U.S. patent application number 14/293727 was filed with the patent office on 2014-11-27 for method and apparatus for high efficiency ac/dc conversion of low voltage input.
The applicant listed for this patent is UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA RESEARCH FOUNDATION, INC.. Invention is credited to Shuo Cheng, Yuan Rao.
Application Number | 20140347902 14/293727 |
Document ID | / |
Family ID | 44061571 |
Filed Date | 2014-11-27 |
United States Patent
Application |
20140347902 |
Kind Code |
A1 |
Cheng; Shuo ; et
al. |
November 27, 2014 |
METHOD AND APPARATUS FOR HIGH EFFICIENCY AC/DC CONVERSION OF LOW
VOLTAGE INPUT
Abstract
Embodiments of the subject invention relate to a method and
apparatus for providing a low-power AC/DC converter designed to
operate with very low input voltage amplitudes. Specific
embodiments can operate with input voltages less than or equal to 1
V, less than or equal to 200 mV, and as low as 20 mV, respectively.
Embodiments of the subject low-power AC/DC converter can be
utilized in magnetic induction energy harvester systems. With
reference to a specific embodiment, a maximum efficiency of 92% was
achieved for a 1 V input, and efficiencies exceeding 70% were
achieved for a 200 mV input. A specific embodiment functioned
properly when connected to a magnetic energy harvester device
operating below 200 mV input.
Inventors: |
Cheng; Shuo; (Gainesville,
FL) ; Rao; Yuan; (Gainesville, FL) |
|
Applicant: |
Name |
City |
State |
Country |
Type |
UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA RESEARCH FOUNDATION, INC. |
Gainesville |
FL |
US |
|
|
Family ID: |
44061571 |
Appl. No.: |
14/293727 |
Filed: |
June 2, 2014 |
Related U.S. Patent Documents
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Application
Number |
Filing Date |
Patent Number |
|
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12950564 |
Nov 19, 2010 |
8743577 |
|
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14293727 |
|
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61262803 |
Nov 19, 2009 |
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Current U.S.
Class: |
363/126 |
Current CPC
Class: |
Y02B 70/1408 20130101;
Y02B 70/10 20130101; H02M 7/06 20130101; H02M 7/217 20130101; H02M
2007/2195 20130101 |
Class at
Publication: |
363/126 |
International
Class: |
H02M 7/06 20060101
H02M007/06 |
Claims
1. An AC/DC converter, comprising: a first active diode, wherein
the first active diode comprises a first comparator and a first
switch; a second active diode, wherein the second active diode
comprises a second comparator and a second switch; a first energy
storage element; and a second energy storage element; wherein the
converter is configured to connect to an input AC voltage source
such that the first active diode is in series between the input AC
voltage source and the first energy storage element and the second
active diode is in series between the input AC voltage and the
second energy storage element, such that when the voltage of the
input AC voltage source is below a voltage of the first energy
storage element, the first active diode turns on and current flows
from the first energy storage element to the input AC voltage
source, and when the voltage of the input AC voltage source is
higher than the voltage of the second energy storage element,
current flows from the input AC voltage source to the second energy
storage element, wherein the first comparator comprises a first
positive input port, a first negative input port, at least one
first bias port, and a first output port; wherein the first switch
comprises a first transistor; wherein the second comparator
comprises a second positive input port, a second negative input
port, at least one second bias port, and a second output port;
wherein the second switch comprises a second transistor; wherein
the first switch is selected from the group consisting of: an
electromechanical switch, a bipolar junction transistor, an analog
switch, a junction gate field-effect transistor, and a MOS
transistor.
2. The converter according to claim 1, wherein the converter
operates with an input AC power source of less than or equal to 20
mV.
3. The converter according to claim 1, wherein the first switch is
the a bipolar junction transistor.
4. The converter according to claim 2, wherein the first switch is
a first transistor, wherein the second switch is a second
transistor.
5. The converter according to claim 4, wherein the first and second
transistors are bipolar junction transistors (BJT).
6. The converter according to claim 4, wherein the first and second
transistors are junction gate field-effect transistor (JFET).
7. The converter according to claim 1, further comprising a first
resistor in series with the first active diode between the input AC
power source and the first energy storage element.
8. The converter according to claim 1, further comprising a first
low pass filter in parallel with the first energy storage
element.
9. The converter according to claim 1, further comprising a shunt
capacitor connected across output terminals of the input AC power
source.
10. The converter according to claim 1, further comprising a linear
or switching regulator connected to the output of the
converter.
11. The converter according to claim 1, wherein the converter
operates with an input AC power source of less than or equal to 1
V.
12. The converter according to claim 1, wherein the converter
operates with an input AC power source of less than or equal to 200
mV.
13. The converter according to claim 1, wherein the converter has
an efficiency greater than 70%.
14. A magnetic induction energy harvester system, comprising: a
magnetic energy harvester, wherein the magnetic energy harvester
outputs a harvester output AC voltage; and an AC/DC converter,
wherein the AC/DC converter comprises: a first active diode; a
second active diode; a first energy storage element; and a second
energy storage element; wherein the converter is configured to
connect to the harvester output AC voltage such that the first
active diode is in series between harvester output AC voltage and
the first energy storage element and the second active diode is in
series between the harvester output AC voltage and the second
energy storage element, such that when a voltage of the harvester
output AC voltage is below a voltage of the first energy storage
element, the first active diode turns on and current flows from the
first energy storage element to the harvester output AC voltage,
and when the voltage of the harvester output AC voltage is higher
than a voltage of the second energy storage element, current flows
from the harvester output AC voltage to the second energy storage
element.
15. The system according to claim 14, wherein the first active
diode and the second active diode are powered by one or more of the
following: the first energy storage element, the second energy
storage element, and the harvester output AC voltage.
16. The system according to claim 14, further comprising a first
resistor in series with the first active diode between the input AC
power source and the first energy storage element.
17. The system according to claim 14, further comprising a first
low pass filter in parallel with the first energy storage
element.
18. The system according to claim 14, further comprising a shunt
capacitor connected across output terminals of the input AC power
source.
19. The system according to claim 14, further comprising a linear
or switching regulator connected to the output of the
converter.
20. The system according to claim 14, further comprising a ladder
circuit connected to the output of the converter.
Description
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS
[0001] The present application is a continuation of U.S. patent
application Ser. No. 12/950,564, filed Nov. 19, 2010, which claims
the benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No.
61/262,803, filed Nov. 19, 2009, both of which are hereby
incorporated by reference herein in their entirety, including any
figures, tables, or drawings.
BACKGROUND OF INVENTION
[0002] Efficient AC/DC rectification of low voltages is important
for the realization of fully-functional vibrational energy
harvesting systems. Microwatt to milliwatt motional/vibrational
energy harvesting systems can utilize low-power power management
circuits. Vibrational energy harvesters can utilize ac/dc converter
circuits that can operate at low input power and low voltage with
acceptable efficiency (>80%). Attention has been given to
circuits for piezoelectric harvesters [Ottman, G. K., Hofmann, H.
F., Bhatt, A. C. and Lesieutre, G. A., 2002, Adaptive piezoelectric
energy harvesting circuit for wireless remote power supply, IEEE
Trans. Power Electronics, 17, 669-76; Guan, M. J. and Liao, W. H.,
2007, On the efficiencies of piezoelectric energy harvesting
circuits towards storage device voltages, Smart Mater. Struct., 16,
498-505; Lefeuvre, E., Audigier, D., Richard, C., Guyomar, D. K.
2007, Buck-Boost converter for sensorless power optimization of
piezoelectric energy harvester, IEEE Trans. Power Electronics, 22,
2018-25], whose output voltage level is generally higher (typically
>1 V) than similarly sized magnetic harvesters (typically <1
V). Accordingly, there is a lack of suitable low-voltage
rectification solutions for magnetically based vibrational energy
harvesting systems [Mitcheson, P. D., Yeatman, E. M., Rao, G. K.,
Holmes, A. S., and Green, T. C. 2008, Energy harvesting from human
and machine motion for wireless electronic devices, Proceedings of
the IEEE, 96, 1457-86].
[0003] Passive junction-based semiconductor diode bridges are
generally not suitable for input voltage levels under 0.5 V, due to
the forward-bias voltage drop associated with the diodes. Active
MOS-based synchronized rectification is possible, where the
rectification is implemented by controlling the conduction of
MOSFET with a clock signal that is in phase with the input signal
[Ghovanloo, M. and Najafi, K. 2004, Fully integrated wideband
high-current rectifiers for inductively powered devices, IEEE J.
Solid-State Circuits, 39, 1976-84]. Active MOS-based synchronized
rectification typically utilizes a drive voltage (control signal)
that is higher than the threshold voltage of the MOSFET (typically
.about.0.4 V). In order to make available this drive voltage,
complicated driving circuitry is commonly utilized.
[0004] Alternatively, in an attempt to avoid the inherent
forward-bias voltage drop of semiconductor diodes, active diodes
have been used in wireless power transmission [Lam, Y-H, Ki, W-H
and Tsui, C-Y, 2006, Integrated low-loss CMOS active rectifier for
wirelessly powered devices, IEEE Trans. Circuits Systems-II:
Express Briefs, 53, 1378-82] and medical areas [Lehmann, T. and
Moghe, Y., 2005, On-chip active power rectifiers for biomedical
applications, IEEE Intl. Symp. Circuits Sys, ISCAS, 2005, 732-5].
Active diode can refer to a comparator-controlled switch that
replaces junction-based diode. Recently, a combination of a
synchronized rectifier and an active diode for energy harvester
application has been investigated [Peters, C., Spreemann, D.,
Ortmanns, M. and Manoli, Y. 2008, A CMOS integrated voltage and
power efficient AC/DC converter for energy harvesting applications,
J. Micromech. Microeng., 18, 104005-13]. However, this approach can
suffer from the same voltage threshold limit of other self-driven
synchronized rectifiers, and the minimum rectifiable input voltage
was reported in the Peters et al. reference to be only 1.25 V.
[0005] Accordingly, there is a need in the art for a method and
apparatus for high efficiency AC/DC conversion of low voltage
inputs.
BRIEF SUMMARY
[0006] Embodiments of the subject invention relate to a method and
apparatus for providing a low-power AC/DC converter designed to
operate with very low input voltage amplitudes. Specific
embodiments can operate with input voltages less than or equal to 1
V, less than or equal to 200 mV, and as low as 20 mV, respectively.
Embodiments of the subject low-power AC/DC converter can be
utilized in magnetic induction energy harvester systems. With
reference to a specific embodiment, a maximum efficiency of 92% was
achieved for a 1 V input, and efficiencies exceeding 70% were
achieved for a 200 mV input. FIG. 7 shows, adjacent a penny, a top
view of a printed circuit board on which an embodiment of the
subject AC/DC converter resides. The circuit, which has a top
surface area smaller than a penny, functioned properly when
connected to a magnetic energy harvester device operating below 200
mV input.
[0007] FIGS. 1A-1B show a bridge voltage doubler circuit where the
dc output voltage is twice the ac input amplitude. The circuit
functions as two peak detectors, capturing the positive and
negative peaks of the input voltage waveform. The load is connected
across the positive and negative outputs of the peak detectors. To
rectify low-voltage input waveforms, "active diodes", such as the
active diodes described in C. Peter et al., Journal of
Micromechanics and Microengineering, 18 (2008), pp. 104005-16,
which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety for the
teaching of active diodes that can be incorporated with embodiments
of the subject invention, can be used in place of junction-based
semiconductor diodes. The use of active diodes can, for example,
mitigate forward-bias voltage drop. In a specific embodiment, each
active diode can include a comparator and a transistor. The
transistor can act as a switch. In a specific embodiment, a MOSFET
transistor can be used in conjunction with a comparator to form an
active diode. Other types of transistors can be used as well. In a
specific embodiment, the comparator and transistor can be
configured to emulate an ideal-diode. Referring to the blow up in
FIG. 1A, which shows an active diode having a comparator and a
MOSFET, when the anode voltage, V+, is greater than cathode
voltage, V-, the comparator outputs a positive voltage that turns
on the MOSFET; otherwise, a negative comparator output voltage
turns off the MOSFET. Other configurations can also be used. As an
example, a comparator can be used where the output is a negative
voltage when the anode input voltage is higher than the cathode
input voltage of the comparator and a transistor is used that turns
on with a negative voltage input from the comparator output and
turns off with a positive voltage input from the comparator output.
Other embodiments can use, for example, an inverter between the
comparator output and the transistor, depending on the
characteristics of the transistor used.
[0008] In the circuit implementation shown in FIG. 1A, two
nanopower comparators, such as two Maxim MAX9119's is used (MAX
9119 data sheet is provided in Table 2). In a specific embodiment,
the two MAX 9119 comparators are powered by an external .+-.1 V
supply, consuming 1.about.10 .mu.W of power. The power consumption
of the comparators was taken into account in the efficiency
calculation. Discrete MOS chips were used, and moderately sized
surface-mount storage capacitors (470 .mu.F, .about.10 mm.sup.3)
were incorporated to reduce the ripple. The entire circuit was
implemented on a PCB smaller than the size of a US penny, as shown
in FIG. 7.
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS
[0009] FIGS. 1A-1B show the overall structure of a bridge voltage
doubler rectifier with active diodes in accordance with an
embodiment of the subject invention.
[0010] FIG. 2 shows the connection of the series resistor with the
converter of FIG. 1A in accordance with an embodiment of the
subject invention.
[0011] FIGS. 3A and 3B show the connection of the low pass filter
with the converter of FIG. 1A in accordance with an embodiment of
the subject invention.
[0012] FIG. 4 shows a block diagram of a completed energy
harvesting system in accordance with an embodiment of the subject
invention.
[0013] FIG. 5 shows a voltage quadrupler by laddering the circuit
of FIG. 1A in accordance with an embodiment of the subject
invention.
[0014] FIG. 6 shows a boost converter with an embedded inductor in
accordance with an embodiment of the subject invention.
[0015] FIG. 7 shows a top view of a printed circuit board layout
implementing a converter in accordance with an embodiment of the
subject invention.
[0016] FIG. 8 shows open circuit waveforms for the converter shown
in FIG. 1A with input amplitude of 20 mV.
[0017] FIG. 9 shows a graph of efficiency vs. load resistance for
different input voltage amplitudes with respect to the converter
shown in FIG. 1A.
[0018] FIG. 10 shows a graph of output power vs. load resistance
for different input voltage amplitudes with respect to the
converter shown in FIG. 1A.
[0019] FIG. 11 shows open-circuit waveforms with an energy
harvester as input with respect to the converter shown in FIG.
1A.
DETAILED DISCLOSURE
[0020] Embodiments of the subject invention relate to a method and
apparatus for providing a low-power AC/DC converter designed to
operate with very low input voltage amplitudes. Specific
embodiments can operate with input voltages less than or equal to 1
V, less than or equal to 200 mV, and as low as 20 mV, respectively.
Embodiments of the subject low-power AC/DC converter can be
utilized in magnetic induction energy harvester systems. With
reference to a specific embodiment, a maximum efficiency of 92% was
achieved for a 1 V input, and efficiencies exceeding 70% were
achieved for a 200 mV input. FIG. 7 shows, adjacent a penny, a top
view of a two-sided printed circuit board on which an embodiment of
the subject AC/DC converter, using discrete components resides. The
circuit, which has a top surface area (1.54 cm.sup.2) smaller than
a penny, functioned properly when connected to a magnetic energy
harvester device operating below 200 mV input.
[0021] FIGS. 1A-1B show a bridge voltage doubler circuit where the
dc output voltage is twice the ac input amplitude. The circuit
functions as two peak detectors, capturing the positive and
negative peaks of the input voltage waveform. The load is connected
across the positive and negative outputs of the peak detectors. To
rectify low-voltage input waveforms, "active diodes", such as the
active diodes described in C. Peter et al., Journal of
Micromechanics and Microengineering, 18 (2008), pp. 104005-16,
which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety for the
teachings of active diodes that can be incorporated with
embodiments of the subject invention, can be used in place of
junction-based semiconductor diodes. The use of active diodes can,
for example, mitigate forward-bias voltage drop and can allow the
circuit to operate at low input voltages. In a specific embodiment,
each active diode can include a comparator and a transistor. The
transistor can act as a switch. In a specific embodiment, a MOSFET
transistor can be used in conjunction with a comparator to form an
active diode. Other types of transistors can also be utilized. In
an embodiment, the comparator and transistor can be configured to
emulate an ideal diode. Referring to the blow up in FIG. 1A, which
shows an active diode having a comparator and a MOSFET, when the
anode voltage, V+, is greater than cathode voltage, V-, the
comparator outputs a positive voltage that turns on the MOSFET;
otherwise, a negative comparator output voltage turns off the
MOSFET. Other configurations can also be used. As an example, a
comparator can be used where the output is a negative voltage when
the anode input voltage is higher than the cathode input voltage of
the comparator and a transistor is used that turns on with a
negative voltage input from the comparator output and turns off
with a positive voltage input from the comparator output. Other
embodiments can use, for example, an inverter between the
comparator output and the transistor, depending on the
characteristics of the transistor used.
[0022] In the circuit implementation shown in FIG. 1A, two
nanopower comparators, such as two Maxim MAX9119's is used (the MAX
9119 data sheet is provided in Table 2). The two MAX 9119
comparators are powered by an external .+-.1 V supply, consuming
1.about.10 .mu.W of power. The power consumption of the comparators
was taken into account in the efficiency calculation. Discrete MOS
chips were used, and moderately sized surface-mount storage
capacitors (470 .mu.F, .about.10 mm.sup.3) were incorporated to
reduce the ripple. The entire circuit was implemented on a PCB
smaller than the size of a US penny, as shown in FIG. 7.
[0023] To test the circuit, a 20 Hz sinusoidal input ranging from
0.02-1 V.sub.pk was used. The waveform was generated from an
Agilent 33120A function generator, whose output impedance is
50.OMEGA.. This waveform can mimic the output characteristics of a
typical low-frequency magnetic induction energy harvester. FIG. 8
shows the no-load input (V.sub.AC) and output voltage waveforms
(V+, V-) for a 20 mV peak-to-peak input voltage. The dc output
voltage is about two times the input voltage amplitude, with some
ripples. The ripple is reduced as the input voltage increases.
[0024] To test the low input voltage capability, the input voltage
amplitude was gradually decreased, until the ripple exceeded 10%.
To successfully rectify very low input voltages, the filter
resistor should be large in order to maintain a detectable voltage
for the comparator input. This comes at the expense of increased
ripple. For R=100.OMEGA. and C=47 .mu.F, an input voltage amplitude
of only 20 mV was rectified, with a 10% ripple, as shown in FIG. 8.
The same RC values were used throughout the test. In order to
measure the power efficiency of the circuit, different load
resistances were connected to the output. At different input
voltage amplitudes, input and output power were measured. The
average input power is given by,
P in = 1 T .intg. 0 T [ v in ( t ) i in ( t ) + v supply ( t ) i
supply ( t ) ] t ( 1 ) ##EQU00001##
[0025] where v.sub.in and i.sub.in are instantaneous input voltage
and current, v.sub.supply and i.sub.supply are the instantaneous
supply voltage and current to the comparators, and T is the
duration of measurement, which is greater than 10 cycles.
[0026] The comparator supply voltages and currents are mostly dc.
Therefore the power contribution of the power supply is
approximately V.sub.supply*I.sub.supply. These were measured and
supplied using two Keithley 2400 Sourcemeters. The input voltage is
directly measured by an oscilloscope (Tektronix TDS5104B), whereas
a 0.1.OMEGA. current-sensing resistor was connected in series at
the input in order to measure the input current. The voltage across
the current-sensing resistor was amplified by a low noise amplifier
(SRS SR560). The efficiency and output power vs. load resistance
curves for different input voltages are plotted in FIGS. 9 and 10,
respectively. A maximum efficiency of 92% was observed at 1 V and 1
kg/load. A maximum efficiency of 74% was obtained at 0.1 V. The
output power was maximized for this embodiment at a slightly
different resistive load (200.OMEGA.). The operational frequency
range of the tested embodiment of the subject converter is from
near dc to .about.1 kHz, which covers the practical operating
frequency of most vibrational energy harvesters.
[0027] While efficiency is important, the total output power may be
more relevant for an energy harvesting system. FIG. 10 shows the
output power increases with increasing input voltage as expected.
The maximum output power was achieved around 200.OMEGA. regardless
of input voltage amplitude. The equivalent output impedance of the
rectifier is related to the load condition and the shape of the
waveform. Based on the maximum power point, the circuit output
impedance is estimated to be around 200.OMEGA..
[0028] A magnetic energy harvester was connected to the embodiment
of the converter shown in FIG. 1A, and the open-circuit (no loads)
voltage waveforms are plotted in FIG. 11. The magnetic energy
harvester is described in [Bowers, B. J. and Arnold, D. P. 2009,
Spherical, rolling magnet generators for passive energy harvesting
from human motion, J. Micromech. Microeng., 19, 094008-14]. The
harvester was shaken by hand, generating a randomized voltage
waveform with amplitude <0.3V. The output precisely tracks the
maximum and minimum input voltages with time. The charge is held in
the capacitors when the output voltage is lower than the capacitor
voltage. A slight decay is observed in the dc voltages, because of
the finite input impedance of the oscilloscope, i.e., some charge
is leaking off into the scope. The converter demonstrates
low-input-voltage capability and high efficiency. In a specific
embodiment, the few microwatts of external power required for the
active diodes can be obtained from, for example, the energy storage
unit, such as a battery or capacitor, the input voltage, the output
voltage of the comparator, and/or from an external power
source.
[0029] Embodiments of the subject invention, as shown in FIGS.
1A-1B, can allow ac/dc rectification using a peak detector on each
side of the input voltage, where each peak detector incorporates an
active diode and a storage capacitor to convert an input ac voltage
to a dc voltage. In a specific embodiment, the input ac voltage can
come from an energy harvester and energy from the energy harvester
can be stored in the storage capacitor or other energy storage
element, such as a battery. Each active diode can include a
comparator circuit and a switch where the comparator output is used
to control the switch. A variety of switches can be used,
including, but not limited to, an electromechanical switch, a
bipolar junction transistor (BJT) (e.g., see FIG. 1B), a junction
gate field-effect transistor (JFET), an analog switch, and a MOS
transistor. In further specific embodiments, the MOS transistor can
be an NMOS used on the positive side or a PMOS used on negative
side, where the output of the comparator is connected to the gate
of the NMOS or the PMOS, respectively. In a specific embodiment,
the positive input of the comparator can be connected to the source
of the NMOS or the drain of the PMOS. In another embodiment, the
negative input of the comparator is connected to the drain of the
NMOS or the source of the PMOS.
[0030] The comparator circuit can be powered by an external power
source, by the energy storage element, by the input voltage, and/or
the output of the comparator. When powered by the input voltage or
the output of the comparator, the comparator circuit can be
considered self-powered, as there are no external power
connections.
[0031] The circuit shown in FIG. 1A may not work as well when the
load is too light (e.g., load impedance too high). The voltage
across the MOSFET can be too low to be sensed by the comparator
when the current flow is small. Accordingly, in specific
embodiments, the active diode can be stabilized by, for example,
using either a series resistor or a low pass filter. FIG. 2 shows
the use of series resistors, R1 and R3, to stabilize the active
diodes. By adding a resistor in series with the MOSFET so that the
input voltage "seen" by the comparator is amplified. However,
adding a series resistor may increase the conduction loss and
reduce the efficiency. FIGS. 3A and 3B show the use of low pass
filters, (R1 and C2) and (R3 and C4), to stabilize the active
diodes. The comparator input voltage is the voltage across the
MOSFET plus the filter resistor (R1, R3). Therefore, the comparator
input voltage is larger so as to be detected more easily. Since the
RC (low pass) filter is not part of the power flow path, little, or
no, dc power is consumed by the filter resistor (R1, R3). However,
because the feedback source is not the actual output, there can be
some ripple with the output voltage, as shown in FIG. 8. The ripple
can increase with increasing filter resistance.
[0032] A shunt capacitor can be connected across the output
terminals of the input voltage, such as from an energy harvester,
to avoid resonant behavior. A linear or switching regulator can be
connected to the output of the rectifier to regulate the voltage as
shown in FIG. 4. The rectifier, such as the rectifier shown in FIG.
1A, can be extended to a ladder circuit in order to boost the
voltage. FIG. 5 shows a ladder that can quadruple the voltage.
Additional stages can further boost the voltage, as much as eight
times or more.
[0033] The rectifier can be extended to a boost converter by adding
an NMOS and a PMOS across the output terminals of the input voltage
source, such as a magnetic energy harvester, as shown in FIG. 6. A
switching signal with a certain frequency can be connected to the
gate of the NMOS or PMOS. In an embodiment, the switching frequency
is much higher than the input frequency. The duty cycle of the
switching signal can be controlled by a feedback network to
stabilize the output voltage.
[0034] Since the input voltage from an energy harvesting system can
be small, for example as low as 20 mV (or lower), an energy
harvesting system utilizing a bridge voltage doubler circuit, as
shown in FIG. 1A, can have reduced need for other voltage boost
stages.
[0035] The behavior of an ideal diode, or junction-based diode, can
be described as an intelligently controlled switch, whose on/off
state is determined by comparing the voltage across the terminals.
When the anode voltage is higher than cathode, the switch turns on;
otherwise it turns off. Active diode refers to a circuit
implementation using active components to approximate the ideal
behavior of an ideal diode. With respect to a specific active
diode, the switch can be implemented by a MOSFET, whose source and
drain terminals are connected to the input of a comparator, and the
output of the comparator is connected to the gate terminal of the
MOSFET.
[0036] Embodiments of the subject invention relate to energy
harvesting systems incorporating active diodes. The use of active
components (e.g., a comparator and a transistor such as a MOSFET)
can introduce extra power consumption. However, by using
state-of-the-art low-power integrated circuits, this power
consumption can be much smaller than the power consumed in a
typical junction-based diode. For example, the nanopower comparator
MAX9119 by Maxim (used in the circuit shown in FIG. 7) has a
minimum operation voltage of 1.6 V with supply current of 350 nA,
yielding a quiescent power consumption of only 560 nW (see Table
2).
[0037] Comparing this to a typical Schottky diode with forward
voltage of 0.3 V, the equivalent power is dissipated with a current
flow of only 2 .mu.A. Also, the forward-bias resistance of a
Schottky diode is usually larger than the conducting resistance of
a MOSFET that can be used with embodiments of the subject
invention.
[0038] The bridge voltage doubler is a conventional circuit
topology that was commonly used in cathode ray tube televisions to
generate high dc voltages. The circuit functions as two peak
detectors, capturing the positive and negative peaks of the input
voltage waveform. The load is connected across the positive and
negative outputs of the peak detectors, where the load voltage is
twice the input ac voltage.
[0039] The operating state of a MOSFET is controlled by the
differential voltage between the gate and source terminals. MOSFET
types and comparator output ranges can be selected to enhance the
performance of various embodiments of the invention. To reduce, or
avoid, charge leakage through the body diode, the MOSFET can be
connected in a way such that the body diode is oriented as shown in
FIG. 1A. Referring to FIG. 1A, depending on whether an NMOS or PMOS
transistor is used on each side of the doubler, the comparator
output voltage should preferably meet certain characteristics, in
order to properly turn on or turn off the MOSFETs. These preferred
characteristics are summarized in Table 1.
TABLE-US-00001 TABLE 1 Comparator output voltage preferred
characteristcs for different types of MOSFETs used in the positive
and negative sides of the doubler NMOS PMOS Positive V.sub.pos*
> V.sub.max* + V.sub.th* V.sub.pos > V.sub.max - |V.sub.th|
Side V.sub.neg* < V.sub.min* + V.sub.th V.sub.neg <-
|V.sub.th| Negative V.sub.pos > V.sub.th V.sub.pos >
V.sub.max - |V.sub.th| Side V.sub.neg < V.sub.min + V.sub.th
V.sub.neg < V.sub.min - |V.sub.th| *V.sub.pos: positive output
voltage of the comparator. V.sub.neg: negative output voltage of
the comparator. V.sub.max: maximum input voltage. V.sub.min:
minimum input voltage. V.sub.th: threshold voltage.
[0040] The comparator output voltage swing is determined in part by
the supply voltages. For the MAX9119, the positive output is equal
to the positive supply voltage minus 0.3 V, and the negative output
voltage is the negative supply voltage plus 0.3 V (see Table 2).
From Table 1, the supply voltage requirement is lowest when PMOS is
used for positive side and NMOS is used for negative side. In the
circuit shown in FIG. 7, Vishay SD1450DH (V.sub.th=0.3 V) and
SD1499DH (V.sub.th=-0.35 V) were used as the NMOS and PMOS
transistors, respectively. The comparators were supplied with +/-1
V.
TABLE-US-00002 ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS-MAX9119/MAX9120 (without
REF) (V.sub.CC = +5 V, V.sub.EE = 0 V, V.sub.CM = 0 V, T.sub.A =
-40.degree. C. to +85.degree. C., unless otherwise noted. Typical
values are at T.sub.A = +25.degree. C.) (Note 1) PARAMETER SYMBOL
CONDITIONS MIN TYP MAX UNITS Supply Voltage Range V.sub.CC Inferred
from the T.sub.A = +25.degree. C. 1.6 5.5 V PSRR test T.sub.A =
T.sub.MIN to T.sub.MAX 1.8 5.5 Supply Current I.sub.CC V.sub.CC =
1.6 V, T.sub.A = +25.degree. C. 0.35 0.80 .mu.A V.sub.CC = 5 V
T.sub.A = +25.degree. C. 0.45 0.80 T.sub.A = T.sub.MIN to T.sub.MAX
1.2 Input Common-Mode Voltage Range V.sub.CM Inferred from the CMRR
test V.sub.EE - 0.2 V.sub.CC + 0.2 V Input Offset Voltage V.sub.OS
-0.2 V .ltoreq. V.sub.CM .ltoreq. T.sub.A = +25.degree. C. 1 5 mV
(V.sub.CC + 0.2 V) (Note 2) T.sub.A = T.sub.MIN to T.sub.MAX 10
Input-Referred Hysteresis V.sub.HB -0.2 V .ltoreq. V.sub.CM
.ltoreq. (V.sub.CC + 0.2 V) (Note 3) 4 mV Input Bias Current
I.sub.B T.sub.A = +25.degree. C. 0.15 1 nA T.sub.A = T.sub.MIN to
T.sub.MAX 2 Input Offset Current I.sub.OS 75 pA Power-Supply
Rejection Ratio PSRR V.sub.CC = 1.6 V to 5.5 V, T.sub.A =
+25.degree. C. 0.1 1 mV/V V.sub.CC = 1.8 V to 5.5 V, T.sub.A =
T.sub.MIN to T.sub.MAX 1 Common-Mode Rejection Ratio CMRR (V.sub.EE
- 0.2 V) .ltoreq. V.sub.CM .ltoreq. (V.sub.CC + 0.2 V) 0.5 3 mV/V
Output Voltage Swing High V.sub.CC - MAX9119 only, V.sub.CC =
T.sub.A = +25.degree. C. 190 400 mV V.sub.OH 5 V, I.sub.SOURCE = 5
mA T.sub.A = T.sub.MIN to T.sub.MAX 500 MAX9119 only, V.sub.CC =
1.6 V, 100 200 I.sub.SOURCE = 1 mA T.sub.A = +25.degree. C.
V.sub.CC = 1.8 V, 300 T.sub.A = T.sub.MIN to T.sub.MAX Output
Voltage Swing Low V.sub.OL V.sub.CC = 5 V, T.sub.A = +25.degree. C.
190 400 mV I.sub.SINK = 5 mA T.sub.A = T.sub.MIN to T.sub.MAX 500
I.sub.SINK = 1 mA V.sub.CC = 1.6 V, 100 200 T.sub.A = +25.degree.
C. V.sub.CC = 1.8 V, 300 T.sub.A = T.sub.MIN to T.sub.MAX Output
Leakage Current I.sub.LEAK MAX9120 only, V.sub.O = 5.5 V 0.001 1
.mu.A Output Short-Circuit Current I.sub.SC Sourcing, V.sub.O =
V.sub.EE V.sub.CC = 5 V 35 mA V.sub.CC = 1.6 V 3 Sourcing, V.sub.O
= V.sub.CC V.sub.CC = 5 V 35 V.sub.CC = 1.6 V 3 High-to-Low
Propagation Delay t.sub.PD- V.sub.CC = 1.6 V 16 .mu.s (Note 4)
V.sub.CC = 5 V 14 Low-to-High Propagation Delay t.sub.PD+ MAX9119
only V.sub.CC = 1.6 V 15 .mu.s (Note 4) V.sub.CC = 5 V 40 MAX9120
only V.sub.CC = 1.6 V, 16 R.sub.PULLUP = 100 k.OMEGA. V.sub.CC = 5
V, 45 R.sub.PULLUP = 100 k.OMEGA. Rise Time t.sub.RISE MAX9119
only, C.sub.L = 15 pF 1.6 .mu.s Fall Time t.sub.FALL C.sub.L = 15
pf 0.2 .mu.s Power-Up Time t.sub.ON 1.2 ms (Note 1): All
specifications are 100% tested at T.sub.A = +25.degree. C.
Specification limits over temperature (T.sub.A = T.sub.MIN to
T.sub.MAX) are guaranteed by design, not production tested. (Note
2): V.sub.OS is defined as the center of the hysteresis band at the
input. (Note 3): The hysteresis-related trip points are defined as
the edges of the hysteresis band, measured with respect to the
center of the band (i.e., V.sub.OS) (FIG. 2). (Note 4): Specified
with an input overdrive (V.sub.OVERDRIVE) of 100 mV, and load
capacitance of C.sub.L = 15 pF. V.sub.OVERDRIVE is defined above
and beyond the offset voltage and hysteresis of the comparator
input. For the MAX9117/MAX9118, reference voltage error should also
be added.
[0041] All patents, patent applications, provisional applications,
and publications referred to or cited herein are incorporated by
reference in their entirety, including all figures and tables, to
the extent they are not inconsistent with the explicit teachings of
this specification.
[0042] It should be understood that the examples and embodiments
described herein are for illustrative purposes only and that
various modifications or changes in light thereof will be suggested
to persons skilled in the art and are to be included within, the
spirit and purview of this application.
* * * * *