U.S. patent application number 14/939928 was filed with the patent office on 2016-05-12 for metal halide solid-state surface treatment for nanocrystal materials.
The applicant listed for this patent is Alliance for Sustainable Energy, LLC, Colorado School of Mines. Invention is credited to Matthew C. BEARD, Ryan CRISP, Joseph M. LUTHER.
Application Number | 20160133463 14/939928 |
Document ID | / |
Family ID | 55754736 |
Filed Date | 2016-05-12 |
United States Patent
Application |
20160133463 |
Kind Code |
A1 |
LUTHER; Joseph M. ; et
al. |
May 12, 2016 |
METAL HALIDE SOLID-STATE SURFACE TREATMENT FOR NANOCRYSTAL
MATERIALS
Abstract
Methods of treating nanocrystal and/or quantum dot devices are
described. The methods include contacting the nanocrystals and/or
quantum dots with a solution including metal ions and halogen ions,
such that the solution displaces native ligands present on the
surface of the nanocrystals and/or quantum dots via ligand
exchange.
Inventors: |
LUTHER; Joseph M.; (Boulder,
CO) ; CRISP; Ryan; (Golden, CO) ; BEARD;
Matthew C.; (Arvada, CO) |
|
Applicant: |
Name |
City |
State |
Country |
Type |
Alliance for Sustainable Energy, LLC
Colorado School of Mines |
Golden
Golden |
CO
CO |
US
US |
|
|
Family ID: |
55754736 |
Appl. No.: |
14/939928 |
Filed: |
November 12, 2015 |
Related U.S. Patent Documents
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Application
Number |
Filing Date |
Patent Number |
|
|
62078559 |
Nov 12, 2014 |
|
|
|
Current U.S.
Class: |
438/478 |
Current CPC
Class: |
H01L 31/035218 20130101;
H01L 31/06 20130101; Y02E 10/50 20130101; H01L 21/02568 20130101;
H01L 21/465 20130101; B82Y 30/00 20130101 |
International
Class: |
H01L 21/02 20060101
H01L021/02 |
Goverment Interests
Contractual Origin
[0002] The United States Government has rights in this disclosure
under Contract No. DE-AC36-08G028308 between the United States
Department of Energy and the Alliance for Sustainable Energy, LLC,
the Manager and Operator of the National Renewable Energy
Laboratory.
Claims
1. A method of treating a quantum dot material, comprising:
contacting a layer of quantum dots with a solution comprising metal
ions and halogen ions dissolved in a polar aprotic solvent, wherein
the ions in the solution displace native ligands from the quantum
dots.
2. The method of claim 1, further comprising: depositing a second
layer of quantum dots on the first layer; and contacting the second
layer with a ligand solution.
3. The method of claim 1, wherein the metal ions and the halogen
ions are provided by at least one metal halide.
4. The method of claim 3, wherein the metal halide comprises at
least one of PbCl.sub.2, PbI.sub.2, CdCl.sub.2, or CdI.sub.2
5. The method of claim 1, wherein the polar aprotic solvent is
dimethylformamide.
6. The method of claim 1, wherein the contacting is performed at
about room temperature in an oxygen containing environment.
7. The method of claim 1, wherein the quantum dots comprise at
least one of PbS or PbSe.
8. The method of claim 1, further comprising: depositing a second
layer of quantum dots on the first layer; contacting the second
layer with the solution; depositing a third layer of quantum dots
on the second layer; and contacting the third layer of quantum dots
with a ligand solution.
9. A method of making a quantum dot device, comprising: depositing
a first plurality of layers of quantum dots on a substrate, wherein
each deposited layer in the first plurality of layers is contacted
with a solution comprising metal ions and halogen ions before
deposition of the next layer; and depositing a second plurality of
layers of quantum dots on the first plurality of layers, wherein
each deposited layer in the second plurality of layers of quantum
dots is contacted with a ligand solution.
10. The method of claim 9, wherein the solution comprises
dimethylformamide.
11. The method of claim 10, further comprising: contacting each
deposited layer in the first plurality of layers with an
acetonitrile solution to remove residual dimethylformamide before
deposition of the next layer.
12. The method of claim 9, wherein the contacting each layer of the
first plurality of layers comprises immersing each layer of the
first plurality of layers in the solution for about 1 second to
about 60 seconds.
13. The method of claim 9, wherein the metal ions and the halogen
ions are provided by a metal halide and the solution comprises a
concentration of about 10 mM of the metal halide.
14. The method of claim 9, wherein the ligand solution comprises
mercaptopropionic acid and the ligand solution comprises about 10%
mercaptopropionic acid and about 90% methanol.
15. The method of claim 13, wherein the metal halide comprises at
least one of PbCl.sub.2, PbI.sub.2, CdCl.sub.2, or CdI.sub.2.
16. The method of claim 9, wherein the first plurality of layers
and the second plurality of layers have a combined thickness of 300
nm to 750 nm.
17. The method of claim 16, wherein the combined thickness is about
500 nm.
18. The method of claim 9, wherein depositing the first plurality
of layers comprises: depositing a first layer of quantum dots on
the substrate; contacting the first layer with the solution;
depositing a second layer of quantum dots on the first layer;
contacting the second layer with the solution; and depositing one
or more additional layers to create the plurality of layers, each
deposited layer being contacted with the solution before deposition
of a next layer.
19. The method of claim 18, wherein the first layer, the second
layer, and the one or more additional layers are deposited by dip
coating or spin coating.
20. The method of claim 9, wherein the first plurality of layers
comprises 10 to 15 layers of quantum dots.
Description
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS
[0001] This application claims the benefit under 35 U.S.C.
.sctn.119(e) of U.S. Provisional Patent Application No 62/078559,
filed Nov. 12, 2014, entitled METAL HALIDE SOLID-STATE SURFACE
TREATMENT FOR HIGH EFFICIENCY PBS AND PBSE QUANTUM DOT SOLAR CELLS,
which is incorporated herein by reference for all purposes.
BACKGROUND
[0003] A quantum dot (QD) is a nanocrystal (NC) of a semiconductor
material having a diameter that is small enough, typically on the
order of a few nanometers in size, that its free charge carriers
experience quantum confinement in all three dimensions. This allows
QD properties (band gap, absorption spectrum, etc.) to be highly
tunable, as QD size can be controlled during fabrication. As a
result of this tunability, QDs are used in, or being developed for,
a large number of industrial applications including solar cells,
light-emitting diode (LED) displays, transistors, diode lasers,
medical imaging, bioimaging, quantum computing, and QD display.
Solution-processed QDs represent a promising route forward in
reducing the cost of solar energy production. In addition to being
solution processable, QD solar cells (QDSCs) have a higher limiting
single junction power conversion efficiency than that possible
using conventional bulk or thin film semiconductors due to enhanced
multiple exciton generation in the QDs. Recent improvements in QDSC
performance and processing have resulted from a variety of
advancements in areas including modification of device
architecture, processing of QD-layers under ambient conditions,
improved QD synthetic procedures, and surface treatments improving
QD passivation. Embodiments provided by the present disclosure
represent an improvement over the state of the art and known
methods of producing and treating QDs, post production. Traditional
halide treatments using organic molecules may leave behind cationic
organic residue that may limit QD device performance. Embodiments
provided by the present disclosure provide significant and
unexpected improvement upon traditional layer-by-layer approaches
that use organic molecules.
SUMMARY
[0004] The present disclosure relates to the generation of QD
and/or NC materials. In various aspects, the QDs and/or NCs in the
materials are put into contact with a metal halide solution, with
the contacting occurring after the QDs and/or NCs have been
synthesized. Without wishing to be bound by any theory, it is
believed that the metal halide solution displaces native ligands
present in the QDs/NCs from the manufacturing process. In that
respect, the native ligand is replaced with one or more of the ions
present in the metal halide solution, by ligand exchange. It is
also believed that the ligand exchange, and thus the removal of the
native ligands, increases the stability of the QDs and/or NCs.
[0005] Therefore, in various aspects, the present disclosure
provides methods of treating a nanocrystal material, the methods
include contacting one or more nanocrystals with a solution
containing metal ions and halogen ions, wherein one or more of the
ions displaces ligands from the nanocrystals. The NCs and/or QDs do
not need to be deposited on a substrate. In some embodiments, the
NCs and QDs are neat and/or pure in solution. In some embodiments,
the NCs and/or QDs are deposited on a substrate.
[0006] The methods disclosed herein relate to the treatment of
nanocrystals generally, quantum dots being one example of a
nanocrystal, and can be utilized in any method in which NCs and/or
QDs are used or prepared and/or in the preparation of any device
that utilizes NCs and/or QDs in any way. Non-limiting examples of
QD/NC materials and applications in which the methods provided by
the present disclosure can be utilized include the manufacture of
devices such as light-emitting diode (LED) displays, transistors,
diode lasers and solar cells. In addition, the disclosed methods
may be utilized to treat QDs and/or NCs used in medical imaging,
bio-imaging, quantum computing, QD display, and/or
photocatalysis.
[0007] According to one embodiment, a method of making a
nanocrystal device is provided. The method may include depositing a
first plurality of layers of nanocrystals on a substrate. In this
embodiment, each individual layer in the first plurality of layers
is contacted with a metal halide solution after it has been
deposited and before deposition of the next layer. The method
thereafter includes depositing a second plurality of layers of
nanocrystals on the first plurality of layers. As with the
deposition of the first plurality of layers, each individual layer
in the second plurality of layers is contacted with a solution
after it has been deposited and before deposition of the next
layer, however in the second plurality of layers, each individual
layer is contacted with a ligand solution.
[0008] According to another embodiment, a method of manufacturing a
solar cell is described. The method includes depositing a first
layer of nanocrystals and/or quantum dots on a substrate, wherein
the nanocrystals and/or quantum dots can be photovoltaic quantum
dots, and placing the first layer of nanocrystals and/or quantum
dots in contact with a metal halide solution, wherein the metal
halide solution displaces oleate ligands from the first layer of
nanocrystals and/or quantum dots.
[0009] According to another embodiment, a method of making a solar
cell is described. The method includes depositing a first plurality
of layers of quantum dots on a substrate. In this embodiment, each
individual layer in the first plurality of layers is contacted with
a metal halide solution after it has been deposited and before
deposition of the next layer. The method thereafter includes
depositing a second plurality of layers of quantum dots on the
first plurality of layers. As with the deposition of the first
plurality of layers, each individual layer in the second plurality
of layers is contacted with a solution after it has been deposited
and before deposition of the next layer, however in the second
plurality of layers, each individual layer is contacted with a
ligand solution.
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS
[0010] FIG. 1 is a cross-section of a quantum dot solar cell, in
accordance with embodiments provided by the present disclosure.
[0011] FIG. 2 is a flowchart illustrating a method of making a
nanocrystal device, in accordance with embodiments provided by the
present disclosure. In the depicted embodiment, the nanocrystals
are quantum dots.
[0012] FIG. 3 is a graph depicting Fourier-Transform Infrared
spectra of films capped with the native oleate ligand and
corresponding spectra after ligand treatment with the metal halide
salts.
[0013] FIG. 4 is a graph depicting the open-circuit voltage
(V.sub.oc), short-circuit current (J.sub.sc), fill factor (FF), and
power conversion efficiency (PCE) plotted as a function of quantum
dot layer thickness.
DETAILED DESCRIPTION
[0014] Reference is now made to certain embodiments of metal ion
and halogen ion solid-state surface treatment for high efficiency
nanocrystal devices. The present disclosure relates to treatment of
nanocrystals generally which, in some embodiments, can be quantum
dot nanocrystals. A quantum dot is a type of nanocrystal that
experiences quantum confinement effects. By way of example, not
limitation, a 10 nm silicon nanocrystal may not display quantum
confinement effects, or may display negligible quantum confinement.
However, such a nanocrystal may still have surface ligands that may
limit or otherwise impact performance. The methods provided by the
present disclosure can be used to treat such a nanocrystal and
replace the native surface ligands with other ions via ligand
exchange, as disclosed herein. In that respect, the methods
provided by the present disclosure are not limited to use with
quantum dots; rather, any nanocrystal containing one or more
surface ligands may be treated as described herein.
[0015] As used herein, the terms "nanocrystal" and "quantum dot"
and the acronyms "NC" and "QD" refer to any elemental or compound
semiconductor, metal, or metal oxide nanocrystal material with
dimensions from about 1 nm to about 100 nm, or in some embodiments
from about 3 to about 20 nm. In some embodiments, the material
includes one or more metal chalcogenides selected from PbS, PbSe,
PbTe, CdSe, CdS, CdTe, CuInS, CuInSe, ZnS, ZnSe, ZnTe, HgTe, CdHgTe
and combinations of any of the foregoing. In some embodiments, the
material may be one or more IUPAC Group III-V materials selected
from InP, InAs, GaAs Si, Ge, SiGe, Sn and combinations thereof. In
some embodiments, the material is selected from ZnO, MoO, TiO2,
other metal oxides and combinations thereof. In some embodiments,
the material may include one or more perovskite nanocrystals
selected from CsPbBr3, CsPbI3, CsPbC13, CsSnI3, organic inorganic
perovskite like structures existing in colloidal nanocrystal form,
and combinations of any of the foregoing. The disclosed embodiments
are not intended to be limiting of the claims. To the contrary, the
claims are intended to cover all alternatives, modifications, and
equivalents. The concepts described herein are intended to be
broader than the particular context in which they are presented.
For example, though certain embodiments are presented in the
context PbS and PbSe quantum dot devices, such disclosure is
provided merely for the sake of simplicity; the novel methods of
treatment may be employed in related contexts in which treatment of
any nanocrystal and/or quantum dot material(s) to replace native
ligands is desired. Various examples include treatment of
nanocrystals and/or quantum dots with a solution containing one or
more metal ions and one or more halogen ions, and/or with a metal
halide solution, for the manufacture of devices such as
light-emitting diode (LED) displays, transistors, diode lasers and
solar cells and for use in medical imaging, bioimaging, quantum
computing, NC and/or QD display and photocatalysis.
[0016] In various aspects, the present disclosure relates to the
replacement of native ligands present on the surface of a NC and/or
QD material or in a solution that includes the NCs and/or QDs. In
some embodiments, the ligands are artifacts, or by-products, of the
NC or QD production process. In some embodiments, the ligands are
present because of one or more post-production processing steps.
The disclosed methods may be used to replace any native ligand. In
some embodiments, the native ligand is a long chain fatty acid. In
some embodiments, the native ligands are selected from oleic acid
(oleate ligands), oleylamine, dodecylamine, pyridine, decylamine,
octylamine, dodecanethiol, octadecanethiol, octadecylphosphonic
acid, trioctylphosphonic acid, and combinations of any of the
foregoing. In some embodiments, the native ligands are lead oleate
ligands. In general, native ligands may be an organic ligand.
[0017] Embodiments provided by the present disclosure represent an
improvement over the state of the art and known methods of
producing and treating NDs and/or QDs. In some embodiments, the
treatment can occur post production. Traditional halide treatments
using organic molecules may leave behind cationic organic residue
that may limit ND and/or QD device performance. Embodiments
provided by the present disclosure provide significant and
unexpected improvement upon traditional layer-by-layer and other
approaches that use organic molecules.
[0018] In various aspects, the present disclosure provides the use
of metal ions and halogen ions, and/or metal halides, dissolved in
a solvent as a post-production treatment of NCs and/or QDs. In some
embodiments, the metal ions and halogen ions, and/or the metal
halides, are used to treat NCs and/or QDs in order to build-up
thick, all-inorganic films by, for example, dip coating, spin
coating, curtain coating, blade coating, spraying, or any other
suitable solution based, non-vapor phase coating method.
[0019] In some embodiments, methods provided by the present
disclosure utilize a metal halide solution in order to treat the
NCs and/or QDs. Metal halides are binary compound salts that can be
generally described via the formula MX.sub.y, where M is a metal, X
is a halogen and y is an integer selected from 1, 2 and 3. In
solution, metal halides dissociate into metal ions and halogen
ions.
[0020] In some embodiments, methods provided by the present
disclosure utilize a solution having metal ions and halogen ions.
In that respect, the sources of metal ions and halogen ions in the
solution do not necessarily need to come from a metal halide salt.
Rather, the metal ions and the halogen ions may be contributed to
the solution by any means. In some embodiments, a metal salt may be
used to contribute metal ions to the solution and a halogen salt
may be used to contribute halogen ions to the solution. In some
embodiments, a metal halide salt contributes metal ions and halogen
ions to the solution.
[0021] As used herein, a "metal" is a material that forms a cation
through electron loss. In various aspects, the metal ions present
in the solution, whether from use of a metal halide or any other
metal source, can be from any metal. In some embodiments, the metal
is selected from an alkali metal, an alkaline Earth metal, a
transition metal, a post-transition metal, a lanthanide metal and
an actinide metal. In some embodiments, the metal is selected from
lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, caesium, francium, beryllium,
magnesium, calcium, strontium, barium, radium, scandium, titanium,
vanadium, chromium, manganese, iron, cobalt, nickel, copper, zinc,
yttrium, zirconium, niobium, molybdenum, technetium, ruthenium,
rhodium, palladium, silver, cadmium, hafnium, tantalum, tungsten,
rhenium, osmium, iridium, platinum, gold, mercury, rutherfordium,
dubnium, seaborgium, bohrium, hassium, copernicium, aluminium,
gallium, indium, tin, thallium, lead, bismuth, polonium, flerovium,
lanthanum, cerium, praseodymium, neodymium, promethium, samarium,
europium, gadolinium, terbium, dysprosium, holmium, erbium,
thulium, ytterbium, lutetium, actinium, thorium, protactinium,
uranium, neptunium, plutonium, americium, curium, berkelium,
californium, einsteinium, fermium, mendelevium, nobelium and
lawrencium. In some embodiments, the metal is lead.
[0022] As used herein, a "halogen" is a member of the chemically
related elements that form Group 17 of the IUPAC periodic table of
the elements. In various aspects, the halogen ions present in the
solution, whether from use of a metal halide or any other halogen
source, can be from any halogen. In some embodiments, the halogen
is selected from fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine and astatine.
In some embodiments, the halogen is iodine. In some embodiments,
the metal is lead, the halogen is iodine and the solution includes
lead ions and iodide ions. In some embodiments of a binary metal
halide MX.sub.y, the metal is lead, the halogen is iodine, y is 2
and the solution having lead ions and iodide ions.
[0023] The solvent used to dissolve the metal halide, thereby
placing it into solution, can vary. In some embodiments, the
solvent is a polar protic solvent containing an acidic hydrogen. In
some embodiments, the solvent is a polar aprotic solvent lacking an
acidic hydrogen. In some embodiments, the solvent is non-polar. In
some embodiments, the solvent is an alcohol. In some embodiments,
the solvent is selected from tetrahydrofuran, ethyl acetate,
acetone, dimethylformamide, acetonitrile, dimethyl sulfoxide,
nitromethane, propylene carbonate and combinations thereof. In some
embodiments, the solvent is selected from formic acid, butanol,
n-butanol, isopropanol, n-propanol, ethanol, methanol, acetic acid,
water and combinations thereof. In some embodiments, the solvent is
selected from pentane, cyclopentane, hexane, cyclohexane, carbon
tetrachloride, benzene, toluene, 1,4-dioxane, chloroform, diethyl
ether, dichloromethane and combinations thereof. In some
embodiments, the solvent is dimethylformamide.
[0024] The solution described above and provided by the present
disclosure, may introduce ions (e.g., Cl.sup.- or I.sup.-) which
may passivate NC and/or QD trap states, thereby reducing the
probability of non-radiative recombination of charge carriers and
increasing the quantum yield of charge carriers. These and other
advantages will be described in more detail below.
[0025] Without limiting the generality of the foregoing, certain
specific embodiments provided by the present disclosure will now be
described. Various embodiments disclosed herein use PbS and PbSe
QDs. PbS and PbSe QDs may be made, for example, by cation exchange
of CdS and CdSe QDs, respectively, with PbCl.sub.2/oleylamine. For
PbSe QDs, CdSe precursors may be synthesized to obtain .about.5 nm,
monodisperse CdSe. The CdSe precursors may then be chemically
converted to PbSe through a cation exchange reaction by mixing
about 0.834 g PbCl.sub.2 with 10 mL oleylamine (OLA), degassing,
and heating to about 140.degree. C. for about 30 min. The mixture
may be heated to .about.190.degree. C. and 2 mL of CdSe (100 mg/mL,
in octadecene) may be injected. The reaction may be left at
.about.180.degree. C. for 30 seconds then quenched with a water
bath. As the reaction cools, 10 mL hexane and 8 mL oleic acid (OA)
may be injected at .about.70.degree. C. and .about.30.degree. C.,
respectively. The reaction may be allowed to cool and washed by
precipitation-redispersion with ethanol and hexane. The final
dispersion may be centrifuged to remove any excess chloride salts
and filtered through a 0.2 .mu.m filter.
[0026] PbS may be synthesized by the cation exchange of CdS
precursors. The cation exchange follows that of the CdSe, except
the CdS precursors are cooled to about 90.degree. C. before the
injection of CdS (150 mg/mL in toluene) and the reaction runs for
about 60 seconds. The product may be washed and filtered in the
same way as described above.
[0027] FIG. 1 is a cross-section of a QD material, a solar cell in
the depicted embodiment, generally designated 100, that may be
produced by the methods provided by the present disclosure. The QD
solar cell 100 may include a substrate 108, one or more QD layers
110, each of which may be treated with a solution having metal ions
and halogen ions during solution-phase ligand exchange, one or more
optional, additional QD layers 112, a Molybdenum oxide (MoOx) layer
114, and an aluminum (Al) contact layer 116. The MoOx layer 114 and
Al contact layer 116 may be collectively referred to herein as a
MoOx/Al back contact. The substrate 108 may include a glass layer
102, an indium-tin-oxide (ITO) layer 104, and a TiO.sub.2 layer
106. The ITO layer 104 may be a patterned ITO layer. Although
titanium dioxide (TiO.sub.2) substrates are discussed throughout
this Detailed Description, such discussion is for brevity. Titanium
dioxide is merely an example of a substrate layer; other substrate
materials and combinations of materials are also contemplated (see
Table 2). One or more QD layers 110 may be deposited on the
substrate 108. In some embodiments, the one or more QD layers 110
may include PbS and/or PbSe quantum dots. In some embodiments, each
QD layer 110 may be treated--placed in contact with--a solution
containing metal ions and halogen ions after deposition, and prior
to deposition of the next QD layer 110, during solution-phase
ligand treatment. One or more additional QD layers 112 may
optionally be deposited onto the QD layers 110. The additional QD
layers may create a bi layer structure. A bilayer (or more complex)
structure may improve various electrical properties including, for
example, current density-voltage characteristics. The deposition of
the QD layers 110 and the optional additional QD layers 112 is
described in further detail with respect to FIG. 2.
[0028] FIG. 2 is a flowchart illustrating a method of making a QD
material, in accordance with embodiments provided by the present
disclosure. In step 202, a substrate is provided (e.g., substrate
108). As described above, the substrate 108 may include the glass
layer 102, the ITO layer 104, and the TiO.sub.2 layer 106. The
TiO.sub.2 layer 106 may be deposited on the ITO layer 106 with a
sol-gel method, for example. TiO.sub.2 sol-gel may be prepared, for
example, by mixing about 5 mL anhydrous ethanol, about 2 drops
hydrochloric acid, and about 125 .mu.L deionized water. This
mixture may be stirred while about 375 .mu.L titanium ethoxide is
added drop-wise such that no precipitates form. This may yield a
clear liquid that may be stirred for about 48 hours with the
headspace of the vial filled with nitrogen. The resulting mixture
may be stored in a freezer until needed. The ITO/glass substrates
may be cleaned with ethanol and UV-ozone treated before depositing
TiO.sub.2. Within 10 min of UV-ozone treatment, about 70 .mu.L
TiO.sub.2 sol-gel may be spun at 1400 RPM for about 30 seconds. The
TiO.sub.2 may be wiped off the ITO contact pads using ethanol and
the films may be dried at about 115.degree. C. then annealed at
about 450.degree. C. for about 30 minutes. The films may be stored
in air and sit in air for at least one day before use.
[0029] In step 204, QDs are deposited. The QDs may be deposited in
any manner. In some embodiments, the QDs are deposited as a layer
(e.g., one of the QD layers 110). The QDs may be deposited on the
substrate 202 or on previously deposited QDs (for example, where a
plurality of QD layers 110 are deposited). The manner in which the
QDs are deposited can vary. In some embodiments, the QDs are
deposited by a method selected from dip coating, spin coating,
curtain coating, blade coating, spraying and any other suitable
method that is not a vapor phase method. For dip coating, the
substrate 108, 202 may be immersed into a .about.15 mg/mL solution
of QDs in a solvent such as hexane and smoothly removed, resulting
in a thin film of QDs along a surface of the substrate. Other dip
coating procedures may also be used instead of or in addition to
those discussed above. For spin coating, the QDs may be dispersed
in a solvent such as octane at a concentration of about 40 mg/mL
and spun at about 1000 rpm for about 45 seconds. Other spin coating
procedures may also be used instead of or in addition to those
discussed above. The exact concentration, speed, and time of
coating may depend on various factors including, but not limited
to, the area of the substrate, the desired thickness of the layer
and the nature of the QD material to be prepared.
[0030] In step 206, the QDs deposited in step 204 are treated with
a solution containing metal ions and halogen ions. For example, in
some embodiments a QD layer, such as layer 110, may be dipped into
a 10 mM metal halide solution for about 30 seconds to about 60
seconds, rendering the QD layer 110 insoluble in hexane and
allowing for thick films to be built up layer by layer. As used
herein, the term "layer" means a coating of QDs on a substrate
which, in some embodiments, may be a monolayer of QDs. In some
embodiments, dimethylformamide is used as the solvent for the metal
halide. In such instances, a post-ligand treatment with neat
acetonitrile may be used to remove residual dimethylformamide that
may not dry rapidly. It should be noted that some of the metals
and/or halogen combinations (metal halide or otherwise) disclosed
herein may not be appreciably soluble in acetonitrile. In such
instances, a mixture of about 20 vol %
dimethylformamide/acetonitrile can be used to solvate the
metal/halogen and QD devices treated in this fashion may perform as
well as those with the metal/halogen combination dissolved in
dimethylformamide only for the ligand treatment solvent. For spin
coating, the QDs may be immersed in .about.10 mM metal halide
solution for about 3 minutes and rinsed with acetonitrile. These
steps may be performed in an order other than that presented in
FIG. 2. For example, the QDs may be treated in solution (as opposed
to being deposited on a substrate, as noted above) with a metal
halide salt prior to deposition of the QD layer. Other methods of
treating the QDs with the solution containing metal ions and
halogen ions are also contemplated. In some embodiments, the
metal/halogen treatment may result in a thin layer of metal forming
on the surface of the QD layer.
[0031] In decision block 208, a determination may be made whether
to add additional QDs on top of those that have already been
deposited, after treatment with the solution. Both dip coating and
spin coating QDs may allow for a controlled thickness of QDs with
appropriate surface coverage. For example, in some embodiments with
increasing number of dip cycles into 10 mM metal halide (PbI.sub.2)
in dimethylformamide an increase in absorption (A=100-T-R) of PbS
QD films may be produced while preserving the first exciton feature
related to the QD size. FIG. 4, discussed in further detail below,
demonstrates some of the various effects of different thicknesses
of the QD layer 110. Such effects may include changes in the
open-circuit voltage (V.sub.oc), short-circuit current (J.sub.sc),
fill factor (FF), and power conversion efficiency (PCE). If
additional QDs are to be added (decision block 208, YES branch),
they may be sequentially deposited onto the QDs previously
deposited (as in step 202) and treated with the solution (as in
step 204) prior to deposition of additional QDs. In various
embodiments, dip coated devices may include from about 10 to about
15 layers of metal/halogen-treated QDs. Spin coated devices may
include any number of QD layers 110.
[0032] If additional metal/halogen treated QDs are not to be added
(decision block 208, NO branch), a secondary treatment 210 may then
be applied to the QD device. In some embodiments, the secondary
treatment 210 is the deposition of additional QDs, (e.g.,
additional QD layers 112) on the QDs that had already been
deposited (e.g., one or more QD layers 110) and treated with the
solution. A unique feature of QD solids is the ability to control
the absolute energy levels by applying different ligands. This
effect may be the result of ligand-induced surface dipoles. Such
control allows the energetics within a device to be engineered by
using multiple surface treatments during the QD deposition to
create bilayer (or more complex) structures of QD solids. For
example, increased performance in PbSe solar cells may result from
employing ethanedithiol (EDT) and hydrazine layers.
PbS.sub.TBAI/PbS.sub.EDT and PbS.sub.TMAOH/PbS.sub.TBAI
combinations (where TMAOH is tetramethylammonium hydroxide) may be
used to enhance carrier collection resulting in improved device
performance. For example, in embodiments employing dip coating, the
one or more QD layers 110 may be followed by 3 to 4 additional QD
layers 112 (although greater or fewer layers may be used). Each of
the additional QD layers 112 may be treated with a different ligand
treatment than the metal/halogen ion solution prior to the
deposition of a subsequent layer. For example, in some embodiments,
the additional QD layers 112 may be treated with an MPA
(methiopropamine) solution, such as .about.10% MPA in methanol
(MeOH) or a thiocyantate (SCN) solution, such as .about.10 mM SCN
solution in MeOH. In embodiments employing spin coating, the one or
more QD layers 110 may be coated with about 2 layers of MPA-capped
additional QD layers 112. The last two layers of QDs may be treated
with .about.10% MPA in MeOH by dipping the device into a MPA/MeOH
solution, rinsing twice with MeOH and drying with nitrogen. In some
embodiments, the MPA/MeOH treated QD devices function more
efficiently than the SCN treated QD devices. A MoOx/Al back contact
may then be thermally evaporated onto the last additional QD layer
112, in order to generate a QD solar cell.
[0033] As discussed above, treatment of the QD layers 110 with the
metal/halogen ion containing solution replaces native ligands in QD
layers. FIG. 3 is a graph depicting baseline-corrected
Fourier-Transform Infrared spectra of dropcast QD films capped with
a native oleate ligand and the corresponding spectra after ligand
treatment with a metal halide solution of lead iodide in
dimethylformamide. Based on the ratios of the largest absorbance
feature at 2925 cm.sup.-1 (corresponding to the v.sub.a
(--CH.sub.2) mode), it is clear that iodide salts remove more
lead-oleate than chloride salts (i.e., CdI.sub.2 removes more than
CdCl.sub.2), and the lead salts also remove more lead-oleate than
the cadmium salts (i.e., PbI.sub.2 is more effective than
CdI.sub.2). This trend is deduced using a ratio of the absorbance
at 2925 cm.sup.-1, i.e. [post-soak]/[pre-metal halide soak]. In the
embodiment depicted in FIG. 3, about 26% oleate remains after
treatment with CdCl.sub.2, about 14% oleate remains after CdI.sub.2
treatment, about 5.1% oleate remains after PbCl.sub.2 treatment,
and about 1.4% oleate remains after PbI.sub.2 treatment. Some
residual organics may be from dimethylformamide still present after
rinsing with SCN, as indicated by the peak near 1640 cm.sup.-1.
[0034] To further detail the composition and properties of QD
materials, which was a solar cell in this embodiment, treated with
PbI.sub.2 (PbS.sub.PbI2), comparison of the atomic concentrations
and energy levels using x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) to
other ligand-exchanged QD films were made, as shown in Table 1. QD
films using iodine-containing ligands (i.e., TBAI and PbI.sub.2),
as well as the sulfur-containing ligands (i.e., MPA and ammonium
thiocyanate (NH.sub.4SCN)), were compared. Both NH.sub.4SCN and MPA
have carbon signatures greater than 20 mol %. Comparing QD films
treated with TBAI to those treated with PbI.sub.2, the percentage
of carbon present in the film was greatly reduced (from about 26.7
mol % to about 2.5 mol %) when using the PbI.sub.2 treatment. The
MPA and NH.sub.4SCN may not displace the Cl present in the QDs (Cl
added during the ion exchange reaction via PbCl.sub.2/oleylamine),
whereas after treating QD films with TBAI or PbI.sub.2, Cl was not
detected by XPS.
TABLE-US-00001 TABLE 1 Relative atomic percentage of elements in
ligand-exchanged QD films determined by XPS Treatment C N I Cl Pb S
O Cd Pb:S Pb:I Pb:CL Pb:(S + I) Pb:(S + Cl) PbI.sub.2 2.5 * 26.9 *
45.7 19.3 5.3 0.3 2.4 1.7 1.0 TBAI 26.7 1.3 19.2 * 34.3 16.4 1.7
0.4 2.1 1.8 1.0 MPA 27.3 * * 7.0 28.4 19.7 16.6 1.0 1.4 4.1 1.1
NH.sub.4SCN 21.0 2.9 * 4.0 37.8 27.3 7.0 0.2 1.4 9.5 1.2 *values
below detection limit
[0035] The stoichiometry in ionic QDs may be related to majority
carrier type in the film. For instance, the Pb:anion ratio may
decrease with the addition of chalcogens from ligands like MPA or
NH.sub.4SCN resulting in p-type QD films. Such a change in the
stoichiometry may then also change the Fermi level position within
the bandgap. The XPS spectra may be used to determine the work
function (.PHI.=difference between Fermi energy and vacuum level)
and the onset of VB states relative to the Fermi energy
(E.sub.F-E.sub.VB onset).
[0036] Treating the QDs with MPA or NH.sub.4SCN may decrease the
separation between the onset of the valence band (VB) states and
the Fermi level. The I.sup.- treatments may lead to deeper VB
states (i.e., larger energy difference between vacuum and the VB
onset) and are more n-type then the sulfur-containing ligand
treatments. It should be noted that both I-treated films have
Pb:(S+I) ratios of unity. The lower Pb:S ratios for the MPA and
NH.sub.4SCN treatments compared to the I.sup.- ligand treatment
support the conclusion that the MPA and NH.sub.4SCN treatments lead
to more p-type films than the I.sup.- ligand treatments. The ligand
may dictate the Fermi level position within the bandgap and may
control the overall band positions relative to vacuum. Embodiments
described herein unexpectedly show that the PbI.sub.2 ligand
exchanged PbS QD film has the lowest lying VB onset and .PHI. of
all of the ligands described herein. Thus, the pretreatment methods
utilizing metals and halogens dissolved in a solvent described
herein may provide control of both the band positions and majority
carrier type within QD solids, thus enabling the deliberate
engineering of the energetics within a device, in a way that was
previously unavailable.
[0037] According to certain embodiments, the QD layers may remain
distinct with likely different material density or perhaps
conductivity. In various embodiments, devices fabricated using
CdCl.sub.2 have an improved V.sub.oc over those fabricated from
PbI.sub.2-treated QDs and reach a power conversion efficiency of
about 5.6%. The spectral response of a CdCl.sub.2-treated device
may exhibit a 100-nm blue shift in the wavelength of the first
exciton feature that may be due to a surface ion exchange which
reduces the size of the PbS core and increases the bandgap. Metal
halide treatments may also be used to fabricate PbSe QD materials
under ambient conditions (PbSe is generally more prone to oxidation
than PbS). Ambient conditions can be, for example: IUPAC
established standard temperature and pressure, which is a
temperature of 273.15 K (0.degree. C., 32.degree. F.) and an
absolute pressure of exactly 100,000 Pa (1 bar, 14.5 psi, 0.98692
atm); or SATP conditions, which are a temperature of 298.15 K
(25.degree. C., 77.degree. F.) and an absolute pressure of exactly
1 atm (101,325 Pa, 1.01325 bar); although the known standards
adopted by the International Organization for Standardization
(ISO), the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and
National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) may also be
used. The disclosed embodiments may thus be practiced at a variety
of temperatures and pressures. In some examples, the methods
described herein may be performed in an inert environment (e.g.
argon, helium, nitrogen) or the methods may be performed in an
oxygen containing environment (e.g. air). In some embodiments, the
methods described herein may be performed at about room temperature
(e.g. about 21.degree. C.). In other embodiments, the methods
described herein may be performed at a temperature of about
0.degree. C. to about 100.degree. C.
EXAMPLES
[0038] The thickness dependence of a PbS absorber layer was tested
by producing devices composed of 4, 6, 7, 8, and 10 sequential spin
coating steps according to the methods described above with respect
to FIGS. 1 and 2. After each spin, the film was treated by soaking
in PbI.sub.2 in dimethylformamide for about 3 minutes. The last two
coatings were treated by MPA rather than PbI.sub.2. FIG. 4 is a
graph depicting the open-circuit voltage (V.sub.oc), short-circuit
current (J.sub.sc), fill factor (FF), and PCE, plotted as a
function of QD layer thickness for each of the produced devices.
The solid symbols represent the average of 6 devices and the hollow
symbols represent the best performing device for each film
thickness. The best device reached a PCE of about 7.25% which
corresponds to a thickness of about 500 nm. The EQE response of the
devices generally increased spectral response for lower energy
photons (i.e. photons with wavelength between 600 and 1200 nm). The
internal quantum efficiency (IQE) also increased in this same
manner with the thickest cell showing a flat response of about 80%
to about 85%. For the device with a PbS QD thickness of about 740
nm, the IQE was determined to be roughly 80% for all photons
absorbed in the QD layer (i.e. photon energy above the bandgap of
the PbS QDs and below the absorption of the glass/ITO substrate).
Electron transport was sufficient to extract .about.80% of carriers
generated in the device, indicated by the IQE and flat spectrum,
despite being significantly thicker than the current world record
PbS QDSC. Therefore, the metal halide treatments described herein,
and the PbI.sub.2 in particular, are very promising for improving
the overall efficiency of QD materials. Table 2 shows details of
several QD materials, in this case solar cells, made in accordance
with various methods described herein.
TABLE-US-00002 TABLE 2 Compilation of the various device parameters
explored. Back n-type Ligand/ surface Deposition PbE Voc Jsc FF PCE
Meas. QDs contact solvent ligand method thickness (mV)
(mA/cm.sup.2) (%) (%) env. PbSe TiO.sub.2 PbI.sub.2/DMF MPA Dipcoat
300 nm 428 22.7 54.8 5.3 N.sub.2 (CdSe) (10%) PbS CdS PbI.sub.2/DMF
MPA Dipcoat ~350 nm 543 16.5 45.0 4.0 Air (CdS) (10%) PbS TiO.sub.2
PbI.sub.2/DMF: EDT Dipcoat ~300 nm 623 14.2 36.2 3.2 Air (CdS) ACN
1:5 (1 mM) PbS In:ZnO PbI.sub.2/DMF: EDT Dipcoat ~550 nm 567 17.4
42.8 4.2 Air (CdS) sol-gel ACN 1:5 (1 mM) PbS ZnO PbI.sub.2/DMF:
EDT Spincoat ~500 nm 606 20.5 34.0 4.2 Air (CdS) NCs ACN 1:5 (1 mM)
PbS TiO.sub.2 PbI.sub.2/DMF: MPA Dipcoat 550 nm 597 21.8 45.0 5.9
Air (CdS) ACN 1:5 (10%) PbS TiO.sub.2 MPA N/A Dipcoat ~400 nm 542
6.96 47.1 1.8 Air (CdS) PbS TiO.sub.2 EDT N/A Dipcoat ~550 nm 596
15.8 33.8 3.2 Air (CdS) PbS TiO.sub.2 PbI.sub.2/DMF MPA Dipcoat 350
nm 584 25.3 44.8 6.6 Air (CdS) (10%) PbS TiO.sub.2 PbI.sub.2/DMF
MPA Spincoat ~420 nm 496 23.0 43.2 4.9 N.sub.2 (CdS) (2%) PbS
TiO.sub.2 PbI.sub.2/DMF: Na.sub.2S Dipcoat ~400 nm 513 11.9 19.9
1.2 N.sub.2 (CdS) ACN 1:5 (10 mM) PbS TiO.sub.2 PbI.sub.2/DMF:
NH.sub.4SCN Dipcoat 340 nm 500 16.6 33.2 2.8 N.sub.2 (CdS) ACN 1:5
(10 mM) PbS TiO.sub.2 PbI.sub.2/DMF: MPA Dipcoat 750 nm 516 14.1
48.6 3.5 N.sub.2 (CdS) ACN 1:5 (10%) PbS TiO.sub.2 PbI.sub.2/DMF
MPA Spincoat ~550 nm 476 22.8 42.3 4.6 N.sub.2 (PbCl.sub.2) (10%)
PbS TiO.sub.2 PbI.sub.2/DMF MPA Spincoat ~300 nm 466 21.2 40.4 4.0
N.sub.2 (PbCl.sub.2) (10%) PbS TiO.sub.2 PbI.sub.2/DMF MPA Spincoat
~300 nm 348 18.8 30.6 2.0 N.sub.2 (PbCl.sub.2) (10%) PbS TiO.sub.2
PbI.sub.2/DMF N/A Spincoat ~500 nm 412 11.8 18.9 0.9 N.sub.2 (CdS)
PbS TiO.sub.2 PbI.sub.2/DMF MPA Spincoat ~500 nm 431 19.5 30.5 2.6
N.sub.2 (CdS) (10%)- dip PbS TiO.sub.2 PbI.sub.2/DMF MPA Spincoat
~500 nm 438 23.9 47.5 5.0 N.sub.2 (CdS) (10%) PbS TiO.sub.2
PbI.sub.2/DMF MPA Spincoat 330 nm 547 22.6 52.0 6.4 N.sub.2 (CdS)
(10%) PbS TiO.sub.2 PbI.sub.2/DMF MPA Spincoat 500 nm 547 22.7 53.0
6.6 N.sub.2 (CdS) (10%) PbS TiO.sub.2 PbI.sub.2/DMF MPA Spincoat
580 nm 559 25.5 51.0 7.3 N.sub.2 (CdS) (10%) PbS TiO.sub.2
PbI.sub.2/DMF MPA Spincoat 660 nm 554 25.0 50.0 7.0 N.sub.2 (CdS)
(10%) PbS TiO.sub.2 PbI.sub.2/DMF MPA Spincoat 830 519 22.4 41.0
4.7 N.sub.2 (CdS) (10%) nm PbS TiO.sub.2 PbCl.sub.2/DMF MPA
Spincoat 580 nm 354 4.66 41.0 0.7 N.sub.2 (CdS) (10%) PbS TiO.sub.2
CdI/DMF MPA Spincoat 580 nm 421 21.2 42.1 3.8 N.sub.a (CdS) (10%)
PbS TiO.sub.2 CdCl.sub.2/DMF MPA Spincoat 580 nm 620 19.9 45.1 5.6
N.sub.2 (CdS) (10%)
* * * * *