U.S. patent application number 14/097023 was filed with the patent office on 2014-06-05 for fuel cells based on precise energy separation.
This patent application is currently assigned to Fahs Stagemyer LLC. The applicant listed for this patent is Fahs Stagemyer LLC. Invention is credited to Richard W. Fahs, II.
Application Number | 20140154597 14/097023 |
Document ID | / |
Family ID | 49881021 |
Filed Date | 2014-06-05 |
United States Patent
Application |
20140154597 |
Kind Code |
A1 |
Fahs, II; Richard W. |
June 5, 2014 |
Fuel Cells Based on Precise Energy Separation
Abstract
Anodes utilizing precise energy separation are provided. The
anodes can be used to generate electrical energy from a feedstock
via precise energy separation. The anodes include an energy source
that supplies the promoter energy to target molecules in a
feedstock to dissociate one or more target bonds in one or more
target molecules. Generally, the energy is provided in an effective
amount, intensity, and frequency of energy to specifically
dissociate one or more target bonds in one or more target molecule
present in the feedstock, releasing electrons. These electrons are
accepted by an electrode that is electrically connected to an
electron sink. Fuel cells containing anodes utilizing precise
energy separation are provided.
Inventors: |
Fahs, II; Richard W.;
(Woodstock, CT) |
|
Applicant: |
Name |
City |
State |
Country |
Type |
Fahs Stagemyer LLC |
Woodstock |
CT |
US |
|
|
Assignee: |
Fahs Stagemyer LLC
Woodstock
CT
|
Family ID: |
49881021 |
Appl. No.: |
14/097023 |
Filed: |
December 4, 2013 |
Related U.S. Patent Documents
|
|
|
|
|
|
Application
Number |
Filing Date |
Patent Number |
|
|
61733226 |
Dec 4, 2012 |
|
|
|
Current U.S.
Class: |
429/422 ;
429/423 |
Current CPC
Class: |
Y02E 60/50 20130101;
H01M 14/005 20130101; H01M 8/06 20130101 |
Class at
Publication: |
429/422 ;
429/423 |
International
Class: |
H01M 8/06 20060101
H01M008/06; H01M 8/10 20060101 H01M008/10 |
Claims
1. An anode comprising a container configured to hold a feedstock
comprising one or more target molecules, an energy source that
provides an effective amount, intensity, and frequency of energy to
specifically dissociate one or more target bonds in the one or more
target molecule in the feedstock, and an electrode connected to an
electron sink, wherein the energy source is positioned to transfer
the energy to the target molecules in the feedstock.
2. The anode of claim 1, wherein the energy is in the form of light
irradiation, acoustic energy, or electromagnetic radiation.
3. The anode of claim 1, wherein the energy is amplified.
4. The anode of claim 1, wherein the energy is supplied by an
energy source selected from the group consisting of frequency
generators, electrical generators, plasma generators, arc lamps,
pulse generators, amplifying generators, tunable lasers,
ultraviolet lamps, ultraviolet lasers, pulse ultraviolet
generators, ultrasound generators, and combinations thereof.
5. The anode of claim 1, wherein the energy source is a pulsed
light source.
6. The anode of claim 1, further comprising a catalyst.
7. The anode of claim 6, wherein the catalyst is a semi-conductive
material or magnetic material.
8. The anode of claim 6, where in the catalyst is selected from the
group consisting of titanium oxides (TiO.sub.2), platinized
titania, amorphous manganese oxide, copper-doped manganese oxide,
titanium dioxide, strontium titanate, barium titanate, sodium
titanate, cadmium sulfide, zirconium dioxide, and iron oxide.
9. The anode of claim 6, wherein the catalyst is a semiconductor
material selected from the group consisting of platinum, palladium,
rhodium, and ruthenium, strontium titanate, amorphous silicon,
hydrogenated amorphous silicon, nitrogenated amorphous silicon,
polycrystalline silicon, germanium, and combinations thereof.
10. The anode of claim 6, wherein the catalyst is selected from the
group consisting of carbon-based graphene or graphite, carbon-doped
semi-conductive material, carbon-doped magnetic material, or
fullerene materials.
11. The anode of claim 1, wherein the energy source is a fiber
optic device.
12. The anode of claim 11, wherein the fiber optic device comprises
a graphene coating.
13. The anode of claim 1, wherein the target molecules are selected
from the group consisting of alkyl sulfonates, alkyl phenols,
ammonia, benzoic acid, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide,
chlorofluorocarbons, dioxin, fumaric acid, grease, herbicides,
hydrochloric acid, hydrogen cyanide, hydrogen sulfide,
formaldehyde, medicines, methane, nitric acid, nitrogen dioxide,
nitrates, nitrites, ozone, pesticides, polychlorinated biphenyls,
oil, sulfur dioxide, sulfuric acid and volatile organic
compounds.
14. The anode of claim 1, wherein the target molecules comprise
waste material.
15. The anode of claim 14, wherein the waste material is selected
from the group consisting of ventilation makeup air, ambient air,
air from stripping and off-gassing operations, soil vapor
extraction (SVE), airborne matter, organic particulate matter,
process vent gas, wastewater treatment off-gas, liquid effluents,
wastewater, industrial runoff, agricultural runoff, polluted soil,
sludge waste, and landfill waste.
16. The anode of claim 1, wherein the electron sink is selected
from the group consisting of a cathode which performs a reduction
half-cell reaction, a cathode within a battery, a piezoelectric
material, and combinations thereof.
17. A fuel cell comprising the anode of any one of claims 1-16 and
a cathode.
18. The fuel cell of claim 17 wherein the cathode comprises
platinum, platinum chromium, graphene, graphene oxide, titanium,
platinized titania, or a combination thereof.
19. The fuel cell of claim 17 or claim 18 further comprising one or
more semipermeable membranes.
Description
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS
[0001] This application claims priority to and benefit of U.S.
Provisional Application No. 61/733,226, filed Dec. 4, 2012.
FIELD OF THE INVENTION
[0002] The present invention is related to anodes based on precise
energy separation, as well as methods of making the anodes and
using the anodes, for example, in fuel cells, to generate
energy.
BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION
[0003] Fuel cells and photovoltaic devices are attractive
alternatives to conventional means of providing electrical energy.
Specifically, fuel cells and photovoltaic devices have the
potential to provide electrical energy without consuming
non-renewable resources (e.g., fossil fuels) and generating
substantial pollutants, including greenhouse gases.
[0004] In their simplest form, fuel cells are electrochemical
conversion devices which convert a chemical fuel to electrical
energy. Fuel cells are similar in design to batteries; however,
unlike batteries, they are typically designed for continuous
replenishment of the reactants consumed during fuel cell operation.
As a consequence, fuel cells generally produce a continuous supply
of electricity from chemical fuel provided externally, as opposed
to providing a limited amount of electricity from a limited
internal supply of stored reactants.
[0005] Fuel cells can be used to generate electrical power without
producing pollutants and without consuming non-renewable
hydrocarbon-based fuels, such as oil or gasoline. However, fuel
cells can be hampered by several drawbacks. These drawbacks may
decrease the realized performance or lifetime of the fuel cell, may
increase the costs required, or both.
[0006] Fuel cell designs typically require very specific feed stock
materials and purities. For instance, some fuel cells employ
hydrogen gas as a chemical fuel. Hydrogen gas is difficult to store
and transport to the anode surface. In addition, hydrogen cannot be
produced in an economical fashion without the presence of
impurities, such as carbon monoxide. These impurities can poison
catalysts in the fuel cell, diminishing fuel cell performance over
time. There is a need for fuel cells that are less sensitive to
impurities in the feedstock material or are robust against catalyst
poisoning.
[0007] Many fuel cells also employ catalysts at the anode that are
too expensive, thereby limiting their usefulness in many
cost-sensitive applications. In order to be suited for use in a
wider range of applications, fuel cells which can generate
electricity from economical and convenient chemical fuels with
improved efficiency are required.
[0008] Therefore, it is an object of the invention to provide fuel
cells that can operate with improved efficiency.
[0009] It is a further object of the invention to provide fuel
cells that exhibit longer operational lifetimes.
[0010] It is a further object of the invention to provide fuel
cells that can operate using a variety of feedstock materials,
including waste materials, byproducts, and renewable materials,
which are more cost effective.
[0011] It is also an object of the invention to provide fuel cells
which can efficiently generate electrical energy without the use of
an expensive catalyst material.
SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION
[0012] Anodes utilizing precise energy separation are provided. The
anodes include a container suitable to hold a volume of feedstock,
one or more fluid inlets, one or more fluid outlets, an energy
source, and an electrode electrically connected to an electron
sink. The anodes can be used to generate electrical energy from a
feedstock via precise energy separation.
[0013] The anodes include a container of suitable dimensions and
integrity to hold a volume of feedstock. One or more fluid inlets
and one or more fluid outlets are fluidly connected to the
container to deliver feedstock to the container, and to remove
feedstock and/or component products from the container. The
feedstock may contain a variety of target molecules including
pollutants, industrial waste products, reaction byproducts, metals,
graphene doped materials, carbon based materials, and waste
material.
[0014] The anodes include an energy source that supplies the
promoter energy to the feedstock to dissociate one or more target
bonds in one or more target molecules. The energy source may be
positioned outside of the container (i.e., an external energy
source) or integrated within the container; however, it must be
positioned to transfer the energy to target molecules in the
feedstock. Suitable energy sources include frequency generators,
electrical generators, plasma generators, arc lamps, low energy
nuclear reactions (LENR), LEED, an elliptically polarized light
source which may include a light source in combination with a
polarization filter, ionization chambers, photoionization detectors
(PID), pulse generators, amplifying generators, tunable lasers,
ultraviolet lamps, ultraviolet lasers, pulse ultraviolet
generators, combination lasers or pulsed energy sources, ultrasound
generators, pulsed lasers, diodes, natural light, infrared
radiation, X-rays, Gamma rays, ultraviolet radiation, high harmonic
generators or tunable high harmonic sources, and combinations
thereof, alone or in combination with a catalyst or specialized
catalyst such as an electron hopping material. In certain
embodiments, the energy source is a fiber optic device, optionally
coated with a catalyst such as graphene, present within the
container.
[0015] Where applicable, the energy source may be optionally
combined with other devices, such as amplifiers or filters.
Generally, the energy source is connected to a control unit, which
can regulate the energy source in order to provide an effective
amount, intensity, and frequency of energy to specifically
dissociate one or more target bonds in one or more target molecule
present in the feedstock.
[0016] The anodes include an electrode. Electrodes are fabricated
from a conductive material that can accept electrons released by
precise energy separation. The electrodes are electrically
connected to an electron sink or an electron storage material or
unit using means to efficiently transfer electrons from the
electrode to the electron sink. The electrode is electrically
connected to an electron sink. The electron sink has an appropriate
potential to cause electrons accepted by the electrode to flow to
the electron sink and be stored or used directly to an electrical
end source
[0017] Another example of an electron sink is a modified Photo
Ionization Detector (PID), a portable vapor and gas detector that
detects a variety of organic compounds. Photo ionization occurs
when an atom or molecule absorbs light of sufficient energy to
cause an electron to leave and create a positive ion.
[0018] The PID includes an ultraviolet lamp that emits photons that
are absorbed by the compound in an ionization chamber. Ions (atoms
or molecules that have gained or lost electrons and thus have a net
positive or negative charge) produced during this process are
collected by electrodes. The current generated provides a measure
of the analyte concentration. Because only a small fraction of the
analyte molecules are actually ionized, this method is considered
nondestructive, allowing it to be used in conjunction with another
detector to confirm analytical results. High intensities are used
to move the process to a 100% completion. In addition, PIDs are
available in portable hand-held models and in a number of lamp
configurations. Results are almost immediate. A PID or Raman
spectrometer can detect the target molecule and then via a computer
software program, such as the "CANARY" program or similar program,
the information can be transmitted to the high intensity PES unit
which can react similar to the PID unit and ionize the molecule and
create electricity. If desired, one or more catalysts may also be
present within the anode.
[0019] The catalyst may be dissolved or dispersed within the
feedstock, or supported on a surface within the anode. In some
embodiments, the catalyst is deposited on a mesh within the
container, on the surface of the electrode, or combinations
thereof. In a particular embodiment, a catalyst is applied to the
surface of a fiber optic device integrated with the electrode, and
activated by energy (i.e., the specific energy of dissociation)
from within the fiber optic device.
[0020] Suitable catalysts include titanium oxides (TiO.sub.2),
platinized titania, amorphous manganese oxide, copper-doped
manganese oxide, single carbon chains, tubes, flakes or layers,
titanium dioxide, strontium titanate, barium titanate, sodium
titanate, cadmium sulfide, zirconium dioxide, iron oxide,
carbon-based graphene or graphite, fullerenes, buckyballs,
nanocrystalline diamond or similar carbon allotropes, a Nano-scale
hybrid thereof, carbon-doped semi-conductive materials,
carbon-doped magnetic materials, graphene oxides, nickel, nickel
molybdenum and nickel molybdenum nitride, boron nitride,
semiconductor materials including platinum, palladium, rhodium, and
ruthenium, strontium titanate, amorphous silicon, hydrogenated
amorphous silicon, nitrogenated amorphous silicon, polycrystalline
silicon, germanium, catalysts made of cobalt (Co), nickel (Ni) and
iron (Fe) elements, titanium disilicide, indium tin oxide (ITO)
anode, poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) and combinations thereof.
Additional catalysts include nickel-hydrogen (NiH.sub.2 or
Ni--H.sub.2), Au--TiO.sub.2, CdS, NaTaO.sub.3,
K.sub.3Ta.sub.3B.sub.2O.sub.12,
Ga.sub.0.82Zn.sub.0.18)(N.sub.0.82O.sub.0.18), and Pt/TiO.sub.2.
Photocatalysts based on cobalt can also be used. Members are
tris(bipyridine) cobalt(II), compounds of cobalt ligated to certain
cyclic polyamines, certain cobaloximes, and cobalt(II)-hydride.
[0021] Sensors may optionally be incorporated into the anodes to
measure fluid flow rate, feedstock makeup or properties (e.g.,
turbidity, viscosity, or flow rate), the concentration of target
molecules, the concentration of component products, current flow
from the electrode, and combinations thereof. If desired, the
sensors can be connected to a signal processing unit, such as a
computer, which can monitor signal outputs, and send signals to
anode components to influence precise energy separation at the
anode. For example, the signal processing unit can send signals to
the valves to control feedstock flow. The signal processing unit
can send signals to the control unit to regulate the energy
source.
[0022] Fuel cells containing anodes utilizing precise energy
separation are provided.
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS
[0023] FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram illustrating the components of
an anode utilizing precise energy separation which utilizes an
external energy source.
[0024] FIG. 2 is a schematic diagram illustrating the components of
an anode utilizing precise energy separation which uses an energy
source integrated within the container.
[0025] FIG. 3 is a schematic diagram illustrating the components of
an anode utilizing precise energy separation containing multiple
fluid inlets.
[0026] FIG. 4 is a schematic diagram illustrating the components of
an anode utilizing precise energy separation containing multiple
fluid outlets and sensors.
DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION
I. Definitions and Mechanisms
[0027] "Irradiation" as generally used herein refers to subjecting
or treating a sample with beams of particles, photons, or energy.
Irradiation includes any form of electromagnetic or acoustic
radiation.
[0028] "Bond dissociation energy" as generally used herein refers
to the standard enthalpy of change when a bond is cleaved.
[0029] "Bond energy" as generally used herein refers to the average
of the sum of the bond dissociation energies in a molecule.
[0030] "Component products" as generally used herein refers to
known ions or atoms composed of only elements found within the
target molecule. Individual component products have a chemical
formula distinct from the target molecule. An example is N.sub.2
and H.sub.2, which are each component products of NH.sub.3.
[0031] "Catalyst" as generally used herein refers to any chemical
which enhances the rate and/or efficiency of molecular dissociation
compared with the rate and/or efficiency of dissociation in the
absence of the catalyst.
[0032] "Chemical waste" as generally used herein refers to any
inorganic, organometallic, or organic substance, present in any
physical state, that is unwanted in a given sample due to
environmental or toxicity concerns.
[0033] "Dissociation" as generally used herein refers to the
breaking of one or more of the bonds of a molecule. Dissociation in
the current process requires that the original bonds of the target
molecule do not re-associate.
[0034] "Excited state" as generally used herein refers to a state
in which one or more electrons of an atom or molecule are in a
higher-energy level than ground state.
[0035] "Non-target molecule" as generally used herein refers to the
any substance within a sample containing target molecules which is
not affected by the process.
[0036] "Promoter" as generally used herein refers to the energy
required for dissociation of a target bond, which is both selective
for the target bond and sufficient to prevent re-association of the
bond.
[0037] "Energy of dissociation source" as generally used herein
refers to any chemical, apparatus, or combination thereof, which
supplies the energy of dissociation with the energy required to
dissociate target bonds within a target molecule. The energy of
dissociation source must supply suitable intensity and suitable
frequency for target bond dissociation. An example of an energy of
dissociation source is an xenon lamp coupled to a pulse generator.
An energy of dissociation source can optionally contain a catalyst.
An example of such an energy of dissociation source is a titanium
dioxide catalyst and an xenon lamp coupled to a pulse
generator.
[0038] "Recycling" as generally used herein refers to reusing
substances found in waste for any purpose.
[0039] "Remediation," as used herein, refers to treatment of waste
to capture stored energy or useful components trapped therein.
[0040] "Target molecule," as used herein, refers to a molecule, or
portion of a macromolecule, that contains at least one bond, which
is subjected to precise energy dissociation. A target molecule can
also be a nanoparticle, microparticle, cell, virus, or portion
thereof.
[0041] "Feedstock," as used herein, refers to at least one target
molecule which is subjected to the dissociation process. The
feedstock may include exclusively target molecules. Alternatively,
the feedstock may be a complex mixture which includes both target
and non-target molecules.
[0042] "Target bond," as used herein, refers to any bond within a
target molecule. Target bonds can be covalent, ionic, or "weak
bonds" including dipole-dipole interactions, London dispersion
forces, or hydrogen bonding. Target bonds can be single or multiple
covalent bonds.
[0043] "Electron Sink," as used herein, refers to any means or
material which can collect, store or transfer free electrons to a
storage or end use device such as an electrical capacitor or
battery.
[0044] A. Mechanisms Related to Precise Energy Dissociation
[0045] An atom is ionized by absorbing a photon of energy equal to
or higher than the ionization energy of the atom. Multiple photons
below the ionization threshold of an atom may combine their
energies to ionize an atom by a process known as multi-photon
ionization. These concepts also apply to molecules. Resonance
enhanced multi-photon ionization (REMPI) is a technique in which a
molecule is subjected to a single resonant or multi-photon
frequency such that an electronically excited intermediate state is
reached. A second photon or multi-photon then ejects the
electronically excited electron and ionizes the molecule.
[0046] Among a mixture of molecules with different bond
dissociation energies, selective activation of one chemical bond
requires a mono-chromatic source. For example, in a compound
containing N--H (bond dissociation energy of 3.9 eV) and C--H (bond
dissociation energy of 4.3 eV) bonds, a specific photon source of
4.0 eV dissociates the N--H bond exclusively.
[0047] Precise energy separation relies on two main principles. The
first principle is that the selective dissociation of one or more
target bonds in a target molecule can be achieved by irradiating
the target molecule with the specific energy (both frequency and
intensity) required to selectively dissociate one or more target
bonds and to prevent re-association of the target bond (i.e, the
promoter energy). By exciting a target molecule with the precise
energy required to dissociate one or more target bonds in a target
molecule, one or more target bonds can be selectively cleaved,
releasing electrons. Because the target molecule is treated with
energy specific to dissociate one or more target bonds in a target
molecule, a target molecule can be selectively dissociated in a
complex mixture. The second principle is that the dissociation of
target molecules can involve the dissociation of one or more target
bonds. These bonds can be individually dissociated by irradiating
the target molecule by a plurality of photons or other energetic
sources which provide the promoter energy for each bond to be
dissociated.
[0048] Given this control, target molecules can be treated using
precise energy separation to separate the target molecules into
their component products without producing any by-products and
without re-association of the one or more target bonds. In certain
embodiments treating target molecules using precise energy
separation results in less than 20% re-association of the one or
more target bonds, less than 10% re-association of the one or more
target bonds, less than 9% re-association of the one or more target
bonds, less than 8% re-association of the one or more target bonds,
less than 7% re-association of the one or more target bonds, less
than 6% re-association of the one or more target bonds, less than
5% re-association of the one or more target bonds, less than 4%
re-association of the one or more target bonds, less than 3%
re-association of the one or more target bonds, less than 2%
re-association of the one or more target bonds, less than 1%
re-association of the one or more target bonds. In certain
embodiments treating target molecules using precise energy
separation results in no or an undetectable amount of
re-association of the one or more target bonds. One skilled in the
art will recognize that the term by-products will depend upon the
specific target molecules in the feedstock and the target bonds to
be dissociated. In some embodiments the by-product can be
understood to mean anything other than the components formed from
the dissociation of the one or more target bonds. In certain
embodiments the components formed from the dissociation of the one
or more target bonds may be transient species. The transient
species may optionally react to form other component products
without re-association of the one or more target bonds.
II. Anodes Utilizing Precise Energy Separation
[0049] Anodes utilizing precise energy separation include a
container suitable to hold a volume of feedstock, one or more fluid
inlets, one or more fluid outlets, an energy source, and an
electrode electrically connected to an electron sink. The anodes
can be used to generate electrical energy from a feedstock via
precise energy separation.
[0050] The anodes include a container of suitable dimensions and
integrity to hold a volume of feedstock. The container may be
fabricated from any suitable material, including metals, polymers,
ceramics, and combinations thereof.
[0051] One or more fluid inlets and one or more fluid outlets are
fluidly connected to the container to deliver feedstock to the
container, and to remove feedstock and/or component products from
the container. The number and position of fluid outlets and fluid
inlets can be varied in view of the feedstock chosen, desired flow
dynamics (e.g., flow rate of the feedstock through the anode), the
identity of component products formed by precise energy separation,
and combinations thereof. Valves may be incorporated into the fluid
inlets and fluid outlets, as required, to control flow of the
feedstock through the anode.
[0052] In certain embodiments, membranes with selective
permeability may be incorporated within one or more of the fluid
outlets to purify component products. Membranes with selective
permeability may be incorporated within one or more of the fluid
outlets to select appropriate component products which may flow via
a fluid outlet to a cathode where they are oxidized in a
corresponding reduction half-cell reaction.
[0053] In certain embodiments, the anode incorporates interfaces
that promote electron hopping. In some embodiments a graphene
interface promotes electron hopping. In some instances the graphene
interface is a reduced form of graphene or a graphene oxide. In
some embodiments the anode incorporates multi-layered materials
consisting of graphene oxide and titanium oxide layers, optionally
with a silver layer that will facilitate electron hopping. In some
embodiments the interface that promotes electron hopping is formed
from one or a few layers of common electrode materials, including
but not limited to metals or metal oxides such as
indium-tin-oxide.
[0054] In certain embodiments, the anode incorporates interfaces
and optionally catalysts that selectively split water into hydrogen
and oxygen. In some embodiments this is accomplished in anodes
incorporating semiconductor nanoparticles and metal catalysts
separated optionally by a layer of graphene or other suitable
carbon allotrope. In some embodiments the nanoparticles are metal
or metal-oxide nanoparticles, including but not limited to
exemplary nanoparticles of indium-tin-oxide, cadmium selenide,
zinc-oxide nanoparticles, or silver.
[0055] In certain embodiments, the anode container may also enclose
the cathode. The anode and cathode regions may optionally be
separated by a barrier. In some embodiments the barrier is a
permeable or semi-permeable membrane. In some embodiments, the
barrier is a proton exchange membrane. The proton exchange membrane
may be a solid or semi-solid polymer membrane. Exemplary materials
for proton exchange membranes include sulfonated
tetrafluoroethylene based polymers such as those marketed under the
trade names NAFLON.RTM. by Dupont or the sulfonated polystyrene
copolymers marketed under the trade name ULTREX.RTM. by Membranes
International. In some embodiments the barrier consists of a
ceramic matrix. The ceramic matrix may optionally be an oxide
material. In certain embodiments, the membrane facilitates the flow
of cationic species from the anode region to the cathode region. In
certain embodiments, the anode and cathode regions are connected by
a wire or length of material that facilitates the flow of cationic
species from the anode region to the cathode region. In certain
embodiments this connection is a nanowire having a diameter less
than 2 .mu.m, preferably less than 1 .mu.m, more preferably less
than 500 nm, most preferably less than 100 nm. In certain
embodiments the nanowire is made of NAFLON.RTM..
[0056] The anodes include an energy source that supplies the
promoter energy to the feedstock to dissociate one or more target
bonds in one or more target molecules. The energy source may be
positioned outside of the container (i.e., an external energy
source) or integrated within the container; however, it must be
positioned to transfer the energy to target molecules in the
feedstock. In certain embodiments, the energy source is a fiber
optic device, optionally coated with a catalyst such as graphene or
a photocatalyst, present within the container. Generally, the
energy source is connected to a control unit, which can regulate
the energy source in order to provide an effective amount,
intensity, and frequency of energy to specifically dissociate one
or more target bonds in one or more target molecules present in the
feedstock.
[0057] The anodes also include an electrode. Electrodes are
fabricated from a conductive material that can accept electrons
released by precise energy separation. The electrodes are
electrically connected to an electron sink using suitable means to
efficiently transfer electrons from the electrode to the electron
sink. The electron sink has an appropriate potential to cause
electrons accepted by the electrode to flow to the electron sink.
In certain embodiments the electrode material is a metal such a
copper, titanium, silver, platinum, or palladium or a metal oxide
such as zinc-oxide, copper-oxide, or indium-tin-oxide.
[0058] If desired, one or more catalysts may also be present within
the anode. The catalyst may by dissolved or dispersed within the
feedstock, or supported on a surface within the anode. In some
embodiments, the catalyst is deposited on a mesh within the
container, on the surface of the electrode, or combinations
thereof. In a particular embodiment, a catalyst is applied to the
surface of a fiber optic device integrated with the electrode, and
activated by energy (i.e., the specific energy of dissociation)
from within the fiber optic device.
[0059] Sensors may optionally be incorporated into the anodes to
measure fluid flow rate, feedstock makeup or properties (e.g.,
turbidity, viscosity, or flow rate), the concentration of target
molecules, the concentration of component products, current flow
from the electrode, or combinations thereof. If desired, the
sensors can be connected to a signal processing unit, such as a
computer, which can monitor signal outputs, and send signals to
anode components to influence precise energy separation at the
anode. For example, the signal processing unit can send signals to
the valves to control feedstock flow. The signal processing unit
can send signals to the control unit to regulate the energy
source.
[0060] FIG. 1 illustrates a representative anode utilizing precise
energy separation. The anode includes a container (100) suitable to
hold a volume of feedstock, and a fluid inlet (102) and a fluid
outlet (104) for delivering feedstock to and from the container. An
electrode (106) is present within the container, preferably of
appropriate dimensions to facilitate contact with the feedstock.
For example, the electrode can be positioned to traverse a fluid
flow path between the fluid inlet and the fluid outlet. The
electrode is electrically connected to an electron sink (112) using
suitable means to efficiently transfer electrons from the electrode
to the electron sink. One or more energy sources (108) are
positioned to transfer the energy to target molecules in the
feedstock. In this case, the energy source is positioned to
traverse the length of the container. The energy source may be
connected to a control unit (110) which can control the energy
source to provide an effective amount, intensity, and frequency of
energy to specifically dissociate one or more target bonds in one
or more target molecule present in the feedstock. If desired, a
catalyst may be present within the anode. The catalyst may be
dissolved or dispersed within the feedstock, or supported on a
surface within the anode. For example, a catalyst may be deposited
on the surface of the electrode, on one or more surfaces of the
container, or combinations thereof.
[0061] FIG. 2 illustrates another anode utilizing precise energy
separation. The anode includes a container (200) suitable to hold a
volume of feedstock, and a fluid inlet (202) and fluid outlet (204)
for delivering feedstock to and from the container. An electrode
(206) is present within the container, preferably of appropriate
dimensions to facilitate contact with the feedstock. For example,
the electrode can be positioned to traverse a fluid flow path
between the fluid inlet and the fluid outlet. The electrode is
electrically connected to an electron sink (210) using suitable
means to efficiently transfer electrons from the anode to the
electron sink. One or more energy sources (206) are integrated
within the container, in this case within the electrode. This can
be accomplished, for example, by employing an electrode with an
integrated fiber optic device to transmit energy to one or more
target molecule present in the feedstock. The energy source may be
connected to a control unit (208) which can control the energy
source in order to provide an effective amount, intensity, and
frequency of energy to specifically dissociate one or more target
bonds in one or more target molecule present in the feedstock. If
desired, a catalyst may be present within the anode. The catalyst
may by dissolved or dispersed within the feedstock, or supported on
a surface within the anode. In a particular embodiment, a catalyst
is applied to the surface of a fiber optic device integrated with
the electrode, and activated from the inside by the specific energy
of dissociation.
[0062] FIG. 3 illustrates another anode utilizing precise energy
separation. The anode includes a container (300) suitable to hold a
volume of feedstock, and two fluid inlets (302) and a fluid outlet
(304) for delivering feedstock to the container. An electrode (306)
is present within the container, preferably of appropriate
dimensions to facilitate contact with the feedstock. For example,
the electrode can be positioned to traverse a fluid flow path
between the fluid inlets and the fluid outlet. The electrode is
electrically connected to an electron sink (312) using suitable
means to efficiently transfer electrons from the electrode to the
electron sink. One or more energy sources (308) are positioned to
transfer the energy to target molecules in the feedstock. In this
case, the energy source is positioned in proximity to the fluid
inlets. The energy source may be connected to a control unit (310)
which can control the energy source in order to provide an
effective amount, intensity, and frequency of energy to
specifically dissociate one or more target bonds in one or more
target molecule present in the feedstock. If desired a catalyst may
be present within the anode. The catalyst may by dissolved or
dispersed within the feedstock, or supported on a surface within
the anode. In a preferred embodiment, a suitable catalyst is
deposited on the surface of the electrode. In this case, the
distance between the energy source and the electrode may be varied
to optimize the precise energy separation in the vicinity of the
electrode in view of, for example, the turbidity of the feedstock
introduced into the anode.
[0063] FIG. 4 illustrates another anode utilizing precise energy
separation. The anode includes a container (400) suitable to hold a
volume of feedstock, and a fluid inlet (402) and fluid outlet (404)
for delivering feedstock to the container. The container can
further contain a second fluid outlet (414) to collect or condense
a component product formed during precise energy separation. Valves
(416) can be integrated within the fluid inlet and the fluid outlet
to control flow of the feedstock and/or component products into and
out of the container. An electrode (406) is present within the
container, preferably of appropriate dimensions to facilitate
contact with the feedstock. For example, the electrode can be
positioned to traverse a fluid flow path between the fluid inlet
and the fluid outlet. The electrode is electrically connected to an
electron sink (418) using suitable means to efficiently transfer
electrons from the anode to the electron sink. One or more energy
sources (406) are integrated within the container, in this case
within the electrode. This can be accomplished, for example, by
employing an electrode with an integrated fiber optic device to
transmit energy to one or more target molecule present in the
feedstock. The energy source may be connected to a control unit
(408) which can control the energy source in order to provide an
effective amount, intensity, and frequency of energy to
specifically dissociate one or more target bonds in one or more
target molecule present in the feedstock. If desired a catalyst may
be present within the anode. The catalyst may by dissolved or
dispersed within the feedstock, or supported on a surface within
the anode. In a particular embodiment, a catalyst is applied to the
surface of a fiber optic device integrated with the electrode, and
activated from the inside by the specific energy of dissociation.
Sensors (410) can be integrated into the anode to permit real-time
monitoring of the anode's function. Preferably, the sensors are
positioned to not obstruct fluid flow. The sensors can be connected
to a signal processing unit (412), such as a computer, which can
monitor signal outputs, and send signals to anode components to
influence precise energy separation at the anode. For example, the
signal processing unit can send signals to the valves to control
feedstock flow. The signal processing unit can send signals to the
control unit to regulate the energy source.
[0064] A. Feedstock
[0065] The feedstock for reduction at the anode contains one or
more suitable target molecules. Target molecules must contain at
least one bond to be dissociated. Target molecules can be any
compound of the solid, liquid, gas, or plasma physical state.
Target molecules can be charged or uncharged. Target molecules can
be naturally occurring or semi-synthetically or synthetically
prepared compounds.
[0066] In one embodiment, the target molecules are a purified
material. An example is distilled water, which is dissociated into
H.sub.2 and O.sub.2 by the process described herein. In another
embodiment, the target molecules are in a mixture including
non-target molecules, such as a solution containing one or more
target molecules. An example is ammonia dissolved in water. In this
embodiment, ammonia is the target molecule, and is dissociated into
N.sub.2 and H.sub.2. Water in this embodiment is not dissociated
because the energy of dissociation is specific for the energy
required to dissociate the N--H bonds of ammonia and not the O--H
bonds of water.
[0067] Precise energy dissociation can be used to dissociate one or
more bonds in almost any molecule. As a consequence, almost any
suitable molecule may serve as a target molecule. In general,
suitable target molecules can be selected in view of the
availability of target molecules, the nature of the dissociation
process (including available sources of the promoter energy), and
the suitability of component products. For example, the target
molecule may be an organic molecule or an inorganic molecule.
[0068] In certain embodiments, the target molecule is an organic
compound that can be obtained from a renewable source, such as a
carbohydrate. Typically, carbohydrates are organic compounds formed
exclusively from carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, typically with the
empirical formula C.sub.m(H.sub.2O).sub.n, wherein m and n are
independently integers. The carbohydrates may be monosaccharides,
disaccharides, oligosaccharides, or polysaccharides. The
monosaccharides may be aldoses or ketoses, and may contain any
number of carbon atoms (i.e., the monosaccharides may be trioses,
tetroses, pentoses, hexoses, heptoses, etc.). Examples of suitable
monosaccharides include dihydroxyacetone, glyceraldehyde,
erythrulose, threose, erythrose, arabinose, ribose, xylose,
ribulose, allose, altrose, mannose, glucose, galactose, sorbose,
tagatose, and fructose. Suitable disaccharides include sucrose,
lactulose, lactose, maltose, trehalose, and cellobiose. Examples of
suitable oligosaccharides include fructo-oligosaccharides (FOS).
Examples of suitable polysaccharides include starch, cellulose,
inulin, glycogen, chitin, callose, laminarin, chrysolaminarin,
xylan, arabinoxylan, mannan, fucoidan and galactomannan. The target
molecule may also be an amino sugar, such as N-acetylglucosamine,
galactosamine, or sialic acid.
[0069] In other cases, the target molecule is waste, a reaction
byproduct, or a pollutant. Examples of suitable wastes, reaction
byproducts, and pollutants include alkyl sulfonates, alkyl phenols,
ammonia, benzoic acid, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide,
chlorofluorocarbons, dioxin, fumaric acid, grease, herbicides,
hydrochloric acid, hydrogen cyanide, hydrogen sulfide,
formaldehyde, methane, nitrogenous wastes (sewage, waste water, and
agricultural runoff), nitric acid, nitrogen dioxide, ozone,
pesticides, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), oil, ozone, sulfur
dioxide, and sulfuric acid. In some cases, the target molecules are
reactive or volatile aliphatic or aromatic organic compounds.
[0070] Conventional fossil fuels, such as methane or conventional
petroleum distillates, may also serve as target molecules.
[0071] 1. Target Bonds
[0072] A target bond is any bond within a target molecule which is
subjected to precise energy separation. Target bonds should possess
a dissociation energy or energies which, if applied, will break the
target bond, and not allow the bond to reform. Types of bonds that
may be selectively dissociated using precise energy separation
include covalent bonds, ionic bonds, as well as intermolecular
associations such as hydrogen bonds. In some cases, the target
molecule contains a single target bond. In other embodiments, the
target molecule contains multiple target bonds.
[0073] In cases when the target bond is a covalent bond, the bond
may be a single bond, double bond, or triple bond. A non-limiting
list of exemplary target bonds include N--H, C--H, C--C, C.dbd.C,
C.ident.C, C--N, C.dbd.N, C.ident.N, C--O, C.dbd.O, C.ident.O,
O--H, O--P, O.dbd.P, and C--X bonds, where X is any halogen
selected from chlorine, fluorine, iodine, and bromine.
[0074] Precise energy separation requires that the energy of
dissociation must be specific for the target bond of the target
molecule. Bond dissociation energies are well known in the art.
Examples of bond dissociation energies include H--H, 104.2
kcal/mol; B--F, 150 kcal/mol; C.dbd.C, 146 kcal/mol; C--C, 83
kcal/mol; B--O, 125 kcal/mol; N.dbd.N, 109 kcal/mol; N--N, 38.4
kcal/mol; C--N, 73 kcal/mol; O.dbd.O, 119 kcal/mol; O--O, 35
kcal/mol; N--CO, 86 kcal/mol; C.dbd.N, 147 kcal/mol; F--F, 36.6
kcal/mol; C--O, 85.5 kcal/mol; C.dbd.O (CO2), 192 kcal/mol; Si--Si,
52 kcal/mol; O--CO, 110 kcal/mol; C.dbd.O (aldehyde), 177 kcal/mol;
P--P, 50 kcal/mol; C--S, 65 kcal/mol; C.dbd.O (ketone), 178
kcal/mol; S--S, 54 kcal/mol; C--F, 116 kcal/mol; C.dbd.O (ester),
179 kcal/mol; Cl--Cl, 58 kcal/mol; C--C, 181 kcal/mol; C.dbd.O
(amide), 179 kcal/mol; Br--Br, 46 kcal/mol; C--Br, 68 kcal/mol
C.dbd.O (halide), 177 kcal/mol; I--I, 36 kcal/mol; C--I, 51
kcal/mol; C.dbd.S (CS2), 138 kcal/mol; H--C, 99 kcal/mol; C--B, 90
kcal/mol; N.dbd.O (HONO), 143 kcal/mol; H--N, 93 kcal/mol; C--Si,
76 kcal/mol; P.dbd.O (POCl.sub.3), 110 kcal/mol; H--O, 111
kcal/mol; C--P, 70 kcal/mol; P.dbd.S (PSCl.sub.3), 70 kcal/mol;
H--F, 135 kcal/mol; N--O, 55 kcal/mol; S.dbd.O (SO.sub.2), 128
kcal/mol, H--Cl, 103 kcal/mol; S--O, 87 kcal/mol; S.dbd.O (DMSO),
93 kcal/mol; H--Br, 87.5 kcal/mol; Si--F, 135 kcal/mol; P.dbd.P, 84
kcal/mol; H--I, 71 kcal/mol; Si--Cl, 90 kcal/mol; P.ident.P, 117
kcal/mol; H--B, 90 kcal/mol; Si--O, 110 kcal/mol; C.ident.O, 258
kcal/mol; H--S, 81 kcal/mol; P--Cl, 79 kcal/mol; C.ident.C, 200
kcal/mol; H--Si, 75 kcal/mol; P--Br, 65 kcal/mol; N.ident.N, 226
kcal/mol; H--P, 77 kcal/mol; P--O, 90 kcal/mol; C.ident.N, 213
kcal/mol.
[0075] In one embodiment, target bonds are dissociated
heterolytically. When heterolytic cleavage occurs, ionic component
products may be produced in addition to radicals and ejected
electrons, for example:
A:B.fwdarw.A.+B.sup.++e.sup.- or A:B.fwdarw.A.sup.++B.+e.sup.-
[0076] The radicals can re-associate to form A:B, but in preferred
embodiments, the radicals re-associate in a homomeric fashion to
form A:A and B:B component products. In some embodiments the
component products may be understood to be the radicals, and
optionally the radicals may be transient species that react to form
other molecules or components without the re-association of the
target bond. One, two, or more identical radicals can associate to
form known ions, atoms, or molecules.
[0077] In some embodiments, the target molecules contain multiple
non-identical atoms, multiple oxidation states, or combinations
thereof, all of which contain a variety of types of target bonds.
Examples of target molecules with non-identical target bonds
containing multiple non-identical atoms are dichloroethane
(CH.sub.2Cl.sub.2) and ethanolamine (HOCH.sub.2CH.sub.2NH.sub.2).
Examples of target molecules with non-identical target bonds with
multiple oxidation states include ethyl acetylene
HC.ident.CH.sub.2CH.sub.3 and ethyl isocyanate
(CH.sub.3CH.sub.2N.dbd.C.dbd.O).
[0078] B. Energy Sources
[0079] The anodes also include an energy source which supplies the
promoter energy to the feedstock to dissociate one or more target
bonds in one or more target molecules. The energy source provides
the energy of the promoter.
[0080] An energy source can supply the energy of dissociation in
the form of electromagnetic energy, acoustic energy, or any other
energy which meets the bond dissociation energy of the target bond.
In some instances, the source energy is selected from a
non-exclusive list including photonic, photo-catalytic, chemical,
kinetic, potential, magnetic, thermal, sound, light, DC or AC
modulation current (electrical), plasma, ultrasound, piezoelectric,
electrochemical energy, or combinations thereof.
[0081] Suitable energy sources include any apparatus which can
supply the specific bond dissociation energy to break target bonds
of target molecules specifically without non-target molecule bonds
being affected. Examples include mono-chromatic light, monotone
sound, or any other mono-energy source. In certain embodiments, the
energy source supplies the appropriate frequency and intensity of
energy required to attain a multi-photon or multi-frequency energy
of dissociation within a rapid time scale through use of a
generator of nano to pico-pulse cycles.
[0082] In some embodiments, the energy source is a frequency
generator, electrical generator, plasma generator, arc lamp, pulse
generators, amplifying generator, tunable laser, ultraviolet lamp,
ultraviolet laser, pulse ultraviolet generator, ultrasound
generator, or combination thereof. In preferred embodiments, the
energy source is a pulse tunable laser or diode attached to a pulse
generator.
[0083] In some embodiments, the energy source is one or more
reactor beds having any number of lamps, generators, and/or bulbs;
lamps, generators, and/or bulbs having the same or different sizes
in terms of diameter and length; lamps, generators, and/or bulbs
having the same or different wattages and/or any combination of the
foregoing. The lamps, generators, and/or bulbs useful in this
method can be any shape, size, or wattage. For example, use of a
pulse light source allows one to use a 10 watt input of energy and
generate 400,000 watts of pulse energy within 1/3 of a second of
output, thereby reducing energy usage and equipment size and
cost.
[0084] Those skilled in the art will recognize the nature of the
target bond and target molecule will determine the identity,
frequency, and intensity of energy source. The identity, frequency,
and intensity of energy source may also be dependent upon whether
or not a catalyst is present within the fuel cell.
[0085] In one embodiment, photocatalytic processes use ultraviolet
light promoters, supplied by ultraviolet energy sources that are
positioned to emit photons of ultraviolet light. The ultraviolet
light sources are generally adapted to produce light having one or
more wavelengths within the ultraviolet portion of the
electromagnetic spectrum. However, the method should be understood
as including ultraviolet light sources that may produce other light
having one or more wavelengths that are not within the ultraviolet
portion (e.g., wavelengths greater than 400 nm) of the
electromagnetic spectrum.
[0086] In other photocatalytic processes, the energy source is
replaced by other devices, such as lamps or bulbs other than
ultraviolet fluorescent lamps or bulbs; non-ultraviolet light
emitting diodes; waveguides that increase surface areas and direct
ultraviolet light and any energy light source that activates a
photocatalyst; mercury vapor lamps; xenon lamps; halogen lamps;
combination gas lamps; and microwave sources to provide sufficient
energy to the photocatalyst substance to cause the bond
dissociation to occur.
[0087] In one embodiment, the photocatalyst is applied to the
surface of a fiber optic device and activated from the inside by
the specific energy of dissociation. The fiber optic device can be
placed into a membrane through which air, solids or liquids flows,
or integrated within an electrode. In some embodiments, the fiber
optic device is coated with a layer of a catalyst for precise
energy separation, such as graphene. The catalyst can be excited,
for example, by light traveling through the fiber optic device. If
desired, the catalyst present on the fiber optic device can be
coated with a protective coating.
[0088] Those skilled in the art will recognize that the energy
source should be positioned to transfer the energy to the one or
more target molecules. How and in what form the energy is
transferred will depend upon the choice of the energy source, but
the transfer will result in energy being supplied from the energy
source into the target molecules sufficient to promote the
dissociation of one or more target bonds, sufficient to promote the
ejection of one or more electrons, or to promote both the
dissociation of one or more target bonds and the ejection of one or
more electrons. In preferred embodiment the energy source transfers
energy to the target molecules by emitting the precise frequency
and intensity of light or electromagnetic radiation that is
subsequently absorbed by the target molecules to promote the
dissociation of one or more target bonds, sufficient to promote the
ejection of one or more electrons, or to promote both the
dissociation of one or more target bonds and the ejection of one or
more electrons.
[0089] 1. Energy of Dissociation
[0090] The energy of dissociation is the energy required for the
dissociation of one or more target bonds in a target molecule, and
is specific for the target bond or bonds within a target molecule.
The energy of dissociation is tunable and specific for the bond
dissociation energy of any target bond within any target molecule.
The energy of dissociation is applied at a frequency and intensity
effective for both scission of the target bond and target molecule
dissociation.
[0091] In an example, the target molecule is AB, and application of
the energy of dissociation specific for the A--B bond results in
ejection of an electron from the target bond, yielding a radical,
an ion, and an electron, according to the following possible
mechanisms:
A:B.fwdarw.A.+B.sup.++e.sup.- or A:B.fwdarw.A.sup.++B.+e.sup.-
[0092] The ions and radicals can be stable isolable species, or can
combine with other ions to form molecules, i.e., the component
products. The ejected electrons can be captured by an electron sink
via an electrode. The intensity of the energy of dissociation
should be such that re-association of components back into the
target molecules does not occur.
[0093] In one embodiment, application of the energy of dissociation
satisfies the bond dissociation energy of the target bond of a
target molecule via a one step electronic process, and the target
bond is dissociated. Once one target bond has been dissociated, the
energy of dissociation source can be tuned to the frequency of a
second target bond dissociation energy and applied to the sample to
affect dissociation of a second target bond. The energy of
dissociation sources can be tuned as needed to dissociate all
target bonds of the target molecule. There are numerous apparatuses
that can provide multi-energy or photons within a nano second or
quicker to effect irreversible dissociation and prevent formation
of reactants from the dissociated target molecule components.
[0094] In another embodiment, application of the energy of
dissociation satisfies the bond dissociation energy of the target
bond of a target molecule via a process involving the Rydberg
excited state of the target molecule. First, the energy of
dissociation source excites the target molecule to a Rydberg state,
wherein the energy required to nearly remove an electron from the
ionic core (the ionization or dissociation energy) of a target
molecule has been achieved. Next, the same or different energy of
dissociation source then supplies sufficient energy to eject the
excited electron from the target bond. In this embodiment, one or
more energy of dissociation sources can be used for each step. Once
one target bond has been dissociated, the energy of dissociation
source can be tuned to the frequency of a second target bond
dissociation energy. The energy of dissociation sources can be
tuned as needed to dissociate all target bonds of the target
molecule.
[0095] For example, treatment of ammonia with an energy of
dissociation occurs via the two-step process involving the Rydberg
State. First, energy of dissociation treatment of 193 nm excites a
shared electron in the N--H bond such that ammonia is in an excited
Rydberg state. Subsequent energy of dissociation treatment of 214
nm energy expels the electron and dissociates ammonia into
NH.sub.2.sup.+ and H. Subsequent dissociative processes will give
component products which re-associate to form N.sub.2 and
H.sub.2.
[0096] In one embodiment, the one-step process, the two-step
process, or a combination thereof are used to dissociate the target
molecule. In one embodiment, one or more energy of dissociation
sources are used for dissociation of each target bond within a
target molecule. In one embodiment, one or more energy of
dissociation sources are used in combination for dissociation of
each target bond within a target molecule.
[0097] An exemplary molecule contains N--H, C--O, and O--H bonds.
The N--H bond is cleaved with application of a 193 nm and 214 nm
xenon bulb energy of dissociation source. The C--O bonds are
cleaved with a mono-chromatic pulse generator. The O--H bonds are
cleaved with a combination of photocatalyst and UV radiation. All
of these energy of dissociation sources comprise the energy of
dissociation required for complete dissociation of all the bonds of
the target molecule. In some cases this requires three or more bond
energies to expel the electron. In some cases, a filter may be used
to isolate wavelengths or energies from a wide range source.
[0098] 2. Energy Source Intensity
[0099] Energy source intensity is the quantity of energy supplied
to treats a target molecule. Energy source intensity is directly
proportional to the number and percentage of bonds which can be
dissociated. Low intensity energy sources have the capability to
dissociate a smaller proportion of target bonds compared to a
higher intensity energy sources. For example, in a photonic energy
source, the greater the number of photons present, the higher the
likelihood of ejecting electrons.
[0100] In one embodiment, energy source intensity is increased by
use of a pulse generator in conjunction with a lamp of the proper
wavelength, or a tunable laser. In a preferred embodiment, the
pulse generator supplies a predetermined number of pulses per
second.
[0101] 3. Energy Source Frequency
[0102] The frequency of energy source (in photonic cases, the
wavelengths of radiant energy) specifically dissociates target
bonds of target compounds. One frequency, multiple selected
frequencies, or combinations of energy source frequencies can be
used depending on the chemical structure of the target material.
The apparatus must deliver sufficient intensity of the dissociation
energy to completely dissociate the bond in adequate numbers to
satisfy the need of the end user.
[0103] Methods of determining the appropriate frequency at which a
target bond can be dissociated is known in the art, and include
resonance enhanced multi-photon ionization (REMPI) spectroscopy,
resonance ionization spectroscopy (RIS), photofragment imaging,
product imaging, velocity map imaging, three-dimensional ion
imaging, centroiding, zero electron kinetic imaging (ZEKE), mass
enhanced threshold ionization (MATI), and photo-induced Rydberg
ionization (PIRI).
[0104] Wavelengths to dissociate hydrogen atoms from ammonia are
193, 214, 222, 234 and 271 nm. Three or more of these wavelengths
in combination break NH.sub.3 into its components: N.sub.2 (g) and
H.sub.2 (g) without producing ozone. Examples of wavelengths for
dissociation include 193 nm and 214 nm, both of which are required.
A wavelength of 248 nm will break down Ozone. In a preferred
embodiment, the energy of dissociation source frequency range is
from 115 nm to 400 nm, with appropriate filters, to satisfy the
precise frequency of dissociation energies required for hydrogen
dissociation only. Adjustments are made for cage effect and
molecular interaction.
[0105] In one embodiment, the energy source frequency is supplied
by a tunable laser or light energy source that subjects samples to
a mono-energy.
[0106] If the proper dissociation bond energy at a sufficient
intensity to dissociate a selected bond or group of bonds is
applied, there are no indiscriminate or random molecules or atoms
produced other than what will be determined by the selected bonds
which are targeted for dissociation, eliminating the random
production of undesirable by-products or intermediates seen in
oxidation and reduction, microbial or indiscriminate chemical
reaction. An electron sink can also be added to the process to
insure that there is no recombination or potential for intermediate
or by-product production.
[0107] C. Catalysts
[0108] In some embodiments, the anode includes a catalyst. The
catalyst enhances the rate of bond dissociation. The catalyst can
be any material of any physical configuration which is compatible
with the sample and any other energy of dissociation sources.
Catalysts may be unifunctional, multifunctional, or a combination
thereof. Catalysts can be used alone or in combination with other
catalysts. In certain embodiments, the catalyst is used to drive
the reaction to approximately 100% completion (e.g., to dissociate
essentially all of a target molecule.
[0109] The catalyst, when present, may be dissolved or dispersed
within the feedstock, or supported on a surface within the anode.
In some embodiments, a suitable catalyst is deposited on the
surface of the electrode. In other embodiments, a suitable catalyst
is deposited on a surface of an energy source, such as a fiber
optic device. Catalysts may also be applied to the surface of a
carrier, such as a nanoparticle, which is dispersed within the
feedstock.
[0110] In a preferred embodiment, an energy source includes a
photocatalyst and photonic (light-based) energy source. The
photocatalyst provides an effective means for converting light into
chemical energy. The catalyst or photocatalyst may be a
semi-conductive material such as titanium oxides, platinized
titania, amorphous manganese oxide, and copper-doped manganese
oxide, titanium dioxide, strontium titanate, barium titanate,
sodium titanate, cadmium sulfide, zirconium dioxide, and iron
oxide. Photocatalysts can also be semiconductors that support a
metal, such as platinum, palladium, rhodium, and ruthenium,
strontium titanate, amorphous silicon, hydrogenated amorphous
silicon, nitrogenated amorphous silicon, polycrystalline silicon,
and germanium, and combinations thereof. Catalysts or
photocatalysts can be nitrides; metal nitrides such as titanium
nitride, molybdenum nitride, or iron nitride; nitrides of graphitic
carbon; or combinations thereof. Catalysts or photocatalysts can be
carbon-based graphene or graphite, fullerenes, as well as
carbon-doped semi-conductive or other magnetic material, for
example, graphene doped amorphous Manganese Oxide (AMO). The
photocatalysts can be doped metal oxides where the dopants are
distributed throughout the oxide to create an electric field within
the anode to prevent recombination. The dopants can be distributed
wherein the dopant density varies in a controlled manner across the
metal oxide. In some embodiments the photocatalyst is the metal
oxide bismuth vanadate (BiVO.sub.4). The BiVO.sub.4 can be doped to
prevent recombination and enhance charge carrier generation. In
some embodiments the BiVO.sub.4 is doped with Tungsten atoms. The
dope BiVO.sub.4 can contain additional catalyst layers, for
instance an inexpensive cobalt phosphate catalyst can also be
employed for splitting water to make hydrogen gas.
[0111] Catalysts may be modified to increase or optimize activity.
Some of the parameters to increase activity include enhanced
surface area, optimization of [Cu.sup.2+], and resultant
morphology. The electronic properties of the catalyst may also be
important since the AMO is mixed valence (Mn.sup.2+, Mn.sup.3+,
Mn.sup.4+) and possible reduction of Cu.sup.2+ to Cu.sup.1+. The
most active photocatalysts can be analyzed with X-ray photoelectron
spectroscopy to study the oxidation state of the copper in these
materials. Catalysts are characterized with X-ray powder
diffraction (XRD) to study any crystallinity of the materials,
electron diffraction (ED) in a transmission electron microscope
(TEM) to study both crystalline and amorphous content of the
catalyst, and atomic absorption (AA) for compositions of the
catalyst. Semi-quantitative analyses of the solid sample can be
done by energy dispersive X-ray analyses in a scanning electron
microscope (SEM).
[0112] D. Electrodes
[0113] The anodes contain one or more electrodes. Electrodes
preferably possess appropriate dimensions to facilitate contact
with the feedstock. For example, the electrode can be positioned to
traverse a fluid flow path between the fluid inlet and the fluid
outlet. In some embodiments, the electrode is designed to have a
high surface area, and to facilitate flow of a feedstock through
the anode. For example, the electrode may be a wire mesh or similar
structure.
[0114] Electrodes are fabricated from a conductive material that
can accept electrons released by precise energy separation. The
electrodes are electrically connected to an electron sink using
suitable means to efficiently transfer electrons from the electrode
to the electron sink. In some embodiments, the electrodes are metal
oxides. In some cases it may be beneficial to use optically
transparent electrodes which may include transparent conducting
oxides such as indium-tin-oxides or aluminum-zinc-oxides. In some
embodiments, the electrodes may be graphene or graphene oxides. In
some cases, the electrodes may be common monatomic electrode
materials such as aluminum, calcium, silver, gold, or
palladium.
[0115] E. Electron Sinks
[0116] The electrode is electrically connected to an electron sink.
The electron sink has an appropriate potential to cause electrons
accepted by the electrode to flow to the electron sink.
[0117] In some embodiments, the electron sink is a cathode which
performs a reduction half-cell reaction. In other embodiments, the
electron sink may be a cathode within a battery. In these cases,
the anode may serve to charge a battery. In other embodiments, the
electron sink may be a piezoelectric material. In these cases, the
direct electrical current collected at the anode can be converted
into mechanical energy. The cathode may in some embodiments be a
metal or metal oxide such as a nickel or nickel oxide material. The
cathode may include titanium oxides (TiO.sub.2), platinized
titania, amorphous manganese oxide, copper-doped manganese,
strontium titanate, barium titanate, sodium titanate, cadmium
sulfide, zirconium dioxide, iron oxide, carbon-based graphene or
graphite, fullerenes, buckyballs, diamond, combinations of
carbon-doped semi-conductive materials, carbon-doped magnetic
materials, graphene oxides, nickel, nickel molybdenum, boron
nitride, semiconductor materials including platinum, palladium,
rhodium, and ruthenium, strontium titanate, amorphous silicon,
hydrogenated amorphous silicon, nitrogenated amorphous silicon,
polycrystalline silicon, germanium, and combinations thereof.
III. Fuel Cells Based Upon Precise Energy Dissociation
[0118] Fuel cells typically include an anode, a cathode, and an
electrolyte that allows charges to move between the anode and
cathode. During fuel cell operation, a chemical fuel is oxidized at
the anode, producing positively charged ions and electrons. The
electrolyte permits the cations produced at the anode to flow
through the electrolyte to the cathode; however, the electrolyte
does not facilitate the flow of electrons to the cathode. Rather,
electrons are drawn from the anode to the cathode through an
external circuit, producing direct current electricity.
[0119] Fuel cells are frequently classified by the type of
electrolyte employed. For instance, the electrolyte can be a
liquid, a solid oxide, or a polymer. Liquid electrolyte materials
include potassium hydroxide solutions, phosphoric acid solutions,
or molten alkali carbonates, typically enclosed in a solid matrix.
In some embodiments, the electrolyte transports protons from the
anode to the cathode region. In some embodiments, the electrolyte
is a solid or semi-solid polymer membrane. In some embodiments, the
electrolyte is a wire, preferably a polymer nanowire that connects
the anode and cathode regions and facilitates the conduction of
protons.
[0120] Proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cells, also known as
polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells, have attracted particular
interest in recent years. PEM fuel cells contain an anode and a
cathode separated by a proton-conducting membrane. During fuel cell
operation, a chemical fuel (hydrogen gas) is delivered to the fuel
cell anode. The hydrogen gas is oxidized at the anode (typically in
the presence of a catalyst), and dissociates into protons and
electrons. The newly formed protons permeate through the polymer
electrolyte membrane to the cathode side of the fuel cell. The
electrons travel along an external load circuit to the cathode side
of the fuel cell, creating the current output of the fuel cell.
Meanwhile, a stream of oxygen is delivered to the cathode. At the
cathode side, oxygen molecules react with the protons permeating
through the polymer electrolyte membrane and the electrons arriving
through the external circuit to form water molecules. In this
fashion, PEM fuel cells transform the chemical energy liberated
during the electrochemical reaction of hydrogen and oxygen to
electrical energy.
[0121] PEM fuel cells can be used to generate electrical power
without producing pollutants and without consuming non-renewable
hydrocarbon-based fuels, such as oil or gasoline. However, PEM fuel
cells are hampered by several drawbacks. PEM fuel cells employ
hydrogen gas as a chemical fuel. Hydrogen gas is difficult to store
and transport to the anode surface. In addition, hydrogen cannot be
produced in an economical fashion without the presence of
impurities, such as carbon monoxide. These impurities can poison
catalysts in the fuel cell, diminishing fuel cell performance over
time. Many PEM fuel cells also employ expensive platinum catalysts,
making PEM fuel cells too expensive for many applications. In
addition, the efficiency of PEM fuel cells falls far short of their
theoretical maximum performance.
[0122] Microbial fuel cells are similar to PEM fuel cells, except
that the chemical reactions taking place in the anode region,
cathode region, or both regions are promoted by microorganisms. As
the microorganisms digest molecules in the feedstock, electrons
and/or protons are generated and transferred through the electrode
or the electrolyte materials respectively. Microbial fuel cells
have the advantage that they can handle a larger variety of
feedstock. Microbial fuel cells can, in principal, digest any form
of organic material (glucose, acetate, wastewater, etc.) to produce
electricity.
[0123] Fuel cells can be constructed which incorporate an anode
that utilizes precise energy separation, as described above. In
these embodiments, the electron sink is a cathode at which a
reduction half-cell reaction occurs involving one or more of the
component products formed at the anode. In certain embodiments, the
fluid outlet of the anode is typically connected to a second
container containing the cathode at which a reduction half-cell
reaction involving one or more of the component products formed at
the anode occurs. In these instances, a selectively permeable
membrane, such as a proton exchange membrane, may be positioned
between the anode and the cathode as required for fuel cell
performance. The cathode may be similar to the PEM cathode, wherein
a stream of oxygen is passed across the membrane and combines with
the protons and the electrons coming through the electrode to form
water. In some embodiments, the cathode region may incorporate
microorganisms. In some embodiments, the anodes utilize PES to
mimic microbial digestion processes.
[0124] A plurality of fuel cells based upon precise energy
dissociation can be electrically connected in parallel, in series,
or combinations thereof in order to form a fuel cell stack with the
voltage and current output required for a particular
application.
[0125] Unless defined otherwise, all technical and scientific terms
used herein have the same meanings as commonly understood by one of
skill in the art to which the disclosed invention belongs.
Publications cited herein and the materials for which they are
cited are specifically incorporated by reference.
[0126] Those skilled in the art will recognize, or be able to
ascertain using no more than routine experimentation, many
equivalents to the specific embodiments of the invention described
herein. Such equivalents are intended to be encompassed by the
following claims.
* * * * *