U.S. patent application number 14/168581 was filed with the patent office on 2014-05-29 for commercial insurance scoring system and method.
This patent application is currently assigned to Deloitte Development LLC. The applicant listed for this patent is Deloitte Development LLC. Invention is credited to Matthew R. Carrier, John R. Lucker, Dominic A. Tocci, Cheng-Sheng Peter Wu, Frank M. Zizzamia.
Application Number | 20140149150 14/168581 |
Document ID | / |
Family ID | 22915581 |
Filed Date | 2014-05-29 |
United States Patent
Application |
20140149150 |
Kind Code |
A1 |
Zizzamia; Frank M. ; et
al. |
May 29, 2014 |
COMMERCIAL INSURANCE SCORING SYSTEM AND METHOD
Abstract
A quantitative system and method that leverages data sources
external to an insurance company to generate a statistical model
that may be used to predict insurance coverage profitability. The
system and method can predict profitability on a prospective basis
regardless of the internal data and business practices of a
particular insurance company.
Inventors: |
Zizzamia; Frank M.; (Canton,
CT) ; Wu; Cheng-Sheng Peter; (Arcadia, CA) ;
Tocci; Dominic A.; (Oak Park, IL) ; Carrier; Matthew
R.; (Naperville, IL) ; Lucker; John R.;
(Simsbury, CT) |
|
Applicant: |
Name |
City |
State |
Country |
Type |
Deloitte Development LLC |
Hermitage |
TN |
US |
|
|
Assignee: |
Deloitte Development LLC
Hermitage
TN
|
Family ID: |
22915581 |
Appl. No.: |
14/168581 |
Filed: |
January 30, 2014 |
Related U.S. Patent Documents
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Application
Number |
Filing Date |
Patent Number |
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13397508 |
Feb 15, 2012 |
8655687 |
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14168581 |
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|
10054702 |
Oct 23, 2001 |
8145507 |
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13397508 |
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60242633 |
Oct 23, 2000 |
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Current U.S.
Class: |
705/4 |
Current CPC
Class: |
G06Q 10/0635 20130101;
G06Q 40/02 20130101; G06Q 40/025 20130101; G06Q 40/08 20130101 |
Class at
Publication: |
705/4 |
International
Class: |
G06Q 40/08 20120101
G06Q040/08 |
Claims
1. A method for predicting the profitability of insurance coverage,
the method comprising: using at least one data processing device:
determining predictive variables based on variables included in
data, the predictive variables being ones of the variables included
in the data that are predictive of insurance coverage
profitability, the predictive variables including at least one
derived variable that is one of a combination of and derived from
the variables included in the data; creating a statistical model
based on the predictive variables; using the model, calculating a
score for at least one insurance coverage record; and using the
score to predict the profitability of the at least one insurance
coverage record.
2. The method of claim 1, wherein the data is from at least one
external data source.
3. The method of claim 2, wherein determining predictive variables
includes associating normalized historical premium and loss data
with the at least one external data source.
4. The method of claim 1, wherein creating the statistical model is
effected using at least one multivariate method.
5. The method of claim 1, wherein the at least one insurance
coverage record is a commercial insurance policy.
6. A non-transitory medium storing computer executable program
logic to: determine predictive variables based on variables
included in data, the predictive variables being ones of the
variables included in the data that are predictive of insurance
coverage profitability, the predictive variables including at least
one derived variable that is one of a combination of and derived
from the variables included in the data; create a statistical model
based on the predictive variables; using the model, calculate a
score for at least one insurance coverage record; and predict the
profitability of the at least one insurance coverage record based
on the score.
7. The medium of claim 6, wherein the data is from at least one
external data source.
8. The medium of claim 7, wherein determining the predictive
variables includes associating normalized historical premium and
loss data with the at least one external data source.
9. The medium of claim 6, wherein creating the statistical model
includes using at least one multivariate method.
10. The medium of claim 6, wherein the at least one insurance
coverage record is a commercial insurance policy.
Description
RELATED APPLICATION DATA
[0001] This application is a continuation of U.S. Ser. No.
13/397,508 filed Feb. 15, 2012, which is a continuation of U.S.
Ser. No. 10/054,702 (now U.S. Pat. No. 8,145,507), filed Oct. 23,
2001, which claims priority to U.S. Provisional No. 60/242,633
filed Oct. 23, 2000, the contents of all of which are hereby
incorporated by reference in their entireties.
BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION
[0002] The present invention is directed generally to a system and
method for predicting the profitability of insurance coverage and,
more specifically, to a system and method for calculating or
deriving a score that is predictive of the future profitability of
commercial insurance to be issued to a potential, or reissued to an
active, policyholder. The future profitability of commercial
insurance can be defined as an assessment, on a prospective basis,
of whether a policyholder is going to be charged too much, or too
little, as is generally determinable by conventional insurance
company pricing methodologies using standard and traditional
methods to establish premiums, in relation to that particular
policyholder's expected losses.
[0003] Commercial insurance provides coverage for many different
types of exposures. These include several major lines of coverage,
e.g., property, general liability, automobile, and workers
compensation. There are many other types of specialty coverages and
many more types of subcoverages within the major lines of
coverage.
[0004] Ideally, an insurance company would price a coverage based
on a policyholder's future losses, i.e., the price should be a
function of the loss potential which can never be completely known
in advance, hence the introduction of risk. The more accurate
assessment of that risk, then the more certainty of profitability
of the individual insurance policy. The premiums to be paid by the
policyholder for the coverage should reflect this risk. That is,
higher premiums should be charged for high-risk policyholders while
lower premiums should be charged for low-risk policyholders.
[0005] The problem of how to adequately price a coverage is
challenging, often requiring the application of complex and highly
technical actuarial transformations. The technical difficulties
with pricing coverages are compounded by real world marketplace
pressures such as the need to maintain an "ease-of-business-use"
process with policyholders and agents, and the underpricing of
coverages by competitors attempting to buy market share.
[0006] In the insurance industry, there are generally two
approaches for determining the appropriate premium, or pricing, in
relation to the insurance risk for a specific major coverage. The
first approach is to price the underlying exposure being insured by
the particular coverage, e.g., the business property to be insured
for property related losses. The second and less practiced approach
is to price the coverage based on certain characteristics or
practices of the owner of the business property to be insured.
[0007] Under the first approach, pricing is based on tangible
factors such as the square footage of the property, location of the
property, number of vehicles and number of employees. These
tangible factors are quantitative and, for the most part, easily
capable of measurement. Under the second and less practiced
approach, while the exposure characteristics of the first approach
may in fact set a base premium level, the final determination of
the price of the coverage is further determined as related to
certain characteristics of the business owner and the business
practices of the business itself. For example, the premium for a
particular coverage may depend on how conservative and careful the
business owner is in conducting his or her business operation. That
is, a more profitable insurance policy is more likely to result
from a conservative and careful business owner, which
characteristics should be reflected in the determination of each
such policyholder's final price.
[0008] Despite the availability of alternative pricing
methodologies, the insurance regulatory system is based on the
first approach, i.e., pricing the exposure, while relegating the
business practices and business owner characteristic aspect of
pricing to underwriting judgment and expertise. Thus, in the
current marketplace little practical emphasis is placed on the
business practices and business owner characteristic aspect of
pricing coverages.
[0009] In addition, the insurance industry has not effectively
included the use of external data sources in the estimation of the
profitability of a commercial insurance policy, or in other words,
the determination of an appropriate premium for a particular
commercial insurance policy. External data sources offer one of the
best opportunities to obtain the characteristics of a business and
or the practices of an owner of the business property to be
insured, which is essential for practicing the second approach to
pricing as described above. While commercial insurance companies
have occasionally looked to non-traditional factors to supplement
their conventional pricing methods, such use has been at best
haphazard, inconsistent, and usually relegated to a subjective
perspective of an underwriter. In the commercial insurance
industry, these practices have resulted in pricing methods that,
although occasionally using non-traditional factors, are generally
specific to the data and business practices of a particular
insurance company.
[0010] Accordingly, a need exists for a system and method that
performs a complete profitability evaluation that does not rely on
conventional commercial insurance pricing methodologies. A still
further need exists for such a system and method that utilizes
external data sources to generate a generic statistical model that
is predictive of future profitability of commercial insurance
coverages, independent of a particular insurance company's internal
data, business practices, and particular pricing methodology. A
still further need exists for such a system and method that can be
used to augment conventional commercial insurance pricing
methodologies to quantitatively include through the use of external
data sources business owners' characteristics and business
practices, and other non-exposure-based characteristics.
[0011] In view of the foregoing, the present invention provides a
quantitative system and method that employs data sources external
to an insurance company to either independently or more accurately
and consistently predict the future profitability of commercial
insurance on a per policyholder basis. The present system and
method predict profitability using a statistical model that is
developed from external data sources independent of a particular
insurance company's internal data, business practices, and
particular pricing methodology.
SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION
[0012] The present invention is directed to the creation of a
predictive statistical model that generates a score representative
of the commercial insurance profitability of a new, or existing,
policyholder, independent of the internal data, business practices
or pricing methodology of the insurance company issuing the policy,
including the steps of (i) gathering historical policyholder data
from one of a number of sources, e.g., a representative group of
insurance companies historical policyholder data, an insurance
industry organization's aggregated policyholder data from member
companies, public sources such as state insurance departments which
may maintain historical data required by statutory reporting
requirements, and the like, and then storing such historical
policyholder data in a database; (ii) identifying external data
sources having a plurality of external variables potentially
predictive of profitability, each variable preferably having at
least two values; (iii) normalizing the historical policyholder
data using actuarial transformations to generate working data; (iv)
calculating a loss ratio for each policyholder in the database
using the working data; (v) using the working data to calculate a
cumulative loss ratio for each potentially predictive external
variable value; (vi) analyzing one or more external variables to
identify significant statistical relationships between the one or
more external variables and the cumulative loss ratio; (vii)
identifying and choosing predictive external variables based on
statistical significance and the determination of highly
experienced actuaries and statisticians; (viii) utilizing the
various predictive variables to develop an overall model or
algorithm predictive of the commercial insurance profitability; and
(ix) scoring new or existing policyholders using the predictive
statistical model as developed herein.
[0013] In accordance with another aspect of the invention the
external sources are selected from a group comprised of business
level databases (e.g., Dun & Bradstreet and Experian), zip code
level census data (as provided by the U.S. government or third
party source), county level data such as weather, and business
owner household level demographics data (e.g., Axciom and
INFO-USA).
[0014] In accordance with yet another aspect of the invention, the
database includes historical premium and loss data on a plurality
of policyholders from one or more of the possible historical
policyholder data sources.
[0015] Accordingly, it is an object of the present invention to
provide a system and method that employs data sources external to
an insurance company to develop a statistical model that is
predictive of individual commercial insurance policyholder
profitability, independent of the internal business practices or
internal data of a particular commercial insurance provider. Other
objects and advantages of the invention will in part be obvious and
will in part be apparent from the specification.
[0016] The present invention accordingly comprises the various
steps and the relation of one or more of such steps with respect to
each of the others, and the product which embodies features of
construction, combinations of elements, and arrangement of parts
which are adapted to effect such steps, all as exemplified in the
following detailed disclosure, and the scope of the invention will
be indicated in the claims.
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS
[0017] For a fuller understanding of the invention, reference is
made to the following description, taken in connection with the
accompanying drawings, in which:
[0018] FIGS. 1A and 1B are flow diagrams depicting the steps
carried out in actuarially transforming policyholder data and
identifying predictive external variables preparatory to developing
a statistical model that predicts individual commercial insurance
profitability in accordance with a preferred embodiment of the
present invention;
[0019] FIGS. 2A and 2B are flow diagrams depicting the steps
carried out in developing the statistical model and calculating a
score using the statistical model that predicts individual
commercial insurance in accordance with a preferred embodiment of
the present invention; and
[0020] FIG. 3 is a block diagram of a system according to an
exemplary embodiment of the present invention.
DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS
[0021] The present invention is a quantitative system that employs
data sources external to an insurance company to generate a
statistical model that may be used to predict commercial insurance
profitability (the "predictive statistical model"). The predictive
statistical model may be based on multivariate methods or other
comparable statistical algorithmic approaches. Subsequent
descriptions herein will utilize a multivariate statistical
approach as the basis for the description of the underlying
methodology of developing the model and its associated
structure.
[0022] Reference is first made to FIGS. 1A and 1B which generally
depict the steps in the process preparatory to developing the
statistical predictive model based on historical policyholder data
and associated external data. To begin the process, historical
premium and loss data for a plurality of policyholders are
collected from one or more of the historical policyholder data
sources and stored in a database in step 100 as policyholder
records. Next, in step 104, a number of external data sources
having a plurality of variables, each variable having at least two
values, are identified for use in generating the predictive
statistical model.
[0023] As shown in FIG. 3, the historical policyholder data may be
stored on a relational database 20 (as are well known and provided
by, for example, IBM, Microsoft Corporation, Oracle and the like)
associated with a computer system 10 running the computational
hardware and software applications necessary to generate the
predictive statistical model. The computer system 10 should include
a microprocessor 30, memory (not shown), storage medium (not
shown), input devices (e.g., keyboard, mouse) 40, and a monitor 50.
The system 10 may be operated using a conventional operating system
and preferably includes a graphical user interface for navigating
and controlling various computational aspects of the present
invention. The system 10 may also be linked to one or more external
data source servers 60 that feed the system 10 with the necessary
external data for deriving the predictive statistical model.
Alternatively, as shown in FIG. 3, a stand-alone workstation 70,
including a processor, memory, input devices and storage medium may
be used to access the database 20.
[0024] In step 108, the historical policyholder premium and loss
data are normalized using actuarial transformations. This step may
also include the creation of new variables which are combinations
of or derived from external variables obtained from the external
data sources. For example, the external data source of Dun &
Bradstreet provides the external variable, annual sales; by
extracting several historical years of annual sales for a
policyholder, that policyholder's change in annual sales from
year-to-year may be easily calculated and treated as a new or
additional variable not otherwise available from the external data
source.
[0025] The normalized data ("work data") including normalized
premium data ("premium work data") and normalized loss data ("loss
work data") are associated with the data sources to help identify
external variables predictive of profitability from the external
data sources. As an initial step in this process, a loss ratio is
calculated from each policyholder's premium work data and loss work
data, in step 112. The loss ratio is defined as the ratio of losses
to premiums for a specific policy term, i.e., the premium and
losses for a particular policy term, usually representing a time
period of twelve months and specifically identified with a starting
date and an expiration date.
[0026] Thereafter, in step 116 a cumulative loss ratio is
calculated for a defined group of policyholders. A defined group of
policyholders may be all policyholders covered by a major line of
coverage. The cumulative loss ratio is defined as the ratio of the
sum of the loss work data for a defined group to the sum of the
premium work data for the same defined group. Once the cumulative
loss ratio has been calculated for a defined group, a statistical
analysis is performed in step 120 to identify any significant
statistical relationships between the cumulative loss ratio for the
defined group and one or more external variables taken from the
external data sources (e.g., Dun & Bradstreet).
[0027] Additional statistical analysis is also performed in step
120 to identify any statistical relationships between one or more
external variables taken from the external data sources that may be
related to the cumulative loss ratio for the defined group as
evidenced by their possible relationship to variables that are
themselves known to be related to, and associated with, the
cumulative loss ratio for the defined group, e.g., the loss
frequency or the loss severity. As these other related measures of
profitability are present in the policyholder historical data, such
statistical relationships can be calculated.
[0028] With the statistical analysis completed for one or more
external variables, the significance of the relationship between
the one or more external variables and cumulative loss ratio for
the defined group is determined by highly experienced actuaries and
statisticians (the "reviewers") in step 124. This step of the
process is highly empirical in nature. Based on the critical
determinations of the reviewers, individual external variables will
be selected for generating the predictive statistical model.
[0029] After the individual external variables have been selected
by the reviewers as being significant, these variables are examined
in step 128 for cross-correlations against one another. To the
extent cross-correlation is present between, for example, a pair of
external variables, the reviewer may elect to discard one external
variable of the pair of external variables showing
cross-correlation.
[0030] Referring now to FIGS. 2A and 2B, the steps in the process
for generating the predictive statistical model based on historical
and external data and score calculation are generally depicted. In
step 200, the data is split into multiple separate subsets of data
on a random, or otherwise statistically significant basis, that is
actuarially determined. More specifically, the data is split into a
training data set, test data set and validation data set. This is
essentially the last step before developing the predictive
statistical model. At this point the work data has been calculated
and the external variables predictive of profitability have been
initially defined.
[0031] As will be explained in detail, the task of developing the
predictive statistical model is begun using the training data set
in step 204A. As part of the same process, in step 204B, the test
data set is used to evaluate the efficacy of the predictive
statistical model being developed with the training data set. The
results from the test data set may be used at various stages to
modify the development of the predictive statistical model. Once
the predictive statistical model is developed, the predictiveness
of the model is tested on the validation data set in steps
208-220.
[0032] More specifically, the validation data set is scored in step
208 using the predictive statistical model developed in steps 204A
and 204B. In step 212, the policies in the validation data set are
sorted by the score assigned to each by the predictive statistical
model and divided in groups of equal size, typically ten. Next, in
step 216, the cumulative loss ratio of each group is calculated
using the work data derived in step 108. In step 220, a loss ratio
relativity for each group is calculated.
[0033] In calculating the score of a new or existing policyholder,
the predictive statistical model developed in steps 204A and 204B
and validated in step 208 is used. First, the data for the
predictive variables that comprise the statistical model are
gathered from the external data sources. Based on these values, the
predictive statistical model generates a score. This score is then
gauged against one of the loss ratio relativities calculated in
step 220 in order make a commercial insurance profitability
prediction, as shown in step 224.
[0034] The steps as shown in FIGS. 1A, 1B, 2A and 2B are now
described in more detail. In the preferred embodiment of the
present invention, actual historical premiums and loss data for a
plurality of policyholders are derived or calculated from the
historical policyholder data from the external data sources (the
"Consortium") in step 100. Preferably, several years of
policyholders' data are gathered and pooled together in a single
database (the "Consortium database") as policyholder records. Other
related information on each policyholder is also gathered and
pooled into the Consortium database, e.g., the policyholder's
business name, address including zip code, type of coverage, number
of business properties, etc. This information is critical in
associating a policyholder's data with the predictive variables
obtained from the external data sources.
[0035] External data aggregation is a rapidly expanding field.
Numerous vendors are constantly developing new external data bases.
According to a preferred embodiment of the present invention, the
external data sources include, but are not limited to the following
described external data sources. Of significant importance is
individual business level databases such as Dun & Bradstreet
(D&B) and Experian data. Variables selected from the business
level databases are matched to the data held in the Consortium
database electronically based on the business name and address of
the policyholder. However, more accurate keyed matches may be
employed whenever an external data provider's unique data key is
present in the data sources, e.g., a DUNS number is present in the
Consortium database allowing the data to be matched to a specific
record in the D&B database based on the D&B DUNS
number.
[0036] Also included as an external data source is census data that
is available from both U.S. Government agencies and third parties
vendors, e.g., the EASI product. Such census data is matched to the
Consortium database electronically based on the policyholder's
business level zip code. County level data is also available and
can include such information as historical weather patterns, hail
falls, etc. In the preferred embodiment of the present invention,
the individual business level zip codes are rolled up to a county
level and the Consortium database is then matched to the county
level data.
[0037] External data sources also include business owner household
level demographics from data providers such as Axciom or INFO-USA.
These data providers offer many characteristics of a business
owner's household, e.g., income, home owned or rented, education
level of the business owner, etc. The business owner household
level data is based on the business owner's name, address, and when
available, social security number. Other business owner level data
sources are also included, when available. These include a business
owner's individual credit report, driving record from MVR and
automobile and homeowners' loss information from CLUE reports, both
of which are available from ChoicePoint and other similar data
aggregators.
[0038] Thus in step 104, several major external data sources having
multiple variables potentially predictive of commercial insurance
profitability are identified. Variables are selected from each of
the multiple external data sources and matched to the Consortium
database on a policy-by-policy basis. The variables from the
external data sources are available to be matched to Consortium
data to identify a relationship between the variables (on a per
value basis, assuming a variable has more than one value) and
commercial insurance profitability, as evidenced by the cumulative
loss ratio associated with each value of these in the Consortium
database. As the statistical relationship between the variables and
Consortium data is established, these variables will be considered
for inclusion in the development of a model that is predictive of
commercial insurance profitability.
[0039] There are major classes or types of variables from the
external data sources for each policyholder in the Consortium data.
These include geographic factors, business stability, policy
characteristics, weather patterns, and business owner household
information. In the table 1.0 below, examples of individual
variables for each of these classes of variables are listed as
might be employed for a commercial automobile profitability
predictive model:
TABLE-US-00001 TABLE 1.0 Geographic Factors Population percent
employed in transportation Crime rate Business Stability
Import/export Bankruptcy Manufacturing company Sales Number of
employees Payment experience Weather Patterns Extreme heat Average
hail Business Owner Household Education Number of children
Household income
[0040] The matching process for the external data is completely
computerized. Each individual external data base has a unique key
on each of the records in the particular database. This unique key
must also exist on each of the records in the Consortium database.
For external business level data, e.g., Dun & Bradstreet, the
unique key is the business name and address or in some instances
the Federal Employer Identification Number (FEIN). For the census
data, the unique key is either the county code or the zip code. For
business owner household level demographics, the unique key is
either the business owner's name and personal household address, or
the business owner's social security number.
[0041] The external data is electronically secured and loaded onto
the computer system where the Consortium data can be accessed. One
or more software applications then match the appropriate external
data records to the appropriate Consortium database records. The
resulting match produces expanded Consortium database records with
not only historical policyholder data but matched external data as
well. In some cases, the external data vendor may provide the
matching function and return completely matched and updated records
back to the Consortium database.
[0042] As further described, the Consortium data is matched to the
external data sources. The actual keys for each class of external
data is described in table 2.0:
TABLE-US-00002 TABLE 2.0 Geographic Factors zip code Business
Stability business name and address Weather Patterns county code
Business Owner ssn or business owner name and address Household
[0043] Next, in step 108, necessary and appropriate actuarial
modifications to the data held in the Consortium database are
completed. Actuarial transformations are required to make the data
more useful in the development of the predictive statistical model
since much of the data within the Consortium database cannot be
used in its raw form. This is particularly true of the premium and
loss data. These actuarial transformations include, but are not
limited to, premium manualization to achieve a common basis of
premium comparison, loss trending, loss capping, and other
actuarial techniques that may be relied on to accurately reflect
the true loss potential of each individual policyholder.
[0044] Premium manualization is an actuarial technique that
transforms diversely calculated individual policyholder premiums to
a common basis that is based upon a standard premium, sometimes
referred to as the manual premium. A manual premium is a premium
that can be calculated by following the formulae in insurance
company manuals or the formulae in insurance industry
organization's published manuals. This is necessary since the
actual premium that a policyholder is charged is not entirely a
consistent or a quantitative process. More particularly, within any
individual insurance company, commercial insurance premiums for a
particular policyholder typically can be written by several
"writing" companies, each of which may charge a different base
premium. Different underwriters will often select different writing
companies even for the same policyholder. Additionally, an
underwriter may apply credits or debits for individual policies
further affecting the base premium. Thus, there are significant
qualitative judgments or subjective elements in the process that
complicate the determination of a manual premium.
[0045] The premium manualization process removes these, and other,
subjective elements from the determination of the premium for every
policy in the Consortium database. As a result, a common base
premium may be determined. Such a common basis is required to
develop the profitability indications from the data that are
necessary to build the predictive statistical model. It may also
remove the effect of rate changes throughout the data time periods,
as well as the pricing differences between different insurance
companies whose data comprise the Consortium database.
[0046] The Consortium database loss data must also be actuarially
modified or transformed according to a preferred embodiment of the
present invention to produce accurate profitability predictions.
More specifically, some commercial insurance coverages have "long
tail losses." Long tail losses are losses that are usually not paid
during the policy term, but rather are paid a significant amount of
time after the end of the policy period. Different commercial
coverages have significantly different long tail loss patterns, and
these differences must be compensated for through appropriate
actuarial modifications. A time limit for such loss development
must be selected which is sufficiently mature and will produce an
accurate indication of ultimate loss and hence overall
profitability. The loss development patterns of the policies in the
Consortium database are analyzed by examining traditional actuarial
loss development triangles and associated loss development factors.
An experienced actuary uses this information to determine the
appropriate development period for a particular commercial major
coverage. The actuary must strike a reasonable balance between the
loss development maturity of the data and the resultant number of
policies available for modeling. For a given set of policies in the
Consortium database, as the required loss development period
increases, the number of policies that can be employed
correspondingly decreases.
[0047] For example, general liability coverage provides coverage
for slip and fall claims. While a slip and fall claim may be
properly and timely brought to attention during the policy's period
of coverage, actual claim payouts may be deferred over several
years as is the case when the liability for a slip and fall claim
must first be adjudicated in a court of law. Actuarially accounting
for such a claim event is critical to the development of the system
and method of the present invention. Accurately matching an
actuarially acceptable portion of the ultimate payout to the policy
period's premium is fundamental to the prediction of individual
policyholder profitability.
[0048] Other actuarial modifications may also be required for the
loss data. For example, very large losses could be capped to a
lower loss amount since very large losses can distort the
profitability discovery process in the development of the
predictive statistical model. Therefore, very large losses are
often capped to a lower loss amount. The most obvious method to cap
large losses is simply not to cap them at all, i.e., to represent
them on an unlimited basis. Naturally, this gives the truest
indication of an individual policy's current term profitability.
However, such an approach is rarely employed due to the volatility
in the data that may also mask underlying actual relationships. The
use of unlimited losses tends to distort such underlying
relationships. A particular policyholder record with a large loss
will create noise in the data, or in other words, too strong a
signal than is actually warranted, and hence hinder the development
of the more general, and more important, profitability
relationships and signals. As a result, the large losses are often
capped at a particular amount or at a certain percentile of the
underlying data. Frequently, this is determined and completed
individually for each commercial major line of coverage.
Transformations, such as the logarithmic function, are also used to
minimize the distorting effects of unusual large losses. The result
of these loss capping techniques is the creation of a more robust
and effective data set.
[0049] These actuarial modifications to both the premium and loss
data, produce actuarially sound data that can be employed in the
development of the predictive statistical model. As previously set
forth, the actuarially modified data has been collectively referred
to as "work data" while the actuarially modified premium and loss
data has been referred to as "premium work data" and "loss work
data," respectively.
[0050] In related step 112, the loss ratio is calculated for each
policyholder and for each policyholder's term in the Consortium
database. As explained earlier, the loss ratio is defined as the
numerical ratio of the loss work data divided by the premium work
data.
[0051] The loss ratio is an expression of an individual policy's
profitability, as it represents that portion of the premium
committed to losses. A high loss ratio, perhaps greater than 0.70,
is indicative of an unprofitable policy. Similarly, a loss ratio of
less than 0.70 could be indicative of a profitable policy. A loss
ratio of 0.70 is a typical profitability demarcation for major
lines of commercial insurance coverage since insurance companies
also have a significant portion of the premium income devoted to
non-claim expenses.
[0052] In another aspect of the present invention, "frequency", a
second important dimension of profitability, must also be
calculated in this step. Frequency is calculated by dividing the
policy term total claim count by the policy term premium work data.
The definition of a claim count varies in the insurance industry.
Some insurance companies count each reported claimant involved in a
reported claim as individual claim counts while other companies
only count the reported claim regardless of the number of
claimants. Additionally, some insurance companies count all
reported claims regardless of the amount of loss dollars paid while
other companies only count reported claims with non-zero payments.
The frequency calculation process for the Consortium database may
remove the differences between multiple claim count methods
reflected in the Consortium database. Although the loss ratio is
the best measure of profitability, frequency is another important
measure of commercial insurance profitability. Due to the long tail
nature of some commercial insurance coverage losses, as described
above in step 108, frequency is often employed as a measurement of,
or a proxy for, profitability, as the loss ratio may not be
sufficiently developed to provide an accurate measurement of
profitability in and of itself.
[0053] The remainder of this invention description will rely upon
loss ratio as the primary measurement of profitability. But, it
should be correctly assumed that frequency measurements of
profitability are also included in the development of the system
and method according to the present invention and in the
measurements of profitability subsequently described herein.
[0054] Thereafter, in step 116 the cumulative loss ratio is
calculated for a defined group. The cumulative loss ratio is
defined as the sum of the loss work data for a defined group
divided by the sum of the premium work data for the defined group.
Typical definable groups would be based on the major lines of
coverage. To calculate the loss ratio for an individual line of
coverage, all of the loss work data and premium work data for all
policyholders covered by the line of coverage are subtotaled and
the loss ratio is calculated for the entire line of coverage.
[0055] In step 120, a statistical analysis on all of the data in
the Consortium database is performed. That is, for each external
variable from each external data source, a statistical analysis is
performed that investigates the relationship of that individual
external variable and the cumulative loss ratio for a defined
group. Well known statistical techniques are employed to determine
the magnitude and reliability of an apparent statistical
relationship between an external variable and the cumulative loss
ratio.
[0056] In table 3.0, an illustrative example is provided of the
statistical analysis that is performed on the data in the
Consortium database. The specific variable in this example
identifies whether manufacturing activity (an external variable
obtainable from Dun & Bradstreet) takes place at the specific
policyholder's worksite. The defined group in this example is the
property major coverage. Each column and row has been labeled "A-K"
and "1-4", respectively. A description of the attendant statistical
analysis follows the table.
TABLE-US-00003 TABLE 3.0 I K B C D E F G H Capped J Capped 1 A
Policy % Prem % Exp % Freq Rel. Freq Rel. L.R. Rel. L.R. Rel. L.R.
Rel. Sev Rel. Sev Rel. 2 Not On Site 22% 21% 19% -6% -5% -14% -11%
-13% -9% -8% 3 On Site 44% 49% 51% 2% 3% 1% 5% 3% -3% 0% 4 No Data
34% 31% 30% -2% -- 8% -- 5% 7% 5%
[0057] The variable, "manufacturing-onsite", can take on three
values, each listed in A2-A4. Column B indicates the percentage of
policies in the Consortium database that take on each value of the
variable manufacturing-onsite. Similarly, column C indicates the
percentage of premium those policies represent in the Consortium
database. Column D indicates the associated number of exposures for
the same policies. It is possible that some policies could have
more than one exposure, e.g., place of business, on the policy.
Column E indicates the claim frequency on a manualized premium
basis, again, for each value that the variable manufacturing-onsite
can assume in the Consortium database for the property major
coverage. Similarly, Column F has the same information but is based
on a non-manualized premium, i.e., the actual written premium.
Column G indicates the loss ratio relativity, based on a manualized
premium. Similarly, Column H indicates the same for the actual
written premium. Column I indicates the loss ratio relativity, of
the manualized premium, but with the underlying large losses capped
at an appropriate maximum. Column J indicates the severity
relativity, or average loss size relativity. Similarly, Column K
has the same information but with the underlying large losses
capped at an appropriate maximum.
[0058] This variable so illustrated, manufacturing-onsite, does in
fact suggest that there is some relationship between the variable
and commercial insurance profitability. This can be inferred from
the fact that both the loss ratio relativity, as well as several
other indicators for profitability, are all relatively improved
when policyholders do not have manufacturing activities at their
site of business, and conversely as well.
[0059] Each value that an external variable can assume, has a loss
ratio calculated from the underlying data which is then further
segmented by a definable group (e.g., major line of coverage). For
purposes of illustration, the external variable of
business-location-ownership is used. Business-location-ownership is
an external variable, or piece of information, available from Dun
& Bradstreet. It defines whether the physical location of the
insured business is owned by the business owner or rented by the
business owner. Each individual variable can take on appropriate
values. In the case of business-location-ownership, the values are
O=owned and R=rented. (Naturally, in real world data bases, other
values which would be invalid may also occur. Statistical and
actuarial techniques are employed to address such errors.) The
cumulative loss ratio is calculated for each of these values. For
business owner location, the O value might have a cumulative loss
ratio of 0.60, while the R value might have a cumulative loss ratio
of 0.80. That is, based on the premium work data and loss work
data, owners have a cumulative loss ratio of 0.60 while renters
have a cumulative loss ratio of 0.80.
[0060] This analysis may then be further segmented by the major
line of coverage. So, for business-owner-location, the losses and
premiums are segmented by major line of coverage. The cumulative
loss ratio for each of the values O and R are calculated by major
line of coverage. This is possible since the Consortium database
can differentiate premiums and losses by major line of
coverage.
[0061] As an example, consider the variable major-line-of-coverage
in the Consortium database. It can take on the values of 1-3,
representing respectively, property, automobile, and workers
compensation. Furthermore, consider the following expanded example
shown below in table 4.0 that illustrates how
business-owner-location can be analyzed by major line of
coverage.
TABLE-US-00004 TABLE 4.0 (3) business- (1) (2) workers
owner-location property automobile compensation In Total owned 0.50
0.65 0.68 0.60 rented 0.90 0.75 0.72 0.80 total 0.70 0.70 0.70
0.70
[0062] In the example above, insights can be made to the potential
value that the variable business-owner-location potentially may
have in relation to commercial insurance profitability as expressed
by the cumulative loss ratio. In this example,
business-owner-location appears to have the most potential value
and consideration for the property major coverage.
[0063] In step 124, a review is made of all of the outputs derived
from previous step 120. This review is based, in part, on human
experience and expertise in judging what individual external
variables available from the external data sources should be
considered in the creation of the statistical model that will be
used to predict the future profitability of an individual
policyholder.
[0064] In order to develop a robust system that will predict
commercial insurance profitability on a per policyholder basis, it
is important to include only those individual external variables
that, in and of themselves, can contribute to the development of
the model (hereinafter "predictor variables"). In other words, the
individual external variables under critical determination in step
124 should have some relationship to profitability, i.e., loss
ratio; and in the best judgment of the statisticians and actuaries,
be reasonably casually related in the real world.
[0065] In the above mentioned example of
business-location-ownership, it is somewhat clear from the
cumulative loss ratios described above, i.e., the O value (0.60)
and the R value (0.80), that business-location-ownership may in
fact be related to profitability and therefore may in fact be
considered a predictor variable.
[0066] As might be expected, the critical determination process of
step 124 becomes much more complex as the number of values that an
individual external variable might assume increases. Using the 40
year average hail fall occurrence as an example, this individual
external variable can have values that range from 0 to the
historical maximum, of say 30 annual events, with all of the
numbers in-between as possible values. In order to complete the
critical determination of such an individual external variable, it
must be viewed in a particular manner conducive to such a critical
determination, so that the highly experienced actuary and
statistician can in fact make the appropriate critical
determination of its efficacy for inclusion in the development of
the predictive statistical model.
[0067] A common statistical method, called binning, is employed to
arrange similar values together into a single grouping, called a
bin. In the 40 year average hail fall individual data element
example, ten bins might be produced, each containing 3 values,
e.g., bin 1 equals values 0-3, bin 2 equals values 4-6, and so on.
The binning process, so described, yields ten summary values for
the 40 year average hail fall individual external variable. That is
to say, that the original 40 year average hail fall values of 0-3
are now binned or grouped together into a single value, namely the
bin "1" value. Hence, the original range of 30 values has been
collapsed into 10 values, upon which the remaining analysis is
completed. The critical determination of the 40 year average hail
fall variable can then be completed by the experienced actuary and
statistician by examining the 10 binned values, rather than the
original 30 values.
[0068] The cumulative loss ratio of each bin must be considered in
relation to the cumulative loss ratio of each other bin, and the
overall pattern of cumulative loss ratios considered together.
Several possible patterns might be discernable. If the cumulative
loss ratio of the individual bins are arranged in a generally
increasing or decreasing pattern, then it is clear to the
experienced actuary and statistician that the bins, and hence the
underlying individual data elements comprising them, could in fact
be related to commercial insurance profitability, and therefore,
should be considered for inclusion in the development of the
statistical model.
[0069] Likewise, a saw toothed pattern, i.e., one where values of
the cumulative loss ratio from bin to bin exhibit an erratic
pattern, and do not display any general direction trend, would
usually not offer any causal relationship to commercial insurance
profitability, and hence, would not be considered for inclusion in
the development of the predictive statistical model. Other
patterns, some very complicated and subtle, can only be discerned
by the trained and experienced eye of the actuary or statistician,
specifically skilled in this work.
[0070] Thereafter in step 128, the predictor variables from the
various external data sources that pass the review in prior step
124, are examined for cross correlations against one another. In
this analysis, two different predictor variables, years-in-business
and business-owners-age, are compared one to another. Since each of
these predictor variables can assume a wide range of values, assume
that each has been binned into five bins (as discussed above).
Furthermore, assume that as the average value of years-in-business
increases from bin to bin, so does the average value of
business-owners-age increase as well, in a similar, proportional,
and like manner.
[0071] This type of variable to variable comparison is referred to
as a correlation analysis. In other words, how "co-related" are
individual pairs of variables in relation to one another.
[0072] All individual variables are compared to all other
individual variables in such a similar fashion. A master matrix is
prepared that has the correlation coefficient for each pair of
predictor variables. The correlation coefficient is a mathematical
expression for the degree of correlation between any pair of
predictor variables. Its value ranges from -1 to +1, with -1 being
perfectly negatively correlation, +1 being perfectly positively
correlation, and 0 being no correlation. Therefore, the greater the
absolute value of the correlation coefficient, the greater the
degree of correlation between the pair of individual variables.
[0073] The experienced and trained actuary or statistician will
review the matrix of correlation coefficients. The review will seek
to identify those pairs of predictor variables that are highly
correlated with one another. Once identified, the real world
meaning of each predictor variable is evaluated. In the example
above, the real world meaning of years-in-business and
business-owner-age may be well understood. One reasonable causal
explanation why this specific pair of predictive external variables
might be highly correlated with one another would be that the older
the business owner, the longer the business owner has been in
business.
[0074] So naturally, the goal of the correlation study is to
eliminate highly repetitive variables. The experienced and trained
actuary or statistician will compare each variable with every other
variable, as well as examining the correlation coefficient for each
pair. If the correlation is too high for a pair, one of the
variables will be considered for removal, but not both. In general,
variable pairs with a correlation coefficient of 0.6 are reviewed,
while a variable pair with a correlation coefficient over 0.8 would
warrant serious consideration for elimination of one of the
variables. Again, the experienced and trained actuary or
statistician would need to consider the real world meaning of any
and all variables considered for elimination to ensure that the
underlying correlation is casually related in the external world,
and not just a causally statistically related.
[0075] The experienced actuary or statistician then would need to
make a trained decision to potentially remove one of the two
predictor variables, but not both. Such a decision would weigh the
degree of correlation between the two predictor variables and the
real world meaning of each of the two predictor variables.
[0076] As shown in FIG. 2A, in step 200, the portion of the
Consortium database that passes through all of the above pertinent
steps, is subdivided into three separate data subsets, namely, the
training data set, the testing data set, and the validation data
set. Different actuarial and statistical techniques can be employed
to develop these three data sets from the Consortium database. They
include a random splitting of the data and a time series split. The
time series split might reserve the most recent few years of
historical data for the validation data set, and the prior years
for the training and testing data sets. Such a final determination
is made within the expert judgment of the actuary and statistician.
The three data sets are utilized as follows:
[0077] 1. Training Data Set
[0078] The development process to construct the predictive
statistical model requires a subset of the data to develop the
mathematical components of the statistical model. This subset of
data is referred to as the training data set.
[0079] 2. Testing Data Set
[0080] At times, the process of developing these mathematical
components can actually exceed the actual relationships embedded in
the data, and overstate such relationships. As a result, the
coefficients that describe the mathematical components can be
subject to error. In order to monitor and minimize the overstating
of the relationships, and hence the degree of error in the
coefficients, a second data subset is subdivided from the
Consortium data base, and is referred to as the testing data
set.
[0081] 3. Validation Data Set
[0082] The third subset of data, the validation data set, functions
as a final determination of the degree of predictiveness of
commercial insurance profitability that the mathematical components
of the system can be reasonably expected to achieve on a go forward
basis. Since the development of the coefficients of the predictive
statistical model are influenced during the development process by
the training and testing data sets, the validation data set
provides an independent, non-biased estimate of the efficacy of the
predictive statistical model.
[0083] The actual construction of the predictive statistical model
involves sub-steps 204A and 204B, as shown in FIG. 2A. More
particularly, in sub-step 204A, the training data set is used to
produce an initial statistical model. There are numerous
statistical methods that may be employed to produce the initial
statistical model. These may include multivariate methods, e.g.,
multiple regression, generalized linear modeling, and the like,
clustering algorithms, decision tree techniques, and any one of the
different neural network algorithms. Such mathematical methods are
available in a number of commercially available software products,
e.g., SAS (Statistical Analysis System) in Cary, N.C., the
Clementine product from SPSS in Chicago, Ill., and the like. The
family of multivariate methods, which includes several neural
network algorithms, is herein employed to describe the initial
statistical model. The initial statistical modeling process itself
further eliminates potential predictor variables. Standard
statistical methods are employed to determine the optimum set of
predictor variables that will provide for the most predictive
model. The statistical power or predictiveness of an individual
model is determined by both its degree of predictiveness and its
stability of prediction over time, as evidenced by the model's
efficacy on the validation data set. The initial statistical model
results in a mathematical equation that produces coefficients for
each of the individual selected predictor variables in the training
data, that relate those individual variables to profitability,
which is represented by the loss ratio of each individual
policyholder's record in the training data base. The coefficients
represent the contribution of each of the predictor variables to
the overall prediction of the dependent variable, i.e., the
commercial insurance profitability as represented by the loss
ratio.
[0084] Several different statistical techniques are employed in
substep A. Conventional multiple regression is the first technique
employed. It produces an initial model. The second technique
employed is generalized linear modeling. In some instances, this
technique is capable of producing a more precise set of
coefficients than the multiple regression technique. The final
technique employed is a type of neural network, i.e. backwards
propagation of errors, or "backprop" for short. Backprop is capable
of even more precise coefficients than generalized linear modeling.
Backprop can produce nonlinear curve fitting in multi-dimensions,
and as such, can operate as a universal function approximator. Due
to the power of this technique, the resulting coefficients can be
quite precise, and as such, yield a strong set of relationships to
profitability, i.e., loss ratio.
[0085] In sub-step 204B, the testing data set is used to evaluate
if the coefficients from sub-step 204A have "overfit" the training
data set. Naturally, no data set that represents real world data is
perfect; every such real world data set has anomalies and noise in
the data. That is to say, statistical relationships that are not
representative of external world realities. Overfitting can result
when the statistical technique employed results in coefficients
that not only map the relationships between the individual
variables in the training set to profitability, but also begin to
map the relationships between the noise in the training data set
and profitability. When this happens, the coefficients are too
fine-tuned to the eccentricities of the training data set. The
testing data set is used to determine the extent of such an
overfitting. Since it is highly unlikely that the noise in the
training data set will be identical to the noise in the testing
data set, the testing data set can be used in such an evaluative
manner.
[0086] The development process of the predictive statistical model
generates the mathematical formula's coefficients. One example of
the form of such a simplified equation might be as follows:
a.sub.0+a.sub.1x.sub.1+a.sub.2x.sub.2+ . . . a.sub.nx.sub.n=y. In
this example, the "a's" are the coefficients, the "x's" are the
individual predictor variables, and "y" is the score, i.e., the
indication of commercial insurance profitability. The "a.sub.0" is
the mathematical "y-intercept". For illustrative purposes, consider
the following simple example shown below in table 5.0 where each
variable listed below is multiplied times its corresponding
coefficient:
TABLE-US-00005 TABLE 5.0 Predictor Variables Variable Value x
Coefficient =Result Crime rate 3 2 6 Bankruptcy 0 12 0
Manufacturing 1 -3 -3 Sales 24 1.5 36 Unemployment 4 2 8 rate Hail
fall 1 10 10 Education 3 2 6 a.sub.0 = y-intercept 2.5 total sum
65.5
[0087] In this example, the actual value of each predictor variable
is multiplied times each predictor variable's coefficient value,
and each of those multiplicative results are summed up together,
including the a.sub.0 (y-intercept), to produce the statistical
model's score.
[0088] The development process of the predictive statistical model
is iterative between sub-steps 204A and 204B. A set of coefficients
is developed in sub-step 204A, and that process is halted. The set
of coefficients is evaluated for predictiveness on the testing data
set, i.e., in sub-step 204B. This halting and evaluation process is
repeated until the predictiveness of the current set of
coefficients on the testing data set begins to degrade. At that
point, the coefficients from sub-step 204A have begun to describe
the noise of the training data set that is not present in the
testing data set, and the iterative process can be stopped. The
coefficients that correspond to this final point in the
mathematical development process represent the coefficients of the
final system.
[0089] The final predictive statistical model employs the
validation data set as a final independent determination of the
degree of predictiveness of the system, as described in steps 208,
212, 216 and 220. Since the iterative nature described above
results in the final coefficients being influenced by both the
training and testing data sets, it is important to be able to
ascertain the final efficacy of the coefficients on a separate
independent, nonbiased data set, i.e., the validation data set.
[0090] In step 208, each record in the validation data set is
scored by the predictive statistical model that was completed in
sub-steps 204A and 204B. The score is attached to each record in
the validation data set. The validation data set is then sorted by
the score, from lowest to highest score. The low scores are
associated with low values of predicted profitability or loss
ratio, and vice versa. Therefore, the lower score ranges should be
indicative of more profitability, and vice versa.
[0091] Typically, in step 212 the sorted validation sample is
divided into ten regions of equal size, i.e., deciles, but other
sizes are sometimes employed. Thereafter, in step 216, the
cumulative loss ratio of each decile for the validation data set is
then calculated from the work data completed in step 108.
[0092] As shown in FIG. 2B, the loss ratio relativity of each
decile is then calculated in step 220. The loss ratio relativity of
each decile is defined as the cumulative loss ratio of the decile
minus the cumulative loss ratio of the entire validation data set
and that result is then divided by the cumulative loss ratio of the
entire validation data set. For example, if the overall loss ratio
of the validation data set is 0.80, i.e., 80 cents of every premium
dollar was used to pay claims, and if the cumulative loss ratio of
decile 1 is 0.60, then decile 1's loss ratio relativity is
-25%=(0.60-0.80)/0.80.
[0093] In step 224, the final step, the predictive statistical
model is used to score new or existing policyholders in order to
predict the future profitability of commercial insurance for each
new or existing policyholder. The go forward scoring of new or
existing policyholders is accomplished as follows. The external
data used by the statistical model (i.e., the predictor variables)
are accessed from the particular external data source. This data is
electronically sent to the system of the present invention. These
may include external data such as Dun & Bradstreet, zip code
census, and the like as previously detailed. The values of these
individual variables, employed by the system, once secured are then
inserted into the mathematical formula that comprises the
statistical model developed in sub-steps 204A and 204B. The
coefficients are typically multiplied times the values of the
individual variables, and other required formula calculations are
also completed. In this manner, a score is produced by the system
for a new or existing policyholder record.
[0094] Then, the pertinent decile from step 212 that this
particular policyholder record score falls into, is determined.
This is accomplished by examining the lowest and highest validation
data set score for each decile, and determining which decile the
new policyholder record score falls into. The loss ratio relativity
of that corresponding decile, or other similarly developed score
range sized grouping, represents the system's commercial insurance
profitability prediction.
[0095] The magnitude of the loss ratio relativity associated with
the appropriate decile, indicates the size or amount of the
commercial insurance profitability prediction. The sign, either
positive or negative, of the loss ratio relativity associated with
the appropriate decile, indicates whether the predicted commercial
insurance profitability is either positive or negative. If the sign
is negative, then the policyholder record has a profitability
indication. That is to say, a negative loss ratio relativity
equates to a loss ratio that is relatively less than the overall
average, and hence, more profitable. If the sign is positive, then
the policyholder record has an unprofitability indication, in a
similar fashion. The associated magnitude of the corresponding
decile's loss ratio relativity indicates how much in each case, as
noted above.
[0096] With the commercial insurance profitability system
completed, there are a variety of different options that different
purchasers (e.g., insurance carriers) might choose to have access
to the score producing, predictive statistical model.
[0097] One purchaser might require a system including the
predictive statistical model to be installed on its computer
systems. In this case, the system, which has been encoded into
software, would be loaded on a custom installation basis, into the
purchaser's computer environment. The appropriate network programs
would be constructed to enable the automatic querying of the
requisite external data (e.g., Dun & Bradstreet) to interface
with the system.
[0098] Alternatively, a purchaser might transmit single policies,
or a batch of many policies, to be scored off-line and off-site by
a third party who was offering such a commercial insurance
profitability scoring capability using the predictive statistical
model as described.
[0099] Another purchaser might be desirous of internet based
access. This would be a variation of the immediately preceding
description. Such a purchaser would connect on-line to the
Internet, in a known manner, and enter in the name and address of
the business requiring a commercial insurance profitability score
from the system. The system would be web-enabled and would be
capable of scoring such queries and returning the appropriate
score.
[0100] In accordance with the present invention, a commercial
insurance scoring system and method are provided which predict
individual commercial insurance policyholder profitability on a
prospective basis regardless of the internal data and business
practices of a particular insurance company.
[0101] In so far as embodiments of the invention described herein
may be implemented, at least in part, using software controlled
programmable processing devices, such as a computer system, it will
be appreciated that one or more computer programs for configuring
such programmable devices or system of devices to implement the
foregoing described methods are to be considered an aspect of the
present invention. The computer programs may be embodied as source
code and undergo compilation for implementation on processing
devices or a system of devices, or may be embodied as object code,
for example. Those of ordinary skill will readily understand that
the term computer in its most general sense encompasses
programmable devices such as those referred to above, and data
processing apparatus, computer systems and the like.
[0102] Preferably, the computer programs are stored on carrier
media in machine or device readable form, for example in
solid-state memory or magnetic memory such as disk or tape, and
processing devices utilize the programs or parts thereof to
configure themselves for operation. The computer programs may be
supplied from remote sources embodied in communications media, such
as electronic signals, radio frequency carrier waves, optical
carrier waves and the like. Such carrier media are also
contemplated as aspects of the present invention.
[0103] It will thus be seen that the objects set forth above, among
those made apparent from the preceding description, are efficiently
attained and, since certain changes may be made in carrying out the
above method and in the system set forth without departing from the
spirit and scope of the invention, it is intended that all matter
contained in the above description and shown in the accompanying
drawings shall be interpreted as illustrative and not in a limiting
sense.
[0104] It is also to be understood that the following claims are
intended to cover all of the generic and specific features of the
invention herein described and all statements of the scope of the
invention which, as a matter of language, might be said to fall
therebetween.
* * * * *