to deliver twice the mean current with
consequent under-utilization at other times in the 120 Hz cycle. To
avoid this, a single phase grid inter-tie inverter requires a
substantial input reservoir capacitor C2 to even out current flow
over each 120 Hz cycle, and thus to match it with the constant
current available from the solar array.
[0143] If the grid-tie inverter delivers 60 amps rms to the utility
at 120 volts, that is 7.2 Kw, the mean current from the solar array
is 7.2 Kw divided by the DC input voltage of, say 175 volts; that
is, 41 amps. The peak current required by the inverter is 82 amps.
C2 must therefore supply 41 amps during a positive-going 120 Hz
half cycle and recharge at 41 amps on the negative-going half
cycle. Neglecting the solar array output resistance, the 41 amp
peak cosine current ripple must be absorbed by C2 without producing
a large ripple voltage. For 2 volts peak ripple, the value of C2 is
given by 2.pi.120 C2=41 amps/2 volts,
from which C2 is determined to be 27000 uF approximately. The size
and construction of this capacitor is determined more by its ripple
current handling requirement than by its capacitance, and consists
of several aluminum electrolytic capacitors in parallel. This
reservoir capacitor thus operates with a current ripple equal to
the full output current, and must therefore be operated very
conservatively and well within its maximum ripple current
capability to prevent degradation. Degraded electrolytic capacitors
operating with high voltages and ripple currents can overheat and
burst causing a big mess, as often happened with antique tube
radios, and has happened more recently with grid-tie inverters of
the prior art. As will be shown, the inventive three-phase grid-tie
inverter can operate with a much smaller smoothing capacitor, as
the current demand from the solar array for the three phase case
consists of three, double-frequency raised cosine curves spaced 240
degrees apart, which substantially cancel each other and produce
much less ripple current.
[0144] The grid-tie inverter is self regulating, in that it attains
a level of output current to the utility which allows the solar
array voltage to rise to the required minimum of 2 times the peak
utility voltage, that is about 170 volts assuming 120 volts at the
utility.
[0145] A grid-tie inverter has to meet specific safety requirements
and in particular the anti-islanding requirement specified in
Underwriter Laboratories standard UL1741. Anti-islanding refers to
means that must be employed to prevent the inverter from attempting
to back-power a neighborhood during a utility outage, as this could
endanger personnel trying to fix the fault. Anti-islanding is
achieved by having the inverter controller 2020 derive its timing
cues from the utility voltage, for example by waiting for a utility
voltage zero-crossing to trigger the next switching cycle. If the
utility is in outage, leaving one or more utility converters in a
neighborhood connected to the grid, they will each wait for the
next zero crossing and the frequency will therefore drift until it
is clearly out of limits, at which point the inverter stops and
opens the output disconnect relay 2100. The inverter is also
programmed to trip out if the voltage at its utility connection is
outside of specified limits, which is also indicative of disruption
of the utility connection. Controller 2020 continues to monitor the
utility voltage, and if it returns to within predetermined voltage
and frequency limits and remains there consistently for 30 seconds,
the inverter will resume operation. Various integrated circuits
have been developed to monitor the grid voltage and frequency and
are available on the market to facilitate the implementation of
anti-islanding; for example, the Analog Devices part number
ADE7753.
[0146] The presence of an AC component on the array DC terminals
has a number of benefits; for example, it facilitates detection of
ground leakage faults on the DC side. If the inverter is connected
to the utility via a regular two-pole AC GFI breaker, any leakage
path on the DC side will result in a 60 Hz imbalance current
between neutral and hot on the AC side, thus tripping the breaker.
The anti-islanding circuits then detect failure of the utility
input and shut off the inverter, opening the output relays. and the
combiner relays, effecting an automatic DC disconnect. The two pole
GFCI breaker uses one pole to interrupt the hot leg and the other
to interrupt the neutral. The breaker pigtail is used to provide
the ground connection for upstream equipment so that the
sensitivity of the breaker is not affected by capacitive currents
to the cable sheath or conduit, but only by an unexpected source of
ground leakage. Alternatively, a specific common-mode current
transformer can be used on the DC feed to detect any AC current
caused by a ground fault on the DC side. A preferred wiring method
to connect the inverter to the array combiner, and to connect each
photovoltaic string to the combiner is insulated, flexible metallic
sheathed conduit also known as Liquidtight (metallic). The flexible
metal sheath encloses the DC connections and provides some
screening of residual inverter hash. The insulating outer sheath on
the Liquidtight also prevents accidental connection with any other
grounding source, such as a water pipe, and discourages its
unauthorized use as a ground for other appliances or circuits. The
sheath of the Liquidtight is ultimately grounded via the GFCI
breaker pigtail, if this method of DC ground fault leakage
detection is employed. Other benefits in the single phase case of
the 60 Hz AC component on the DC conductors concern the
specification of relays and fuses. Any disconnecting device, such
as a switch, relay or fuse, must usually be particularly designed
and specified to break a DC circuit as opposed to an AC circuit. AC
is easier to break, because there are two voltage zero-crossings
per cycle that will extinguish any arcing rapidly. In the
single-phase case, the inventive converters alternately ground the
positive and negative DC conductors. Therefore the voltage on
either DC conductor is zero for a whole half-cycle, and not just a
zero-crossing. Thus it is permissible to use AC-rated fuses in
combiner 700 to protect against shorts to ground of any array
wiring. Likewise, the battery fuses may be AC rated rather than
DC-rated, or either. In the three-phase case however, DC-rated
fuses are required, as the DC conductors do not exhibit voltage
zero-crossings or zero periods.
[0147] For higher power levels, for example 20-100 kw or above,
utilities prefer or insist that 3-phase power be delivered equally
on all three phases to reduce cable costs and to maintain load
balance. In the prior art, a three-phase inverter was constructed
using three, synchronized single-phase inverters, and even three
separate solar arrays. With the inventive 3-phase inverter design,
an integrated 3-phase inverter is provided that operates from a
single solar array. It is even more economic, per kilowatt, to
construct the inventive 3-phase inverter than the inventive
singe-phase inverter, due in large part to the elimination of the
need for the large input reservoir capacitors.
[0148] FIG. 16 shows the principle of a 3-phase sine wave inverter
according to the invention. The DC input is applied to three
half-bridges that can connect either DC+ or DC- through an LC
smoothing filter to each of the three-phase outputs a, b and c. The
three phase utility connection can for example be a 120/208
connection with neutral, i.e. the utility transformer has a
Y-configured secondary while most likely having a .DELTA.-primary.
Other three-phase utility configurations are possible. For example,
a .DELTA.-secondary with no neutral can be used. However, the
Y-connection is preferred so as to allow the RFI filter capacitors
to decouple RF interference to neutral rather than ground, for
aforementioned safety reasons Also, some means would be needed when
using a .DELTA.-secondary to prevent the system floating to an
arbitrary offset voltage--for example leak-resistors to ground from
all three phases. The inventive 3-phase inverter can also be
adapted to operate with a 120/240/208 volt system having a so
called 208-volt "high leg". In Europe, a common 3-phase voltage is
240/416, which results in an inverter adapted to European voltages
supplying twice the power (e.g. 40 kW) for the same current.
[0149] FIG. 23 shows the inverter voltage waveforms at the output
to the utility and on the input DC+ and DC- lines. The
half-H-bridges operate according to the following logic:
[0150] (1) If Phase(a)>0v and Phase(b) and Phase(c)<0v then
connect DC+ to phase(a).
[0151] (2) If Phase(a)<0v and Phase(b) and Phase(c)>0v then
connect DC- to phase(a).
[0152] (3) If Phase(b)>0v and Phase(c) and Phase(a)<0v then
connect DC+ to phase(b).
[0153] (4) If Phase(b)<0v and Phase(c) and Phase(a)>0v then
connect DC- to phase(b).
[0154] (5) If Phase(c)>0v and Phase(a) and Phase(b)<0v then
connect DC+ to phase(c).
[0155] (6) If Phase(c)<0v and Phase(a) and Phase(b)>0v then
connect DC- to phase(c)
[0156] Operating the switches according to the above logic causes a
common-mode AC signal to appear in-phase on DC terminals with a
frequency of three times the AC output frequency of the inverter,
that is 180 Hz for an output frequency of 60 Hz. The 180 Hz common
mode signal is almost a sine wave, and requires less filtering than
the 60 Hz square wave of a single phase inverter. It is also
possible to construct split-phase inverters according to the
invention, the split phase inverter providing two AC output hot leg
terminals with relative 180 degree phasing. Alternatively a
two-phase inverter can be constructed according to the invention
that provides two AC output hot leg terminals having a 90-degree
relative phasing. In the latter case, a Scott-T transformer of the
prior art can be used to convert the two-phase output to a
three-phase output, if so desired.
[0157] When a first switch connects a DC input line to one of the
phases, the other DC line is simply the DC supply voltage away from
that phase in voltage. That other DC line is then chopped at high
frequency by other switches to generate, after hash-filtering, the
best approximation to the desired voltage difference to the other
phase. In particular the mark space ratio of the chopping action
rises to 100% ON at the peak of the phase-to-phase voltage. The
phase-to-phase voltage is 120 3=208v r.m.s for a 120/208
three-phase service, and the peak is a further factor of 2 higher.
Thus the solar array is loaded down to a DC voltage of 120 6=294
volts, assuming the AC voltage output is 120 volts rms per phase.
With this voltage, the DC+ and DC- lines are seen to execute a
near-sine waveform with an amplitude of 45.47 volts peak to peak
and at a frequency of three times the AC output frequency. This 180
Hz waveform that is superimposed on the DC lines is not quite a
sine wave, as may be determined by computing its spectrum, but is
sufficiently free of high frequency harmonics that the common mode
filter needed for a three-phase inverter may be simpler than in the
single-phase case. Moreover, the instantaneous power delivered to
the load is a flatline in the 3-phase case, and therefore the
current from the DC supply is also a flatline, and not a 120 Hz
waveform, as was the case with single phase. Therefore in the
3-phase case, capacitor C2 does not have to smooth out a
full-current 120 Hz ripple waveform, as it was required to do in
the single phase case, and a smaller value suffices to prevent
export of inverter hash to the DC circuits. The ripple is low only
when connected to a three-phase utility having substantially equal
voltages on each phase and substantially the correct 120-degree
relative phasing. The utility is normally guaranteed to maintain
these parameters within quite tight limits, as otherwise
three-phase motors can be damaged; however, fault conditions can
arise, such as loss of a phase, which requires monitoring. A simple
method to monitor the utility phase and voltage balance is to
connect equal value resistors from each phase to a common point,
which should then be at zero volts AC relative to neutral.
Detecting the residual voltage at this point provides a measure of
utility phase and voltage balance. If the measured balance value is
outside of a threshold value, a utility input fault condition is
declared and the inverter powers down and the output relays are
opened. Three small, fused control transformers remain connected to
the utility to monitor resumption within correct limits, and also
supply power to the control microprocessor and other control
circuits even in the absence of solar power at the DC input. Thus
in contrast to the load inverter, the grid-tie inverter requires a
utility input in order to operate. Without a utility input, the
grid-tie inverter cannot supply relay control signals to combiner
and DC disconnect unit of FIG. 27, and thus the DC input is
disconnected at source.
[0158] The AC outputs of a single-phase or 3-phase grid-tie
inverter are also preferably protected against voltage spikes on
the utility connection. This can be done by use of gas-discharge
tube surge arrestors, for example. Such devices have instantaneous
current-sinking ability of thousands of amps, and can tolerate such
currents long enough to trip a 60-amp breaker, should the
over-voltage transient persist. These should preferably be
connected between line and neutral, but in the case of a
delta-connected 3-phase service with no neutral, they can be
connected between line and utility ground and/or line-to-line.
[0159] In summary, a 3-phase inverter according to the invention
delivers three times the power output of a single-phase inverter
using only about the same number of components, and uses a smaller
capacitor on the DC input. A 3-phase grid-tie inverter of 21.6 Kw
capacity is therefore only of the same order of complexity and cost
as a 7.2 Kw single phase load inverter.
[0160] There are many subtleties in designing such an inverter to
back-feed power to the grid. FIG. 26 shows a vector diagram
pertaining to a voltage generator which is presumed to have an
inductive output impedance and a vector output voltage of V1,
connected to a utility grid of vector voltage Vo. The vector
difference between (V1-Vo) between the generator voltage V1 and the
utility voltage V2, divided by the inductive output reactance wL,
determines the current flow to the grid. The current lags the
voltage across the inductor L by 90 degrees; therefore in order for
the current to be in phase with the grid, i.e. a horizontal vector,
the difference voltage (V1-Vo) must lead by 90 degrees, i.e. be a
vertical vector. Thus either the generator phase must be advanced
from .PHI.1 to .PHI.2, or else the voltage must be reduced below V1
in order to rotate (V1-Vo) to the vertical position, or even both
the phase and the voltage must be adjusted. In the case of the
grid-tie inverter, the generator voltage V1 is proportional to the
array voltage and the array voltage is inversely dependent on the
current taken from the array, which is proportional to the
component of the current in phase with the utility, i.e. the
projection of the current vector on the horizontal axis. Moreover,
since wL is by necessity a very small reactance, (V1-Vo) is a very
short vector, of the order of 1 to 2 volts, and the sensitivity of
the current phase to changes in array voltage and thus V1 is very
high. It may be deduced that changes in the generator phase .PHI.
cause large changes in current magnitude while changes in array
voltage and thus V1 cause changes in current phase, but, to a first
order, not its magnitude. Thus proper operation of the grid-tie
inverter requires controlling the generator phase advance relative
to the utility to adjust the current magnitude until the array is
operating at a desired point, i.e. the maximum power point (MPP).
One strategy is thus to advance the inverter phase (which increases
the output current) if the array current is too low and thus the
array voltage is too high, or conversely to retard the phase if the
array voltage is too low because the current is too high. A
simplified strategy is to control the phase of the inverter such
that the phase of the current is in phase with the utility, i.e. to
control the inverter phase such that the voltage across the
inductor L has a phase that leads the utility phase by 90 degrees.
If this results in too little current, such that V1 increases, the
result will be that the current will lag the utility, and the
generator phase shall then be advanced, increasing the current and
reducing V1. Conversely, if the current is too high, causing V1 to
reduce, the current phase will advance over the utility phase and
thus the inverter phase will then be retarded to bring the current
into phase with the utility. Maximum power point tracking is then
approximately achieved at the same time as synchronizing the
inverter to the grid.
[0161] The phase of the voltage across the inductor L1 (FIG. 15) or
La,b,c (FIG. 16) which are the switch-mode smoothing inductors, is
simply sensed by adding a secondary winding thereto, or else by
adding a secondary winding to the following RF hash filter, and
feeding the secondary voltage to a zero-crossing phase detector.
The secondary winding senses the derivative of current The
secondary voltage may thus first be integrated to obtain a 60 Hz
current-related signal. The phase detector simply comprises logging
the count in a master clock counter at which a current zero
crossing occurs and determining if it was early or late. This shall
be done for all three phases in a 3-phase system, and either a mean
taken, or else each phase can be separately controlled from its own
sensor coil.
[0162] The three phase inverter of FIG. 16 is a simplified circuit,
and has the characteristic that the DC input is not switched to
connect directly with any AC output terminal, but rather connects
it through the smoothing inductors La, Lb or Lc to one of the
output terminals. This has the result that some of the high
frequency switching waveform is transferred to the DC input, which
would require a more complicated DC input filter. FIG. 24 shows a
switching arrangement to avoid this and to ensure that, at the
appropriate time, a DC input line that is selected to connect to an
AC output terminal is directly connected to that output terminal,
bypassing the associated smoothing inductor La, Lb or Lc. Referring
to FIG. 24, in period 1 of the three-phase cycle, Phase a and Phase
c are positive or zero while Phase b is negative. According to the
above-described switching logic therefore, the Phase b output
terminal shall be directly connected to the DC negative input line.
This is done by turning on TR4b to conduct. Just prior to period 1,
Tr2b was executing a switching cycle with varying duty factor, the
duty factor having just reached 100% at the beginning of the
period. Thus TR2b is also left conducting when Tr4b is switched on,
and shares the load current with Tr4b. At the end of period 1,
phase b and phase c transition to negative while phase a is
positive. Accordingly, the phase-a output terminal shall be
directly connected to the DC input positive line. This is done by
turning on Tr3a. Just prior to period 2, Tr1a had been switching
but had reached a 100% duty factor. Therefore Tr1a is left 100% ON
to share the load current with Tr3a. At the actual boundary between
two periods, for example at the boundary of period 2 and period 3,
the switches operate according to the "Tarzan principle"--that is,
do not let go of one vine until you have hold of the next one. Thus
for an instant, Tr1a and Tr3a are connecting the DC positive input
line to the phase-a output terminal while TR2c and Tr4c are
connecting the DC negative line to the phase-c output terminal. In
this way, the DC input is always anchored by either its negative
line or its positive line to one of the three phase output
terminals. It can be mentioned that, to obtain proper relative
phase of the switches taking into account the delay through
inductors La, Lb and Lc, the switching waveforms of Tr1a,
Tr2a,Tr1b, Tr2b, Tr1c and Tr2c may be slightly time-advanced
relative to the switching waveforms of Tr3a, Tr4a, Tr3b, Tr4b, Tr3c
and Trr4c. This time advance corresponds to the phasing of the
generator relative to the utility voltage discussed in relation to
the vector diagram of FIG. 26. Thus the phase advance of the
waveforms for switches Tr1a,b,c and Tr2a,b,c is adaptively
controlled to make the AC output current lie in phase with the
utility voltage while switches TR2a,b,c, and TR4a,b,c operate in a
fixed relationship to the utility voltage.
[0163] It can be mentioned that the testing of high power
converters to confirm efficiency and adequate heat dissipation at
maximum load can consume a considerable number of kilowatt hours.
It is also difficult to measure efficiencies in the 98-99% region
by measuring the input DC power and output AC power with different
instruments. A 1% measurement inaccuracy can lead to the erroneous
conclusion that an inverter is more than 100% efficient, or that it
is less efficient than it really is. A preferred method to test an
inverter is therefore to rectify the AC output with a rectifier
circuit especially designed to consume a sinusoidal current in
phase with the voltage, and to feed the DC back into the inverter
input. The inverter DC source need then only supply the difference
between the input and output power, i.e. the amount of power wasted
in inefficiency, plus the rectifier circuit inefficiency. This is
both a more accurate and more cost-effective way of testing
inverters.
[0164] The grid-tie inverter described herein may be operated in
reverse to transfer energy from an AC source to a DC load. It
simply requires programming the phase control circuit described
above to ensure that the phase of the voltage across the series
smoothing inductor is 90 degrees retarded with respect to the AC
voltage. Power will then flow from the AC to the DC circuit. As
illustrated in FIG. 26A, for rectifier mode, the amount of phase
retard shall be controlled to produce the desired amount of AC load
current and thus rectified DC current while the voltage V1 is
controlled by adjusting the switching waveform duty factor to make
the AC current in phase with the AC voltage. The same circuit
arrangement can thus be used with an alternative control regime to
make a rectifier which presents a linear load of low power factor
to the AC supply. This is useful for inverter testing as described
above, and is also useful for high power battery chargers for
electric vehicles where it is desired that they should present a
linear load to the utility.
[0165] FIG. 18 shows the block diagram of an electrical
installation employing the first, load inverter implementation to
provide a household with solar-generated AC power. A solar array
comprising one or more strings of solar panels is installed on a
south-facing roof for example, and any exposed metallic parts other
than its electrical terminals shall be returned to ground via a
grounding conductor to give some degree of protection against
thunderstorm transients. Each string of panels connects to solar
combiner 700 therefore using three conductors--the DC positive, the
DC negative and the grounding conductor. The preferred wiring
method between a string of solar panels and the solar combiner is
to use Liquidtight flexible metallic conduit (LFMC) to carry the
positive and negative lines of at least one string as well as an
array grounding wire. The metallic sheath of the Liquidtight should
also be bonded to the array frame (if metal), and the solar
combiner case. thus effectively providing a coaxial connection.
Such a coaxial connection is a superior method of preventing
thunderstorm transients entering into the signal and power paths.
The 2008 National Electrical Code suggested the use of a separate
grounding rod for the array when the array was remote from other
equipment. However it was recognized that this could be inadvisable
and that requirement was removed in the 2011 version of the Code.
For installing systems using devices according to this invention,
all grounding shall be routed back to the common premises grounding
electrode system. This may consist of more than one grounding rod
or electrode, however all grounding electrodes must be connected
together on the load center side of the inverter and no other
ground shall be connected to the installation on the battery or
array side of the ground leak detector.
[0166] As already described, solar combiner 700 selectively
combines the currents from multiple strings of solar panels
according to relay control signals presented to its control port 1.
Standalone inverter 1000 is connected to control port via an
9-conductor cable, for example an 8-conductor-plus-braid Cat 5
cable, or a DB9 serial port cable, and controls the string
selection in order to maintain the voltage of battery 500 within
desired limits. To avoid prejudicing operation of the ground leak
detection function, the braid of the Cat 5 cable or ground return
of a DB9 cable must not be connected to the ground or any part of
the DC circuit inside the combiner. The relay coils provide this
desired isolation. One method, which requires monitoring only the
battery voltage, progressively switches out strings of panels when
the battery voltage approaches a target value. For example, suppose
battery charging is operating in the float charge regime where the
battery voltage shall be maintained at approximately 135 volts for
60 lead-acid cells in series. If the battery voltage is less than
120 volts, all strings are selected to charge it. As the voltage
approaches 135, strings are switched out depending on the rate of
approach, which is determined by battery-voltage monitoring circuit
that can be contained within controller 202. For example, if the
voltage is 126 volts and rising at the rate of 0.2 volts per
second, it can be predicted that the voltage will reach 135 volts
in 45 seconds. Thus in five seconds, one string is switched out. If
the battery voltage one second later is less, one more string is
switched back in. If on the other hand the battery voltage
continues to rise such that it will reach the target voltage in
less than 45 seconds, one more string will be switched out. The
foregoing description of float charging is merely intended to be
exemplary of all possible methods of controlling battery charging
when only monitoring battery voltage. Preferably, the battery
charge controller would also be able to monitor net battery charge
current. This requires a current sensor at the battery such as a
very low resistance current shunt (not shown) with a pair of
dedicated wires back to the DC-AC converter 1000, where the battery
charging logic and control resides.
[0167] The combined current from the selected strings is routed
from solar combiner 700 to battery 500, again using preferably LFMC
to maintain a coaxial path. The trade size of Liquidtight shall be
sufficient for the gauge of conductors needed for the total current
of all strings, plus an equipment grounding conductor used together
with as the Liquidtight metal sheath to transport the equipment
ground. Battery 500 shall be housed in a suitably ventilated
enclosure to dissipate any hydrogen out-gassing safely to the
outside. The housing may include a perforated metal or foil screen
which then should be bonded to the Liquidtight sheath and the
equipment grounding conductor. The 2008 National Electrical Code
leaves it optional whether the battery wiring includes fuses. Since
a large storage battery is a source of potentially huge fault
current in the event of a short in the wiring, it is highly
recommended that fuses be installed as close to the battery as
possible. At least two fuses are required for this purpose. For
example, one fuse may be inserted in the positive connection from
the combiner 700 and a second fuse is then inserted in the positive
connection to the inverter 1000. A common fuse in the battery
connection must not be used, as in the event of its blowing, the
array would be left directly connected to load inverter 1000, which
is an unstable arrangement. Four fuses (550) may also be used,
connecting one in each of the positive and negative conductors to
and from the battery, as shown in FIG. 18.
[0168] Liquidtight flexible metallic conduit 400 or other metallic
conduit is used to route the wires from battery 500 through the
ground leak detector comprised of items 800, 801 and 802 to
inverter 1000. The conduit and its enclosed positive, negative and
ground conductors pass in their entirety through a large, high-mu
ferrite toroid 800. A suitable toroid is Magnetics Inc. part number
4916 in W material with a mu of 10000. The inner diameter of this
toroid is 33 mm. This accommodates trade size 3/4'' LFMC. This size
LFMC accommodates three #4 AWG THWN-2 conductors, which are good
for 95 amps continuous. The grounding conductor may be of a smaller
gauge, for example #6. AWG. Toroid 800 is wound with about 100
turns of relatively fine wire, such as #20 AWG, as it does not have
to pass any current. This forms a 1:100 voltage step-up transformer
between the net current flowing in the conduit and its conductors,
which should be zero if there is no ground leak on the
battery/array side of the toroid. The 100-turn secondary has an
inductance of 118 mH while the effective 1-turn primary has an
inductance of 11.8 uH. A 60 Hz imbalance current in the conduit of
6 mA will cause a primary voltage of 0.0267 mV and a secondary
voltage of 2.67 mV. The sensitivity may be increased by adding
capacitor 802 to roughly resonate the secondary inductance of 118
mH. A 60 uF capacitor resonates the inductance and also suppresses
signals at other than 60 Hz, such as medium wave radio stations. or
nearby amateur radio transmissions. A load resistor of 220 ohms
keeps the Q-factor of the resonant circuit below 5 and thus
insensitive to small component variations. With a Q of 5, the
induced voltage due to a ground leak current of 6 mA rises to 13
mV. An amplifier inside inverter amplifies this voltage and
compares it to a threshold. If it exceeds a threshold corresponding
to 6 mA, the inverter executes a shutdown, controlling the combiner
to the DC disconnect state and opening both the inverter AC output
relays and the DC input power and start-up relays. This completely
isolates the array from the battery and ground and the battery from
the inverter and ground, thus preventing any further ground leakage
current. Thus personnel coming into contact with either DC
conductor are prevented from receiving a shock of greater than 6 mA
AC. Since the DC voltage for a single phase convertor is similar to
the AC voltage, this also prevents a DC current flowing of this
magnitude. The purpose of passing both the conduit and its enclosed
conductors through the ground leak detector toroid is so that
capacitively coupled current from the current-carrying conductors
to the conduit, array frame or battery box do not cause an
imbalance current through the toroid which could reduce sensitivity
or cause spurious tripping. However, there are instances when such
current due to a gross fault should be detected, as will be
described later.
[0169] A standalone solar installation may also be used in
conjunction with utility power. A common form of low-cost
installation is where the solar power is routed via a transfer
switch to a "subsistence panel", which is an electrical load center
that supplies power to the most important appliances that need to
be kept running in the event of utility failure. For example, the
subsistence panel may feed lights, power points for TVs, radios,
computers, fridge, freezer, water pump and microwave, but may not
attempt to feed heavy consuming appliances such as HVAC, tumble
dryer or electric stove. The transfer switch allows either utility
or solar power to be selected to feed the subsistence panel. Other,
heavier loads such as HVAC are connected to a regular load center
fed only by utility power. Alternatively, a transfer panel may be
used, which comprises a number of switches that select, for each
appliance or circuit, whether they take their power from the
utility or the solar panels. The transfer switches can be left in a
position wherein the total normal load may be handled continuously
by the solar array/battery combination with typically expected
hours of sunlight, while preserving the ability to temporarily feed
any other appliances from the solar system should an emergency need
arise, or feed any load from utility in the event of a prolonged
period without sun.
[0170] Existing transfer panels tend to be of one of two types:
Either they transfer all loads from one supply to the other,
manually or automatically, which assumes the alternate supply is a
generator powerful enough to take the whole load, or of a second
type that can manually transfer each circuit independently. The
per-circuit type does not seem to be readily available with
automatic load transfer switching, possibly because no criteria had
existed for transferring only some loads and not others. Moreover,
the per-circuit type generally comprises two sets of circuit
breakers, one set for the utility supply and a second set for the
alternate supply. A transfer switch may be connected after the
breakers, or else the breaker pairs may be mechanically
interconnected such that when one of a pair is on, the other is
off. Changes to the Electrical Code in 2008 however required the
use of arc-fault breakers (AFCIs) on many circuits, such as bedroom
circuits, and many of the remaining circuits use GFCI breakers.
AFCI and GFCI circuit breakers are more expensive, so the
aforementioned per-circuit transfer switch load center would now be
significantly more costly, since it would require two AFCIs or
GFCIs per circuit. Accordingly there is a need for a more economic
form of per-circuit load transfer switching for intelligent load
management. The outline of a smart transfer panel 3000 that
provides intelligent load management is shown in FIG. 22.
[0171] In FIG. 22, in contrast to the two power busses that
normally extend down the center of the panel and into which circuit
breakers are connected, there are now four power busbars--two for
solar power and two for utility power. Quadruple busbar 3009 is
sized to handle 60 amps on each solar input lug L1 and L2 (3001)
and 60 amps on each utility power input lug L1 and L2 (3002). The
panel of FIG. 22 is intended to be a sub-panel and is fed from a 60
A, two-pole breaker in the main service panel. The solar input
derives from solar inverter 1000 and is already current limited. A
phase-splitting auto-transformer may be used with inverter 1000 to
provide the two anti-phase hot legs L1 and L2 (3001). The
transformer need only handle about half the power output of the
inverter, if load is evenly balanced between L1 and L2. In a larger
installation, two load inverters synchronized 180 degrees
out-of-phase and two battery banks can be installed to provide 7.2
Kw on each of L1 and L2. One array can be used with combiner 700 to
charge both battery banks alternately, or else two isolated
sub-arrays may be used, as it is not possible to power two
anti-phased inverters from the same array without additional
isolating devices that cause a few percent additional efficiency
loss. When one array and combiner 700 is used with two inverters,
each inverter may be given first priority control over half of the
strings and second priority control over the other half of the
strings. Single Pole, Double Throw (SPDT) relays 3003 are used to
select power either from one of the solar power busbars or from a
utility power busbar. Each Group of 8 relays may be driven by a
relay driver chip such as the aforementioned Texas Instruments part
number TPL9201. The circuit breakers (3004) on one side are wired
to select solar power in the unenergized state while the circuit
breakers (3005) on the other side are wired to select utility power
in the unenergized state. On each side, the breakers alternate
between selecting L1 and L2, such that a pair of adjacent slots may
be used for a double pole (240-volt) circuit such as a well pump or
dryer. The source of power selected by each relay 3003 is routed to
its associated breaker through a toroidal core 3008 upon which a
secondary is wound to provide a current sensor for each circuit.
The current sensor outputs connect to one or more coherent
measuring chips such as the aforementioned Analog Devices part
number ADE7753 which provides a microprocessor interface for
reading current, voltage, power and power factor. The 16 current
sensors may be multiplexed to a single ADE7753 using analog
multiplexers and measured sequentially approximately once every one
or two seconds. This is sufficiently frequent to capture most
circuit on/off switching activity and give a reasonable measure of
average power consumption per circuit. The relay coils may be wired
to relay driver circuits such as Texas Instrument part number
TPL9201. These also have microprocessor interfaces that permit a
microprocessor to control the relays. A microprocessor board (not
shown) has inputs for the current sensor signals, power from both
solar and utility via small control transformers, interfaces with
any user controls and displays and with external computers such as
a PC, and provides control signals to the relays. Software then
implements the intelligence to manage the loads, examples of which
are as follows.
[0172] The user or installer may set up the smart transfer panel
upon installation either via front panel push buttons or by
connecting to a PC which can provide a more user-friendly
interface. Set up may include initializing a time-of-day clock,
determining from which source each load normally derives its power
and setting the criterion for changing the selection. For example,
each circuit can be programmed to be one of:
[0173] 1. Always solar, never utility
[0174] 2. Normally solar, priority 1; utility back up
[0175] 3. Normally solar, priority 2; utility back up
[0176] 4. Normally utility; priority 1 for solar back up
[0177] 5. Normally utility, priority 2 for solar back up
[0178] 6. Always utility, never solar
[0179] The above list is not intended to be exhaustive, and there
may be other regimes, such as different selection depending on time
of day, more than two priorities, etc. The purpose of priorities is
to anticipate what the user would ultimately want to do in the case
of a long utility outage and lack of sun. In the limit when energy
runs out, it will be necessary to shed load in order to prioritize
the most important appliances. For example, lights could have first
priority during the evening and nighttime while well pump, computer
and cordless telephone power outlets had first priority for solar
energy in daytime. These time-of-day dependent algorithms may be
built in with the help of a real time clock chip or software
program so that the operation that the user would wish will be
automatic if the occasion arises.
[0180] The smart transfer panel may also communicate with inverter
1000 to receive information on the availability of solar power,
which can depend on the state of the battery, which is monitored by
the load inverter. If utility power is available, i.e. there is no
outage requiring emergency power from solar for loads that would
normally be powered from the utility, then it is desirable that the
battery would not normally be discharged to a depth of more than
20% in any day. Therefore, if the battery reaches a threshold depth
of discharge that should not be exceeded except in an emergency,
the inverter can inform the smart transfer panel to begin shedding
load from solar and transferring load to the utility. On the other
hand, if utility power fails, those loads would instantly be
transferred back to solar and the battery would be permitted to be
fully discharged. Before full discharge is reached however, at some
intermediate point load would start to be shed according to the
pre-programmed order of priorities.
[0181] One feature of the software can be that the smart transfer
panel attempts to avoid relay switching under load, in order to
maximize contact life. If transferring power from one source to
another is not an instantaneous imperative, the current sensors can
provide an indication of a low-load period in which to perform load
transfer. In addition, the inverter 1000 may be provided with a 60
Hz synchronizing pulse from the transfer panel so that power
transfer is phase-synchronous and substantially glitch-free.
[0182] The smart transfer panel preferably also has an interface
for a PC, for example, an RS232 interface. A wireless interface
using Bluetooth or WiFi is also conceivable. The PC interface
circumvents the limit on the amount of program memory that it is
economic or sensible to attach to a small microprocessor such as is
envisaged to be included in the smart transfer panel. Coupling to
an external PC allows the PC to host additional software and
provide full keyboard, mouse and display user interfaces, color
graphics and suchlike. It can also, via the internet, allow remote
monitoring or maintenance of an installation, and has access to the
entire internet as a resource. For example, weather forecasts
received from the internet can help anticipate solar irradiation
(insolation) and manage the energy consumption accordingly.
Historical records of insolation by season or date are also
available on the internet for such purposes. The PC interface can
also display to the user his energy consumption on each circuit and
how much derived from solar and utility respectively, as well as
these usages versus time of day, day of week, month, season or
year. Thus the use of a smart transfer panel in a hybrid
solar/utility power installation can provide many benefits as well
as the tools to manage energy consumption for greater economy.
[0183] The sizing of a standalone system is more critical than the
sizing of a grid-interactive system, as sufficient power must be
provided for the maximum load in the season of minimum insolation,
but then the excess is wasted at other times of lower load or
higher insolation. A hybrid solar/utility installation with a smart
transfer panel and load center as just described relaxes the need
to avoid undersizing the solar source and helps to use excess
power, but does not derive great benefit from oversizing. To derive
benefit from much larger solar arrays, it can either be arranged to
power some of the heavier house loads such as HVAC to beneficially
absorb excess solar power, or else a grid-tie inverter can be added
to return excess power to the grid. Firstly, a system having only
grid-inter-tie will be described with the aid of FIG. 17.
[0184] The grid-tie installation shown in FIG. 17 has been
deliberately drawn to emphasize the similarity with the standalone
installation of FIG. 18. The most noticeable difference is the
absence of the battery 500 of FIG. 17, and the use of
grid-interactive inverter 2200 (single phase version, as
illustrated in FIG. 15) as opposed to the standalone inverter 1000.
The array now connects directly to the grid-interactive inverter
2200, which, since it is the only user of the array power, connects
to combiner priority 1 output and priority 1 control port. The
connection to the control port is used to provide a
remotely-activated DC disconnect function.
[0185] The single-phase grid-interactive inverter impresses
substantially the same common-mode signal of the same 60 Hz
frequency on to the DC conductors as the standalone inverter, and
thus the same ground leak detector (800, 801, 802) can be used. It
is alternatively possible to use a 60 Hz AC, two-pole GFI breaker
on the AC output, the two breaker "line" poles being used
unconventionally for the hot and neutral while the pigtail and
breaker neutral are used to convey the equipment ground to the
solar system. This arrangement requires that the breaker be
installed in a special sub-panel that is wired in the above way,
and not in the main service panel (4030). Alternatively the breaker
may be pre-wired into converter 2200.
[0186] The ground leak detector comprised of items 800, 801, 802
measures the imbalance current between the DC positive line, the DC
negative line and the ground line including the encircling conduit.
To do this, the conduit and its entire set of contained conductors
passes through the center of the toroid. Currents caused on the
ground conductor or in the conduit by capacitive coupling of the AC
ground-leak probe signals from the DC conductors are thereby
balanced out and do not cause false tripping or adversely affect
the ground-leak detection sensitivity. High sensitivity may thereby
be achieved for the purposes of protecting personnel from shock.
For this function, the array end of the conduit and the array frame
must not be connected to any local ground, but should only be
grounded via the metallic conduit and the grounding conductor
contained therein back through the leak detector to the main system
ground.
[0187] Current solar systems ignore personnel shock risks and
employ ground leak detectors on the DC side purely to warn of
malfunction and to protect against excessive currents. For example,
in some systems, the conduit and grounding conductor contained
therein may be connected by a fuse to the main system ground, which
blows in the event of a short to the conduit or other grounded
metal part, such as the array frame, leaving the array and conduit
ungrounded. The inverter must switch off under such circumstances
and both DC conductors must be disconnected to isolate the DC
circuit and prevent current flow. A warning sign must be placed at
appropriate locations warning that, in the event of a ground fault
being indicated, conductors that are normally grounded may no
longer be grounded and may be at hazardous potentials.
[0188] Using the inventive ground leak detection principle
described herein, an improved form of protection of the DC circuit
from excessive currents may be contrived. By using a second
toroidal core, the DC conductors may be passed through the core
without passing the conduit and grounding conductor through the
core. Upon occurrence of a ground fault, the AC probe signal
current in the ground conductor passing around the outside of the
core will not cancel the AC probe current in the DC conductors, but
will enhance the coupling to the toroid secondary, thus providing a
strong, easily detectable signal in the secondary indicative of a
gross ground fault that is easily distinguished by its much larger
magnitude from capacitive currents. This indication may be detected
in the inverter and causes it to immediately shut down, opening the
input relays in the DC circuit, the output relays in the AC output
circuit and removing the relay drive signals to the
remote-controlled combiner and DC disconnect. Both variations of
the ground leak detector are illustrated in insets A and B of FIG.
17. Inset A shows the conduit as well as the DC+ and - conductors
passing through the toroid, while inset B show only the DC
conductors passing through the toroid. The former (A) can detect
very small leakage currents to ground other than the conduit or
equipment ground on the array side of the detector, while the
latter can detects heavier ground leaks from the DC conductors to
the conduit or equipment ground.
[0189] When ground leak detectors as just described are used, the
AC output of inverter 2200 is wired to a single-pole, 60 A breaker
(4040) in the main service panel (4030) or in a conventional
sub-panel which connects to the main service panel. The main
service panel (4030) houses the main AC disconnect for the solar
system. When the AC disconnect is operated, the anti-islanding
protection required by specification UL1741 operates and shuts down
inverter (2200); this in turn removes control power from control
port 1 of combiner (700) causing the DC disconnect relays to open.
An OFF switch on the inverter can also be used to operate the DC
disconnect function, as can a switch locally at combiner 700.
[0190] In the grid-tie system of FIG. 17, array 1500 may need to
output a higher DC voltage than in the standalone system of FIG.
18. If the standalone system of FIG. 18 uses a nominally 120-volt
battery, float charged at say 135 volts, then the array should
deliver power efficiently at 135 volts. It may also be required to
deliver a voltage somewhere in the range 140 to 144 volts for bulk,
absorption and equalization charging. A fuller discussion of
array-to-system voltage matching is given later in connection with
implementing bimodal systems.
[0191] The main service panel of a residential system receives its
power from, in the USA, a split-phase 120/240-volt single-phase
service drop or service lateral. (4010). The service drop usually
comprises three wires--two 120 volt rms hots 180 degrees
out-of-phase with each other, and a neutral. The neutral is likely
already grounded at the utility pole transformer or pad-mounted
transformer, but is also bonded in the main service panel to the
local grounding system provided by grounding electrode 1010. The
two hots from the service drop pass through the meter to the main
service panel.
[0192] One of two possible metering regimes may be used.
[0193] In "net metering", other building loads are supplied by
other breaker circuits from main service panel (4030), and the
meter clocks up the net difference between power imported to power
the loads and power exported from grid-tie inverter (2200).
[0194] In "dual metering", a separate export meter is connected
between grid-tie inverter (2200) and the service drop. Thus the
service drop (4010) may feed two main service panels through two
meters--one for power imported and one for power exported. Power
exported may be remunerated at a lower or higher rate per kilowatt
hour than power imported is charged, as distinct from net metering,
which provides a one-to-one offset of imported power by exported
power.
[0195] FIG. 17 shows a single-phase system typical of a residential
installation. However, using 3-phase versions of the inverter that
have been explained above using FIGS. 16, 23, 24 and 26, a
connection to a three phase service drop can be made. Typically in
the USA, the 3-phase service drop would be a 120/208 volt service,
but with suitable voltage scaling, an array and inverter can be
adapted to a European 240 volt, single phase service, a European
240/416 3-phase service, a U.S. 277/480-volt service or even a U.S.
120/240-208 volt split-phase plus 3-phase service having a 208-volt
"high leg". It is preferred to connect a grid-tie system to the
lowest available service voltage in order to minimize the maximum
DC voltage of the array for reasons of personnel safety. When a
120/208 3-phase connection is used, the array voltages are
nominally 294 volts between the positive and negative DC lines and
147 volts from each to ground. The shock potential from a 147-volt
to ground DC line is much less than that of a 120-volt AC line.
[0196] Because the grid-tie system of FIG. 17 is the simplest and
lowest cost to provide, it is the fastest growing type of solar
electric installation. However, many people are surprised and
disappointed to learn that, if the utility fails, they do not have
power. This is partly because of the anti-islanding requirement,
but also due to the absence of the battery, which is required to
stabilize the array voltage when the load is variable. Consequently
it is of interest to be able to construct or upgrade either FIG. 17
or FIG. 18 to a "bimodal system" which provides both grid tie and
battery back-up.
[0197] There are many ways to construct a bimodal system. A bimodal
inverter cannot necessarily operate in both modes simultaneously,
although the XANTREX SW4012, 4024 and 4048 can be integrated very
well to provide both modes of operation and automatically switch
between the two appropriately. One way to use the inventive
inverters of this application to construct a bimodal system would
be to install two separate systems according to FIGS. 17 and 18
respectively. However, it is desirable to share parts such as the
array 1500, the combiner 700, the DC wiring, (400), the ground leak
detector(s) (800, 801, 802) and so forth. FIG. 19 shows a bimodal
system sharing these common parts. Since the single-phase grid-tie
inverter employs an array voltage of 170 volts and the standalone
system requires 135-144 volts for battery charging, a discussion of
array voltages, efficiencies and how both requirements can be
satisfied is appropriate. Of course, one solution is to operate the
standalone inverter at 170 volts, as was shown above to be
perfectly feasible to include during its design, but then a 168
volt battery comprising 14, 12-volt units in series would be
required, instead of the ten mentioned previously to achieve 120
volts. This would have the advantage of providing 16.8 kilowatt
hours of back-up capacity, but at greater cost. There is another
argument however that can be used to reconcile different DC voltage
requirements of the standalone and grid-tie inverters.
[0198] First of all, the voltage-current characteristics of solar
cells will be explained with the aid of FIGS. 20 and 20A.
[0199] FIG. 20 shows that a photovoltaic cell is a current source
of photocurrent I1 in parallel with an intrinsic diode D1. In the
absence of an external load, the photocurrent flows through the
diode in the forward-biassed direction causing the diode to develop
a potential across its terminals which is equal to the typical
voltage drop of a forward biased diode of around 0.6 volts.
Whatever the technology, diode I-V curves are given by Shockley's
equation:
I(V,T)=Isat[exp(.beta.qV/kT)-1] (1)
where I(V,T) is the current at voltage V and temperature T; Isat is
the diode saturation voltage (leakage current when reverse
biassed); q is the charge on an electron; k is Boltzman's constant;
T is absolute temperature in degrees Kelvin, and .beta. is an
ideality factor which is between 55% and 80% i.e. 0.55 to 0.88 for
silicon diodes.
[0200] At 25 degrees C., kT/q is about 26 millivolts, so the
equation (1) simplifies to
I(V)=Isat[exp(.beta.V/0.026)-1] (2)
[0201] If the solar cell of FIG. 20 is shorted, the diode voltage
will be zero and will take no current, so all of the photocurrent
I1 comes out. This is by definition the short circuit current Isc
of the cell. When the solar cell is now open circuited, the current
Isc flows into the diode which is therefore the value of I(V) given
by equation 2, and which can be inverted to give V, now the open
circuit voltage of the solar cell Voc, as:
Voc=(0.026/.beta.)Log.sub.e(Isc/Isat+1) (3)
[0202] Since Isc and Voc are externally measurable, the values
measured at 25 degrees C. in full sun, known as Standard Test
Conditions, may be substituted in equation (3) to obtain the
unknown Isat for the diode as
Isat=Isc/[exp(.beta.Voc/0.026)-1] (4)
[0203] Now substituting for Isat in equation 2, the diode current
at any other voltage V is found to be
I(V)=Isc[exp(.beta.V/0.026)-1]/[[exp(.beta.Voc/0.026)-1] (5)
[0204] The current output by the solar cell is the photocurrent Isc
minus the diode current, that is
Iout = Isc [ 1 - { exp ( .beta. V / 0.026 ) - 1 } / { exp ( .beta.
Voc / 0.026 ) - 1 } ] = [ 1 - exp { .beta. ( V - Voc ) / 0.026 } ]
/ [ 1 - exp { - .beta. Voc / 0.026 } ] ( 1 ) ##EQU00001##
[0205] A typical monocrystalline silicon solar panel in current
production comprising 72 series connected cells has the following
characteristics:
Maximum Power 195 watts open circuit voltage Voc=45 volts short
circuit current Isc=5.45 amps voltage at maximum power Vmp=38.3
volts Current at maximum power Imp=5.09 amps
[0206] From the above, the per-cell voltages may be deduced as
[0207] Voc=45/72=0.625 and Vmp=0.532
[0208] Substituting in equation 6, the whole I-V curve of this cell
may be computed and the voltage scale multiplied by 72 to give the
whole I-V curve for the panel. The power may also be plotted by
computing the product of I and V. This is shown in the curves of
FIG. 20A. It is found that these highly efficient cells have an
ideality factor of about 74% and a light-to-electricity conversion
efficiency over 18%.
[0209] The diode voltage of a photovoltaic cell exhibits the same
temperature coefficient of -2.16 mV per degree C. as other silicon
diodes. Solar panels are deliberately exposed to full sun and
therefore tend to rise above the Standard Test Conditions
temperature of 25 degrees C. when fully illuminated in the summer.
Typically, they might reach 50 degrees C., so the open circuit
voltage VOC will drop by 25.times.2.16 mV per cell or 3.9 volts for
a 72-cell panel. At the coldest winter temperatures, say -15
degrees C., the Voc of the panel may rise by 6.2 volts. These two
extremes are plotted in FIG. 20B. If four of these panels are
strung in series, it can be seen that, at the high temperature
extreme, the voltage range 132-144 volts, which is the exact range
desired for battery charging, is around the peak power point, and
peak power is about 175 watts. If the array is loaded to the same
voltage range at the low temperature extreme, the power is in the
range 180-197 watts per panel. For the single-phase grid
interactive inverter requirement of 170 volts however, four series
panels are not enough at the highest temperature, although they
would be perfect at the low temperature extreme. If on the other
hand 5 panels are strung in series, the 170 volts required for the
grid-tie inverter lies at the maximum power point of about 175
watts per panel at the high temperature extreme, while the battery
float charge voltage of 135 volts is sub-optimum, at about 145
watts per panel.
[0210] In such a bimodal system, the economic benefit is primarily
obtained by the grid-tie system using net metering or dual
metering. The purpose of the battery and standalone inverter is
purely to provide back-up in the event of a utility outage.
Therefore little energy is normally drawn from the battery system
and the array is only used to keep the battery float charged, for
which it is sufficient that the combiner 700 occasionally divert
one panel from grid-tie to battery charge maintenance. Therefore
the efficiency of battery charging from the array is unimportant,
and the array voltage should be optimized for best grid-tie
operation. Five of the illustrative panels would therefore be used
in series per string. to provide a maximum power point at 170 volts
at maximum cell temperature, and upon diverting a string for the
purposes of battery float charging, the diverted string would be
loaded down to the slightly less optimum voltage range of 120-140
volts.
[0211] The bimodal system of FIG. 19 thus comprises a nominally 170
volt array 1500 that operates at its most efficient point when
driving the grid-tie inverter. Each string of the array is
selectively combined by combiner 700 either to feed the grid-tie
inverter or to charge the battery. The battery is connected to the
priority 1 output port of combiner 700 and standalone converter
(1000) controls the string selection for battery charging via
control port 1. Strings not selected for battery charging are
available to be selected by the grid-tie inverter 2200, which would
usually select all available strings. Thus there are two combined
outputs from combiner 700 each comprising a DC positive and a DC
negative conductor. These four, high current conductors are
contained within the same conduit in order to pass together through
the same DC leak detector (800, 801, 802). The DC leak detector may
be provided with a second winding to feed detectors in both the
grid tie inverter and the standalone inverter, as both will have
such detectors built in. This provides continued ground leak
detection, should one or other inverter be taken our of service or
switched off. Standalone converter 1000 provides a single hot leg
of 7.2 Kw which is split into two anti-phase hot legs by
autotransformer 1700, to permit the driving of 240-volt loads as
well as 120-volt loads. These two solar-derived hot legs connect to
busses 3001 of Smart Load Center 3000. DC power for grid tie
inverter 2200 is split off after the ground leak detector. The AC
output of grid-tie inverter 2200 connects to a 60 A single-pole
breaker in the service panel, or a suitable sub-panel fed from the
main service panel. The service panel (or suitable sub-panel) also
houses a two-pole breaker supplying utility power to Smart Load
Center 3000.
[0212] FIG. 19 shows a communication and synchronization buss
connecting the Smart Load center 3000, grid-tie inverter 2200 and
standalone inverter 1000. The communications buss 1750 employs
opto-isolators at the receiving ends to avoid creating ground
loops, and serves the following functions:
[0213] (1) A grid derived 60 Hz sync pulse is supplied to
standalone inverter 1000, of such phase that both grid-tie inverter
2200 and standalone inverter 1000 are connecting their respective
negative DC input terminals to neutral at the same time, thereby
ensuring that the phase of the common mode ground-leak probe signal
is the same for both. This is not an essential requirement for
operation, but considered desirable. Moreover, it is desirable to
synchronize inverter 1000 with the utility grid to facilitate
glitch-free changeover from utility to solar by Smart Load Center
3000.
[0214] (2) Inverter 1000 can communicate the availability of
solar/battery power to Smart Load Center 3000 in order to implement
prioritized load-shedding in the event of a prolonged utility
outage.
[0215] (3) Smart Load Center 3000 can receive status flags from
both inverters 1000 and 2200 and periodic reports of current
delivered to the grid from inverter 2200, so that, in addition to
battery status from inverter 1000 and AC circuit current
measurements from its own per-circuit current sensors, all
information may be collated for communication if desired to a PC
via an RS232 connection, and to receive commands from a PC for
remote control of the system via more user-friendly software. It is
not envisaged that high data rates would be needed on buss 1750,
and a baud rate of 60 bauds is envisaged between units 1000, 3000
and 2200.
[0216] It has thus been described above how a variety of useful
solar energy systems can be put together using different
combinations of a small number of novel equipment designs. While
other industries are competing to reduce the cost of solar panels,
soon to be under $1/watt, the inventive inverters and system
integration techniques described herein permit commensurate
reductions of other main components and balance-of-system
components in order to drive down the total installation cost of a
solar system to levels where the economics of solar energy become
compelling. A person skilled in the art may use the teachings
described herein to make various modifications to detail or may
configure a variety of systems, while remaining within the scope of
the invention as described by the following claims
* * * * *