U.S. patent application number 14/370133 was filed with the patent office on 2014-12-11 for method and system for image analysis.
This patent application is currently assigned to TELECOM ITALIA S.p.A.. The applicant listed for this patent is TELECOM ITALIA S.p.A.. Invention is credited to Massimo Balestri, Gianluca Francini, Skjalg Lepsoy.
Application Number | 20140363078 14/370133 |
Document ID | / |
Family ID | 45809456 |
Filed Date | 2014-12-11 |
United States Patent
Application |
20140363078 |
Kind Code |
A1 |
Balestri; Massimo ; et
al. |
December 11, 2014 |
METHOD AND SYSTEM FOR IMAGE ANALYSIS
Abstract
A method for processing an image, including: identifying a group
of keypoints in the image; for each keypoint, calculating a
corresponding descriptor array including plural array elements,
each array element storing values taken by a corresponding color
gradient histogram of a respective sub-region of the image in the
neighborhood of the keypoint; for each keypoint, subdividing the
descriptor array in at least two sub-arrays each including a
respective number of elements of the descriptor array, and
generating a compressed descriptor array including a corresponding
compressed sub-array for each of the at least two sub-arrays, each
compressed sub-array obtained by compressing the corresponding
sub-array by vector quantization using a respective codebook;
exploiting the compressed descriptor arrays of the keypoints for
image analysis. For each keypoint of the group, the subdividing is
based on correlation relationships among color gradient histograms
with values stored in the elements of the descriptor array of each
keypoint.
Inventors: |
Balestri; Massimo; (Torino,
IT) ; Francini; Gianluca; (Torino, IT) ;
Lepsoy; Skjalg; (Torino, IT) |
|
Applicant: |
Name |
City |
State |
Country |
Type |
TELECOM ITALIA S.p.A. |
Milano |
|
IT |
|
|
Assignee: |
TELECOM ITALIA S.p.A.
Milano
IT
|
Family ID: |
45809456 |
Appl. No.: |
14/370133 |
Filed: |
October 12, 2012 |
PCT Filed: |
October 12, 2012 |
PCT NO: |
PCT/EP2012/070321 |
371 Date: |
July 1, 2014 |
Related U.S. Patent Documents
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Application
Number |
Filing Date |
Patent Number |
|
|
61599586 |
Feb 16, 2012 |
|
|
|
Current U.S.
Class: |
382/165 |
Current CPC
Class: |
G06K 9/4642 20130101;
G06K 9/6256 20130101; G06K 9/00536 20130101; G06F 16/583 20190101;
G06K 9/4652 20130101 |
Class at
Publication: |
382/165 |
International
Class: |
G06K 9/46 20060101
G06K009/46 |
Foreign Application Data
Date |
Code |
Application Number |
Jan 2, 2012 |
IT |
MI2012A000004 |
Claims
1. A method for processing an image, comprising: identifying a
group of keypoints in the image; for each keypoint of the group: a)
calculating a corresponding descriptor array including a plurality
of array elements, each array element storing values taken by a
corresponding color gradient histogram of a respective sub-region
of the image in the neighborhood of the keypoint; b) subdividing
the descriptor array in at least two sub-arrays, each sub-array
comprising a respective number of elements of the descriptor array,
and c) generating a compressed descriptor array comprising a
corresponding compressed sub-array for each of said at least two
sub-arrays, each compressed sub-array being obtained by compressing
the corresponding sub-array of said at least two sub-arrays by
means of vector quantization using a respective codebook;
exploiting the compressed descriptor arrays of the keypoints of
said group for analysing the image, wherein: for each keypoint of
said group, the subdivision of the descriptor array in at least two
sub-arrays is carried out based on correlation relationships among
the color gradient histograms whose values are stored in the
elements of the descriptor array of said each keypoint.
2. The method of claim 1, further including, for each keypoint of
the group: arranging the at least two sub-arrays in at least one
group of sub-arrays, and using a same codebook for compressing the
sub-arrays of a same group of said at least one group of
sub-arrays.
3. The method of claim 2, further comprising, for each keypoint of
the group: arranging the color gradient histograms in a plurality
of correlation families, each correlation family comprising a
corresponding set of correlated color gradient histograms having a
similar statistical behavior, wherein, for each of said at least
one group of sub-arrays: the array elements occupying a same
position in all the sub-arrays of the group correspond to color
gradient histograms belonging to a same correlation family.
4. The method of claim 3, wherein, for each keypoint of the group:
said keypoint is associated with sixteen respective sub-regions in
the neighborhood thereof; the corresponding descriptor array
includes sixteen array elements, each one corresponding to a
respective one among the sixteen sub-regions in the neighborhood
thereof, and said arranging the color gradient histograms in a
plurality of correlation families includes arranging the color
gradient histograms in four correlation families each one including
four correlated color gradient histograms.
5. The method of claim 4, wherein, for each keypoint of the group:
said sixteen respective sub-regions are arranged according to a
grid arrangement centered at said keypoint and including four rows
and four columns, said arranging the color gradient histograms in a
plurality of correlation families includes: arranging the first and
fourth sub-regions of the first row of the grid arrangement and the
first and fourth sub-regions of the fourth row of the grid
arrangement in a first correlation family; arranging the second and
third sub-regions of the first row of the grid arrangement and the
second and third sub-regions of the fourth row of the grid
arrangement in a second correlation family; arranging the first and
fourth sub-regions of the second row of the grid arrangement and
the first and fourth sub-regions of the third row of the grid
arrangement in a third correlation family, and arranging the second
and third sub-regions of the second row of the grid arrangement and
the second and third sub-regions of the third row of the grid
arrangement in a fourth correlation family.
6. The method of claim 5, further including, for each keypoint of
the group: subdividing the descriptor array in: a first sub-array,
comprising a first element corresponding to the first array element
of the descriptor array, a second element corresponding to the
second array element of the descriptor array, a third element
corresponding to the sixth array element of the descriptor array
and a fourth element corresponding to the fifth array element of
the descriptor array; a second sub-array, comprising a first
element corresponding to the fourth array element of the descriptor
array, a second element corresponding to the third array element of
the descriptor array, a third element corresponding to the seventh
array element of the descriptor array and a fourth element
corresponding to the eighth array element of the descriptor array;
a third sub-array, comprising a first element corresponding to the
sixteenth array element of the descriptor array, a second element
corresponding to the fifteenth array element of the descriptor
array, a third element corresponding to the eleventh array element
of the descriptor array and a fourth element corresponding to the
twelfth array element of the descriptor array, and a fourth
sub-array, comprising a first element corresponding to the
thirteenth array element of the descriptor array, a second element
corresponding to the fourteenth array element of the descriptor
array, a third element corresponding to the tenth array element of
the descriptor array and a fourth element corresponding to the
ninth array element of the descriptor array, using a same codebook
for compressing the first, second, third and fourth sub-arrays.
7. The method of claim 5, further including, for each keypoint of
the group: subdividing the descriptor array in: a first sub-array,
comprising a first element corresponding to the first array element
of the descriptor array, a second element corresponding to the
second array element of the descriptor array, a third element
corresponding to the third array element of the descriptor array, a
fourth element corresponding to the fourth array element of the
descriptor array, a fifth element corresponding to the fifth array
element of the descriptor array, a sixth element corresponding to
the sixth array element of the descriptor array, a seventh element
corresponding to the seventh element of the descriptor array, and a
eighth element corresponding to the eighth element of the
descriptor array, and a second sub-array, comprising a first
element corresponding to the thirteenth array element of the
descriptor array, a second element corresponding to the fourteenth
array element of the descriptor array, a third element
corresponding to the fifteenth array element of the descriptor
array, a fourth element corresponding to the sixteenth array
element of the descriptor array, a fifth element corresponding to
the ninth array element of the descriptor array, a sixth element
corresponding to the tenth array element of the descriptor array, a
seventh element corresponding to the eleventh element of the
descriptor array, and a eighth element corresponding to the twelfth
element of the descriptor array, using a same codebook for
compressing the first and the second sub-arrays.
8. The method of claim 5, further including, for each keypoint of
the group: subdividing the descriptor array in: a first sub-array,
comprising a first element corresponding to the fifth array element
of the descriptor array, a second element corresponding to the
first array element of the descriptor array, and a third element
corresponding to the second array element of the descriptor array;
a second sub-array, comprising a first element corresponding to the
eight array element of the descriptor array, a second element
corresponding to the fourth array element of the descriptor array,
and a third element corresponding to the third array element of the
descriptor array; a third sub-array, comprising a first element
corresponding to the ninth array element of the descriptor array, a
second element corresponding to the thirteenth array element of the
descriptor array, and a third element corresponding to the
fourteenth array element of the descriptor array; a fourth
sub-array, comprising a first element corresponding to the twelfth
array element of the descriptor array, a second element
corresponding to the sixteenth array element of the descriptor
array, and a third element corresponding to the fifteenth array
element of the descriptor array; a fifth sub-array, comprising a
first element corresponding to the sixth array element of the
descriptor array and a second element corresponding to the seventh
array element of the descriptor array, and a sixth sub-array,
comprising a first element corresponding to the tenth array element
of the descriptor array and a second element corresponding to the
eleventh array element of the descriptor array, using a first same
codebook for compressing the first, the second, the third and the
fourth sub-arrays, and using a second same codebook for compressing
the fifth and the sixth sub-arrays.
9. The method of claim 5, further including, for each keypoint of
the group: subdividing the descriptor array in: a first sub-array,
comprising a first element corresponding to the fifth array element
of the descriptor array and a second element corresponding to the
first array element of the descriptor array; a second sub-array,
comprising a first element corresponding to the eight array element
of the descriptor array and a second element corresponding to the
fourth array element of the descriptor array; a third sub-array,
comprising a first element corresponding to the ninth array element
of the descriptor array and a second element corresponding to the
thirteenth array element of the descriptor array; a fourth
sub-array, comprising a first element corresponding to the twelfth
array element of the descriptor array and a second element
corresponding to the sixteenth array element of the descriptor
array; a fifth sub-array, comprising a first element corresponding
to the sixth array element of the descriptor array and a second
element corresponding to the second array element of the descriptor
array; a sixth sub-array, comprising a first element corresponding
to the seventh array element of the descriptor array and a second
element corresponding to the third array element of the descriptor
array; a seventh sub-array, comprising a first element
corresponding to the tenth array element of the descriptor array
and a second element corresponding to the fourteenth array element
of the descriptor array, and an eight sub-array, comprising a first
element corresponding to the eleventh array element of the
descriptor array and a second element corresponding to the
fifteenth array element of the descriptor array, using a first same
codebook for compressing the first, the second, the third and the
fourth sub-arrays, and using a second same codebook for compressing
the fifth, the sixth, the seventh and the eight sub-arrays.
10. The method of claim 1, wherein said identifying a group of
keypoints includes identifying a first group of keypoints in the
image, the method further including: for each keypoint of the first
group: a) identifying a corresponding set of keypoint local
features related to said each keypoint; b) for at least one
keypoint local feature among the local features of the
corresponding set, calculating a corresponding local feature
relevance probability; c) calculating a keypoint relevance
probability based on the local feature relevance probabilities of
said at least one local feature; selecting keypoints, among the
keypoints of the first group, having the highest keypoint relevance
probabilities to form a second group of keypoints, wherein: said
exploiting the compressed descriptor arrays for analysing the image
includes exploiting the compressed descriptor arrays of the
keypoints of the second group for analysing the image, and the
local feature relevance probability calculated for a local feature
of a keypoint is obtained by comparing the value assumed by said
local feature with a corresponding reference statistical
distribution of values of said local feature.
11. The method of claim 10, wherein each said corresponding
reference statistical distribution is statistically equivalent to a
corresponding statistical distribution generated by collecting,
among a plurality of reference keypoints identified in a plurality
of reference image pairs, the local feature values corresponding to
those reference keypoints of each reference image pair that have
been ascertained to involve a correct feature match between the
reference images of such pair.
12. The method of claim 10, wherein the set of keypoint local
features related to said each keypoint comprises at least one
among: the coordinates of the keypoint; the scale at which the
keypoint has been identified; the dominant orientation of the
keypoint; the peak of the keypoint, and a descriptor of the
keypoint.
13. The method of claim 11, wherein: each reference statistical
distribution is arranged in the form of a corresponding histogram
having a plurality of bins, each bin corresponding to a predefined
range of values of the corresponding local feature, and the
frequency of each bin corresponding to a ratio between: a) the
number of reference keypoints that have been ascertained to involve
a correct feature match and having a value of the corresponding
local feature that falls within said bin, and b) the total number
of reference keypoints having a value of the corresponding local
feature that falls within said bin, said calculating the local
feature relevance probability for a local feature of a keypoint
comprises: c) inspecting the histogram corresponding to such local
feature in order to identify the bin thereof fitting the value
assumed by the local feature of the keypoint, and d) setting the
local feature relevance probability to the frequency of the
identified bin.
14. The method of claim 10, wherein said calculating a keypoint
relevance probability of a keypoint of the first group includes
combining the local feature relevance probabilities of each one of
said at least one local feature of the corresponding keypoint.
15. The method of claim 14, wherein said calculating a keypoint
relevance probability of a keypoint of the first group includes
multiplying one to another the local feature relevance
probabilities of each one of said at least one local feature of the
corresponding keypoint.
16. The method of claim 1, further comprising: providing a
reference grid including a plurality of cells arranged in rows and
columns over the image so that each keypoint of the group falls
within a respective cell of the grid; identifying the rows and the
columns of the reference grid entirely formed by cells void of
keypoints; removing from the reference grid said rows and columns
entirely formed by cells void of keypoints and generating a
compacted grid arrangement in which every row and every column
includes at least one cell comprising at least one keypoint;
generating a coordinate matrix including a plurality of elements
arranged in rows and columns, wherein each matrix element
corresponds to a cell of the compacted grid arrangement, said
matrix element being equal to a first value if the corresponding
cell of the compacted grid arrangement includes at least one
keypoint and being equal to a second value if the corresponding
cell of the compacted grid arrangement is void of keypoints;
subdividing the coordinate matrix into a plurality of sub-words
each including a same number of matrix elements; generating a
sub-word histogram including a bin for each possible value the
sub-words may take, the frequency of each bin indicating the
probability that a sub-word takes the value associated with said
bin; encoding each sub-word exploiting an entropic coding technique
based on said sub-word histogram so as to obtain a compressed
sub-word for each sub-word, and exploiting the compressed sub-words
for analyzing the image, wherein: said generating the sub-word
histogram includes setting the frequencies of the bins based on a
statistical analysis on a plurality of training images carried out
by making the assumption that the elements of coordinate matrixes
generated from such training images are independent of each other,
and said encoding each sub-word exploiting an entropic coding
technique based on said sub-word histogram comprises encoding each
sub-word into a compressed sub-word comprising a number of matrix
elements depending on the frequency of the bin corresponding to the
value of said sub-word.
17. The method of claim 10, wherein said analysing the image
comprises performing a comparison between the image and a further
image.
18. The method of claim 10, wherein said image depicts an
object/scene, said analyzing the image comprising retrieving, from
a model database including a plurality of model images each one
depicting a respective object/scene, the model image depicting an
object/scene corresponding to the object/scene depicted in the
image.
19. The method of claim 1, wherein said exploiting the compressed
descriptor arrays of the keypoints of said group for analyzing the
image comprises: decompressing the compressed descriptor arrays to
obtain corresponding decompressed descriptor arrays, and exploiting
said decompressed descriptor arrays for analyzing the image,
wherein: for each keypoint of the group said decompressing is
carried out based on statistical spatial correlation relationships
among the positions of the sub-regions of the image in the
neighborhood of the keypoint.
20. The method according to claim 19, wherein said statistical
spatial correlation relationships are based on spatial distances
among the positions of the sub-regions of the image in the
neighborhood of the keypoint.
21. The method according to claim 19, wherein, for each keypoint of
the group: each array element of the corresponding descriptor array
includes a group of sub-elements, each sub-element storing a
frequency value of a respective bin of the corresponding color
gradient histogram, each bin of the color gradient histogram
corresponding in turn to a respective orientation with respect to
the dominant orientation of the keypoint, and said decompressing is
carried out based on statistical angular correlation relationships
among the orientations corresponding to the bins of color gradient
histograms corresponding to different array elements of the
descriptor array.
22. The method according to claim 21, wherein said statistical
angular correlation relationships are based on angular distances
among the orientations corresponding to the bins of color gradient
histograms corresponding to different array elements of the
descriptor array.
23. The method of claim 21, wherein for each keypoint of the group
said decompressing comprises: joining the compressed sub-arrays
generated from said at least two sub-arrays by means of vector
quantization to form a first decompressed descriptor array
comprising a plurality of first sub-elements, and calculating a
second decompressed descriptor array from the first decompressed
descriptor array, the second decompressed descriptor array
comprising a plurality of second sub-elements, wherein said
calculating the second decompressed descriptor array comprises
setting each second sub-element to a weighted linear combination of
at least two of the first sub-elements, wherein: said exploiting
the decompressed descriptor arrays for analyzing the image
includes: for each keypoint of the group, exploiting the
corresponding second decompressed descriptor array for analyzing
the image.
24. The method of claim 23, wherein said calculating the second
decompressed descriptor array comprises multiplying the first
decompressed descriptor array by a compensation matrix, said
compensation matrix being calculated by: arranging a plurality of
sample descriptor arrays in a first sample matrix; generating
compressed sample descriptor arrays by compressing each sample
descriptor array by subdividing each sample descriptor array in at
least two corresponding sub-arrays and compressing each one of said
at least two corresponding sub-arrays through vector quantization;
for each compressed sample descriptor array, joining the
corresponding compressed sub-arrays to obtain a decompressed sample
descriptor array; arranging said decompressed sample descriptor
arrays in a second sample matrix; setting the compensation matrix
in such a way to minimize the norm of: a) the second sample matrix
multiplied by the compensation matrix minus b) the first sample
matrix.
25. The method of claim 1, wherein said exploiting the compressed
descriptor arrays of the keypoints of said group for analyzing the
image comprises: decompressing the compressed descriptor arrays to
obtain corresponding decompressed descriptor arrays, and exploiting
said decompressed descriptor arrays for analyzing the image,
wherein: for each keypoint of the group said decompressing
comprises: joining the compressed sub-arrays generated from said at
least two sub-arrays by means of vector quantization to form a
first decompressed descriptor array comprising a plurality of first
sub-elements, and calculating a second decompressed descriptor
array from the first decompressed descriptor array, the second
decompressed descriptor array comprising a plurality of second
sub-elements, wherein said calculating the second decompressed
descriptor array comprises setting each second sub-element to a
weighted linear combination of at least two of the first
sub-elements, wherein: said exploiting the decompressed descriptor
arrays for analyzing the image includes: for each keypoint of the
group, exploiting the corresponding second decompressed descriptor
array for analyzing the image.
26. A method for processing an image, comprising: receiving at
least one compressed descriptor array obtained by: identifying at
least one keypoint in the image; for said at least one keypoint: a)
calculating a corresponding descriptor array including a plurality
of array elements, each array element storing values taken by a
corresponding color gradient histogram of a respective sub-region
of the image in the neighborhood of the keypoint; b) subdividing
the descriptor array in at least two sub-arrays, each sub-array
comprising a respective number of elements of the descriptor array,
and c) generating a compressed descriptor array comprising a
corresponding compressed sub-array for each of said at least two
sub-arrays, each compressed sub-array being obtained by compressing
the corresponding sub-array of said at least two sub-arrays by
means of vector quantization using a respective codebook;
decompressing the at least one received compressed descriptor array
to obtain a corresponding at least one decompressed descriptor
array, and exploiting said at least one decompressed descriptor
array for analyzing the image, wherein: for each one of said at
least one identified keypoint said decompressing is carried out
based on statistical spatial correlation relationships among the
positions of the sub-regions of the image in the neighborhood of
the keypoint.
27. The method according to claim 26, wherein said statistical
spatial correlation relationships are based on spatial distances
among the positions of the sub-regions of the image in the
neighborhood of the keypoint.
28. The method according to claim 26 or 27, wherein, for each
keypoint of the group: each array element of the corresponding
descriptor array includes a group of sub-elements, each sub-element
storing a frequency value of a respective bin of the corresponding
color gradient histogram, each bin of the color gradient histogram
corresponding in turn to a respective orientation with respect to
the dominant orientation of the keypoint, and said decompressing is
carried out based on statistical angular correlation relationships
among the orientations corresponding to the bins of color gradient
histograms corresponding to different array elements of the
descriptor array.
29. The method according to claim 28, wherein said statistical
angular correlation relationships are based on angular distances
among the orientations corresponding to the bins of color gradient
histograms corresponding to different array elements of the
descriptor array.
30. The method of claim 28, wherein for each keypoint of the group
said decompressing comprises: joining the compressed sub-arrays
generated from said at least two sub-arrays by means of vector
quantization to form a first decompressed descriptor array
comprising a plurality of first sub-elements, and calculating a
second decompressed descriptor array from the first decompressed
descriptor array, the second decompressed descriptor array
comprising a plurality of second sub-elements, wherein said
calculating the second decompressed descriptor array comprises
setting each second sub-element to a weighted linear combination of
the first sub-elements, wherein: said exploiting the decompressed
descriptor arrays for analyzing the image includes: for each
keypoint of the group, exploiting the corresponding second
decompressed descriptor array for analyzing the image.
31. The method of claim 30, wherein said calculating the second
decompressed descriptor array comprises multiplying the first
decompressed descriptor array by a compensation matrix, said
compensation matrix being calculated by: arranging a plurality of
sample descriptor arrays in a first sample matrix; generating
compressed sample descriptor arrays by compressing each sample
descriptor array by subdividing each sample descriptor array in at
least two corresponding sub-arrays and compressing each one of said
at least two corresponding sub-arrays through vector quantization;
for each compressed sample descriptor array, joining the
corresponding compressed sub-arrays to obtain a decompressed sample
descriptor array; arranging said decompressed sample descriptor
arrays in a second sample matrix; setting the compensation matrix
in such a way to minimize the norm of: a) the second sample matrix
multiplied by the compensation matrix minus b) the first sample
matrix.
32. A method for processing an image, comprising: receiving at
least one compressed descriptor array obtained by: identifying at
least one keypoint in the image; for said at least one keypoint: a)
calculating a corresponding descriptor array including a plurality
of array elements, each array element storing values taken by a
corresponding color gradient histogram of a respective sub-region
of the image in the neighborhood of the keypoint; b) subdividing
the descriptor array in at least two sub-arrays, each sub-array
comprising a respective number of elements of the descriptor array,
and c) generating a compressed descriptor array comprising a
corresponding compressed sub-array for each of said at least two
sub-arrays, each compressed sub-array being obtained by compressing
the corresponding sub-array of said at least two sub-arrays by
means of vector quantization using a respective codebook;
decompressing the at least one received compressed descriptor array
to obtain a corresponding at least one decompressed descriptor
array, and exploiting said at least one decompressed descriptor
array for analyzing the image, wherein: for each one of said at
least one keypoint, said decompressing comprises: joining the
compressed sub-arrays generated from said at least two sub-arrays
by means of vector quantization to form a first decompressed
descriptor array comprising a plurality of first sub-elements, and
calculating a second decompressed descriptor array from the first
decompressed descriptor array, the second decompressed descriptor
array comprising a plurality of second sub-elements, wherein said
calculating the second decompressed descriptor array comprises
setting each second sub-element to a weighted linear combination of
at least two of the first sub-elements, wherein: said exploiting
the decompressed descriptor arrays for analyzing the image
includes: for each keypoint of said at least one keypoint,
exploiting the corresponding second decompressed descriptor array
for analyzing the image.
33. A system for processing an image, comprising: a first
processing unit configured to identify a group of keypoints in the
image; a second processing unit configured to perform the following
operations for each keypoint of the group: a) calculating a
corresponding descriptor array including a plurality of array
elements, each array element storing values taken by a
corresponding color gradient histogram of a respective sub-region
of the image in the neighborhood of the keypoint; b) subdividing
the descriptor array in at least two sub-arrays, each sub-array
comprising a respective number of elements of the descriptor array,
and c) generating a compressed descriptor array comprising a
corresponding compressed sub-array for each of said at least two
sub-arrays, each compressed sub-array being obtained by compressing
the corresponding sub-array of said at least two sub-arrays by
means of vector quantization using a respective codebook; a third
processing unit configured to exploit the compressed descriptor
arrays of the keypoints of said group for analysing the image,
wherein: for each keypoint of said group, the second processing
unit is configured to subdivide the descriptor array in at least
two sub-arrays based on correlation relationships among the color
gradient histograms whose values are stored in the elements of the
descriptor array of said each keypoint.
34. A system for processing an image, comprising: a first
processing unit configured to receive at least one compressed
descriptor array obtained by: identifying at least one keypoint in
the image; for said at least one keypoint: a) calculating a
corresponding descriptor array including a plurality of array
elements, each array element storing values taken by a
corresponding color gradient histogram of a respective sub-region
of the image in the neighborhood of the keypoint; b) subdividing
the descriptor array in at least two sub-arrays, each sub-array
comprising a respective number of elements of the descriptor array,
and c) generating a compressed descriptor array comprising a
corresponding compressed sub-array for each of said at least two
sub-arrays, each compressed sub-array being obtained by compressing
the corresponding sub-array of said at least two sub-arrays by
means of vector quantization using a respective codebook; a second
processing unit configured to decompress the at least one received
compressed descriptor array to obtain a corresponding at least one
decompressed descriptor array, and a third processing unit
configured to exploit said at least one decompressed descriptor
array for analyzing the image, wherein: for each one of said at
least one identified keypoint said second processing unit is
configured to decompress the at least one received compressed
descriptor array based on statistical spatial correlation
relationships among the positions of the sub-regions of the image
in the neighborhood of the keypoint.
35. A system for processing an image, comprising: a first
processing unit configured to receive at least one compressed
descriptor array obtained by: identifying at least one keypoint in
the image; for said at least one keypoint: a) calculating a
corresponding descriptor array including a plurality of array
elements, each array element storing values taken by a
corresponding color gradient histogram of a respective sub-region
of the image in the neighborhood of the keypoint; b) subdividing
the descriptor array in at least two sub-arrays, each sub-array
comprising a respective number of elements of the descriptor array,
and c) generating a compressed descriptor array comprising a
corresponding compressed sub-array for each of said at least two
sub-arrays, each compressed sub-array being obtained by compressing
the corresponding sub-array of said at least two sub-arrays by
means of vector quantization using a respective codebook; a second
processing unit configured to decompress the at least one received
compressed descriptor array to obtain a corresponding at least one
decompressed descriptor array, and a third processing unit
configured to exploit said at least one decompressed descriptor
array for analyzing the image, wherein: for each one of said at
least one keypoint, the second processing unit is configured to
decompress the at least one received compressed descriptor array
by: joining the compressed sub-arrays generated from said at least
two sub-arrays by means of vector quantization to form a first
decompressed descriptor array comprising a plurality of first
sub-elements, and calculating a second decompressed descriptor
array from the first decompressed descriptor array, the second
decompressed descriptor array comprising a plurality of second
sub-elements, wherein said calculating the second decompressed
descriptor array comprises setting each second sub-element to a
weighted linear combination of at least two of the first
sub-elements, wherein: the third processing unit is configured to
exploit the decompressed descriptor arrays for analyzing the image
by: for each keypoint of said at least one keypoint, exploiting the
corresponding second decompressed descriptor array for analyzing
the image.
Description
BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION
[0001] 1. Field of the Invention
[0002] The present invention relates to the field of the image
analysis.
[0003] 2. Description of the Related Art
[0004] In the field of the image analysis, a common operation
provides for comparing two images in order to find the relation
occurring therebetween in case both the images include at least a
portion of a same scene or of a same object.
[0005] Among a high number of applications, the image comparison is
of the utmost importance for calibrating video cameras belonging to
a multi-camera system, for assessing the motion occurring between
two frames of a video shoot, and for the recognition of an object
within an image (e.g., a picture). The latter application is now
assuming more and more importance due to the recent development of
object recognition algorithms specifically designed to be employed
in the so-called visual searching engines, i.e., automated services
that, starting from a picture, are capable of identifying the
object(s) pictured therein and offering information related to the
identified object(s). Examples of known services of this type
include Google Goggles, Nokia Point&Find, and kooaba Smart
Visuals. An object recognition application typically provides for
comparing a first image--in jargon, referred to as "query
image"--depicting an object to be recognized with a plurality of
model images, each one depicting a respective known object; this
allows to perform a comparison among the object depicted in the
query image and the objects depicted in the model images.
[0006] The model images are typically arranged in a proper model
database. For example, in case the object recognition is exploited
in an online shopping scenario, each model image corresponds to an
item offered by an online store (e.g., the picture of a book cover,
a DVD cover and/or a CD cover). The number of model images included
in a database of such type is quite high; for example, a model
database of an online shopping service may include several millions
of different model images.
[0007] A very efficient way for performing comparing operations
between two images provides for selecting a set of points--in
jargon, referred to as keypoints--in the first image and then
matching each keypoint of the set to a corresponding keypoint in
the second image. The selection of which point of the first image
has to become a keypoint is advantageously carried out by
extracting local features of the area of the image surrounding the
point itself, such as for example the point extraction scale, the
privileged orientation of the area, and the so called "descriptor".
In the field of the image analysis, a descriptor of a keypoint is a
mathematic operator describing the luminance gradient of an area of
the image (called patch) centered at the keypoint, with such patch
that is orientated according to the main luminance gradient of the
patch itself.
[0008] In "Distinctive image features from scale-invariant
keypoints" by David G. Lowe, International Journal of computer
vision, 2004, a Scale-Invariant Feature Transform (SIFT) descriptor
has been proposed; briefly, in order to allow a reliable image
recognition, the SIFT descriptors are generated taking into account
that the local features extracted from the image corresponding to
each keypoint should be detectable even under changes in image
scale, noise and illumination. The SIFT descriptors are thus
invariant to uniform scaling, orientation, and partially invariant
to affine distortion and illumination changes.
[0009] The SIFT descriptor is a quite powerful tool, which allows
to select keypoints for performing accurate image comparisons.
However, this accuracy can be achieved only with the use of a quite
large amount of data; for example, a typical SIFT descriptor is an
array of 128 data bytes. Since the number of keypoints in each
image is relatively high (for example, 1000-1500 keypoints for a
standard VGA picture), and since each keypoint is associated with a
corresponding SIFT descriptor, the overall amount of data to be
processed may become excessive for being efficiently managed.
[0010] This drawback is exacerbated in case the scenario involves
the use of mobile terminals (e.g., identification of objects
extracted from pictures taken by the camera of a smarthpone).
Indeed, since the operations to be performed for carrying out the
image analysis are quite complex and demanding in terms of
computational load, in this case most of the operations are usually
performed at the server side; in order to have all the information
required to perform the analysis, the server needs to receive from
the mobile terminal all the required data, including the SIFT
descriptors for all the keypoints. Thus, the amount of data to be
transmitted from the terminal to the server may become excessive
for guaranteeing a good efficiency of the service.
[0011] According to a solution known in the art, such as for
example the one employed by Google Goggles, this drawback is solved
at the root by directly transmitting the image, and not the
descriptors, from the mobile terminal to the server. Indeed,
because of the quite high number of keypoints, the amount of data
of the corresponding SIFT descriptors may exceed the size (in terms
of bytes) of a standard VGA picture itself.
[0012] The amount of data to be processed may be advantageously
reduced by compressing the descriptor arrays before the
transmission thereof. For example, descriptor arrays may be
compressed through vector quantization, which provides for
approximating the tuple values which the descriptor arrays may
assume into a reduced set of codewords of a codebook.
[0013] Further reduction of the amount of data to be processed may
be obtained by compressing the descriptor arrays through product
code vector quantization, i.e. by subdividing the descriptor arrays
into sub-arrays and then applying vector quantization to each
sub-array.
[0014] Chandrasekhar V. et al: "Survey of SIFT Compression
Schemes", The Second International Workshop on Mobile Multimedia
Processing in Conjunction with the 20th International Conference on
Pattern Recognition" ICPR 2010; Istanbul, Turkey; Aug. 23-26, 2010,
22 Aug. 2010 (2010 Aug. 22), pages 1-8 performs a comprehensive
survey of Scale Invariant Feature Transform (SIFT) compression
schemes proposed in the literature and evaluates them in a common
framework.
[0015] H Jegou et al: "Product Quantization for Nearest Neighbor
Search", IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine
Intelligence, vol. 33, no. 1, 1 Jan. 2011 (2011 Jan. 1), pages
117-128, introduces a product quantization-based approach for
approximate nearest neighbor search. The idea is to decompose the
space into a Cartesian product of low-dimensional subspaces and to
quantize each subspace separately. A vector is represented by a
short code composed of its subspace quantization indices. The
Euclidean distance between two vectors can be efficiently estimated
from their codes. An asymmetric version increases precision, as it
computes the approximate distance between a vector and a code.
SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION
[0016] The Applicant has found that the approaches known in the art
are not efficient, still requiring the management of a high amount
of data and/or the concentration of a large portion of the
operations on the server side, limiting the scalability of the
system and the overall performances.
[0017] For example, the solution employed by Google Goggles, which
provides for directly transmitting the image--and not the
descriptors--from the mobile terminal to the server requires that
the entire computational load is moved toward the server, which may
become overburden. Moreover, the transmission of the compressed
image still requires a considerable amount of data (e.g., tens of
Kbytes for a VGA image).
[0018] The Applicant has tackled the problem of how to improve
these approaches in terms of amount of data to be processed.
[0019] In particular, the Applicant has tackled the problem to
provide a method for processing an image which requires a reduced
amount of data to be managed.
[0020] The Applicant has found that the amount of data to be
processed for performing image analysis procedures can be
advantageously reduced by subdividing the descriptor arrays
identified in the image into corresponding sub-arrays based on
correlation relationships among the color gradient histograms
stored in the descriptor array, and then by compressing the
sub-array by means of vector quantization.
[0021] An aspect of the present invention relates to a method for
processing an image. The method comprises identifying a group of
keypoints in the image. The method further comprises, for each
keypoint of the group, calculating a corresponding descriptor array
including a plurality of array elements, wherein each array element
stores values taken by a corresponding color gradient histogram of
a respective sub-region of the image in the neighborhood of the
keypoint. The method further comprises, for each keypoint of the
group, subdividing the descriptor array in at least two sub-arrays,
each sub-array comprising a respective number of elements of the
descriptor array, and generating a compressed descriptor array
comprising a corresponding compressed sub-array for each of said at
least two sub-arrays. Each compressed sub-array is obtained by
compressing the corresponding sub-array of said at least two
sub-arrays by means of vector quantization using a respective
codebook. The method still further comprises exploiting the
compressed descriptor arrays of the keypoints of said group for
analysing the image. For each keypoint of said group, the
subdivision of the descriptor array in at least two sub-arrays is
carried out based on correlation relationships among the color
gradient histograms whose values are stored in the elements of the
descriptor array of said each keypoint.
[0022] The Applicant has observed that decompressed descriptor
arrays obtained by means of a decompression of compressed
descriptor arrays compressed by subdividing the descriptor arrays
in sub-arrays may be affected by distortion (i.e., the decompressed
descriptor arrays differ to some extent from the original
descriptor arrays before compression). Based on this observation,
the Applicant has found a method thanks to which the distortion can
be substantially reduced, by taking into account, during the
decompression, statistical spatial correlations among the various
sub-regions of the area surrounding the generic keypoint. Thus,
according to an embodiment of the present invention, said
decompressing is carried out based on statistical spatial
correlation relationships among the positions of the sub-regions of
the image in the neighborhood of the keypoint.
[0023] According to another aspect, a method as set forth in claim
26 is provided.
[0024] According to a another aspect, a method as set forth in
claim 32 is provided.
[0025] According to a another aspect, a system as set forth in
claim 33 is provided.
[0026] According to a another aspect, a system as set forth in
claim 34 is provided.
[0027] According to a another aspect, a system as set forth in
claim 35 is provided.
[0028] Preferred embodiments are set forth in the dependent
claims.
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS
[0029] These and other features and advantages of the present
invention will be made evident by the following description of some
exemplary and non-limitative embodiments thereof, to be read in
conjunction with the attached drawings, wherein:
[0030] FIG. 1 illustrates in terms of functional blocks an
extraction procedure directed to extract from a query image an
optimal set of keypoints and generate a compressed set of
descriptors according to an embodiment of the present
invention;
[0031] FIGS. 2A-2F are statistical distributions of corresponding
selected local features of keypoints according to some exemplary
embodiments of the present invention;
[0032] FIG. 2G is an exemplary picture processed according to the
extraction procedure of FIG. 1;
[0033] FIG. 3A illustrates an exemplary descriptor of the SIFT
type;
[0034] FIG. 3B illustrates an exemplary descriptor array of the
descriptor of FIG. 3A;
[0035] FIG. 4A illustrates an exemplary descriptor array
compression according to a solution known in the art;
[0036] FIG. 4B illustrates an exemplary descriptor array
compression according to another solution known in the art;
[0037] FIG. 5 illustrates an arrangement of sub-histograms of a
descriptor in correlation families according to an embodiment of
the present invention;
[0038] FIGS. 6A-6D show how the descriptor array is compressed
according to exemplary embodiments of the present invention;
[0039] FIG. 7A illustrates an exemplary distribution of keypoints
KP;
[0040] FIG. 7B illustrates how a grid can be superimposed over the
query image for quantizing the coordinates of the keypoints of FIG.
7A;
[0041] FIG. 7C is an exemplary graphical depiction of a histogram
obtained by superimposing the grid of FIG. 7B over the set of
keypoints KP of FIG. 7A;
[0042] FIG. 7D identifies the columns and rows of the grid of FIG.
7B which are entirely formed by cells that do not include any
keypoint;
[0043] FIG. 7E illustrates an exemplary histogram over a rank-1
support;
[0044] FIG. 7F illustrates a histogram map corresponding to the
histogram over the rank-1 support of FIG. 7E;
[0045] FIG. 8A illustrates an example of a word histogram;
[0046] FIG. 8B illustrates an example of a histogram map;
[0047] FIG. 9 illustrates in terms of functional blocks a matching
procedure directed to perform the comparison between two images
according to an embodiment of the present invention;
[0048] FIG. 10 illustrates in terms of functional blocks a
retrieval procedure directed to retrieve from a model database a
model image depicting the same object/scene depicted in the query
image according to an embodiment of the present invention;
[0049] FIG. 11 illustrates in terms of functional blocks an
optimized decompression procedure directed to decompress compressed
descriptor arrays according to an embodiment of the present
invention;
[0050] FIG. 12 graphically depicts the orientation of bins of a
descriptor;
[0051] FIG. 13A illustrates an exemplary compensation matrix
corresponding to a compression scheme providing for subdividing the
descriptor array in four sub-arrays and using for each sub-array a
codebook including 2 13 codewords;
[0052] FIG. 13B is a diagram illustrating the values assumed by the
elements of a column of the compensation matrix of FIG. 13A.
[0053] FIG. 14A illustrates an exemplary compensation matrix Z
corresponding to a compression scheme providing for subdividing the
descriptor array in eight sub-arrays and using for each sub-array a
codebook including 2 11 codewords, and
[0054] FIG. 14B is a diagram illustrating the values assumed by the
elements of a column of the compensation matrix of FIG. 14A.
DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF EXEMPLARY EMBODIMENTS OF THE INVENTION
Extraction Procedure
FIG. 1
[0055] FIG. 1 illustrates in terms of functional blocks a
procedure, hereinafter referred to as "extraction procedure" and
identified with the reference 100, directed to process an input
image in order to obtain an optimal set of keypoints and generate a
corresponding set of descriptors according to an embodiment of the
present invention. The keypoints and the descriptors will be then
exploited for image analysis purposes. In the following of the
present description, the generic expressions "image analysis" and
"analyzing an image" have to be intended to comprise all those
operations which provide for comparing an image with at least one
another image. These operations may be carried out in a wide
variety of applications, such as for example in an object
recognition application, as well as in an application providing for
the creation of a single panoramic picture starting from a
plurality of different pictures.
[0056] As will be described later on, the extraction procedures
according to an embodiment of the present invention further
provides for selecting an optimal subset of keypoints and
compressing the descriptors of such keypoints to an extent such to
greatly improve the efficiency of subsequent procedures.
[0057] The steps of the extraction procedure 100 described in this
section may be carried out by proper processing units, whose
structure and function depends on the specific field of application
to which they are destined. For example, each processing unit may
be a hardware unit specifically designed to perform one or more
steps of the method. Moreover, the steps of the method may be
carried out by a programmable machine (e.g., a computer) under the
control of a corresponding set of instructions.
[0058] Keypoints Extraction (Phase 110)
[0059] The first phase 110 of the extraction procedure 100 provides
for receiving a query image 115 and extracting therefrom a first
set of keypoints KP, each one associated with a corresponding pair
of spatial coordinates C identifying the location of such keypoint
KP within the query image 115.
[0060] This operation may be carried out by exploiting the known
Difference of Gaussians (DoG) keypoint extraction algorithm;
however, similar considerations apply in case different keypoint
extraction algorithms are employed, such as for example the
Determinant of the Hessians (DoH) keypoint extraction algorithm.
Making reference to the DoG keypoint extraction algorithm, the
query image 115 is convolved with Gaussian filters in a sequence at
different scales. Then, a difference operation is carried out
between pairs of adjacent Gaussian-blurred images in the sequence.
The keypoints KP are then chosen as the points having
maximum/minimum values of Difference of Gaussian (DoG) at multiple
scales. Particularly, each pixel in a DoG image is compared to its
eight neighbors at the same scale and to nine neighboring pixels at
each of the neighboring scales (i.e., the subsequent and the
previous scales in the sequence). If the pixel value is the maximum
or minimum among all compared pixels, that point is considered a
candidate keypoint KP.
[0061] The phase 110 also provides that each keypoint KP is
assigned to one or more orientations based on local image luminance
gradient directions. For example, an orientation histogram with a
plurality of bins is formed, with each bin covering a corresponding
degree interval. Each sample in the neighboring window added to a
histogram bin is weighted by its gradient magnitude and by a
Gaussian-weighted circular window. The peaks in the resulting
histogram correspond to dominant orientations. Once the histogram
is filled, the orientations corresponding to the highest peak and
local peaks that are within 80% of the highest peaks are assigned
to the keypoint KP. In case of multiple orientations have been
assigned, an additional keypoint KP is created having the same
location and scale as the original keypoint for each additional
orientation.
[0062] At the end of phase 110 a set of keypoints KP is thus
generated, together with the corresponding coordinates C, the scale
S at which the keypoint is extracted, its dominant orientation O,
and the peak P, i.e., the absolute value of the DoG corresponding
to such keypoint (which is indicative of the contrast thereof).
[0063] Descriptors Generation (Phase 120)
[0064] The following phase 120 provides to process the query image
115 in order to compute for each keypoint KP a corresponding
descriptor D. In the example at issue, the descriptors D computed
at phase 120 are descriptor of the SIFT type. While the keypoints
KP have been extracted in such a way to ensure invariance to image
location, scale and rotation, the SIFT descriptors D are computed
in such a way to be highly distinctive and partially invariant to
illumination and viewpoint. Specifically, for each keypoint KP a
set of 16 sub-histograms are calculated on a 4.times.4 grid that is
centered at the keypoint KP location and orientated according to
the dominant orientation of the keypoint KP. Each sub-histogram
includes 8 bins, each one corresponding to an orientation having an
angle n*.pi./4 (n=0, 1, . . . 7) with respect to the dominant
orientation; the frequency of each bin of a sub-histogram is
proportional to the luminance gradient of the grid cell
(hereinafter referred to as sub-region) corresponding to such
sub-histogram, considered along the direction identified by such
bin. The values of such orientation histograms are arranged in an
array, forming the descriptor D of the keypoint KP. Since there are
4.times.4=16 sub-histograms each with 8 bins, the descriptor D is
an array having 128 items.
[0065] The concepts of the present invention are also applicable if
the SIFT descriptor is calculated on a grid including a different
number of cells, and/or with a different number of bins per
histogram.
[0066] Moreover, even if in the example at issue reference has been
made to descriptors of the SIFT type, similar considerations apply
in case different types of descriptors are employed, such as for
example the Speeded Up Robust Feature (SURF) and the Histogram of
Oriented Gradients (HOG), or possibly others. Furthermore, even if
reference has been made and will be made in the following to
descriptors comprising data relating to luminance gradients,
similar considerations apply if gradients of different parameters
are considered. Indeed, as it is well known to those skilled in the
art, the luminance is only one of the physical properties of the
color. Thus, even if the luminance has been ascertained to be the
best (i.e., the most robust) physical property to be considered for
image analysis purposes, different types of descriptors may be also
considered, for example comprising data relating to chrominance
gradients, saturation gradients, or even color (which includes both
luminance, saturation and chrominance) gradients.
[0067] As already mentioned above, carrying out image analysis
operations involves the management of a quite large amount of data:
indeed, each keypoint KP is associated with a plurality of local
features (hereinafter globally identified with reference LFkp),
including the coordinates C, the scale S, the dominant orientation
O, and the peak P, as well as a corresponding descriptor D formed
by an array of 128 items. For this purpose, in order to reduce the
overall amount of data to be managed (e.g., to be memorized and/or
transmitted), the extraction procedure 100 according to an
embodiment of the present invention provides for two expedients,
i.e.: [0068] 1) reducing the number of the previously generated
keypoints KP by selecting the most relevant keypoints KP (from the
image comparison point of view), in order to obtain an optimal
subset SUB of keypoints KP, and [0069] 2) properly compressing both
the coordinates C and the descriptors D.
[0070] Phase 130 of the extraction procedure 100 is dedicated to
the selection of the optimal subset SUB, phase 140 is dedicated to
the compression of the descriptors D, and phase 150 is dedicated to
the compression of the coordinates C.
Selection of the Optimal Subset of Keypoints (Phase 130)
[0071] According to an embodiment of the present invention, the
selection of the optimal subset SUB is carried out by calculating
for at least one local feature LFkp--the coordinates C, the scale
S, the dominant orientation O, the peak P and the descriptor D--of
each keypoint KP of the query image 115 at least one corresponding
feature relevance probability FRP, sorting the keypoints KP
according to a keypoint relevance probability KRP based on the
feature relevance probabilities FRP of its local features LFkp, and
then selecting the keypoints KP having the highest keypoint
relevance probabilities KRP.
[0072] According to an embodiment of the present invention, the
feature relevance probability FRP of each local feature LFkp of the
generic keypoint KP is calculated by exploiting a corresponding
reference statistical distribution Rsd, which has been already
predetermined in advance after having carried out statistical
evaluations on a benchmark image database.
[0073] The reference statistical distributions Rsd are made in such
a way to reflect the statistical behavior of the local features
LFkp of keypoints KP considered useful for image analysis
purposes.
[0074] For example, in case of object recognition procedures, the
benchmark image database is a database comprising a plurality of
image pairs, with each image pair consisting of two pictures
depicting a same object/scene. According to an embodiment of the
present invention, the reference statistical distributions are
generated in the following way.
[0075] Keypoints are firstly extracted from all the images of the
benchmark database. Then, a first statistical analysis is carried
out on one or more selected local features of all the extracted
keypoints, so as to generate first statistical distributions of
such selected local features. Each first statistical distribution
of a local feature is arranged in the form of a histogram, obtained
by counting the number of keypoints (keypoints frequency)--among
the totality of keypoints extracted from the images of the
benchmark database--having a value of such local feature that falls
within each of a plurality predefined local feature value intervals
(bin). Then, for each image pair, keypoints of one picture are
matched with keypoints of the other picture. The matches among such
keypoints are processed using an image comparison procedure (such
as any one among the known image comparison procedures based on
image feature matching) in order to identify which match is correct
(inlier) and which is incorrect (outlier). A second statistical
analysis is then carried out on the same feature or features
previously considered in order to generate the reference
statistical distributions Rsd to be used for calculating the
feature relevance probabilities FRP. This time, the generation of
the reference statistical distributions Rsd is carried out by
calculating for each bin a ratio between the number of keypoints
belonging to inliers and having a value of the corresponding local
feature that falls within said bin, and the total number of
keypoints (both belonging to inliers and outliers) having a value
of the corresponding local feature that falls within the same bin.
The Applicant has observed that the first statistical distributions
and the reference statistical distributions Rsd are quite different
to each other. Since the reference statistical distributions Rsd
are generated taking into account the keypoints that involve a
correct feature match (inlier), the Applicant has found that such
statistical distributions are good representatives of the
statistical behavior of keypoints (hereinafter, "relevant
keypoints") which are relevant for image analysis purposes, and
particularly suited for being efficiently employed in an image
comparison procedure.
[0076] FIGS. 2A-2F illustrate some statistical distributions Rsd of
corresponding selected local features LFkp of keypoints KP
according to some exemplary embodiments of the present invention.
In particular, the statistical distributions Rsd of FIGS. 2A-2F
have been generated from images of a benchmark database
specifically arranged for object recognition applications. Should a
different image analysis application be considered, such as for
example the creation of a single panoramic picture starting from a
plurality of different pictures, the images of the benchmark, and
therefore, the resulting statistical distributions Rsd would be
different.
[0077] FIG. 2A is a statistical distribution Rsd related to the
coordinates C of the keypoints KP. Each bin of the corresponding
histogram represents the distance (in pixel) of the generic
keypoint KP from the center of the image. In the example at issue,
the considered image is of the VGA type (i.e., having a resolution
of 640.times.480), thus the center corresponds to the coordinate
(320, 240). According to the histogram illustrated in FIG. 2A, the
bin having the highest keypoints KP frequency is the one
corresponding to the center of the image. This means that the
closer a keypoint KP is to the center, the higher the probability
that such keypoint KP is a relevant keypoint; the trend of the
histogram frequencies monotonically decreases as the distance from
the center increases. This could be easily explained by the fact
that when an object is photographed, it is highly probable that
said object is framed in the center of the picture. It has to be
appreciated that in this case the bins of the histogram do not have
all the same widths; this is due to the fact that the width of each
bin has been properly determined by a (scalar and/or vector)
quantizer in such a way to compute few bins, avoiding thus the
occurrence of overfitting phenomenon occurrences. The concepts of
the present invention also apply in case a (scalar and/or vector)
uniform quantization is employed, i.e., with all the bins of the
histogram that have a same width.
[0078] FIG. 2B is a statistical distribution Rsd related to the
dominant orientation O of the keypoints KP. Each bin of the
corresponding histogram represents the angle (in radians) of the
dominant direction of the generic keypoint KP with respect to the
horizon (corresponding to 0 radians). According to the histogram
illustrated in FIG. 2B, the bins having the highest keypoints KP
frequencies are the ones corresponding to the orientations which
are parallel or perpendicular to the horizon orientation (i.e.,
corresponding to n/2, 0, -.pi./2, -.pi.). This means that the
closer the orientation of a keypoint KP is to one of said
orientations, the higher the probability that such keypoint KP is a
relevant keypoint. This could be explained by the fact that when an
object is photographed, it is highly probable that said object is
framed so as to mainly extend parallel and/or perpendicular to the
horizon line. In this case as well, the width of the bins is
determined by means of a quantizer.
[0079] FIG. 2C is a statistical distribution Rsd related to the
peak P of the keypoints KP. Each bin of the corresponding histogram
represents the contrast between the generic keypoint KP and the
most similar point among the neighbor ones. According to the
histogram illustrated in FIG. 2C, the bin having the highest
keypoints KP frequency is the one corresponding to the highest peak
values. This means that the higher the contrast of a keypoint KP,
the higher the probability that such keypoint KP is a relevant
keypoint; the trend of the histogram frequencies monotonically
increases as the contrast increases. This could be easily explained
by the fact that a point of a picture having a high contrast is
easily recognizable and identifiable. In this case as well, the
width of the bins is determined by means of a quantizer.
[0080] FIG. 2D is a statistical distribution Rsd related to the
scale S of the keypoints KP. Each bin of the corresponding
histogram represents a particular scale S at which the keypoint KP
may be extracted. According to the histogram illustrated in FIG.
2D, the bin having the highest keypoints KP frequency corresponds
to a mid-low scale. In this case as well, the width of the bins is
determined by means of a quantizer.
[0081] FIG. 2E is a first statistical distribution Rsd related to
the descriptors D of the keypoints KP. In this case, the
corresponding histogram is three-dimensional, with each bin thereof
corresponding to interval values of two parameters of the
descriptor D of the generic keypoint KP, i.e., the mean (x axis)
and the variance (y axis) of the descriptor D. Greater frequency
values are indicated by circles of larger diameter. The mean and
the variance have been considered together to form a same
histogram, since they are linked to each other. According to such
histogram, the bin having the highest keypoints KP frequency,
represented by larger circles, is the one corresponding to the
highest mean and the lowest variance. This can be explained by the
fact that the higher the mean of the descriptor D of a keypoint KP,
the higher the luminance gradient corresponding to such keypoint
KP, and the lower the variance of the descriptor D of a keypoint
KP, the lower the unwanted noise affecting such keypoint KP.
[0082] FIG. 2F is a second statistical distribution Rsd related to
the descriptors D of the keypoints KP. In this case, each bin
corresponds to a particular maximum distance between the descriptor
D of a keypoint KP and the descriptors D of the other keypoints KP
of the same image. For example, such maximum distance may be
computed based on the Euclidean distance between descriptors, Other
known method may be also contemplated, such as for example
exploiting the symmetrized Kullback-Leibler divergence.
[0083] Returning to FIG. 1, according to an embodiment of the
present invention, phase 130 of the extraction procedure 100
provides for calculating, for each keypoint KP extracted at phase
110: [0084] A first feature relevance probability FRP1, obtained
from the statistical distribution Rsd related to the coordinates C
of said keypoint KP. The histogram corresponding to said
distribution is inspected in order to identify the bin thereof
fitting the coordinates C of said keypoint KP; then, the feature
relevance probability FRP1 is set equal to the keypoints frequency
of the identified bin. [0085] A second feature relevance
probability FRP2, obtained from the statistical distribution Rsd
related to the dominant orientation O of said keypoint KP. The
histogram corresponding to said distribution is inspected in order
to identify the bin thereof fitting the dominant orientation O of
said keypoint KP; then, the feature relevance probability FRP2 is
set equal to the keypoints frequency of the identified bin. [0086]
A third feature relevance probability FRP3, obtained from the
statistical distribution Rsd related to the peak P of said keypoint
KP. The histogram corresponding to said distribution is inspected
in order to identify the bin thereof fitting the peak P of said
keypoint KP; then, the feature relevance probability FRP3 is set
equal to the keypoints frequency of the identified bin. [0087] A
fourth feature relevance probability FRP4, obtained from the
statistical distribution Rsd related to the scale S of said
keypoint KP. The histogram corresponding to said distribution is
inspected in order to identify the bin thereof fitting the scale S
of said keypoint KP; then, the feature relevance probability FRP4
is set equal to the keypoints frequency of the identified bin.
[0088] A fifth feature relevance probability FRP5, obtained from
the statistical distribution Rsd related to the mean and the
variance of the descriptor D of said keypoint KP. The histogram
corresponding to said distribution is inspected in order to
identify the bin thereof fitting the mean and the variance of the
elements of the descriptor D of said keypoint KP; then, the feature
relevance probability FRP5 is set equal to the keypoints frequency
of the identified bin. [0089] A sixth feature relevance probability
FRP6, obtained from the statistical distribution Rsd related to the
maximum distance (e.g., the Euclidean distance) between the
descriptor D of said keypoint KP and the descriptors D of the other
keypoints KP. The histogram corresponding to said distribution is
inspected in order to identify the bin thereof fitting such
distance; then, the feature relevance probability FRP6 is set equal
to the keypoints frequency of the identified bin.
[0090] Therefore, for each keypoint KP, a keypoint relevance
probability KRP is obtained by at least one of, or by combining
among them the feature relevance probabilities FRP of the local
features thereof. For example, starting with the assumption that
the feature relevance probabilities FRP are independent to one
another, the keypoint relevance probability KRP of the generic
keypoint KP is calculated by multiplying to each other its
corresponding feature relevance probabilities FRP. Generally, the
higher the number of different feature relevance probabilities FRP
used to calculate the keypoint relevance probability KRP, the
better the results obtainable by employing such method. By
considering the example of SIFT descriptors for visual searching
applications, it is preferable that the feature relevance
probabilities considered for calculating the keypoint relevance
probability include at least those corresponding to the scale, the
peak and the distance from the centre.
[0091] FIG. 2G is an exemplary picture in which a plurality of
keypoints are identified by means of corresponding circular spots,
each one having a diameter that is proportional to the relevance
probability KRP of the keypoint.
[0092] Once the keypoint relevance probabilities KRP of all the
keypoints KP extracted in phase 110 have been calculated, said
keypoints KP are sorted in a sequence according to a decreasing
keypoint relevance probability KRP order. Then, the optimal subset
SUB is formed by taking a number (based on the desired reduction in
the amount of data to be managed) of keypoints KP from the first
ones of the ordered sequence. The selected keypoints KP belonging
to the optimal subset SUB results to be the most relevant keypoints
KP (from the image comparison point of view) among the totality of
keypoints KP extracted in phase 110. In this way, the reduction of
the overall amount of data is carried out in a smart and efficient
way, taking into account only the relevant keypoints KP, and
discarding those that are less useful.
[0093] It is underlined that although the selection of the optimal
subset of keypoints according to the embodiment of the invention
above described provides for calculating each feature relevancy
probability exploiting a corresponding statistical distribution Rsd
obtained by calculating for each bin thereof a ratio between the
keypoint inliers having a value of the corresponding local feature
that falls within said bin, and the total number of keypoints
having a value of the corresponding local feature that falls within
the same bin, the concepts of the present invention are also
applicable in case different, statistically equivalent statistical
distributions are employed, obtained with different, even manual,
methods. In the following description, two statistical
distributions are considered statistically equivalent one to
another if they allow to obtain similar feature relevancy
probabilities starting from a same set of keypoints.
Compression of the Descriptors (Phase 140)
[0094] According to an embodiment of the present invention, the
compression of the descriptors D is carried out through vector
quantization, by exploiting a reduced number of optimized
codebooks.
[0095] FIG. 3A illustrates an exemplary descriptor D of the SIFT
type (one of the descriptors D generated at phase 120 of the
extraction procedure 100 of FIG. 1 which has been selected to be
part of the optimal subset SUB) corresponding to a generic keypoint
KP. As already mentioned above, the descriptor D comprises sixteen
sub-histograms shi (i=1, 2, . . . , 16), each one showing how the
luminance gradient of a respective sub-region of the image close to
the keypoint KP is distributed along eight directions.
Specifically, each sub-histogram shi is associated with a
sub-region corresponding to one of 16 cells of a 4.times.4 grid
that is centered at the keypoint KP location and oriented according
to the dominant orientation O of the keypoint KP; each
sub-histogram shi includes eight bins, each one corresponding to an
orientation having an angle n*.pi./4 (n=0, 1, . . . 7) with respect
to the dominant orientation O.
[0096] As illustrated in FIG. 3B, the values of all the orientation
histograms shi of a descriptor D are arranged in a corresponding
descriptor array, identified in figure with the reference DA. The
descriptor array DA comprises sixteen elements ai (i=1, 2, . . . ,
16), each one storing the values taken by a corresponding
sub-histogram shi (i=1, 2, . . . , 16); each element ai comprises
in turn eight respective sub-elements, each one storing a frequency
value corresponding to a respective one of the eight bins of the
sub-histogram shi. Thus, each descriptor array DA includes 16*8=128
sub-elements, identified as se(h) (h=1, 2, . . . , 128). By
considering that in a SIFT descriptor D a typical frequency value
may range from 0 to 255, each sub-element se(h) of the descriptor
array DA can be represented with a byte; therefore, the memory
occupation of the descriptor array DA is equal to 128 bytes. Thus,
making reference again to the extraction procedure 100 of FIG. 1,
the amount of data (in bytes) corresponding to all the descriptors
D of the keypoints KP belonging to the selected optimal subset SUB
is equal to 128 multiplied by the number of keypoints KP of the
optimal subset SUB.
[0097] In order to reduce this amount of data, the descriptor
arrays DA corresponding to such descriptors D are compressed
through vector quantization.
[0098] As it is well known to those skilled in the art, compressing
a data array formed by n elements (n-tuple) by exploiting vector
quantization provides for jointly quantizing the set of all the
possible n-tuple values which the data array may assume into a
reduced set comprising a lower number of n-tuple values (which
values may even differ from the values of the set to be quantized).
Since the reduced set comprises a lower number of n-tuple values,
it requires less storage space. The n-tuple values forming the
reduced set are also referred to as "codewords". Each codeword is
associated with a corresponding set of different n-tuple values the
array may assume. The association relationships between n-tuple
values of the data array and codewords is determined by means of a
corresponding codebook.
[0099] Making reference in particular to the descriptor array DA,
which includes 16 elements ai formed in turn by eight sub-elements
se(h) each having values ranging from 0 to 255, the descriptor
array DA may take a number N=256.sup.128 of different 16-tuple
values. By applying compression through vector quantization, such N
different 16-tuple values are approximated with a number N1<N of
codewords of a codebook. The codebook determines association
relationships between each codeword and a corresponding set of
16-tuple values of the descriptor array DA. Therefore, each
codeword of the codebook is a 16-tuple value which is used to
"approximate" a corresponding set of 16-tuple values of the
descriptor array DA. The vector quantization is a lossy data
compression, whose accuracy can be measured through a parameter
called distortion. The distortion may be for example calculated as
the Euclidean distance between a generic codeword of the codebook
and the set of n-tuple values of the array which are approximated
by such codeword. Similar considerations apply even if the
distortion is calculated with a different method. In any case,
broadly speaking, the higher the number N1 of codewords of a
codebook, the lower the distortion of the compression.
[0100] As it is well known to those skilled in the art, the
generation of the codewords of a codebook is typically carried out
by performing statistical operations (referred to as training
operations) on a training database including a collection of a very
high number of training arrays. Making reference in particular to
the descriptor array DA, the training database may include several
millions of training descriptor arrays, wherein each training
descriptor array is one of the N=256.sup.128 possible 16-tuple
values the descriptor array DA may assume.
[0101] According to a solution illustrated in FIG. 4A, the whole
descriptor array DA is compressed using a single codebook CBK
comprising N1 16-tuple value codewords CWj (j=1, 2, . . . N1).
Therefore, with N1 different codewords CWj, the minimum number of
bits required to identify the codewords is equal to log.sub.2 N1.
As already mentioned above, the generation of the N1 different
codewords CWj of such single codebook CBK is carried out by
performing training operations on a plurality of training
descriptor arrays, wherein each training descriptor array is one of
the N=256.sup.128 possible 16-tuple values the descriptor array DA
may assume.
[0102] In order to keep the compression distortion under a
sufficiently reduced threshold such as not to impair the outcome of
the subsequent image analysis operations, the required codewords
number N1 may become very high. Having a codebook formed by too
high a number N1 of codewords is disadvantageous under different
points of view. Indeed, the number of training arrays to be used
for generating the codewords would become excessive, and the
processing times would become too long. Moreover, in order to carry
out compression operations by exploiting a codebook, the whole N1
codewords forming the latter have to be memorized somewhere,
occupying a non-negligible amount of memory space. The latter
drawback is quite critical, since the hardware employed for image
analysis applications (e.g., Graphic Processing Units, GPU) may be
equipped with not so capacious memories.
[0103] Making reference to FIG. 4B, in order to reduce the whole
number of codewords CWj to be managed without increasing the
distorsion, the descriptor array DA may be subdivided into a
plurality of sub-arrays SDAk (k=1, 2, . . . ), each one comprising
a respective number mk of elements ai of the descriptor array DA,
and then each sub-array SDAk is individually compressed using a
respective codebook CBKk comprising N2 mk-tuple value codewords CWj
(j=1, 2, . . . N2).
[0104] In the example illustrated in FIG. 4B, the descriptor array
DA is subdivided into four sub-arrays SDAk (k=1, 2, 3, 4), each one
comprising mk=4 elements ai of the descriptor array DA: [0105] the
first sub-array SDA1 is formed by the element sequence a1, a2, a3,
a4; [0106] the second sub-array SDA2 is formed by the element
sequence a5, a6, a7, a8; [0107] the third sub-array SDA3 is formed
by the element sequence a9, a10, a11, a12, and [0108] the fourth
sub-array SDA4 is formed by the element sequence a13, a14, a15,
a16.
[0109] The compression of each sub-array SDAk is carried out using
a respective codebook CBKy (y=k) comprising N2 4-tuple value
codewords CWj (j=1, 2, . . . N2). Therefore, with 4*N2 different
codewords CWj, the minimum number of bits required to identify all
the codewords is equal to 4*log.sub.2 N2. Even if in the considered
case each sub-array SDAk has been compressed using a codebook CBKy
comprising a same number N2 of codewords CWj, similar
considerations apply in case each sub-array SDAk is compressed
using a respective, different, number of codewords CWj.
[0110] In the case illustrated in FIG. 4B, the generation of the N2
different codewords CWj of each codebook CBKy is carried out by
performing training operations on a respective sub-set of training
descriptor arrays. Each sub-set of training descriptor arrays of a
codebook CBKk corresponds to one of the four sub-arrays SDAk, and
may be obtained by considering from each training descriptor array
used to generate the single codebook CBK of FIG. 4A only the
portion thereof corresponding to the sub-array SDAk. For example,
in order to generate the codebook CBK1, only the first four
elements a1, a2, a3, a4 of the 16-tuple training descriptor arrays
used to generate the single codebook CBK of FIG. 4A are
employed.
[0111] Compared to the case of FIG. 4A, in which the whole
descriptor array DA is compressed using a single codebook CBK
formed by codewords CWj having the same dimension of the descriptor
array DA itself (16 elements), the use of codebooks CBKy formed by
codewords CWj having a (smaller) dimension mk of a sub-array SDAk
thereof (e.g., mk=4 elements) allows to obtain, with a same number
of codewords CWj, a lower distortion.
[0112] Having fixed the total number of codewords CWj, the higher
the number of sub-arrays SDAk which the descriptor array DA is
subdivided in, the lower the distortion, but--at the same time--the
higher the minimum number of bits required to identify all the
codewords CWj.
[0113] According to an embodiment of the present invention, the
subdivision of the descriptor array DA in sub-arrays SDAk for
compression purposes is carried out by taking into consideration
the occurrence of correlation relationships among the elements ai
of the descriptor array DA.
[0114] As already described with reference to FIGS. 3A and 3B, each
element ai of the descriptor array DA stores the values taken by
the sub-histogram shi associated with a respective sub-region,
which sub-region corresponds in turn to a cell of the 4.times.4
grid centered at the keypoint KP corresponding to such descriptor
array DA.
[0115] According to an embodiment of the present invention
illustrated in FIG. 5, after having carried out statistical
behavioral analysis on a large amount of descriptor arrays DA (for
example exploiting the training descriptor arrays of the training
database), it has been found that the sub-histograms shi of a
generic keypoint KP can be arranged in correlation families CFx
(x=1, 2, 3, 4), with each correlation family CFx comprising a set
of correlated sub-histograms shi with a similar statistical
behavior, i.e., with a similar trend of the bin frequencies. For
example, two sub-histograms shi belonging to a same correlation
family CFx may have a similar number of frequency peaks at same (or
similar) bins.
[0116] The statistical behavioral analysis employed to form the
correlation families CFx showed that, having fixed the maximum
number of codewords CWj to be used for compressing the descriptor
array DA, if the arrangement of the sub-histograms shi in
correlation families CFx is varied (by assigning the sub-histograms
shi to different correlation families CFx), the resulting
distortion accordingly varies. The correlation families CFx are
thus formed by considering, among all the possible sub-histograms
shi subdivisions, the one corresponding to the lowest
distortion.
[0117] After having performed such statistical behavioral analysis
it has also been found that the correlation between the statistical
behavior of two sub-histograms shi depends on two main parameters,
i.e., the distance of the sub-regions associated to the
sub-histograms shi from the keypoint KP and the dominant
orientation thereof.
[0118] Making reference to FIG. 5, the sixteen sub-histograms shi
of a keypoint KP are arranged in four correlation families, i.e.:
[0119] a first correlation family CF1 comprising the sub-histograms
sh1, sh4, sh13 and sh16; [0120] a second correlation family CF2
comprising the sub-histograms sh2, sh3, sh14 and sh15; [0121] a
third correlation family CF3 comprising the sub-histograms sh5,
sh8, sh9 and sh12, and [0122] a fourth correlation family CF4
comprising the sub-histograms sh6, sh7, sh10 and sh11.
[0123] According to an embodiment of the present invention, the
above identified correlation families CFx are advantageously
exploited in order to compress the descriptor array DA using a
reduced number of optimized codebooks CBKy. The subdivision of the
descriptor array DA in sub-arrays SDAk is carried out in such a way
that at least two sub-arrays SDAk have the same global (i.e.,
considering all the elements thereof) statistical behavior; in this
way, it is possible to use a single codebook CBKy to compress more
than one sub-arrays SDAk. For this purpose, the subdivision of the
descriptor array DA is carried out in such a way to obtain group(s)
of sub-arrays SDAk in which for each group the elements ai
occupying the same position in all the sub-arrays SDAk of the group
belong to a same correlation family CFx. Therefore, all the
sub-arrays SDAk belonging to a same group can be advantageously
compressed using a same corresponding codebook CBKy, whose
codewords CWj are obtained by considering, from each training
descriptor array used to generate the single codebook CBK of FIG.
4A, only the elements thereof belonging to the correlation families
CFx which the elements ai of the sub-arrays SDAk of the group
belong to.
[0124] According to an exemplary embodiment of the present
invention illustrated in FIG. 6A, the descriptor array DA is
subdivided in four sub-arrays SDA1-SDA4 which are arranged in a
single group. Therefore, all the sub-arrays SDAk are compressed
using a same codebook CBK1. Specifically: [0125] the first
sub-array SDA1 is formed by the element sequence a1, a2, a6, a5;
[0126] the second sub-array SDA2 is formed by the element sequence
a4, a3, a7, a8; [0127] the third sub-array SDA3 is formed by the
element sequence a16, a15, a11, a12, and [0128] the fourth
sub-array SDA4 is formed by the element sequence a13, a14, a10,
a9.
[0129] In this case: [0130] the first elements ai of each sub-array
SDAk belong to the first correlation family CF1; [0131] the second
elements ai of each sub-array SDAk belong to the second correlation
family CF2; [0132] the third elements ai of each sub-array SDAk
belong to the fourth correlation family CF4, and [0133] the fourth
elements ai of each sub-array SDAk belong to the third correlation
family CF3.
[0134] The codebook CBK1 for compressing the generic sub-array
SDA1-SDA4 includes N3 codewords CWj, wherein each codeword CWj has
the first element belonging to the first correlation family CF1,
the second element belonging to the second correlation family CF2,
the third element belonging to the fourth correlation family CF4,
and the fourth element belonging to the third correlation family
CF3.
[0135] With N3 different codewords CWj, the minimum number of bits
required to identify all the codewords is equal to 4*(log.sub.2
N3).
[0136] According to another exemplary embodiment of the present
invention illustrated in FIG. 6B, the descriptor array DA is
subdivided in two sub-arrays SDA1, SDA2 which are arranged in a
single group. Therefore, all the sub-array SDAk are compressed
using a same codebook CBK1. Specifically: [0137] the first
sub-array SDA1 is formed by the element sequence a1, a2, a3, a4,
a5, a6, a7, a8, and [0138] the second sub-array SDA2 is formed by
the element sequence a13, a14, a15, a16, a9, a10, a11, a12.
[0139] In this case: [0140] the first and the fourth elements ai of
each sub-array SDAk belong to the first correlation family CF1;
[0141] the second and the third elements ai of each sub-array SDAk
belong to the second correlation family CF2; [0142] the fifth and
the eighth elements ai of each sub-array SDAk belong to the third
correlation family CF3, and [0143] the sixth and the seventh
elements ai of each sub-array SDAk belong to the fourth correlation
family CF4.
[0144] The codebook CBK1 for compressing the generic sub-array
SDA1, SDA2 includes N4 codewords CWj, wherein each codeword CWj has
the first and the fourth elements belonging to the first
correlation family CF1, the second and the third elements belonging
to the second correlation family CF2, the fifth and the eighth
elements belonging to the third correlation family CF3, and the
sixth and the seventh elements belonging to the third correlation
family CF3.
[0145] With N4 different codewords CWj, the minimum number of bits
required to identify all the codewords is equal to 2*(log.sub.2
N4).
[0146] According to another exemplary embodiment of the present
invention illustrated in FIG. 6C, the descriptor array DA is
subdivided in six sub-arrays SDA1-SDA6, four of which (SDA1-SDA4)
are arranged in a first group, and two of which (SDA5, SDA6) are
arranged in a second group. Therefore, the sub-arrays SDA1-SDA4 are
compressed using a same first codebook CBK1, while the sub-arrays
SDA5-SDA6 are compressed using a same second codebook CBK2.
Specifically: [0147] the first sub-array SDA1 is formed by the
element sequence a5, a1, a2; [0148] the second sub-array SDA2 is
formed by the element sequence a8, a4, a3; [0149] the third
sub-array SDA3 is formed by the element sequence a9, a13, a14;
[0150] the fourth sub-array SDA4 is formed by the element sequence
a12, a16, a15; [0151] the fifth sub-array SDA5 is formed by the
element sequence a6, a7, and [0152] the sixth sub-array SDA6 is
formed by the element sequence a10, a11.
[0153] In this case: [0154] the first elements ai of each sub-array
SDA1-SDA4 of the first group belong to the third correlation family
CF3; [0155] the second elements ai of each sub-array SDA1-SDA4 of
the first group belong to the first correlation family CF1; [0156]
the third elements ai of each sub-array SDA1-SDA4 of the first
group belong to the second correlation family CF2, and [0157] the
first and second elements ai of each sub-array SDA5-SDA6 of the
second group belong to the fourth correlation family CF4.
[0158] The codebook CBK1 for compressing the generic sub-array
SDA1-SDA4 belonging to the first group includes N5 codewords CWj,
wherein each codeword CWj has the first element belonging to the
third correlation family CF3, the second element belonging to the
first correlation family CF1, and the third element belonging to
the second correlation family CF2. The codebook CBK2 for
compressing the generic sub-array SDA5-SDA6 belonging to the second
group includes N6 codewords CWj, wherein each codeword CWj has the
first and second elements belonging to the fourth correlation
family CF4.
[0159] With N5+N6 different codewords CWj, the minimum number of
bits required to identify all the codewords is equal to
4*(log.sub.2 N5)+2*(log.sub.2 N6).
[0160] According to another exemplary embodiment of the present
invention illustrated in FIG. 6D, the descriptor array DA is
subdivided in eight sub-arrays SDA1-SDA8, four of which (SDA1-SDA4)
are arranged in a first group, and four of which (SDA5-SDA8) are
arranged in a second group. Therefore, the sub-arrays SDA1-SDA4 are
compressed using a same first codebook CBK1, while the sub-arrays
SDA5-SDA8 are compressed using a same second codebook CBK2.
Specifically: [0161] the first sub-array SDA1 is formed by the
element sequence a5, a1; [0162] the second sub-array SDA2 is formed
by the element sequence a8, a4; [0163] the third sub-array SDA3 is
formed by the element sequence a9, a13; [0164] the fourth sub-array
SDA4 is formed by the element sequence a12, a16; [0165] the fifth
sub-array SDA5 is formed by the element sequence a6, a2; [0166] the
sixth sub-array SDA6 is formed by the element sequence a7, a3;
[0167] the seventh sub-array SDA7 is formed by the element sequence
a10, a14, and [0168] the eighth sub-array SDA8 is formed by the
element sequence a11, a15.
[0169] In this case: [0170] the first elements ai of each sub-array
SDA1-SDA4 of the first group belong to the third correlation family
CF3; [0171] the second elements ai of each sub-array SDA1-SDA4 of
the first group belong to the first correlation family CF1; [0172]
the first elements ai of each sub-array SDA5-SDA8 of the second
group belong to the fourth correlation family CF4, and [0173] the
second elements ai of each sub-array SDA5-SDA8 of the second group
belong to the second correlation family CF2.
[0174] The codebook CBK1 for compressing the generic sub-array
SDA1-SDA4 belonging to the first group includes N7 codewords CWj,
wherein each codeword CWj has the first element belonging to the
third correlation family CF3, and the second element belonging to
the first correlation family CF1. The codebook CBK2 for compressing
the generic sub-array SDA5-SDA8 belonging to the second group
includes N8 codewords CWj, wherein each codeword CWj has the first
elements belonging to the fourth correlation family CF4 and the
second elements belonging to the second correlation family CF2.
[0175] Therefore, with N7+N8 different codewords CWj, the minimum
number of bits required to identify all the codewords is equal to
4*(log.sub.2 N7)+4*(log.sub.2 N8).
[0176] Naturally, the concepts of the present invention are also
applicable with subdivisions into a different number of sub-arrays
and/or with a different number of codebooks. Moreover, even if in
the present description reference has been made to the compression
of a SIF descriptor calculated on a grid including 4.times.4 cells
with eight bins per histogram, similar consideration apply if the
number of cells and/or the number of bins per histogram is
different, as well as descriptors of other types are
considered.
[0177] Compared to the known solutions, with a same compression
distortion, the combined use of subdividing the descriptor array DA
in sub-arrays SDAk and employing a same codebook CBKy for more than
one sub-arrays SDAk allows to drastically reduce the memory space
required to store the codebook(s) CBKy used to compress the
descriptor array DA. This is a great advantage, since, as already
mentioned above, the hardware employed for image analysis
applications (e.g., Graphic Processing Units, GPU) may be equipped
with not so capacious memories. Another advantage given by the
combined use of subdividing the descriptor array DA in sub-arrays
SDAk and employing a same codebook CBKy for more than one
sub-arrays SDAk consists in that the training procedure for the
generation of the codebook(s) CBKy results to be faster.
[0178] The compression operations carried out in phase 140 of the
extraction procedure 100 (see FIG. 1) on each received descriptor D
generate as a result a corresponding compressed descriptor array
CDA, which approximate the value taken by the respective descriptor
array DA. More specifically, for each codebook CBKy used to
compress the descriptor array DA, each codeword CWj of such
codebook CBKy is identified by a corresponding compression index
Cy; if the codebook CBKy is formed by a number N of different
codewords CWj, the compression index Cy is formed by at least
log.sub.2 N bits. For a descriptor array DA which has been
subdivided into a set of sub-arrays SDAk, the corresponding
compressed descriptor array CDA comprises a compression index Cy
for each sub-array SDAk of the set, wherein each compression index
Cy identifies the codeword CWj of the codebook CBKy used to
approximate said sub-array SDAk.
Compression of the Coordinates (Phase 150)
[0179] According to an embodiment of the present invention, the
amount of data to be managed (e.g., to be memorized and/or
transmitted) for performing image analysis operations is further
reduced by compressing the coordinates C of the keypoints KP
belonging to the optimal subset SUB calculated at phase 130 of the
extraction procedure 100 (see FIG. 1).
[0180] FIG. 7A illustrates an exemplary distribution of the
keypoints KP of the optimal subset SUB within a bi-dimensional
space corresponding to the query image 115; each keypoint KP is
associated with a corresponding pair of spatial coordinates C
identifying the location of such keypoint KP within the query image
115.
[0181] Firstly, the coordinates C of all the keypoints KP of the
subset SUB are quantized. For this purpose, a n.times.m grid is
superimposed over the query image 115. In the example illustrated
in FIG. 7B, the grid has n=10 rows and m=15 columns.
[0182] A bi-dimensional histogram is then generated by counting for
each cell of the grid (corresponding to a bin of the histogram) the
number of keypoints KP which lie therewithin. FIG. 7C is an
exemplary graphical depiction of the histogram obtained by
superimposing the grid of FIG. 7B over the set of keypoints KP of
FIG. 7A. In the graphical depiction of FIG. 7C, the cells void of
keypoints KP are colored in black, while the cells including at
least a keypoint KP are colored in gray. In the example at issue
(wherein the cells including the highest number of keypoints
include two keypoints), the cells including a single keypoint KP
are colored in dark grey, while those including two keypoints KP
are colored in a lighter grey.
[0183] The histogram obtained from the keypoint counting has a
great number of bins whose frequency is equal to zero, i.e., with
the corresponding cell that does not include any keypoint KP (the
black cells depicted in FIG. 7C).
[0184] The data representing the histogram may be advantageously
compressed taking into considerations that the portions thereof
corresponding to the zero frequency bins only provide the
information that its corresponding cell does not include any
keypoint.
[0185] For this purpose, the rows and the columns of the grid which
are entirely formed by cells that does not include any keypoints KP
can be advantageously removed. However, since the removal of such
rows and/or columns would alter the absolute and relative positions
of the keypoints KP, an indication of the positions of all the rows
and columns void of keypoints KP (comprising those corresponding to
the rows and/or columns to be removed) should be recorded.
[0186] For this purpose, two arrays r and c are defined in the
following way: [0187] the array r is an array including an element
for each row of the grid, wherein the generic element of the array
is set to a first value (e.g., 0) if the corresponding cell of the
grid does not include any keypoint KP, and it is set to a second
value (e.g., 1) if the corresponding cell of the grid includes at
least a keypoint KP, and [0188] the array c is an array including
an element for each column of the grid, wherein the generic element
of the array is set to a first value (e.g., 0) if the corresponding
cell of the grid does not include any keypoint KP, and it is set to
a second value (e.g., 1) if the corresponding cell of the grid
includes at least a keypoint KP.
[0189] Once the arrays r and c have been generated, the next step
provides for identify the rows and/or the columns which are
entirely formed by cells that does not include any keypoints KP are
identified. Making reference to the example at issue, such rows and
columns are depicted in black in FIG. 7D.
[0190] The rows and/or the columns of the grid which are entirely
formed by cells that do not include any keypoints KP are then
removed, and the resulting portions of the grid are compacted in
order to fill the empty spaces left by the removals. Thus, in the
resulting (compacted) grid, referred to as rank-1 support, all the
rows and all the columns include at least one cell comprising at
least one keypoint KP. The histogram over the rank-1 support
corresponding to the example at issue is illustrated in FIG.
7E.
[0191] From such histogram two different pieces of information can
be extracted, i.e.: [0192] 1) the positions of the cells of the
rank-1 support including at least one keypoint KP, and [0193] 2)
for each cell of the rank-1 support identified at point 1), the
number of keypoints KP included therein.
[0194] Advantageously, as proposed by S. Tsai, D. Chen, G. Takacs,
V. Chandrasekhar, J. P. Singh, and B. Girod in "Location coding for
mobile image retrieval", Proc. Int. Mobile Multimedia Conference
(MobiMedia), 2009, the information corresponding to point 1) may be
extracted exploiting a so-called "histogram map", while the
information corresponding to point 2) may be arranged in a
so-called "histogram count".
[0195] The histogram map is a bi-dimensional mapping of the
histogram over the rank-1 support which identifies the bins thereof
having a frequency equal to or higher than 1. The histogram map
corresponding to the histogram over the rank-1 support of FIG. 7E
is illustrated in FIG. 7F.
[0196] The histogram map can be represented with a corresponding
matrix, whose generic element is equal to zero if the corresponding
cell of the rank-1 support does not include any keypoint KP, and is
equal to one if the corresponding cell of the rank-1 support does
include at least one keypoint KP. The matrix of the histogram map
illustrated in FIG. 7F is the following one:
( 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ) ##EQU00001##
[0197] According to an embodiment of the present invention, the
information provided by the histogram map can be advantageously
compressed using an entropic coding optimized based on the
statistical behavior of exemplary rank-1 support histograms learned
from the analysis of a large number of training images.
[0198] From such analysis it has been found that the locations of
the keypoints KP within the generic image are such to entail a
common statistical distribution of the "1" within the matrix of the
histogram map.
[0199] The entropic coding is carried out in the following way.
[0200] The matrix of the histogram map is scanned (e.g., column by
column) so as to subdivide it into a plurality of words each having
a same length x. Based on the statistical analysis carried out on
the training images, a word histogram is generated including a bin
for each possible value the x-tuple of the generic word may take,
with the frequency of each bin that indicates the probability that
the x-tuple of the word takes the value associated with such bin.
Briefly, such statistical analysis has been carried out by making
the assumption that the elements of the matrix of the histogram map
are independent of each another. By analyzing a very high number of
training images, it can be identified which is the probability that
a "1" occurs in the matrix every n "0"; then, the word histogram is
generated based on such probability.
[0201] FIG. 8A illustrates an example of a word histogram in which
the length x of the words is equal to six, and wherein each bin is
identified by the decimal value of the corresponding x-tuple value.
As expected, the highest frequency corresponds to the x-tuple
(0,0,0,0,0,0), since there is a very higher probability that the
generic cell of the rank-1 support does not include any keypoint
KP. The following highest probability is the one corresponding to a
single keypoint KP for cell (x-tuple (1,0,0,0,0,0), (0,1,0,0,0,0),
(0,0,1,0,0,0), (0,0,0,1,0,0), (0,0,0,0,1,0), (0,0,0,0,0,1)), then
the one corresponding to two keypoints KP for cell, and so on.
[0202] The words are encoded with an entropic coding technique
(e.g., the Huffman technique or the Arithmetic coding technique) by
using for each word a coded word bci (i=1, 2, . . . ) having a
number of bits that depends on the probability of the corresponding
bin in the word histogram. The higher the probability of the word,
the smaller the number of bits of the coded word bci used to encode
such word.
[0203] The other information that can be extracted from the
histogram over the rank-1 support regards the number of keypoints
KP which are included in each cell of the histogram map comprising
at least one keypoint KP. Such information is arranged in a
corresponding histogram, referred to as histogram count. Each bin
of the histogram count corresponds to a corresponding one among the
cells of the rank-1 support that includes at least one keypoint KP.
The histogram count lists for each bin the number of keypoints KP
included in the corresponding cell. The histogram map of the
example at issue is illustrated in FIG. 8B, wherein 11 cells
includes a single keypoint KP each and two cells include two
keypoints KP each. The bins of the histogram map of FIG. 8B are
ordered following a column-wise scan of the rank-1 support.
[0204] The keypoint counting information provided by the histogram
count is encoded into a set of coded words wj (j=1, 2, . . . ) of
different lengths, with each coded word wj of the set that
indicates which bin(s) of a respective set of histogram count bins
correspond to a number of keypoints KP greater than or equal to a
certain value.
[0205] More specifically, if the highest number of keypoints KP
counted within each bin is equal to Nmax, such set of coded words
wj comprises a number of coded words wj equal to Nmax-2. The
generation of each coded word wj is carried out by performing a
corresponding one among a set of Nmax-2 procedure steps. According
to an embodiment of the present invention, such procedure steps are
described hereinbelow.
[0206] Step 1--A first coded word w1 is set to include an element
for each bin of the histogram map. Therefore, the first coded word
w1 includes a number of elements equal to the number bins of the
histogram map. Each element of the first coded word w1 is set to a
first value (e.g., "1") if the corresponding bin of the histogram
count corresponds to a number of keypoints KP higher than one,
otherwise is set to a second value (e.g., "0"). If Nmax is higher
than 2, a second step is performed for generating a second coded
word w2, otherwise the process is termined. In the latter case, the
whole information provided by the histogram count results to be
coded with the first coded word w1 only.
[0207] Step j (j>1)--A j-th coded word wj is generated. The j-th
coded word wj is set to include an element for each bin of the
histogram map including more than j keypoints KP. Therefore, the
j-th coded word wj includes a number of elements equal to or lower
than the j-1 coded word w(i-1). Each element of the j-th coded word
wj is set to the first value if the corresponding bin of the
histogram count corresponds to a number of keypoints KP higher than
j, otherwise is set to the second value. If Nmax is higher than
j+1, a (j+1)-th step is performed, for generating a (j+1)-th coded
word w(j+1), otherwise the process is termined. In the latter case,
the whole information provided by the histogram count is coded with
the coded words w1-wj.
[0208] The compression operations carried out in phase 150 of the
extraction procedure 100 (see FIG. 1) allow to obtain for the
coordinates C of the keypoints KP belonging to the subset SUB a
corresponding compressed coordinate set CC comprising: [0209] the
array r and the array c; [0210] the coded words bci, and [0211] the
coded words wj.
[0212] The amount of data required for managing (memorizing and/or
transmitting) the compressed coordinate set CC is sensibly lower
than the amount of data required for managing the set of
(uncompressed) coordinates C.
Matching Procedure
FIG. 9
[0213] FIG. 9 illustrates in terms of functional blocks an image
analysis procedure according to an embodiment of the present
invention, hereinafter referred to as "matching procedure" and
identified with the reference 900, directed to perform the
comparison between two images I1, 12, by exploiting for each image
a respective optimal subset of keypoints and the corresponding
compressed descriptors and coordinates generated with the
extraction procedure 100 of FIG. 1.
[0214] The steps of the matching procedure 900 may be carried out
by proper processing units; for example, each processing unit may
be a hardware unit specifically designed to perform one or more
steps of the procedure. A possible scenario may provide for a user
(client side) which desires to exploit an image comparison service
(server side) for comparing the image I1 with the image I2. In this
case, the images I1 and I2 may be processed at the client according
to the extraction procedure 100 of FIG. 1 for the generation of the
optimal subset of keypoints and the corresponding compressed
descriptors and coordinates; then, the optimal subset of keypoints
and the corresponding compressed descriptors and coordinates are
sent to the server, which performs the matching procedure 900
exploiting the received data and then provides the results to the
client. In this case, the extraction procedure 100 may be carried
out by processing units located at the client, e.g., by means of a
user's smartphone, while the matching procedure 900 may be carried
out by processing units located at the server, e.g., by means of
one or more server units adapted to offer image comparison
services. Another possible scenario may provide instead that the
matching procedure 900 is directly performed at the client. Mixed
scenarios are also contemplated, in which the matching procedure
900 is carried out at the client with the compressed descriptors
and coordinates sent by the server.
[0215] The compressed coordinates of the image I1 are identified
with reference CC1, while the compressed descriptors of the image
I1 are identified with reference CDA1. Similarly, the compressed
coordinates of the image I2 are identified with reference CC2,
while the compressed descriptors of the image I2 are identified
with reference CDA2.
[0216] The compressed descriptors CDA1 of the first image I1 are
decompressed in order to retrieve corresponding (decompressed)
descriptors D1 (phase 902). Similarly, the compressed descriptors
CDA2 of the second image I2 are decompressed in order to retrieve
corresponding (decompressed) descriptors D2 (phase 904). The
decompression of the descriptors may be carried out by means of
reversed versions of the compression operations performed in phase
140 of the extraction procedure 100. Making reference to
descriptors of the SIFT type, after phases 902 and 904 the
descriptors D1 and D2 are thus represented by corresponding
descriptor arrays formed by 128 sub-elements se(h).
[0217] At phase 906, matches among descriptors D1 of the first
image I1 and descriptors D2 of the second image I2 are formed by
exploiting any one among the feature matching algorithms known in
the art, such as for example the Euclidean distance ratio test.
[0218] Then, at phase 908, geometric verification operations are
performed for ascertaining which matches among those formed at
phase 906 are correct (inliers) and which matches are uncorrected
(outliers). As it is known to those skilled in the art, an
operation of this type requires, in addition to the descriptors,
the coordinates of each keypoint whose corresponding descriptor has
been matched with the descriptor of another one keypoint. For this
purpose, the compressed coordinates CC1 of image I1 and the
compressed coordinates CC2 of the image I2 should be decompressed
as well, for example by means of reversed versions of the
compression operations performed in phase 150 of the extraction
procedure 100. The phase dedicated to the decompression of the
compressed coordinates CC1 is identified in FIG. 9 with reference
910, while the phase dedicated to the decompression of the
compressed coordinates CC2 is identified in FIG. 9 with reference
912. Once the inliers have been identified, the geometric
verification may provide as a result a parameter DOM indicative of
the degree of match between image I1 and I2. For example, if such
parameter DOM is higher than a predetermined threshold, the images
I1 and I2 are reputed to depict a same object(s)/scene(s).
[0219] Additionally, localization operations (phase 914) may be
further carried out for retrieving the location(s) L of such same
object(s)/scene(s) within the two images I1, I2.
[0220] Making reference to the previously mentioned client-server
image comparison scenario, since the matching procedure 900 is
configured to operate with a reduced number of keypoints (only the
ones belonging to the subset SUB generated by means of the
extraction procedure 100), and since the descriptors and the
coordinates of such reduced number of keypoints are received in a
compressed way, with the proposed solution the overall amount of
data to be sent from the client to the server is drastically
reduced compared to the known solutions.
Retrieval Procedure
FIG. 10
[0221] FIG. 10 illustrates in terms of functional blocks an image
analysis procedure according to an embodiment of the present
invention, hereinafter referred to as "retrieval procedure" and
identified with the reference 1000, in which a query image--such as
the query image 115 of FIG. 1--depicting an object/scene to be
recognized is compared with a plurality of model images--each one
depicting a respective known object/scene--stored in a model
database, in order to retrieve the model image(s) depicting the
same object/scene depicted in the query image.
[0222] Like the matching procedure 900 of FIG. 9, the steps of the
retrieval procedure 1000 may be carried out by proper processing
units; for example, each processing unit may be a hardware unit
specifically designed to perform one or more steps of the
procedure. A typical scenario may provide for an user (client side)
which desires to exploit an image recognition service (server side)
in order to automatically recognize an object/scene depicted in a
query image 115. In this case, the query image 115 may be processed
at the client according to the extraction procedure 100 of FIG. 1
for the generation of the optimal subset of keypoints SUB and the
corresponding compressed descriptors CDA and coordinates CC; then,
the optimal subset of keypoints and the corresponding compressed
descriptors and coordinates are sent to the server, which performs
the retrieval procedure 1000 exploiting the received data and then
provides the results to the client. The plurality of model images
to be used for the recognition of the object/scene depicted in the
query image 115 are stored in a model database 1002, which is
located at server side.
[0223] The compressed descriptors CDA are decompressed in order to
retrieve corresponding (decompressed) descriptors DD (phase 1004).
The decompression of the descriptors may be carried out by means of
reversed versions of the compression operations performed in phase
140 of the extraction procedure 100. Again, making model to
descriptors of the SIFT type, after phase 1004 the descriptors DD
are thus represented by corresponding descriptor arrays formed by
128 sub-elements se(h).
[0224] Since a standard object recognition procedure typically
require the execution of comparison operations between the query
image and a very high number of model images (for example, the
model images included in the model database 1002 may be a few
millions), such procedure is both time and memory consuming. For
this purpose, a known solution provides for performing such
comparison operations in two distinct phases. Instead of directly
comparing the descriptors of the query image with the descriptors
of all the model images, a fast, rough, comparison is preliminarly
made by among visual words extracted from the query image and
visual words extracted from the model images; then, the (refined)
comparison of the descriptors is carried out only among the
descriptors of the query image and the descriptors of a reduced set
of model images chosen based on the preliminary comparison. A
visual word is an array obtained by performing a vector
quantization of a descriptor; in other words, each visual word is a
codeword of a visual codebook. The generation of the visual words
is carried out for each descriptor of the query image and each
descriptor of the model images. For example, the preliminary
comparison is carried out by counting the number of visual words in
common between the query image and each model image. Then, for each
model image, a similitude rank is calculated based on the counts of
the number of visual words in common. Similar considerations apply
if the similitude rank is generated by comparing the visual words
using alternative methods. In this, way, the refined comparison
between descriptors may be advantageously carried out only among
the query image and the model images having the highest similitude
ranks (i.e., the ones having the highest numbers of visual words in
common with the query image). This approach, which is derived from
the text analysis field, is also known as "ranking by means of Bag
of Features (BoF)".
[0225] Making reference again to FIG. 10, in order to allow the
carrying out of the ranking by means of BoF, visual words VD for
each descriptor of the query image and visual words VDR for each
descriptor of each model image have to be generated.
[0226] It is pointed out that in order to allow the comparison
between visual words, both the visual words VD and the visual words
VDR should be generated using a same codebook.
[0227] While the visual words VD of the query image 115 have to be
generated every time the retrieval procedure 1000 is performed
(phase 1006), in order to drastically reduce the operation times,
the generation of the visual words VDR of the model images may be
advantageously carried out only once, and then the resulting
plurality of visual words VDR may be directly stored in the model
database 1002; alternatively, the visual words VDR may be
periodically updated.
[0228] Having generated for each descriptor DD of the query image a
corresponding visual word VD, in phase 1008 the ranking by means of
BoF procedure is then carried out. In this way, for each model
image, a rank index is calculated by counting the number of visual
words VDR of such model image which are also visual words VD of the
query image. Such counting may be carried out using the known
ranking by means of BoF implementation also known as Invertedindex.
However, similar considerations apply in case different
implementations are applied. Once all the rank indexes have been
calculated, a list is generated in which the model images of the
database are sorted according to a rank index decreasing order.
Then, a set SR of model images having the highest rank index values
is selected for being subjected to the subsequent (refined)
comparison operations.
[0229] It is pointed out that since according to an embodiment of
the present invention the number of descriptors of each image is
advantageously reduced, corresponding only to the optimal subset
SUB of keypoints which are considered relevant (see phase 130 of
the extraction procedure 100 of FIG. 1), the amount of data
required for carrying out the ranking by means of BoF procedure
(phase 1008) which has to be loaded in the working memory (e.g., in
RAM banks located on the server side) is strongly reduced,
drastically improving the speed of the process. Moreover, since the
comparisons are made by taking into consideration only the
descriptors of the keypoints reputed relevant, the precision of the
comparison is increased, because the noise is reduced. In order to
further improve the speed and the precision, optimal subset
including a reduced number of descriptors are also generated for
each model image included in the model database 1002.
[0230] It has been found that the number of keypoints forming the
optimal subset SUB strongly influence the outcome of the ranking by
means of BoF. Indeed, with a same number of considered images, the
probability that the object/scene depicted in the query image 115
is also depicted in at least one of the model images belonging to
the selected set SR of model images increases as the number of
keypoints of the optimal subset SUB decreases. However, if such
number of keypoints of the optimal subset SUB falls below a lower
threshold, the performances of the procedure decrease, since the
number of keypoints included in the subset SUB become too small for
satisfactorily representing each image.
[0231] At this point, a second, refined comparison is carried out
between the query image 115 and the set SR of model images (phase
1010). One of the already known feature matching procedures may be
employed for matching descriptors DD of the query image 115 with
descriptors of the model images of the set SR (sub-phase 1012),
e.g., by calculating Euclidean distances among the descriptors, and
then a geometric verification is performed for ascertaining which
matching are inliers and which are outliers (sub-phase 1014). In
this way, if it exists, the model image RI of the set SR depicting
an object/scene depicted also in the query image 115 is retrieved
at the end of the phase.
[0232] According to an embodiment of the present invention, instead
of directly performing feature matching operations on the
descriptors DD of the query image 115 and on the descriptors of the
model images of the set SR, the feature matching operations are
carried out on compressed versions thereof obtained by subdividing
the corresponding descriptor arrays into sub arrays and compressing
each sub-array by means of a codebook based on vector quantization.
For this purpose, the descriptors DD of the query image 115 are
compressed at phase 1016, for example by subdividing the
corresponding descriptor arrays in four sub-arrays and compressing
each one of said four sub-arrays with a respective codebook.
Similarly to the generation of the visual words, the model database
1002 stores for each model image corresponding pre-calculated
compressed versions thereof, which have been compressed using the
same codebooks used for compressing the descriptors DD of the query
image 115. According to this embodiment, the feature matching
(sub-phase 1012) can be performed in a very fast and efficient way.
Indeed, since the feature matching is carried out in the compressed
space (both the descriptors of the query image and of the model
images are compressed), and since the number of descriptors to be
considered is reduced (corresponding only to the keypoints of the
optimal subset), it is possible to directly load in the main memory
also the data representing the model images of the model database.
Moreover, since the compression of the descriptor arrays has been
carried out by subdividing the descriptor arrays in sub-arrays,
thus strongly reducing the number of codewords of the corresponding
codebooks, a list including all the possible Euclidean distances
among each codeword of each codebook may by pre-calculated in
advance, and loaded in the main memory, further increasing the
speed of sub-phase 1012. Similar considerations apply if the
feature matching is carried out by exploiting a different algorithm
which does not make use of the Euclidean distances.
[0233] According to an embodiment of the present invention,
sub-phase 1012 may be further improved by compressing the
sub-arrays of each descriptor using a same codebook, using an
approach similar to that used in phase 140 of the extraction
procedure 100 of FIG. 1.
[0234] Since the geometric verification (sub-phase 1014) requires,
in addition to the descriptors, the coordinates of the keypoints
whose corresponding descriptors have been matched with descriptors
of another keypoints, the compressed coordinates CC of the
keypoints of the query image 115 should be decompressed as well
(phase 1018).
Optimized Decompression of the Descriptors
FIG. 11
[0235] FIG. 11 illustrates in terms of functional blocks a
procedure, hereinafter referred to as "optimized decompression
procedure" and identified with the reference 1100, directed to
decompress compressed descriptor arrays CDA according to an
embodiment of the present invention. The steps of the optimized
decompression procedure 1100 may be carried out by proper
processing units; for example, each processing unit may be a
hardware unit specifically designed to perform one or more steps of
the procedure.
[0236] A compressed descriptor array CDA approximates the value
taken by a descriptor array DA. As described in detail in the
previous, for a descriptor array DA which has been subdivided into
a set of sub-arrays SDAk, the corresponding compressed descriptor
array CDA comprises a compression index Cy for each sub-array SDAk
of the set, wherein each compression index Cy identifies the
codeword CWj of the codebook CBKy used to approximate said
sub-array SDAk (see for example FIG. 4B).
[0237] In order to decompress a descriptor array DA, for each
compression index Cy included in the compressed descriptor array
CDA a corresponding codeword CWj is identified--within the codebook
CBKy used to approximate the sub-array SDAk--based on the value of
such compression index Cy; then, following the order of the
compression indexes Cy in the received compressed descriptor array
CDA, the identified codewords CWj are joined to form a
corresponding first decompressed descriptor array DA' (block 1110).
Such first decompressed descriptor array DA' is a generally
approximate version of the descriptor array DA the received
compressed descriptor array CDA has been generated from. As already
stated in the present description, one of the reasons at the base
of the difference between the first decompressed descriptor array
DA' and the descriptor array DA (i.e., the distortion) is the
unavoidable lossy nature of the vector quantization procedure.
[0238] The Applicant has found that another cause of distortion
arises from quantizing each sub-array SDAk of the descriptor array
DA instead of directly quantizing the entire descriptor array DA.
Indeed, even if applying a distinct vector quantization to each
sub-array SDAk of a descriptor array DA allows to advantageously
reduce the overall amount of memory used to store the codebooks,
the quantizations of each sub-array SDAk are carried out
independently, without taking into account that: [0239] The
elements ai of a descriptor array DA corresponding to a descriptor
D are correlated to each other through statistical correlation
relationships based on the spatial distance among the positions of
the sub-regions associated with the corresponding sub-histograms
shi of the descriptor D (see FIG. 3A). In the example illustrated
in FIGS. 3A and 3B, since the sub-region associated with the
sub-histogram sh4 of the descriptor D is close to the sub-regions
associated with the sub-histograms sh3, sh7, sh8, the element a4 of
the descriptor array DA has a so-called "statistical spatial
correlation" with the elements a3, a7, a8 that is higher than the
one with, for example, the element a9. [0240] The sub-elements
se(h) of a pair of different elements ai, aj of a descriptor array
DA are correlated to each other through statistical relationships
based on the angular distance among the orientations of the
corresponding bins of the sub-histograms shi, shj. In order to
better illustrate such concept of angular distance, reference is
made to FIG. 12, which depicts an exemplary descriptor D wherein
each sub-histogram shi thereof includes eight bins, each one
corresponding to an orientation having an angle n*.pi./4 (n=0, 1, .
. . , 7) with respect to the dominant orientation O. Each bin is
graphically depicted in FIG. 12 with a respective arrow orientated
according to its corresponding angle. In this example, the
sub-element se(64) of the element a8 of the descriptor array DA
corresponding to the bin of the sub-histogram sh8 labeled as "64",
has a so-called "statistical angular correlation" with the
sub-element se(32) of the element a4 of the descriptor array DA
corresponding to the bin of the sub-histogram sh4 labeled as "32"
that is higher than the one with the sub-element se(31) of the
element a4 of the descriptor array DA corresponding to the bin of
the sub-histogram sh4 labeled as "31", since both the sub-elements
se(64) and se(32) correspond to an orientation having an angle
.pi./4 with respect to the dominant orientation O while the
sub-element eh(31) corresponds to an orientation having an angle
.pi./2 with respect to the dominant orientation O.
[0241] Returning back to FIG. 11, the Applicant has found that if
the vector quantization is independently applied to each sub-array
SDAk of the descriptor array DA, the statistical spatial
correlation and the statistical angular correlation among
sub-elements se(h) belonging to different sub-arrays SDAk are lost.
Therefore, the overall distortion introduced by the
compression/decompression operations, and thus the difference
between the first decompressed descriptor array DA' and the
descriptor array DA, might be further reduced if such correlations
were taken into account.
[0242] According to an embodiment of the present invention, such
distortion is advantageously reduced by multiplying the first
decompressed descriptor array DA' by an F.times.F compensation
matrix Z (wherein F is the number of sub-elements se(h) of the
descriptor array DA, i.e., F=128 for the SIFT case) whose elements
z.sub.k,l (k, l=1, 2, . . . , F) are arranged to counterbalance the
abovementioned loss of statistical spatial and, preferably, angular
correlations among sub-elements se(h) of the descriptor array
caused by the subdivision in sub-arrays, in such a way to obtain a
second decompressed descriptor array DA'' (block 1120) which is
closer (i.e., more similar) to the original descriptor array DA
than the first decompressed descriptor array DA' is.
[0243] In detail, the second decompressed descriptor array DA'' is
obtained as:
DA''=DA'Z,
i.e.:
[ se ( 1 ) '' se ( 2 ) '' se ( F ) '' ] = [ se ( 1 ) ' se ( 2 ) '
se ( F ) ' ] [ z 1 , 1 z 1 , 2 z 1 , F z 2 , 1 z 2 , 2 z 2 , F z F
, 1 z F , 2 z F , F ] , ##EQU00002##
wherein se(h)'' is the generic h-th sub-element of the second
decompressed descriptor array DA'' and se(h)' is the generic h-th
sub-element of the first decompressed descriptor array DA'.
Therefore, each sub-element se(h)'' of the second decompressed
descriptor array DA'' is generated by means of a linear combination
of the sub-elements se(h)' of the first decompressed descriptor
array DA'. The elements z.sub.k,l of the compensation matrix Z are
set in such a way that such linear combination of the sub-elements
se(h)' is weighted so as to reflect the statistical spatial and
angular correlations occurring among the sub-elements se(h) of a
generic descriptor array DA.
[0244] In other words, according to an embodiment of the present
invention, the compensation matrix Z allows to represent in terms
of mathematic relationships the statistical spatial and,
preferably, angular correlations occurring among the sub-elements
se(h) of a generic descriptor array DA which would be lost if such
descriptor array was compressed by subdividing it into sub-arrays
and then applying vector quantization to each sub-array.
[0245] The values of the elements z.sub.k,l of the compensation
matrix Z depend on the size and the type of the descriptor array
DA, as well as on the number of sub-arrays SDAk and the type of
codebooks CBKy used to obtain the compressed descriptor array
CDA.
[0246] According to an embodiment of the present invention, the
compensation matrix Z is generated in the following way. [0247] 1)
A large number M (e.g., M.apprxeq.1000000) of sample descriptor
arrays UDA is extracted from a proper database, such as for example
the visual search database MIRFLICKR 25000. Each sample descriptor
array UDA includes F sub-elements u(h) (h=1, 2, . . . , F). In
order to generate a compensation matrix Z adapted to optimize the
decompression, M should be sufficiently high to form an effective
statistical population. [0248] 2) Each sample descriptor array UDA
is then compressed in a corresponding compressed sample descriptor
array CUDA by subdividing it into sub-arrays and compressing each
sub-array using a corresponding codebook. [0249] 3) Each compressed
sample descriptor array CUDA is then decompressed (using the same
codebooks used at point 2)) to obtain a corresponding decompressed
sample descriptor array TDA. Each decompressed sample descriptor
array TDA includes F sub-elements t(h) (h=1, 2, . . . , F). [0250]
4) The compensation matrix Z is set equal to the one that minimize
the norm .parallel.TZ-U.parallel., wherein T is an M.times.F matrix
whose rows are the M decompressed sample descriptor arrays TDA, and
U is an M.times.F matrix whose rows are the M sample descriptor
arrays UDA. The compensation matrix Z minimizing the norm
.parallel.TZ-U.parallel. may be calculated through a computer-aided
Linear Least Squares procedure. Additionally, a known
regularization procedure may be subsequently applied, such as for
example the Tikhonov regularization one.
[0251] The compensation matrix Z obtained in this way shows how
combining the columns of T for best approximating (in terms of
.parallel.TZ-U.parallel.) the columns of U.
[0252] If the compression of the descriptor array was carried out
without subdividing the descriptor array in sub-arrays, the
compensation matrix Z would be nearly equal to the identity matrix.
By carrying out vector quantization independently to sub-arrays of
the sample descriptor arrays UDA, statistical spatial and angular
correlations are lost, and the compensation matrix Z differs from
the identity matrix.
[0253] FIG. 13A illustrates an exemplary compensation matrix Z
corresponding to a compression scheme providing for subdividing the
descriptor array in four sub-arrays and using for each sub-array a
codebook including 2 13 codewords (such as in the case illustrated
in FIG. 6A). FIG. 13B is a diagram illustrating the values assumed
by the elements z.sub.k,43 (k=1, 2, . . . , F) of the 43-th column
of the compensation matrix Z of FIG. 13A.
[0254] FIG. 14A illustrates a further exemplary compensation matrix
Z corresponding to a compression scheme providing for subdividing
the descriptor array in eight sub-arrays and using for each
sub-array a codebook including 2 11 codewords (such as in the case
illustrated in FIG. 6D). FIG. 14B is a diagram illustrating the
values assumed by the elements z.sub.k,43 (k=1, 2, . . . , F) of
the 43-th column of the compensation matrix Z of FIG. 14A.
[0255] By observing FIGS. 13A, 13B, 14A and 14B, the elements
z.sub.k,l of the compensation matrix Z having the highest values
are the ones belonging to the main diagonal. This means that, when
the compensation matrix Z is used for obtaining the second
decompressed descriptor array DA'' from the first decompressed
descriptor array DA' (see FIG. 11), the highest weight (i.e.,
element z.sub.k,l) in the linear combination of the F sub-elements
se(h)' of the first decompressed descriptor array DA' for
generating a specific sub-element se(h)'' of the second
decompressed descriptor array DA'' is precisely the one
corresponding to said specific sub-element se(h)''. For example, in
the linear combination of the sub-elements se(h)' directed to the
generation of the sub-element se(43)'', the highest weight is
precisely the element z.sub.43,43 which multiplies the sub-element
se(43)'.
[0256] The presence of other elements z.sub.k,l having values
sensibly different than zero in the linear combination of the F
sub-elements se(h)' of the first decompressed descriptor array DA'
for generating a specific sub-element se(h)'' of the second
decompressed descriptor array DA'' corresponds to other
sub-elements se(h)' which have a statistical spatial and/or angular
correlation with such specific sub-element se(h)''. For example, in
the linear combination of the sub-elements se(h)' directed to the
generation of the sub-element se(43)'', in the case illustrated in
FIG. 14B the three other elements z.sub.k,l sensibly different
(higher) than zero are the elements z.sub.35,43, z.sub.51,43, and
z.sub.75,43 which multiply the sub-elements se(35)', se(51)' and
se(75)', respectively.
[0257] Using the above described procedure, it may occur that some
of the resulting sub-elements se(h)'' of the second decompressed
descriptor DA'' exceed the allowed range of values. In this case,
according to an embodiment of the present invention, said
sub-elements se(h)'' are advantageously set to the nearest endpoint
of the range. For example, by considering that in a SIFT descriptor
the sub-elements have values that typically range from 0 to 255, if
the value of a sub-element se(h)'' calculated through the
compensation matrix Z is higher than 255 or lower than 0, it is set
to 255 or 0, respectively.
[0258] It has to be appreciated that the proposed optimized
decompression procedure is applicable to any compressed descriptor
array which has been compressed by subdividing the descriptor array
into sub-arrays and then by applying vector quantization to each
sub-array, regardless of the way the codebooks are used. For
example, the proposed optimized decompression procedure is adapted
to be employed in case each sub-array is compressed with a
respective, different codebook (such as in the case illustrated in
FIG. 4B), as well as in case more than one sub-array are compressed
exploiting a same codebook (such as in the cases illustrated in
FIGS. 6A-6D). The Applicant notes that in the limiting case of
scalar quantization, applied when some are all sub-arrays contain
only one element, the proposed optimized decompression procedure is
still applicable.
[0259] Thanks to the proposed optimized decompression procedure, it
is possible to increase the quality of the decompression without
having to increase the amount of bits required to store the
compressed descriptor arrays, positively affecting the outcomes of
the image analysis exploiting such compressed descriptor
arrays.
[0260] The previous description presents and discusses in detail
several embodiments of the present invention; nevertheless, several
changes to the described embodiments, as well as different
invention embodiments are possible, without departing from the
scope defined by the appended claims.
* * * * *