U.S. patent application number 13/877914 was filed with the patent office on 2013-07-25 for catalyst particles, carbon-supported catalyst particles and fuel cell catalysts, and methods of manufacturing such catalyst particles and carbon-supported catalyst particles.
The applicant listed for this patent is Tatsuya Arai, Tetsuya Ogawa, Go Sakai, Koshi Sekizawa, Naoki Takehiro. Invention is credited to Tatsuya Arai, Tetsuya Ogawa, Go Sakai, Koshi Sekizawa, Naoki Takehiro.
Application Number | 20130189607 13/877914 |
Document ID | / |
Family ID | 44907910 |
Filed Date | 2013-07-25 |
United States Patent
Application |
20130189607 |
Kind Code |
A1 |
Sakai; Go ; et al. |
July 25, 2013 |
CATALYST PARTICLES, CARBON-SUPPORTED CATALYST PARTICLES AND FUEL
CELL CATALYSTS, AND METHODS OF MANUFACTURING SUCH CATALYST
PARTICLES AND CARBON-SUPPORTED CATALYST PARTICLES
Abstract
A catalyst particle is composed of an inner particle and an
outermost layer that includes platinum and covers the inner
particle. The inner particle includes on at least a surface thereof
a first oxide having an oxygen defect.
Inventors: |
Sakai; Go; (Miyazaki-shi,
JP) ; Arai; Tatsuya; (Susono-shi, JP) ; Ogawa;
Tetsuya; (Mishima-shi, JP) ; Sekizawa; Koshi;
(Susono-shi, JP) ; Takehiro; Naoki; (Suntou-gun,
JP) |
|
Applicant: |
Name |
City |
State |
Country |
Type |
Sakai; Go
Arai; Tatsuya
Ogawa; Tetsuya
Sekizawa; Koshi
Takehiro; Naoki |
Miyazaki-shi
Susono-shi
Mishima-shi
Susono-shi
Suntou-gun |
|
JP
JP
JP
JP
JP |
|
|
Family ID: |
44907910 |
Appl. No.: |
13/877914 |
Filed: |
October 6, 2011 |
PCT Filed: |
October 6, 2011 |
PCT NO: |
PCT/IB11/02452 |
371 Date: |
April 5, 2013 |
Current U.S.
Class: |
429/524 ;
429/535 |
Current CPC
Class: |
H01M 2008/1095 20130101;
H01M 4/88 20130101; H01M 4/923 20130101; B01J 35/006 20130101; H01M
4/926 20130101; B01J 21/18 20130101; H01M 4/9016 20130101; Y02E
60/50 20130101; B01J 23/42 20130101; B01J 37/16 20130101; H01M
4/8657 20130101; H01M 4/92 20130101; B01J 35/004 20130101; H01M
4/9041 20130101; B01J 23/626 20130101; B01J 21/063 20130101 |
Class at
Publication: |
429/524 ;
429/535 |
International
Class: |
H01M 4/90 20060101
H01M004/90; H01M 4/88 20060101 H01M004/88 |
Foreign Application Data
Date |
Code |
Application Number |
Oct 8, 2010 |
JP |
2010-228632 |
Claims
1. A catalyst particle comprising: an inner particle containing on
at least a surface thereof a first oxide having oxygen defects, the
inner particle having a center particle and an intermediate layer
covering the center particle, the center particle containing a
second oxide that is free of oxygen defects and that includes an
element common with an element other than oxygen included in the
first oxide, and the intermediate layer containing the first oxide;
and an outermost layer formed from a single material that contains
platinum and covers the inner particle, the outermost layer
covering at least a portion of the intermediate layer.
2. The catalyst particle according to claim 1, wherein the second
oxide is an oxide that, by reducing a surface of the center
particle, has generated oxygen defects in the first oxide.
3. The catalyst particle according to claim 1, wherein the first
oxide includes an element selected from the group consisting of
titanium, tin, tantalum, niobium and silicon.
4. The catalyst particle according to claim 1, wherein an average
particle size of the catalyst particle is 2 to 20 nm.
5. The catalyst particle according to claim 1, wherein the
outermost layer has a degree of coverage of from 70 to 100% with
respect to the inner particle.
6. The catalyst particle according to claim 1, wherein the
outermost layer is a layer of three or fewer atoms.
7. A carbon-supported catalyst particle comprising: the catalyst
particle according to claim 1; and a carbon support that supports
the catalyst particle.
8. The carbon-supported catalyst particle according to claim 7,
wherein the carbon support is composed of at least one carbon
material selected from the group consisting of acetylene black,
furnace black, carbon black, activated carbon, mesophase carbon and
graphite.
9. A fuel cell catalyst, including the carbon-supported catalyst
particle according to claim 7.
10. A method of manufacturing the catalyst particles according to
claim 1, comprising: preparing a dispersion of particles composed
of a second oxide that is free of oxygen defects; preparing a
dispersion of platinum ions; mixing together the dispersion of
particles composed of the second oxide and the dispersion of
platinum ions, and reducing at least the surfaces of the particles
composed of the second oxide to a first oxide having oxygen
defects, and moreover forming on the first oxide an outermost layer
containing platinum formed by reduction of the platinum ions; and
heating the mixture after forming the outermost layer on the first
oxide.
11. The manufacturing method according to claim 10, wherein, by
reducing at least the surfaces of the particles composed of the
second oxide to a first oxide having oxygen defects, an
intermediate layer containing the first oxide is formed at the
surfaces of the particles composed of the second oxide.
12. The manufacturing method according to claim 10, further
comprising: prior to reducing at least the surfaces of the
particles composed of the second oxide to a first oxide having
oxygen defects, pre-reducing at least the particles composed of the
second oxide within the dispersion of particles composed of the
second oxide.
13. The manufacturing method according to claim 10, wherein: the
dispersion of particles composed of the second oxide is a
dispersion of reversed micelles containing particles composed of
the second oxide; the dispersion of platinum ions is a dispersion
of reversed micelles containing platinum ions; when at least the
particles composed of the second oxide are pre-reduced, a reducing
agent is additionally mixed into the mixture of the dispersion of
reversed micelles containing particles composed of the second oxide
with the dispersion of reversed micelles containing platinum ions;
and the mixture is heated after adding an alcohol to the mixture
following formation of the outermost layer on the first oxide.
14. The manufacturing method according to claim 13, wherein the
dispersion of reversed micelles containing particles composed of
the second oxide is obtained by mixing an aqueous solution or
aqueous dispersion of particles composed of the second oxide with
an organic solvent solution of a surfactant.
15. The manufacturing method according to claim 14, wherein the
dispersion of reversed micelles containing platinum ions is
obtained by mixing an aqueous solution of the platinum ions with an
organic solvent solution of a surfactant.
16. The manufacturing method according to claim 13, wherein the
second oxide is an oxide selected from the group consisting of
titanium (IV) oxide (TiO.sub.2), tin (IV) oxide (SnO.sub.2),
tantalum (V) oxide (Ta.sub.2O.sub.5), niobium (V) oxide
(Nb.sub.2O.sub.5) and silicon dioxide (SiO.sub.2).
17. The manufacturing method according to claim 10, wherein: the
second oxide has a photocatalytic activity, and a sacrificial
reagent is additionally mixed into the mixture of the dispersion of
particles composed of the second oxide with the dispersion of
platinum ions, following which the mixture is irradiated with
light.
18. The manufacturing method according to claim 17, wherein: the
dispersion of particles composed of the second oxide is a
dispersion of reversed micelles containing particles composed of
the second oxide; the dispersion of platinum ions is a dispersion
of reversed micelles containing platinum ions; and an alcohol is
added to the light-irradiated mixture, following which the mixture
is heated.
19. The manufacturing method according to claim 18, wherein the
dispersion of reversed micelles containing particles composed of
the second oxide is obtained by mixing together an aqueous solution
or aqueous dispersion of particles composed of the second oxide
with an organic solvent solution of a surfactant.
20. The manufacturing method according to claim 18, wherein the
dispersion of reversed micelles containing platinum ions is
obtained by mixing together the aqueous solution of platinum ions
with an organic solvent solution of a surfactant.
21. The manufacturing method according to claim 17, wherein the
second oxide having a photocatalytic activity is a metal oxide
selected from the group consisting of titanium (IV) oxide
(TiO.sub.2) and tin (IV) oxide (SnO.sub.2).
22. A method of manufacturing carbon-supported catalyst particles
composed of catalyst particles that are obtained by the
manufacturing method according to claim 13 and that have been
supported on a carbon support, the method comprising: when a
reducing agent is to be used to pre-reduce particles composed of at
least the second oxide, admixing the carbon support either before
additionally mixing the reducing agent into the mixture of the
dispersion of reversed micelles containing particles composed of
the second oxide with the dispersion of reversed micelles
containing platinum ion or after additionally mixing the reducing
agent into the mixture.
23. The method of manufacturing carbon-supported catalyst particles
according to claim 22, wherein the carbon support is a support
composed of at least one carbon material selected from the group
consisting of acetylene black, furnace black, carbon black,
activated carbon, mesophase carbon and graphite.
24. A method of manufacturing carbon-supported catalyst particles
composed of catalyst particles that are obtained by the
manufacturing method according to claim 17 and that have been
supported on a carbon support, the method comprising: when the
platinum ions are to be reduced by light irradiation, additionally
mixing a sacrificial reagent into the mixture of the dispersion of
particles composed of the second oxide with the dispersion of
platinum ions, and irradiating the mixture with light, following
which a carbon support is additionally mixed into the
light-irradiated mixture.
25. The method of manufacturing carbon-supported catalyst particles
according to claim 24, wherein the carbon support is a support
composed of at least one carbon material selected from the group
consisting of acetylene black, furnace black, carbon black,
activated carbon, mesophase carbon and graphite.
Description
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS
[0001] This application is a national phase application of
International Application No. PCT/IB2011/002452, filed Oct. 6,
2011, and claims the priority of Japanese Application No.
2010-228632, filed Oct. 8, 2010, the content of both of which is
incorporated herein by reference.
BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION
[0002] 1. Field of the Invention
[0003] The invention relates to catalyst particles,
carbon-supported catalyst particles and fuel cell catalysts having
a high catalytic activity. The invention relates also to methods of
manufacturing such catalyst particles and such carbon-supported
catalyst particles.
[0004] 2. Description of Related Art
[0005] A fuel cell supplies a fuel and an oxidant to two
electrically connected electrodes and, by inducing electrochemical
oxidation of the fuel, converts chemical energy directly into
electrical energy. Unlike thermal power generation, fuel cells do
not incur the limitations of the Carnot cycle, and thus exhibit a
high energy conversion efficiency. A fuel cell is generally
composed of a plurality of stacked unit cells, the basic
construction in each unit cell being a membrane electrode assembly
made up of an electrolyte membrane sandwiched between a pair of
electrodes.
[0006] Supported platinum and platinum alloy materials are employed
as anode and cathode electrocatalysts in fuel cells. However,
platinum in the amounts required in electrocatalysts according to
the latest current technology remains expensive for commercially
realizing the mass production of fuel cells. Accordingly, research
has been conducted which aims to reduce the amount of platinum
included in fuel cell cathodes and anodes by combining platinum
with less expensive metals.
[0007] In fuel cells, a decrease in voltage due to an overpotential
is one major cause of decreased output. Examples of overpotentials
include activation overpotentials due to electrode reactions,
resistance overpotentials due to resistance at the electrode
surface and in the cell overall, and concentration overpotentials
due to the distribution in the reactant concentration at the
electrode surface. Of these three types of overpotentials,
electrocatalysts are effective in lowering activation
overpotentials. Because platinum has a high catalytic performance,
platinum and platinum alloys are advantageous for use as the
electrocatalysts in the fuel cell cathode and anode. In particular,
given the efforts that are being made to utilize solid polymer
electrolyte-type fuel cells as automotive and stationary power
supplies, there has existed a desire to maintain a high durability
and the desired power generating performance over an extended
period of time in electrocatalysts as well. Japanese Patent
Application Publication No. 2005-135900 (JP-A-2005-135900)
discloses, as a catalyst aimed at maintaining a power generating
performance over an extended period of time, a fuel cell
electrocatalyst of precious metal-containing particles supported on
an electrically conductive support, wherein the precious
metal-containing particles have a core-shell structure with a core
composed of a precious metal alloy and a shell which has been
formed on the outer periphery of the core and is composed of a
precious metal-containing layer having a different composition than
the core.
[0008] Paragraph [0020] in JP-A-2005-135900 mentions that the core
contains precious metals such as platinum, palladium and rhodium.
With catalysts that use precious metals in the core in this way,
achieving radical reductions in cost is difficult. Also, paragraph
[0041] in JP-A-2005-135900 refers to, when a shell having a
differing composition than the core is formed in catalyst particles
having a core, dissolving ingredients other than precious metals by
having aqua regia, nitric acid, concentrated sulfuric acid or the
like act on the catalyst particles. However, acid treatment is very
difficult to control, in addition to which there are such drawbacks
as hydrophilization and oxidation of the carbon support, the loss
of metal which dissolves due to the acid, the inability to control
the catalyst particle size, and an increase in unnecessary steps
due to acid treatment.
[0009] International Patent Application WO2006/137579 relates to a
supported catalyst and fuel cell.
[0010] Japanese Patent Application JP2005 050759 relates to a
cathode reaction catalyst for a solid polymer electrolytic fuel
cell.
SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION
[0011] The invention provides catalyst particles, carbon-supported
catalyst particles and fuel cell catalysts having a high catalytic
activity. The invention provides also methods of manufacturing such
catalyst particles and such carbon-supported catalyst
particles.
[0012] The catalyst particle of the invention is a catalyst
particle having an inner particle and having also an outermost
layer which contains platinum and covers the inner particle. The
inner particle contains on at least a surface thereof a first oxide
having oxygen defects.
[0013] In the inventive catalyst particle, the inner particle may
have a center particle and an intermediate layer covering the
center particle, which center particle may contain a second oxide
which is free of oxygen defects and includes an element common with
an element other than oxygen included in the first oxide, and which
intermediate layer may contain the first oxide.
[0014] In the inventive catalyst particle, the first oxide may
include an element selected from the group consisting of titanium,
tin, tantalum, niobium and silicon.
[0015] The foregoing catalyst particle may be supported on a carbon
support.
[0016] In the carbon-supported catalyst particle of the invention,
the carbon support may be a support composed of at least one carbon
material selected from the group consisting of acetylene black,
furnace black, carbon black, activated carbon, mesophase carbon and
graphite.
[0017] The fuel cell catalyst of the invention may include the
foregoing carbon-supported catalyst particles.
[0018] The inventive method of manufacturing catalyst particles is
a method of manufacturing catalyst particles having an inner
particle and an outermost layer which contains platinum and covers
the inner particle. The method includes the step of preparing a
dispersion of particles composed of a second oxide which is free of
oxygen defects; the step of preparing a dispersion of platinum
ions; a reducing step in which, at least, the dispersion of
particles composed of the second oxide and the dispersion of
platinum ions are mixed together, at least the surfaces of the
particles composed of the second oxide are reduced to a first oxide
having oxygen defects and an outermost layer containing platinum
formed by reduction of the platinum ions is formed on the first
oxide; and the step of heating the mixture after the reducing
step.
[0019] In the inventive method of manufacturing catalyst particles,
an intermediate layer containing the first oxide may be formed at
the surfaces of the particles composed of the second oxide, and the
outermost layer may be formed over the intermediate layer.
[0020] The inventive method of manufacturing catalyst particles may
also include a preliminary reducing step wherein, prior to the
above reducing step, at least the particles composed of the second
oxide in the dispersion are pre-reduced.
[0021] In the inventive method of manufacturing catalyst particles,
the dispersion of particles composed of the second oxide may be a
dispersion of reversed micelles containing particles composed of
the second oxide, the dispersion of platinum ions may be a
dispersion of reversed micelles containing platinum ions, when at
least the particles composed of the second oxide are pre-reduced, a
reducing agent may be additionally mixed into the mixture of the
dispersion of reversed micelles containing particles composed of
the second oxide with the dispersion of reversed micelles
containing platinum ions, and the heating step may be carried out
after adding an alcohol to the mixture following the reducing
step.
[0022] In the inventive method of manufacturing catalyst particles,
the dispersion of reversed micelles containing particles composed
of the second oxide may be obtained by mixing an aqueous solution
or aqueous dispersion of particles composed of the second oxide
with an organic solvent solution in the presence of a surfactant.
The dispersion of reversed micelles containing platinum ions may be
obtained by mixing an aqueous solution of the platinum ions with an
organic solvent solution in the presence of a surfactant.
[0023] In the inventive method of manufacturing catalyst particles,
the second oxide may be an oxide selected from the group consisting
of titanium (IV) oxide (TiO.sub.2), tin (IV) oxide (SnO.sub.2),
tantalum (V) oxide (Ta.sub.2O.sub.5), niobium (V) oxide
(Nb.sub.2O.sub.5) and silicon dioxide (SiO.sub.2).
[0024] In the inventive method of manufacturing catalyst particles,
the second oxide may have a photocatalytic activity, a sacrificial
reagent additionally may be mixed into the mixture of the
dispersion of particles composed of the second oxide with the
dispersion of platinum ions, then the mixture may be irradiated
with light.
[0025] In the inventive method of manufacturing catalyst particles,
the dispersion of particles composed of the second oxide may be a
dispersion of reversed micelles containing particles composed of
the second oxide, the dispersion of platinum ions may be a
dispersion of reversed micelles containing platinum ions, and the
heating step may be carried out after adding an alcohol to the
light-irradiated mixture.
[0026] In the inventive method of manufacturing catalyst particles,
the dispersion of reversed micelles containing particles composed
of the second oxide may be obtained by mixing together an aqueous
solution or aqueous dispersion of particles composed of the second
oxide with an organic solvent solution in the presence of a
surfactant. Moreover, the dispersion of reversed micelles
containing platinum ions may be obtained by mixing together the
aqueous solution of platinum ions with an organic solvent solution
in the presence of a surfactant.
[0027] In the inventive method of manufacturing catalyst particles,
the second oxide having a photocatalytic activity may a metal oxide
selected from the group consisting of titanium (IV) oxide
(TiO.sub.2) and tin (IV) oxide (SnO.sub.2).
[0028] A first inventive method of manufacturing carbon-supported
catalyst particles is a method of manufacturing carbon-supported
catalyst particles composed of catalyst particles that are obtained
by the above manufacturing method and have been supported on a
carbon support. In the reducing step using a reducing agent, the
carbon support is admixed, either before additionally mixing the
reducing agent into a mixture of the dispersion of reversed
micelles containing particles composed of the second oxide with the
dispersion of reversed micelles containing platinum ion or after
additionally mixing the reducing agent into the mixture.
[0029] A second inventive method of manufacturing carbon-supported
catalyst particles is a method of manufacturing carbon-supported
catalyst particles composed of catalyst particles that are obtained
by the above manufacturing method and have been supported on a
carbon support. In the reducing step using a light-irradiation, a
sacrificial reagent is additionally mixed into a mixture of the
dispersion of particles composed of the second oxide with the
dispersion of platinum ions and the mixture is irradiated with
light, then a carbon support is additionally mixed into the
light-irradiated mixture.
[0030] In the first and second methods of manufacturing
carbon-supported catalyst particles of the invention, the carbon
support may be a support composed of at least one carbon material
selected from the group consisting of acetylene black, furnace
black, carbon black, activated carbon, mesophase carbon and
graphite.
[0031] The invention, as a result of the oxygen defects in the
first oxide within the inner particle bonding with the platinum
within the outermost layer, as a result of platinum being situated
at the oxygen defects, or as a result of platinum being situated as
the nearest neighbor atom to the oxygen defect, is able to achieve
a higher catalyst activity and a better durability even than those
of platinum catalyst particles and catalysts having a core-shell
structure which use a precious metal in the core. Moreover, the
manufacturing methods of the invention are able to provide catalyst
particles more inexpensively than when catalyst having a core-shell
structure in which a precious metal is used in the core is
manufactured. Finally, the inventive manufacturing methods are
able, in a reducing step, to simultaneously induce both the
formation of oxygen defects on at least the surfaces of particles
composed of a second oxide that serve as the inner particles and
also reduction of the platinum.
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS
[0032] Features, advantages, and technical and industrial
significance of exemplary embodiments of the invention will be
described below with reference to the accompanying drawings, in
which like numerals denote like elements, and wherein:
[0033] FIGS. 1A and 1B are respectively schematic cross-sectional
views of typical first and second examples of the carbon-supported
catalyst particle of the invention;
[0034] FIGS. 2A and 2B are respectively diagrams which
schematically show, both before crystalline TiO.sub.2 is reduced
with a reducing agent and after it has been reduced, a portion of
the TiO.sub.2;
[0035] FIG. 3 is an energy level diagram for oxygen adsorption on
platinum;
[0036] FIGS. 4A and 4B are electron micrographs which capture the
results of high-angle annular dark-field (HAADF) observation of the
carbon-supported catalyst particles of Example 3;
[0037] FIGS. 5A to 5C are electron micrographs which capture the
results of energy dispersive x-ray spectroscopy (EDS) surface
analysis of the carbon-supported catalyst particles of Example
3;
[0038] FIGS. 6A and 6B are respectively electron micrographs of a
TiO.sub.2 catalyst particle just prior to the addition of sodium
borohydride (SBH) powder in Example 3, and of a carbon-supported
catalyst particle in Example 3;
[0039] FIG. 7A shows the x-ray diffraction (XRD) spectra of
TiO.sub.2 particles in Example 3, just prior to the addition of SBH
powder and just prior to firing following SBH powder addition, and
FIG. 7B shows the XRD spectra of TiO.sub.2 particles just prior to
firing in Example 3 and of the carbon-supported catalyst particles
of Example 3;
[0040] FIGS. 8A to 8C are electron micrographs of carbon-supported
catalyst particles of Example 4;
[0041] FIGS. 9A and 9B are electron micrographs of carbon-supported
catalyst particles of Example 6;
[0042] FIGS. 10A and 10B are electron micrographs of a
carbon-supported catalyst particle of Example 7 and a
carbon-supported catalyst particle of Example 8, respectively;
[0043] FIG. 11A is XRD spectra of catalyst particles on which
firing was carried out at firing temperatures of 500.degree. C.,
600.degree. C. and 700.degree. C., based on the manufacturing
method of Example 3;
[0044] FIG. 11B is cyclic voltammograms (CVs) for the
carbon-supported catalyst particles of FIG. 3;
[0045] FIGS. 12A to 12C are cyclic voltammograms (CVs), sweep
voltammogram for oxygen reduction, and the result of stability test
in electrochemical active surface areas (ECSAs), respectively for
the carbon-supported catalyst particles of Example 3;
[0046] FIG. 13A is graph of the surface area per unit mass of
platinum for various platinum coating layer thicknesses in the
carbon-supported catalyst particles of Example 6 where the titanium
oxide was covered with platinum;
[0047] FIG. 13B reveals the dependence of ECSA retention on Pt
particle size;
[0048] FIG. 13C shows the relationships between ECSA ratio and
particle size of catalyst;
[0049] FIG. 14 is a schematic drawing of an apparatus used to carry
out light irradiation;
[0050] FIG. 15 is a potential/pH diagram for a titanium-water
system at 25.degree. C.;
[0051] FIG. 16 is a potential/pH diagram for a tin-water system at
25.degree. C.;
[0052] FIG. 17 is a potential/pH diagram for a tantalum-water
system at 25.degree. C.;
[0053] FIG. 18 is a potential/pH diagram for a niobium-water system
at 25.degree. C.;
[0054] FIG. 19 is a potential/pH diagram for a silicon-water system
at 25.degree. C.;
[0055] FIG. 20 is a cross-sectional schematic drawing of a reversed
micelle;
[0056] FIG. 21 is a graph showing the relationship between Rw and
the diameter of the reversed micelles when decane was used as the
organic phase; and
[0057] FIG. 22 is a perspective schematic view of an apparatus for
carrying out potential treatment.
DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF EMBODIMENTS
1. Catalyst Particle
[0058] For reasons having to do with cost and available natural
resources, core-shell structured catalysts which use platinum in
the shell and a metal other than platinum in the core have been
proposed as electrocatalysts for fuel cells. However, when a metal
which is baser than platinum is used in the core, the core metal
dissolves in the fuel cell operating condition, leading to declines
in both the catalyst performance and durability. On the other hand,
when a metal which is more noble than platinum is used, stability
is achieved, but because the amount of precious metal cannot be
reduced, costs are not curtailed. The inventors have succeeded both
in developing, as a catalyst endowed with an excellent performance
and durability and capable of reducing the amount of precious metal
used, a catalyst particle wherein a stable oxide is used as an
inner particle, and also in developing a method of manufacturing
such catalyst particles. The inner particle, outermost layer and
other features of the catalyst particle according to this
embodiment of the invention are described below in this order.
[0059] 1-1. Internal Particle
[0060] The inner particle used in this embodiment contains, on at
least the surface of the particle, a first oxide having oxygen
defects. As used herein, "oxygen defects" refers to, in a chemical
structure of oxygen atoms connected to atoms other than oxygen
atoms within an oxide, areas where some of the oxygen atoms are
missing and the chemical structure is interrupted. The oxidation
sates (valences) of atoms other than oxygen atoms in the vicinity
of oxygen defects is often lower than the oxidation state of such
atoms in areas farther from the oxygen defects. It is preferable
that the first oxide not readily dissolve in the normal operating
condition of a fuel cell.
[0061] The inner particle may be a particle which includes the
first oxide on the surface, or may be a particle composed solely of
the first oxide. Of these, because the inner particle is able to
maintain a particulate shape, it is preferable for the first oxide
to be included on the surface of the inner particle. In one
embodiment where the first oxide is included on the surface of the
inner particle, the inner particle has a center particle and an
intermediate layer covering the center particle, which intermediate
layer contains the first oxide.
[0062] A catalyst particle wherein the inner particle has a
two-layer structure composed of a center particle and an
intermediate layer, by using in the intermediate layer a first
oxide having oxygen defects, has the advantage that the outermost
layer containing platinum can be formed as a continuous layer over
the intermediate layer. By using such an oxide, increases in the
catalytic activity and durability of the catalyst particle can be
achieved.
[0063] In catalyst particles wherein the inner particle has a
two-layer structure composed of a center particle and an
intermediate layer, the center particle may contain a second oxide
which is free of oxygen defects and includes an element common with
an element other than oxygen included in the first oxide. FIGS. 15
to 19 are potential/pH diagrams (Pourbaix diagrams) for,
respectively, titanium-water systems, tin-water systems,
tantalum-water system, niobium-water systems and silicon-water
systems at 25.degree. C. In FIGS. 15 to 19, the range which
satisfies the potential/pH conditions (potential=0.4 to 1.2 V; pH=0
to 2) in the normal operating condition for a fuel cell is
indicated by the hatched box 21. According to FIG. 15, under the
conditions within this box 21, titanium exists in the state of
titanium (IV) oxide (TiO.sub.2). Therefore, in cases where a center
particle containing TiO.sub.2 has been used, there is no risk of
the center particle dissolving in the normal operating condition of
a fuel cell. According to FIGS. 16 to 19, when center particles
containing tin (IV) oxide (SnO.sub.2), tantalum (V) oxide
(Ta.sub.2O.sub.5), niobium (V) oxide (Nb.sub.2O.sub.5) or silicon
dioxide (SiO.sub.2) are used, there is no risk of the center
particles dissolving in the normal operating condition of a fuel
cell. From the above, the second oxide included in the center
particle preferably contains titanium, tin, tantalum, niobium or
silicon. Moreover, the second oxide is preferably TiO.sub.2,
SnO.sub.2, Ta.sub.2O.sub.5, Nb.sub.2O.sub.5 or SiO.sub.2. Likewise,
the first oxide preferably contains titanium, tin, tantalum,
niobium or silicon. Moreover, the first oxide is preferably
TiO.sub.p (wherein p is a real number such than 0<p<2),
SnO.sub.q (wherein q is a real number such than 0<q<2),
Ta.sub.2O.sub.r (wherein r is a real number such than 0<r<5),
Nb.sub.2O.sub.5 (wherein s is a real number such than 0<s<5),
or SiO.sub.t (wherein t is a real number such than
0<t<2).
[0064] Of the above second oxides, TiO.sub.2, SnO.sub.2,
Ta.sub.2O.sub.5 and Nb.sub.2O.sub.5 are compounds which are more
ionic than SiO.sub.2. Therefore, TiO.sub.2, SnO.sub.2,
Ta.sub.2O.sub.5 and Nb.sub.2O.sub.5 generate ionic oxygen defects
at the respective crystal surfaces and crystal interiors. By having
the catalyst platinum arranged as the outermost layer situated at
the generated oxygen defects, a high catalytic ability can be
manifested. Hence, the second oxide included in the center particle
more preferably includes titanium, tin, tantalum or niobium. The
second oxide is more preferably TiO.sub.2, SnO.sub.2,
Ta.sub.2O.sub.5 or Nb.sub.2O.sub.5. Similarly, the first oxide more
preferably includes titanium, tin, tantalum or niobium. The first
oxide is preferably TiO.sub.p, SnO.sub.q, Ta.sub.2O.sub.r or
Nb.sub.2O.sub.5 (p, q, r and s being the same real numbers as
indicated above).
[0065] TiO.sub.2, SnO.sub.2, Ta.sub.2O.sub.5 and Nb.sub.2O.sub.5
are substantially the same from the standpoint of stability.
However, from the standpoints of catalytic activity, the ease of
electron donation to the catalyst element situated at the oxygen
defects and cost, TiO.sub.2 and SnO.sub.2 are even more preferable
than Ta.sub.2O.sub.5 or Nb.sub.2O.sub.5. In addition, from the
standpoint that stable supply has become possible because reserves,
production output and methods of preparing metal oxide particle
dispersion systems (oxide sols) have been established, TiO.sub.2
and SnO.sub.2 are even more preferred. In light of the above, it is
more preferable for the second oxide contained in the center
particle to include titanium or tin, and it is more preferable for
the second oxide to be TiO.sub.2 or SnO.sub.2. Similarly, it is
more preferable for the first oxide to include titanium or tin, and
it is more preferable for the first oxide to be TiO.sub.p or
SnO.sub.q (wherein p and q are the same real numbers as indicated
above). In particular, selecting a TiO.sub.2 particle as the center
particle is far more advantageous from the standpoint of cost than
selecting a palladium particle as the center particle (cost of
palladium: 700 to 1,000/g; cost of TiO.sub.2: 100/kg).
[0066] In order to form a platinum-containing layer as a continuous
layer over the intermediate layer, it is essential for bonds
between the platinum and the metal or non-metal M to be more stable
than platinum-platinum bonds and M-M bonds. A case in which
platinum was three-dimensionally grown on a TiO.sub.2 (110) plane
has been described as an example of platinum layer formation on an
oxide (U. Diebold et al.: Surf. Sci., 331, 845-854 (1995)).
However, the bond between platinum and titanium itself is not
necessarily strong.
[0067] The inventors have discovered that, by removing some oxygen
from the surface of the oxide particle, stronger interactions arise
between the platinum and the metal or non-metal M, making it
possible to fix the platinum to the surface of the oxide particle.
Specifically, they have found that, by forming an intermediate
layer having oxygen defects at the surface of the oxide particles,
it is possible to form a platinum-containing layer as a continuous
layer on the intermediate layer. The fact that the intermediate
layer which has formed contains oxygen defects will be discussed in
detail in the subsequently described examples. In addition, as is
shown in the subsequently described examples of the invention, a
layer containing platinum which is bonded to oxygen defects in this
way has a high activity and durability compared with conventional
platinum catalyst particles.
[0068] From the standpoint of efficiently carrying out formation of
the subsequently described outermost layer, it is preferable for
the intermediate layer to have a coverage with respect to the
center particle of from 25 to 100%. Were the coverage of the
intermediate layer with respect to the center particle to be less
than 25%, formation of the subsequently described outermost layer
would not fully proceed. In a catalyst particle which uses an oxide
in the center particle as in the embodiment, so long as the
electrical conductivity is good, even when the intermediate layer
coverage with respect to the center particle is low, there is no
adverse influence on the durability of the overall catalyst
particle. Therefore, the tradeoff of having the coverage be low is
merely that, when the catalyst particles of this embodiment are
included in the catalyst layer of a fuel cell, the thickness of the
catalyst layer will become larger. As for the outermost layer,
because, in principle, this only covers the intermediate layer,
i.e., the first oxide, the coverage of the intermediate layer with
respect to the center particle becomes the coverage of the
outermost layer with respect to the inner particle (sometimes
referred to below as the "final coverage"). On the other hand, the
optimal thickness of a fuel cell catalyst layer in membrane
electrode assembly is from 1 to 20 nm. The thickness of the
catalyst layer varies according to the final coverage and the
average particle size of the catalyst particles. Given that the
optimal average particle size of the catalyst particle according to
this embodiment is from 3 to 10 nm, it is preferable, for example,
that the final coverage in catalyst particles having an average
particle size of 10 nm be at least 90%, that the final coverage in
catalyst particles having an average particle size of 5 nm be at
least 45%, and that the final coverage in catalyst particles having
an average particle size of 3 nm be at least 25%.
[0069] 1-2. Outermost Layer
[0070] The outermost layer of the catalyst particle of this
embodiment is a layer which contains platinum and covers the inner
particle described above. The outermost layer is preferably made of
platinum alone or an alloy of platinum with a metal material
selected from the group consisting of iridium, ruthenium, rhodium
and gold. In cases where a platinum alloy is used in the outermost
layer, letting the overall weight of the alloy be 100 wt %, it is
preferable for the platinum content to be at least 80 wt % but less
than 100 wt %. At a platinum content less than 80 wt %, a
sufficient catalytic activity and durability cannot be obtained.
The outermost layer exhibits the highest specific activity when
Pt.sub.4Ir is used.
[0071] From the standpoint of being able to better inhibit
dissolving of the internal particle, it is preferable for the
coverage of the outermost layer with respect to the inner particle
to be from 70 to 100%. Were the outermost layer coverage with
respect to the inner particle to be less than 70%, a sufficiently
high catalytic activity may not be achieved.
[0072] As used herein, "outermost layer coverage with respect to
inner particle" refers to the proportion of the surface area of the
inner particle which is covered by the outermost layer, based on a
value of 100% for the entire surface of the inner particle. One
method for determining this coverage involves using transmission
electron microscopy (TEM) to examine several places on the surface
of a catalyst particle, and calculating the proportion of the
surface area of the inner particle that can be confirmed by such
examination to be covered by the outermost layer. The outermost
layer coverage with respect to the inner particle can also be
calculated by using, for example, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy
(XPS) or time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (TOF-SIMS)
to identify the ingredients present at the surfacemost portion of
the catalyst particle.
[0073] With regard to thickness, the outermost layer is preferably
a layer of at least one atom but not more than three atoms. As
shown in the subsequently described working examples, compared with
catalyst particles having an outermost layer of four or more atoms,
catalyst particles having an outermost layer of at least one atom
but not more than three atoms have both the advantage of a high
surface area per gram of platinum and also the advantage of low
material costs owing to the small amount of covering platinum. To
ensure the largest possible catalyst surface area and to enable the
largest possible number of the covering platinum atoms to
effectively exhibit a catalytic ability, with none of the platinum
atoms being isolated from the standpoint of electron conductivity,
it is preferable for the outermost layer to be a continuous layer.
In order to thus ensure stability and catalyst activity, it is
preferable for the outermost layer to be a continuous layer and to
be a layer of three or fewer atoms. However, it is not necessarily
essential for the outermost layer to cover the entire surface of
the inner particle. Exposed portions of the surface of the inner
particle that are not covered by an outermost layer which exhibits
a catalytic function may instead be covered by another stable
element.
[0074] 1-3. Other Features
[0075] The average particle size of the catalyst particle according
to this embodiment is preferably from 2 to 20 nm, and more
preferably from 3 to 10 nm. Because the outermost layer of the
catalyst particle is preferably, as described above, a layer of
three or fewer atoms, the outermost layer has a thickness of
preferably from 0.17 to 0.69 nm. Hence, the thickness of the
outermost layer relative to the average particle size of the
catalyst particles is substantially negligible, the average size of
the inner particle and the average size of the catalyst particle
being substantially equal. The average size of the particles in
this embodiment is calculated by an ordinary method. An example of
a method for calculating the average size of the particles is
described. First, for a single given particle in a TEM image at an
enlargement of 400,000.times. or 1,000,000.times., the particle
diameter assuming the particle to be spherical is calculated.
Calculation of the average particle diameter by such TEM
observation is carried out for 200 to 300 particles of the same
type, and the average for these particles is treated as the average
particle size.
2. Carbon-Supported Catalyst Particle
[0076] In the carbon-supported catalyst particle of this
embodiment, the above-described catalyst particle is supported on a
carbon support.
[0077] Electrically conductive supports for supporting the catalyst
particles are not subject to any particular limitation, provided
they have a specific surface area sufficient for supporting the
catalyst particles in a highly dispersed manner and have a
sufficient conductivity for use as a current collector. Having the
main ingredient be carbon is preferable because a sufficiently high
conductivity can be obtained and the electrical resistance is low.
If the conductive support has a high electrical resistance, the
internal resistance of the catalyst-supporting electrode becomes
high, leading a decrease in fuel cell performance. Illustrative
examples of conductive supports include carbon materials such as
acetylene black, furnace black, carbon black, activated carbon,
mesophase carbon, graphite, channel black and thermal black;
activated carbon obtained by carbonizing and activation treating
various carbon atom-containing materials; graphitized carbon and
other materials containing carbon as the main ingredient, carbon
fibers, porous carbon particles, carbon nanotubes, and porous
carbon bodies. The Brunauer-Emmett-Teller theory (BET) specific
surface area is preferably from 100 to 2,000 m.sup.2/g, and more
preferably from 200 to 1,600 m.sup.2/g. Within this range, the
catalyst particles can be supported in a highly dispersed manner.
It is especially preferable to use as the carbon material a carbon
material such as acetylene black, furnace black, carbon black,
activated carbon, mesophase carbon or graphite. Because supports
containing these carbon materials are able to support catalyst
particles in a highly dispersed manner, an electrode catalyst
having a high activity can be obtained. Also, it is possible to
take into account dispersion in an organic phase or an aqueous
phase, and control the hydrophilicity and hydrophobicity of the
surface of the support used or of the support itself.
[0078] With regard to the platinum-supporting carbon ordinarily
used in fuel cells, based on cost considerations, it is not
possible to use platinum particles which have a high specific
activity and durability and a large average particle size. The
reason is that, because increasing the average particle size
decreases the surface area per gram of platinum, even more platinum
is needed to attain the required platinum surface area. In a
core-shell structured catalysts that uses a precious metal such as
palladium in core material, because the platinum accounts for only
a surfacemost layer of one to three atoms, the surface area per
gram of platinum is large. However, the cost of the precious metal
at the interior (core material in core-shell structure) must also
be taken into account; hence, as with platinum particles,
increasing the average particle size has its limitations. In the
case of core-shell particles which use a palladium core, an average
particle size of about 6 nm is preferred from the standpoint of
cost; at an average particle size of 10 nm which provides a
sufficient durability, the potential of the core-shell structure
cannot be fully achieved.
[0079] By contrast, in the catalyst particle of this embodiment,
the oxide used in the inner particle has a cost which is not more
than one one-thousandth the cost of a precious metal, and thus is
extremely inexpensive. Therefore, unlike core-shell particles in
which a precious metal is used in the core, it is possible in
principle for the catalyst particle of the embodiment to exhibit
the full potential of a core-shell structure even at an average
particle size of 10 nm or more. The average particle size of the
carbon-supported catalyst particle of this embodiment is determined
by the average particle size of the carbon support. The
carbon-supported catalyst particle of this embodiment is described
here for a case in which use in the catalyst layer of a fuel cell
is assumed. The average particle size of practical support carbons
for fuel cells (e.g., Ketjen EC, Vulcan XC-72) is at most about 30
nm. The maximum average particle size of catalyst particles which
can be supported on such support carbon is about 10 nm, and the
number of catalyst particles that can be supported is two. With
carbon particles having an average particle size of more than 30
nm, the average particle size of catalysts can be made even larger,
but there is a tradeoff in terms of the thickness of the catalyst
layer in membrane electrode assembly of fuel cell.
[0080] FIGS. 1A and 1B are cross-sectional drawings which
schematically show first and second typical examples of
carbon-supported catalyst particles according to the embodiment.
The double wavy lines signify an omission in the drawings. The
thicknesses of the intermediate layer and the outermost layer drawn
in FIGS. 1A and 1B do not necessary reflect the actual layer
thicknesses. FIG. 1A is a schematic cross-sectional drawing showing
a first typical example of a carbon-supported catalyst particle
according to the embodiment. The carbon-supported catalyst particle
100a in this example is composed of a catalyst particle 5 and a
carbon support 6, which catalyst particle 5 is composed of an inner
particle 1 and an outermost layer 2 covering the inner particle 1.
In this example, the inner particle 1 is further composed of a
center particle 3 and an intermediate layer 4 covering the center
particle 3. The intermediate layer 4 includes a first oxide having
a chemical composition with a lower proportion of oxygen atoms than
the chemical composition of the second oxide making up the center
particle 3. FIG. 1B is a schematic cross-sectional drawing showing
a second typical example of a carbon-supported catalyst particle
according to the embodiment. The carbon-supported catalyst particle
100b in this example, like the above-described carbon-supported
catalyst particle 100a, is composed of a catalyst particle 5 and a
carbon support 6, which catalyst particle 5 is in turn composed of
an inner particle 1 and an outermost layer 2 covering the inner
particle 1. However, in this example, the inner particle 1 is
composed solely of a first oxide having oxygen defects.
3. Fuel Cell Catalyst
[0081] The fuel cell catalyst of this embodiment includes the
above-described carbon-supported catalyst particle. There is an
optimal thickness for the catalyst layer in the membrane electrode
assembly used in a fuel cell; a catalyst layer that is too thin or
too thick is inappropriate. A catalyst layer thickness of from 1 to
100 .mu.m is generally preferred, and a thickness of about 10 .mu.m
is optimal. Here, the catalyst layer thickness is determined by the
carbon support used, the average size and weight of the catalyst
particles, and the weight of ionomer. What this indicates is that,
when trying to ensure a platinum surface with avoiding being an
oxygen diffusion-limiting step, the catalyst layer will end up
being thick with a combination of catalyst particles and carbon
particles having large average particle sizes, making use as a
membrane electrode assembly for a fuel cell difficult. In this
embodiment, as described above, in supporting the catalyst, it is
necessary to select a support carbon having an average particle
size suitable for the average particle size of the catalyst
particles and to take the thickness of the catalyst layer into
account. For example, in cases where the catalyst layer thickness
is set to 10 .mu.m, N/C=0.75 (ratio of ionomer weight to carbon
weight), the platinum coverage is 90%, and the platinum outermost
layer has a two-atom thickness, the upper limit in the average
particle size of the catalyst particle in this embodiment will be
10 nm. In cases where the catalyst particle is composed of a
platinum outermost layer and a TiO.sub.2 inner particle, the carbon
loading is 32 wt %. This carbon loading X is calculated as
X=(platinum weight+TiO.sub.2 weight)/(platinum weight+TiO.sub.2
weight+carbon weight).times.100.
4. Method of Manufacturing Catalyst Particles
[0082] The method of manufacturing catalyst particles according to
this embodiment includes the step of preparing a dispersion of
particles composed of a second oxide which is free of oxygen
defects; the step of preparing a dispersion of platinum ions; a
reducing step wherein, at least, the dispersion of particles
composed of the second oxide and the dispersion of platinum ions
are mixed together, at least the surfaces of the particles composed
of the second oxide are reduced to a first oxide having oxygen
defects, and an outermost layer containing platinum formed by
reduction of the platinum ions is formed on the first oxide; and
the step of heating the mixture after the reducing step.
[0083] The manufacturing method of this embodiment is able to
reduce the amount of precious metal used even more than when
catalyst having a core-shell structure which uses a precious metal
in the core is employed, and can thus inexpensively provide
catalyst particles. Moreover, because a continuous outermost layer
containing platinum can be formed, unlike when producing a catalyst
having a core-shell structure in which a base metal is used in the
core, there is no risk of dissolving of the inner particle, thus
enabling catalyst particles having an excellent catalyst
performance and durability to be provided. In addition, in the
subsequently described reducing step which uses, for example,
reversed micelles or a photoreduction method, the formation of
oxygen defects on at least the surface of the particle composed of
a second oxide which serves as the inner particle and the reduction
of the platinum can be made to proceed at the same time, enabling
formation of the outermost layer to proceed reliably.
[0084] The manufacturing method of this embodiment includes (1) the
step of preparing a dispersion of particles composed of a second
oxide, (2) the step of preparing a dispersion of platinum ions, (3)
a reducing step, and (4) a heating step. However, the manufacturing
method of this invention is not necessarily limited only to the
above four steps; in addition to these four steps, the
manufacturing method may also include, for example, the
subsequently described filtration and washing step, drying step and
grinding step. Above steps (1) to (4) and such other steps are
described below in order.
[0085] 4-1. The Step of Preparing a Dispersion of Particles
Composed of a Second Oxide
[0086] In this step a dispersion of particles composed of a second
oxide which is free of oxygen defects is prepared. The second oxide
is the same as the second oxide described above in Section 1-1.
[0087] The particles composed of a second oxide may be crystalline
particles or amorphous particles. However, when the subsequently
described photoreduction method is used, it is desirable to select
the degree of crystallization of the second oxide according to the
reaction conditions, and so it is preferable for the particles
composed of the second oxide to be amorphous particles. Even in
cases where crystalline particles are used, particularly in the
case of TiO.sub.2 particles, anatase-type crystal particles are
more preferred, although rutile-type or brookite-type crystal
particles are also acceptable. When the subsequently described
reversed micelles are used, the second oxide is preferably titanium
(IV) oxide (TiO.sub.2), tin (IV) oxide (SnO.sub.2), tantalum (V)
oxide (Ta.sub.2O.sub.5) or niobium (V) oxide (Nb.sub.2O.sub.5).
When the subsequently described photoreduction method is used, from
the standpoint of having a photocatalytic activity, the second
oxide is preferably titanium (IV) oxide (TiO.sub.2) or tin (IV)
oxide (SnO.sub.2).
[0088] The dispersion of particles composed of the second oxide, so
long as it is a liquid in which the second oxide is uniformly
dispersed, is not subject to any particular limitation, and may
even be a solution. However, in cases where the particles are
dispersed using the subsequently described reversed micelles, a
dispersion of reversed micelles containing particles composed of
the second oxide or a dispersion of reversed micelles containing
target ions for obtaining a target oxide within the reversed
micelles is used. The dispersion medium is not subject to any
particular limitation, provided it uniformly disperses the second
oxide. Because handling is easy, the use of water as the dispersion
medium is preferred. When dispersion is effected using the
subsequently described reversed micelles, pure water is used as the
aqueous phase, and an organic solvent such as octane, nonane,
decane or cyclohexane is used as the organic phase.
[0089] Details of the dispersion are explained below for cases in
which TiO.sub.2 is used as the second oxide. A dispersion of
amorphous particles of TiO.sub.2 can be obtained by the alkali
hydrolysis, or hydrolyzing treatment, of a titanium salt such as
titanium chloride (TiCl.sub.4) or an alkoxide such as titanium
propoxide (Ti(OC.sub.3H.sub.8).sub.4) using sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
or tetramethylammonium hydroxide ((CH.sub.3).sub.4NOH:TMAH). A
dispersion of crystalline particles of TiO.sub.2 can be obtained by
adding, if necessary, a dispersion medium such as water to, for
example, crystalline particles of TiO.sub.2 synthesized by a
conventional method or to a commercial crystalline TiO.sub.2 sol
(available under the trade name Tynoc M-6 from Taki Chemical Co.,
Ltd.). Dispersion of reversed micelles containing TiO.sub.2 will be
described in greater detail in connection with the subsequently
described reduction using reversed micelles.
[0090] 4-2. Step of Preparing a Dispersion of Platinum Ions
[0091] The dispersion of platinum ions prepared in this step is not
subject to any particular limitation, provided it is a liquid in
which platinum ions are uniformly dispersed. However, in cases
where dispersion is effected using the subsequently described
reversed micelles, a dispersion of reversed micelles containing
platinum ions is used. The dispersion medium is not subject to any
particular limitation, provided it uniformly disperses platinum
ions. Because handling is easy, the use of water as the dispersion
medium is preferred. When dispersion is effected using the
subsequently described reversed micelles, pure water is used as the
aqueous phase, and an organic solvent such as octane, nonane,
decane or cyclohexane is used as the organic phase.
[0092] Of platinum ion dispersions, an aqueous solution of platinum
ions can be obtained by, if necessary, diluting a platinum salt
such as hexachloroplatinic acid (H.sub.2PtCl.sub.6.6H.sub.2O) with
water. A dispersion of reversed micelles containing platinum ions
will be described in greater detail in connection with the
subsequently described reduction using reversed micelles.
[0093] 4-3. Reducing Step
[0094] This step is a reducing step in which, at least, the
dispersion of particles composed of the second oxide and the
dispersion of platinum ions are mixed together, at least the
surfaces of the particles composed of the second oxide are reduced
to a first oxide having oxygen defects, and an outermost layer
containing platinum formed by reduction of the platinum ions is
formed on the first oxide. The first oxide is the same as the first
oxide mentioned above in Section 1-1.
[0095] In this step, the surfaces of the particles composed of the
second oxide may be reduced to the first oxide having oxygen
defects, or the entire particles composed of the second oxide may
be converted to particles composed solely of the first oxide. Of
these possibilities, reduction of the surface of the particles
composed of the second oxide to the first oxide is exemplified by a
case in which an intermediate layer containing the first oxide is
formed on the surfaces of the particles composed of the second
oxide. In this case, an outermost layer is formed on the
intermediate layer.
[0096] Typical examples of reduction methods which may employed in
this step include chemical reduction using a reaction reagent which
exhibits reducing properties, and a reduction method which uses a
photoreaction. Hereinafter, these reduction examples are
explained.
[0097] 4-3-1 Reactions which Exhibit a Reducing Ability in the
Reversed Micelle Method
[0098] In chemical reduction using a reaction reagent which
exhibits a reducing ability in a reversed micelle method that
employs a reagent, use is made of the above-described dispersion of
reversed micelles containing particles composed of the second oxide
and dispersion of reversed micelles containing platinum ions.
"Reversed micelle" refers to an association created by an
oil-soluble surfactant which, in an oil such as a hydrocarbon,
arranges the hydrophilic groups on the inside and the lipophilic
groups on the outside. By employing water enclosed within a
reversed micelle as the field of nano-reactions, the formation of
oxygen defects on at least the surface of the particles composed of
the second oxide, the reduction of platinum ions, and the bonding
of platinum with oxygen defects can all be carried out at the same
time.
[0099] The dispersion of reversed micelles containing particles
composed of the second oxide may be obtained by, for example,
mixing together particles composed of the second oxide and a
surfactant. Likewise, the dispersion of reversed micelles
containing platinum ions may be obtained by mixing together
platinum ions and a surfactant. The reversed micelle structure
itself is stable. However, if there is even a little difference in
any one of the following parameters: (1) type of surfactant, (2)
type of solvent, (3) amount of water in reversed micelle, or if
there is any difference in the order in which the materials making
up the reverses micelles are introduced, the reversed micelle
structure cannot be formed. Surfactants which can be used to form
reversed micelles are not subject to any particular limitation,
provided they are lipophilic or amphiphilic. The types of
surfactants which form reversed micelles include, without
particular limitation, cationic, anionic and nonionic surfactants,
although a surfactant which has a high tolerance to the pH,
temperature and various chemicals in the system and which is
capable of maintaining stable reversed micelles is preferred. A
surfactant for which the resulting reversed micelles are not
destroyed by the platinum salt chemical reducing reaction carried
out within the reversed micelle or the subsequently described
photoreducing reaction, and which does not interfere with the
reactions that arise within the reversed micelles is more
preferred. A surfactant which is inert to the chemical reactions
and the photoreactions is especially preferred for simplifying the
process. Surfactants which have an ionicity that facilitates
removal of the surfactant and moreover in which the lipophilic
groups are relatively short chains are even more preferred. Two or
more different surfactants may be used in admixture in order to
stabilize or destabilize the reversed micelles.
[0100] Illustrative examples of surfactants that may be used in the
embodiment include sodium di(2-ethylhexyl)sulfosuccinate (AOT),
polyoxyethylene nonyl phenyl ether, magnesium laurate, zinc
caprate, zinc myristate, sodium phenyl stearate, aluminum
dicaprylate, tetraisoamylammonium thiocyanate,
n-octadecyltri(n-butyl)ammonium formate, n-amyltri(n-butyl)ammonium
iodide, sodium dinonylnaphthalene sulfonate, calcium cetyl sulfate,
dodecylamine oleate, dodecylamine propionate,
cetyltrimethylammonium bromide, stearyltrimethylammonium bromide,
cetyltrimethylammonium chloride, stearyltrimethylammonium chloride,
dodecyltrimethylammonium bromide, octadecyltrimethylammonium
bromide, dodecyltrimethylammonium chloride,
octadecyltrimethylammonium chloride, didodecyldimethylammonium
bromide, ditetradecyldimethylammonium bromide,
didodecyldimethylammonium chloride, ditetradecyldimethylammonium
chloride and (2-octyloxy-1-octyloxymethyl)polyoxyethylene ethyl
ether. Solvents that can be used to form reversed micelles include
organic solvents such as n-hexane, octane, nonane, decane and
cyclohexane, and water. Solvents such as alcohols which have
miscibility with both water and with organic solvents cannot be
used to form reversed micelles.
[0101] FIG. 20 is a cross-sectional schematic drawing showing the
structure of a reversed micelle. The reversed micelle structure 200
is a structure in which a surfactant 33 composed of hydrophilic
groups 31 and lipophilic groups 32 is radially arranged so as to
surround an aqueous phase 40. The outside of the reversed micelle
structure is an oil phase. The reversed micelle diameter 41 is
determined by the size of the crystalline TiO.sub.2 particles used
or the size of the amorphous particles that are synthesized. FIG.
21 is a graph showing the relationship between Rw (molar ratio of
total water content to the surfactant) and the diameter of the
reversed micelles when decane was used as the organic phase. In
FIG. 21, the diameter of the reversed micelles (water droplet
diameter) (nm) is plotted on the ordinate, and the Rw is plotted on
the abscissa. As shown in the diagram, there is a linear
relationship between the diameter of the reversed micelles and the
molar ratio Rw (y=1.2484x+6.4794, Rw.sup.2=0.9996). Therefore, the
diameter of the reversed micelles can be controlled by the amount
of water and the amount of surfactant.
[0102] The order of addition for the materials making up the
reversed micelle is preferably one where the organic solvent such
as decane and the surfactant such as AOT are mixed together,
following which the aqueous solution or aqueous dispersion is
added. Taking into account the stability of the reversed micelles,
when dissolving the surfactant in the organic solvent, it is
preferable to cool to room temperature or below and stirring in
such a way that froth does not foam.
[0103] In this reduction method, a reducing agent is additionally
mixed into the mixture of the dispersion of reversed micelles
containing particles composed of the second oxide with the
dispersion of reversed micelles containing platinum ions. When
reversed micelles are not used and the reducing agent is merely
added to a dispersion of a mixture of the oxide particles and the
platinum ions, the reducing agent ends up uniformly dispersing
within the liquid, making it impossible to efficiently reduce the
surface of the particles composed of the second oxide. By
additionally mixing a reducing agent into a mixture of reversed
micelle dispersions as is done in this step, the reducing agent
locally aggregates inside nano-order water droplets within the
reversed micelles, enabling the nanostructure at the surface of the
particles composed of the second oxide to be controlled.
[0104] The second oxide used in this reduction method is preferably
TiO.sub.2, SnO.sub.2, Ta.sub.2O.sub.5 or Nb.sub.2O.sub.5. A
dispersion of reversed micelles containing, of these metal oxides,
TiO.sub.2 particles can be prepared by adding a dispersion of the
above amorphous particles, a dispersion of crystalline particles or
an aqueous solution of TiO.sub.2 particles to a solution obtained
by adding a surfactant such as AOT to an organic solvent such as
octane, nonane, decane or cyclohexane. Moreover, a dispersion of
reversed micelles containing TiO.sub.2 particles may be prepared by
first creating reversed micelles that enclose titanium ions and
synthesizing TiO.sub.2 particles by alkali hydrolysis using
nano-reaction field in the reversed micelles. Also, a dispersion of
reversed micelles containing platinum ions may be prepared by
adding the above-described aqueous solution of platinum ions to a
solution obtained by adding a surfactant such as AOT to an organic
solvent such as n-hexane, octane, nonane or decane.
[0105] The reducing agent used in this reduction method is not
subject to any particular limitation, provided it is a reducing
agent having a strong reducing ability. Illustrative examples
include NaBH.sub.4, hydrogen, hydrazine, sodium thiosulfate, citric
acid, sodium citrate, L-ascorbic acid and formaldehyde.
[0106] Once reduction is complete and a platinum-containing
outermost layer has formed on the surface of the particles composed
of the second oxide, it is preferable to carry out the step of
adding an alcohol to the reaction mixture and thereby destroying
the reversed micelle structure. If the reversed micelle structure
is not destroyed, surfactant such as AOT will remain in the
vicinity of the catalyst particles. As a result, when the catalyst
particles obtained by this method are used in a fuel cell, the
surfactant may interfere with the electrochemical reactions.
Moreover, the residual surfactant may infiltrate between the
outermost layer and the inner particle or between the catalyst
particles and the subsequently described carbon support, as a
result of which outermost layer formation or support of the
catalyst particles on the carbon support may be incomplete. The
alcohol which may be used to destroy the reversed micelle structure
is preferably an alcohol having both hydrophilicity and
lipophilicity. Illustrative examples include lower alcohols such as
methanol, ethanol and propanol. The reaction mixture to which the
alcohol has been added is then furnished to the subsequently
described heating step.
[0107] 4-3-2. Reduction Using a Photoreduction Method
[0108] In a photoreduction method, a sacrificial reagent is
additionally mixed into a mixture of a dispersion of particles
composed of the second oxide having a photocatalytic activity with
a dispersion of platinum ions, following which light irradiation is
carried out. When a photoreduction method is used, the reduction of
platinum only at the surface of the particles composed of the
second oxide can be made to proceed by utilizing the photocatalytic
activity particular to the second oxide. As a result, platinum can
be made to deposit onto the surface of the particles composed of
the second oxide at a high efficiency without any waste of platinum
and with no formation of particles of platinum only. Moreover, the
particles composed of the second oxide can be covered with platinum
at a high coverage of from 90 to 100%.
[0109] The light source used in this reduction method is preferably
a light source having a wavelength in the ultraviolet (UV) light
range (350 to 430 nm). With a light source having a wavelength in
excess of 430 nm, because the energy is lower, charge separation
does not arise in the photocatalyst particles. As a result, the
photocatalytic reaction does not proceed, making use problematic.
When a visible light-responsive photocatalyst or an infrared
light-responsive photocatalyst is used, the photocatalytic reaction
can be made to proceed, enabling visible light or infrared light to
be used. From the standpoint of whether the photocatalyst reaction
proceeds or does not proceed, selecting the wavelength and the
wavelength region is merely a parameter which controls the
thickness and properties of the outermost layer.
[0110] Sacrificial reagents which may be used in this reducing
method are not subject to any particular limitation, provided they
oxidize at the surface of the particles composed of the second
oxide under the effect of UV light. Illustrative examples of
sacrificial reagents which may be used include polyalcohols such as
ethylene glycol and ascorbic acid; higher fatty alcohols such as
hexanol and decanol; and sugars having a reducing ability and a
high hydrophilicity, such as sorbitol and glucose.
[0111] The second oxide having a photocatalytic activity used in
this reducing method is preferably TiO.sub.2 or SnO.sub.2.
[0112] The above-described reversed micelles may be used in the
photoreduction method. This may involve mixing a dispersion of
reversed micelles containing particles composed of the second oxide
having a photocatalytic activity together with a dispersion of
reversed micelles containing platinum ions, adding a sacrificial
reagent to the mixture, and carrying out light irradiation. In such
a case, after an outermost layer containing platinum has been
formed on at least the surface of the particles composed of the
second oxide, it is preferable to destroy the reversed micelle
structure by adding an alcohol to the reaction mixture.
[0113] The above-described reducing agent may be concomitantly used
in this photoreduction method. The time at which the reducing agent
is used may be prior to photoreduction, concurrent with
photoreduction, or after photoreduction. With regard to the time of
use of the reducing agent, preferably, the surface of the particles
composed of the second oxide having a photocatalytic activity is
preliminarily reduced with a reducing agent, following which
platinum ions are mixed with the particles composed of the second
oxide, and light irradiation is subsequently carried out.
Alternatively, the particles composed of the second oxide having a
photocatalytic activity may be mixed together with the platinum
ions, then the reducing agent additionally admixed in the resulting
mixture, and light irradiation subsequently carried out. It is also
possible to mix together the particles composed of a second oxide
having a photocatalytic activity with the platinum ions and carry
out light irradiation, then to additionally mix the reducing agent
into the light-irradiated mixture. In short, so long as a step is
provided in which light irradiation is carried out on a mixture of
the particles composed of the second oxide having a photocatalytic
activity with the platinum ions, the reducing agent may be used at
any other stage as well. Using the reducing agent only on platinum
ions is not desirable from the standpoint that particles composed
only of platinum will end up forming.
[0114] A typical example of this reduction method in which
TiO.sub.2 is used as the second oxide having a photocatalytic
activity is explained. First, a platinum ion solution is mixed into
a TiO.sub.2 dispersion. Next, ethylene glycol is added as the
sacrificial reagent to the mixture, and the resulting mixture is
irradiated with UV light having a wavelength of from 350 to 430 nm,
thereby reducing the platinum only at the surface of the
TiO.sub.2.
[0115] A modified example of this reduction method when TiO.sub.2
is used as the second oxide having a photocatalytic activity is
described. First, SBH, which is a strong reducing agent, is added
to a dispersion of reversed micelles containing crystalline
TiO.sub.2 particles, partially reducing the TiO.sub.2 particles,
and thereby forming oxygen defects on the particles. Next, a
dispersion of reversed micelles containing platinum ions is mixed
into the dispersion of reversed micelles containing TiO.sub.2
particles which have been subjected to partial reducing treatment.
Then, ethylene glycol is added as a sacrificial reagent to the
mixture, and the resulting mixture is irradiated with UV light
having a wavelength of 350 to 430 nm, thereby reducing the platinum
only at the surface of the TiO.sub.2.
[0116] 4-3-3. Pre-Reduction
[0117] The inventive method of manufacture may include, prior to
the above-described reducing step, a pre-reducing step which
involves the preliminary reduction of at least the particles
composed of the second oxide within the dispersion of particles
composed of the second oxide. In particular, when a photoreduction
method is used, the method may be one where, in a pre-reducing
step, a reducing agent is mixed into a dispersion of particles
composed of a second oxide having a photocatalytic activity, or may
be one where a sacrificial reagent is mixed into a dispersion of
particles composed of a second oxide having a photocatalytic
activity, followed by light irradiation.
[0118] 4-4. Heating Step
[0119] This step entails heating the mixture after the reducing
step. Here, "the mixture after the reducing step" refers to a
mixture of all the materials mixed together up until this heating
step, including the catalyst particles in which an outermost layer
has formed at the reduced areas of the particles composed of the
second oxide, the dispersant and/or solvent, and additionally, when
employed, the subsequently described carbon support, surfactant,
reducing agent, sacrificial reagent, and/or the alcohol used to
destroy the reversed micelles. It is also possible to carry out
filtration or the like prior to this heating step, and thereby
remove beforehand liquids such as a dispersion medium or solvent.
The heating method is not subject to any particular limitation,
provided it is carried out at a temperature which promotes bonding
of the oxygen defects in the particles composed of the second oxide
with platinum atoms and which, in cases where a surfactant such as
AOT has been added, enables the surfactant to be removed. The
heating carried out in this step is preferably firing. The specific
firing conditions are as follows. Initial conditions: 30 to 120
minutes of purging with inert gas at room temperature. Conditions
of temperature increase to from 250 to 1300.degree. C., and
preferably to from 350 to 900.degree. C.: temperature increase from
room temperature to the above temperature over a period of 60 to
180 minutes. Holding conditions: holding for 30 to 120 minutes at
above temperature. The above-indicated temperature is the
temperature required to form bonds between the oxygen defects in
the particles composed of the second oxide and platinum atoms.
[0120] 4-5. Other Steps
[0121] Following the heating step, filtration, washing, drying and
grinding of the catalyst particles may be carried out. Filtration
and washing of the catalyst particles are not subject to any
particular limitation, provided the methods used are capable of
removing impurities without damaging the layer structure of the
manufactured particles. Illustrative examples of such filtration
and washing include methods in which separation is carried out by
suction filtration using pure water as the solvent and using filter
paper (#42, available from Whatman Ltd.). Drying of the catalyst
particles is not subject to any particular limitation, provided the
method used is capable of removing solvent and the like. Such
drying is exemplified by a method of vacuum drying at a temperature
of 60 to 100.degree. C. for 10 to 20 hours. Grinding of the
catalyst particles is not subject to any particular limitation,
provided it involves a method which is capable of pulverizing the
solid product. Illustrative examples of such grinding include
grinding in a mortar or the like, and mechanical milling in a ball
mill, turbomill, mechanofusion or disc mill.
5. Methods of Manufacturing Carbon-Supported Catalyst Particles
[0122] A first method of manufacturing carbon-supported catalyst
particles serving as an embodiment of the invention is a method of
manufacturing carbon-supported catalyst particles by supporting on
a carbon support the catalyst particles which are obtained as
described above. In the above-described reducing step which uses a
reducing agent, either prior to additionally mixing a reducing
agent into a mixture of a dispersion of reversed micelles
containing particles composed of the second oxide with a dispersion
of reversed micelles containing platinum ions, or after
additionally mixing a reducing agent into such a mixture, a carbon
support is mixed into the mixture.
[0123] A second method of manufacturing carbon-supported catalyst
particles serving as an embodiment of the invention is a method of
manufacturing carbon-supported catalyst particles by supporting on
a carbon support the catalyst particles which are obtained as
described above. In the above-described reducing step which uses a
light-irradiating apparatus, after additionally mixing a
sacrificial reagent into a mixture of a dispersion of particles
composed of the second oxide with a dispersion of platinum ions and
irradiating the mixture with light, a carbon support is
additionally mixed into the light-irradiated mixture.
[0124] The two above manufacturing methods share in common the
additional mixture of a carbon support material into a mixture
containing both particles composed of the second oxide and also
platinum ions. In the first manufacturing method in which a
reducing agent is used, whether the reducing agent is mixed into
the mixture containing both particles composed of the second oxide
and also platinum ions following admixture of the carbon support,
or whether the carbon support is mixed in following admixture of
the reducing agent makes no particular difference in the resulting
carbon-supported catalyst particles. However, in the second
manufacturing method in which photoreduction is used, if light
irradiation is carried out after admixture of the carbon support
and the sacrificial reagent to the mixture containing both
particles composed of the second oxide and also platinum ions, the
carbon support will hinder the photocatalytic activity of the
second oxide, as a result of which the platinum reducing reaction
will fail to proceed, which is undesirable. Therefore, in the
second manufacturing method of the invention, admixture of the
carbon support is carried out only after the additional admixture
of the sacrificial agent to the mixture containing both particles
composed of the second oxide and also platinum ions, and light
irradiation.
[0125] The above-described carbon support may be used in the above
first and second manufacturing methods. Of such carbon supports, in
the above first and second manufacturing methods, carbon materials
such as acetylene black, furnace black, carbon black, activated
carbon, mesophase carbon and graphite may be used either singly or
as a mixture of two or more types thereof.
6. Presumptive Mechanisms
[0126] The mechanisms which underlie why the catalyst particles
manufactured by the method of this embodiment have a high activity
and a high durability are described below. FIGS. 2A and 2B are
respectively diagrams which schematically show, both before
crystalline TiO.sub.2 is reduced with a reducing agent and after it
has been reduced, a portion of the TiO.sub.2. In the diagrams,
"Ti(IV)" represents titanium atoms having a valence of +4,
"Ti(III)" represents titanium atoms having a valence of +3, "O"
represents oxygen atoms, and the straight lines represents bonds
between the atoms. Double wavy lines signify omissions in the
diagram. FIG. 2A is a schematic diagram showing how a portion of
the Ti (IV) in the crystalline TiO.sub.2 is reduced to Ti (III) by
the above-described reduction method. Some of the oxygen
dissociates at this time, giving rise to oxygen defects 60. The
fact that oxygen defects are thus generated by reduction and the
crystallinity of crystalline TiO.sub.2 is lost has been confirmed
also in analyses of the carbon-supported catalyst particles
obtained in the subsequently described Example 3. FIG. 2B is a
schematic diagram showing the formation of Pt--Ti bonds due to the
bonding of oxygen defect sites with platinum atoms as a result of
heat treatment following the reducing step. The fact that Pt--Ti
bonds form due to heating has been confirmed also in analyses of
the carbon-supported catalyst particles obtained in the
subsequently described Example 3.
[0127] As shown in FIG. 2B, Ti (IV) is more stable than Ti (III),
and thus preferable, as the titanium atoms which form Pt--Ti bonds.
What this means is that Ti (III) donates an electron to platinum
and is thereby oxidized to Ti (IV). Due to the occurrence of such
electron donation to platinum by titanium, the electron occupancy
of the platinum 5d orbital increases, making oxygen adsorption to
the platinum difficult. Redox reactions on a platinum catalyst are
basically determined by the ease with which oxygen adsorption to
platinum occurs. "Oxygen adsorption to platinum" has to do with the
formation of a bonding orbital between the platinum 5d orbital and
the empty oxygen 2p orbital. Generally, the catalyst activity is
low both when oxygen adsorption to the metal catalyst is difficult,
and when oxygen adsorbs to the metal catalyst strongly and
excessively. That is, to maintain a high catalyst activity, there
exists a optimal value for oxygen adsorption. Given that platinum
is a metal which, even among metal catalysts, readily gives rise to
oxygen adsorption, the fact that oxygen adsorption to platinum does
not readily occur is effective for increasing the catalytic
activity for oxygen reduction reaction (ORR).
[0128] Lowering the stabilization energy of the antibonding
orbitals that form at the platinum 5d orbital and the oxygen 2p
orbital is effective for discouraging oxygen adsorption to
platinum. In order to lower the stabilization energy, it is
effective to donate an electron to platinum and lower the d-band
center of platinum. FIG. 3 is an energy level diagram of when
oxygen is adsorbed onto platinum. The d-band center 62a in the
d-band 61a of platinum prior to electron donation has a higher
energy level than the Fermi level 63. Therefore, the portion of the
electrons below the Fermi level 63 in the d-band 61a (which portion
is indicated by the hatching) all occupy bonding orbitals formed by
the platinum 5d orbital and the oxygen 2p-.pi.* orbital. As a
result, the platinum adsorbs oxygen more easily. On the other hand,
when electron donation from TiO.sub.2 occurs in the platinum 5d
orbital, the Fermi level remains the same, with the energy level of
the platinum 5d orbital decreasing and the d-band center also
decreasing. The d-band center 62b within the platinum d-band 61b
following electron donation has an energy level which is lower than
the Fermi level 63. Accordingly, the energy levels of those
platinum 5d orbitals which had formed bonding orbitals with the
oxygen 2p-.pi.* orbital decrease. Hence, the energy difference
between the energy level of the platinum 5d orbitals which form
bonds and the energy level of the oxygen 2p-.pi.* orbitals widens,
as a result of which the absorptivity of oxygen to platinum is
weaker than before electron donation. By forming in this way an
easily reduced platinum layer (i.e., a platinum layer which does
not readily undergo oxidative degradation) on the oxide particles,
catalyst particles which exhibit an excellent durability can be
obtained.
7. Other Applications
[0129] The catalyst particles and the carbon-supported catalyst
particles according to these embodiments may be used not only in
the above-described fuel cell catalyst, but also in conventional
platinum catalyst reactions and applications thereof. In the
catalyst particles and carbon-supported catalyst particles of these
embodiments, because the particle interior is composed of an oxide,
the amount of platinum employed can be decreased compared with
conventional cases in which platinum particles are used, enabling
dramatically lower costs to be achieved. Examples of other
applications include use in degradative reduction reactions on
nitrogen oxides (NOx), use in degradative reactions on water as a
photocatalyst or co-catalyst thereto, use in various types of
chemical reactions that are based on redox reactions, and biomass
degrading catalysts and biocatalysts.
[0130] 1. Manufacture of Carbon-Supported Catalyst Particles
[0131] 1-1. Methods of Manufacture Using Reversed Micelles
[0132] 1-1-1. Method of Manufacture Using Amorphous TiO.sub.2
Example 1
(a) Preparation of TiO.sub.2 Particle-Containing Reversed
Micelles
[0133] First, a 0.1 mol/L aqueous solution of TiCl.sub.4 was
prepared by diluting 1 mL of a hydrochloric acid solution of
TiCl.sub.4 (16 to 17%/1.5 g/mL) with 49 mL of purified water. Next,
183 mL of decane and 17.27 g of AOT were added to a 1,000 mL beaker
and stirred for 1 hour with a magnetic stirrer. Then, 3 mL of the
0.1 mol/L aqueous solution of TiCl.sub.4 was added to the stirred
solution, and stirring was carried out again for 1 hour. Finally,
1.2 mL of a 0.1 mol/L aqueous solution of NaOH was added by
micropipette to the stirred solution, and stirring was carried out
for another 18 hours, thereby giving a dispersion of reversed
micelles containing TiO.sub.2 particles.
(b) Preparation of Reversed Micelles Containing Platinum Ions
[0134] First, a 0.1 mol/L aqueous solution of H.sub.2PtCl.sub.6 was
prepared by dissolving 5.1778 g of H.sub.2PtCl.sub.6.6H.sub.2O in
98.9 mL of purified water. Next, 183 mL of decane and 17.62 g of
AOT were added to a 1,000 mL beaker and stirred for 1 hour with a
magnetic stirrer. Then, 4.3 mL of the 0.1 mol/L aqueous solution of
H.sub.2PtCl.sub.6 was added to the stirred solution and stirring
was carried out again for 1 hour, thereby giving a dispersion of
reversed micelles containing platinum ions.
(c) Mixture and Reduction of Reversed Micelles
[0135] The dispersion of reversed micelles containing TiO.sub.2
particles and the dispersion of reversed micelles containing
platinum ions prepared as described above were mixed together and
stirred for 3 hours with a magnetic stirrer. Next, 0.3029 g of
carbon black (Ketjen) was added as the carbon support and stirring
was carried out at 10.degree. C. for 30 minutes, following which
0.1589 g of SBH powder was added and stirring was carried out for 2
hours. In addition, 300 mL of a 2-propanol:ethanol=4:1 mixture was
added, and stirring was carried out at 10.degree. C. for one hour.
The dispersion was subjected to suction filtration, and a solid
(catalyst precursor) was recovered. The recovered solid was washed
with 500 mL of a decane:alcohol=4.3:3.0 mixture, then vacuum dried
for 18 hours at 80.degree. C.
(d) Firing (600.degree. C.)
[0136] An amount of 0.4 g of the catalyst precursor powder obtained
as described above was fired under the following conditions. [0137]
Initial conditions: Argon purging was carried out at room
temperature for 60 minutes (Ar feed rate, 750 mL/min; Ar purity,
99.9999%). [0138] Temperature increase conditions: The temperature
was raised from room temperature to 600.degree. C. over a period of
120 minutes. [0139] Holding conditions: The catalyst powder was
held and fired at 600.degree. C. for 60 minutes, then washed with
80.degree. C. purified water, giving the carbon-supported catalyst
particles of Example 1.
Example 2
(e) Firing (500.degree. C.)
[0140] The same procedure as in Example 1 above, up until mixture
of the reversed micelles and reduction, was carried out. Of the
catalyst precursor powders obtained by the above methods, 0.4 g was
fired under the following conditions. [0141] Initial conditions:
Argon purging was carried out at room temperature for 60 minutes
(Ar feed rate, 750 mL/min; Ar purity, 99.9999%). [0142] Temperature
increase conditions: The temperature was raised from room
temperature to 500.degree. C. over a period of 120 minutes. [0143]
Holding conditions: The catalyst powder was held and fired at
500.degree. C. for 60 minutes, then washed with 80.degree. C.
purified water, giving the carbon-supported catalyst particles of
Example 2.
[0144] 1-1-2. Method of Manufacture Using Crystalline TiO.sub.2
Example 3
(a) Preparation of Reversed Micelles Containing TiO.sub.2
Particles
[0145] First, 462 mL of decane and 20.4068 g of AOT were added to a
1,000 mL beaker and stirred for 1 hour with a magnetic stirrer.
Next, 10 g of an anatase-type crystalline TiO.sub.2 sol (available
under the trade name Tynoc M-6 from Taki Chemical Co., Ltd.) was
added to the stirred solution, and stirring was carried out again
for 3 hours, giving a dispersion of reversed micelles containing
TiO.sub.2 particles.
(b) Preparation of Reversed Micelles Containing Platinum Ions
[0146] First, a 0.1 mol/L aqueous solution of H.sub.2PtCl.sub.6 was
prepared by dissolving 5.1778 g of H.sub.2PtCl.sub.6.6H.sub.2O in
99 mL of purified water. Next, 462 mL of decane and 20.89 g of AOT
were added to a 1,000 mL beaker and stirred for 1 hour with a
magnetic stirrer. Then, 10.16 mL of the 0.1 mol/L aqueous solution
of H.sub.2PtCl.sub.6 was added to the stirred solution and stirring
was carried out again for 1 hour, thereby giving a dispersion of
reversed micelles containing platinum ions.
(c) Mixture of Reversed Micelles and Reduction
[0147] The dispersion of reversed micelles containing TiO.sub.2
particles and the dispersion of reversed micelles containing
platinum ions prepared as described above were mixed together and
stirred for 1 hour with a magnetic stirrer. Next, 0.565 g of carbon
black (Ketjen) was added as the carbon support and stirring was
carried out at 10.degree. C. for 30 minutes, following which 0.38 g
of SBH powder was added and stirring was carried out for 5 hours.
In addition, 500 mL of a mixture in which the ratio between a
2-propanol and ethanol is 4:1 was added, and 30 minutes of stirring
was carried out at 10.degree. C. The dispersion was subjected to
suction filtration, and a solid (catalyst precursor) was recovered.
The recovered solid was washed with 500 mL of a
decane:alcohol=4.3:3.0 mixture, then vacuum dried for 18 hours at
80.degree. C.
(d) Firing (700.degree. C.)
[0148] The catalyst precursor powder obtained as described above
was fired under the following conditions. [0149] Initial
conditions: Argon purging was carried out at room temperature for
60 minutes (Ar feed rate, 750 mL/min; Ar purity, 99.9999%). [0150]
Temperature increase conditions: The temperature was raised from
room temperature to 700.degree. C. over a period of 120 minutes.
[0151] Holding conditions: The catalyst powder was held and fired
at 700.degree. C. for 60 minutes, then washed with 80.degree. C.
purified water and subsequently vacuum-dried at 80.degree. C. for
18 hours, giving the carbon-supported catalyst particles of Example
3.
[0152] 1-1-3. Method of Manufacture Using SnO.sub.2
Particle-Containing Reversed Micelles and Platinum Ion-Containing
Reversed Micelles
Example 4
(a) Preparation of Partially Reduced SnO.sub.2 Particle-Containing
Reversed Micelles
[0153] First, a 0.1 mol/L aqueous solution of SnCl.sub.4 was
prepared by dissolving SnCl.sub.4 in purified water. Next, 10.29 g
of the surfactant AOT was dissolved in 75 g of cyclohexane, and the
solution was stirred for 1 hour with a magnetic stirrer. Next, 2.5
mL of the above 0.1 mol/L aqueous solution of SnCl.sub.4 was added
to the stirred solution, and the resulting mixture was stirred for
2 hours. The molar ratio of water to surfactant
([H.sub.2O]/[surfactant]) was adjusted at this time to 6. Next, 8
mol/L NaOH was added in a 4-fold molar ratio (0.25 mL) with respect
to the tin in SnCl.sub.4, thereby preparing SnO.sub.2-containing
reversed micelles. Then, 0.047 g of SBH powder was added and
stirring was carried out for 2 hours, thereby giving a dispersion
of reversed micelles containing partially reduced SnO.sub.2
particles.
(b) Preparation of Platinum Ion-Containing Reversed Micelles
[0154] First, a 0.1 mol/L aqueous solution of H.sub.2PtCl.sub.6 was
prepared by dissolving 2.59 g of H.sub.2PtCl.sub.6.6H.sub.2O in
49.9 g of ultrapure water. Next, 830 mL of decane and 77.1 g of AOT
were added to a 2,000 mL beaker and stirring was carried out for 1
hour with a magnetic stirrer. Then, 18.75 mL of the 0.1 mol/L
aqueous solution of H.sub.2PtCl.sub.6 was added to the stirred
solution and stirring was again carried out for 1 hour, thereby
giving a dispersion of reversed micelles containing platinum
ions.
(c) Mixture of Reversed Micelles and Reduction with SBH
[0155] The dispersion of reversed micelles containing partially
reduced SnO.sub.2 particles and the dispersion of reversed micelles
containing platinum ions prepared as described above were mixed
together and stirred for 1 hour with a magnetic stirrer. Next,
after confirming that the solution had turned clear, SBH was added
in a 10-fold molar amount with respect to the platinum ions, and
stirring was again carried out for 1 hour. Then 1.129 g of a carbon
support (available under the trade name VXC-72R from Cabot Japan
KK) was added to the reaction mixture in a loading of 40% by mass
per 100% by mass of the combined amount of platinum and SnO.sub.2,
and stirring was again carried out for 1 hour. Next, 100 mL of
2-propanol was added to the reaction mixture, thereby destroying
the reversed micelles and causing the catalyst to be supported on
the carbon. The product was recovered by vacuum filtration, giving
the carbon-supported catalyst particles of Example 4.
[0156] 1-2. Production by Photoreduction
[0157] 1-2-1. Production of Catalyst Particles Using Aqueous
Platinum Solution and Aqueous TiO.sub.2 Solution
Example 5
(a) Mixture of Aqueous Platinum Solution and Aqueous TiO.sub.2
Solution
[0158] First, 50 mL of a 0.025 mol/L aqueous solution of platinum
was prepared. Next, 34 mL of the aqueous platinum solution was
adjusted to pH 4 by the appropriate addition of a 1 mol/L aqueous
NaOH solution. An aqueous TiO.sub.2 solution was then prepared by
diluting 35 g of an anatase-type crystalline TiO.sub.2 sol (Tynoc
M-6, available under this trade name from Taki Chemical Co., Ltd.)
with 235 g of purified water. About 34 mL of the aqueous platinum
solution that had been adjusted to pH 4 and 270 g of the aqueous
solution of TiO.sub.2 were added to a 500 mL beaker, in addition to
which 0.2 g of ethylene glycol was also added, and stirring was
carried out for 1 hour.
(b) Photoreduction
[0159] FIG. 14 shows a schematic view of the apparatus used to
carry out light irradiation. Light irradiation was carried out in a
darkroom. The platinum-TiO.sub.2-ethylene glycol mixed solutions
within the containers 11 were uniformly irradiated with light that
included UV wavelengths (350 to 430 nm) by means of a UV irradiator
13 while being uniformly stirred with stirrers 12. The solutions
after 1 hour, 2 hours, 3 hours, 4 hours, 6 hours, 12 hours, 16
hours, 18 hours and 24 hours were observed, and irradiation was
ended 24 hours after the platinum reduction had proceeded to
completion and the solution had turned black. The photoreduction
conditions were as follows.
UV irradiator: 500 W high-pressure UV lamp (USH-500SC2, from Ushio
Inc.)
Output: 250 W
[0160] Primary UV wavelengths: 436 nm, 405 nm, 365 nm Distance from
light source to specimen: 1 to 5 m
(c) Carbon Support
[0161] Carbon black (Ketjen), 1.511 g, was added as the carbon
support to the platinum-TiO.sub.2 mixed solution following the end
of irradiation, and 6 hours of stirring was carried out. Next, the
solvent was driven off from the solution with an evaporator, and 18
hours of vacuum-drying was carried out at a temperature of
80.degree. C.
(d) Firing (300.degree. C.)
[0162] The catalyst precursor powder obtained as described above
was fired under the following conditions. [0163] Initial
conditions: Argon purging was carried out at room temperature for
60 minutes (Ar feed rate, 750 mL/min; Ar purity, 99.9999%). [0164]
Temperature increase conditions: The temperature was raised from
room temperature to 300.degree. C. over a period of 120 minutes.
[0165] Holding conditions: The catalyst powder was held and fired
at 300.degree. C. for 60 minutes, then washed with 80.degree. C.
purified water and vacuum-dried at 80.degree. C. for 18 hours,
giving the carbon-supported catalyst particles of Example 5.
[0166] 1-2-2. Method of Manufacture Using TiO.sub.2
Particle-Containing Reversed Micelles and Platinum Ion-Containing
Reversed Micelles (Platinum Single-Atom Layer)
Example 6
(a) Preparation of Surface-Reduced TiO.sub.2 Particle-Containing
Reversed Micelles
[0167] There are two methods for controlling the thickness of the
platinum layer: one involves control by means of the amount of
platinum introduced, and the other involves reducing the thickness
of the platinum layer by potential treatment after platinum
coating. In Examples 6 to 8 below, use was made of the method for
controlling the thickness of the platinum layer by means of the
amount of platinum introduced. This method of control is possible
in the photoreduction method because platinum reducing reactions
arise only at the surface of the inner particle. The amount of
platinum introduced is determined by the diameter of the inner
particles used. First, an aqueous solution of TiO.sub.2 diluted to
0.1 mol/L was prepared by adding 66 mL of purified water to 10 g of
an anatase-type crystalline TiO.sub.2 sol (available under the
trade name Tynoc M-6 from Taki Chemical Co., Ltd.; 0.75 mol/L).
Next, 100 mL of decane and 2.2 g of AOT were added to a beaker and
stirred for 1 hour with a magnetic stirrer. Next, 0.53 mL of the
0.1 mol/L aqueous solution of TiO.sub.2 was added to the stirred
solution, and 1 hour of stirring was carried out in order to
stabilize the reversed micelle structure. This was followed by an
additional 3 hours of stirring. Next, 2.5574 g of SBH powder was
added and stirring was carried out for 2 hours, thereby giving a
dispersion of reversed micelles containing partially reduced
TiO.sub.2 particles.
(b) Preparation of Platinum Ion-Containing Reversed Micelles
[0168] First, a 0.1 mol/L aqueous solution of H.sub.2PtCl.sub.6 was
prepared by dissolving 2.59 g of H.sub.2PtCl.sub.6.6H.sub.2O in
49.9 g of purified water. Next, 100 mL of decane and 2.2 g of AOT
were added to a beaker and stirred for 1 hour with a magnetic
stirrer. Then, 0.53 mL of the 0.1 mol/L aqueous solution of
H.sub.2PtCl.sub.6 was added to the stirred solution and stirring
was again carried out for 1 hour, thereby giving a dispersion of
reversed micelles containing platinum ions.
(c) Mixture of Reversed Micelles and Photoreduction
[0169] First, the dispersion of reversed micelles containing
partially reduced TiO.sub.2 particles and the dispersion of
reversed micelles containing platinum ions prepared as described
above were mixed, and the mixture was stirred for 1 hour with a
magnetic stirrer. Next, as shown in FIG. 14, while uniformly
stirring the mixture within the containers 11 with magnetic
stirrers 12, the mixtures were uniformly exposed in a darkroom to
only UV light from a UV irradiator 13 and passed through a filter
(UG11) for 24 hours. The photoreduction conditions were as follows.
[0170] UV irradiator: 500 W high-pressure UV lamp (USH-500SC2, from
Ushio Inc.) [0171] Output: 500 W [0172] Wavelength: 350 to 420 nm
[0173] Distance from light source to specimen: 30 cm
(d) Carbon Support
[0174] Carbon black (Ketjen), 2.13 g, was added as the carbon
support to the platinum-TiO.sub.2 mixed solution following the end
of irradiation, and 30 minutes of stirring was carried out at a
temperature of not greater than 10.degree. C. Next, 200 mL of a
mixed solution (2-propanol:ethanol=4:1) was added and 30 minutes of
stirring was carried out at 10.degree. C., thereby destroying the
reversed micelles and causing the catalyst to be supported on the
carbon. Next, suction filtration was carried out on the dispersion,
and a solid (catalyst precursor) was recovered. The recovered solid
was washed with 500 mL of a decane:alcohol=4.3:3.0 mixed solution,
then vacuum dried for 18 hours at a temperature of 80.degree.
C.
(e) Firing (500.degree. C.)
[0175] The catalyst precursor powder obtained as described above
was fired under the following conditions. [0176] Initial
conditions: Argon purging was carried out at room temperature for
60 minutes (Ar feed rate, 750 mL/min; Ar purity, 99.9999%). [0177]
Temperature increase conditions: The temperature was raised from
room temperature to 500.degree. C. over a period of 120 minutes.
[0178] Holding conditions: The catalyst powder was held and fired
at 500.degree. C. for 60 minutes, then washed with 80.degree. C.
purified water and vacuum-dried at 80.degree. C. for 18 hours,
giving the carbon-supported catalyst particles of Example 6 which
were covered with a single-atom layer of platinum.
[0179] 1-2-3. Method of Manufacture Using TiO.sub.2
Particle-Containing Reversed Micelles and Platinum Ion-Containing
Reversed Micelles (Platinum Three-Atom Layer)
Example 7
[0180] The same procedure was followed as in Example 6 up through
preparation of the surface-reduced TiO.sub.2 particle-containing
reversed micelles. Preparation of the platinum ion-containing
reversed micelles was carried out as follows. First, an aqueous 0.1
mol/L solution of H.sub.2PtCl.sub.6 was prepared by dissolving 2.59
g of H.sub.2PtCl.sub.6.6H.sub.2O in 49.9 g of purified water. Next,
150 mL of decane and 6.5 g of AOT were added to a beaker, and
stirring was carried out for 1 hour with a magnetic stirrer. Then,
1.58 mL of the aqueous 0.1 mol/L H.sub.2PtCl.sub.6 solution was
added to the stirred solution, following which stirring was carried
out for 1 hour, thereby giving a dispersion of reversed micelles
containing platinum ions. Mixing of the reversed micelles,
photoreduction, carbon support and firing were subsequently carried
out in the same way as in Example 6, thereby giving the
carbon-supported catalyst particles of Example 7 which were covered
with a platinum three-atom layer.
[0181] 1-2-4. Method of Manufacture Using TiO.sub.2
Particle-Containing Reversed Micelles and Platinum Ion-Containing
Reversed Micelles (Platinum 10-Atom Layer)
Example 8
[0182] The same procedure was followed as in Example 6 up through
preparation of the surface-reduced TiO.sub.2 particle-containing
reversed micelles. Preparation of the platinum ion-containing
reversed micelles was carried out as follows. First, an aqueous 0.1
mol/L solution of H.sub.2PtCl.sub.6 was prepared by dissolving 2.59
g of H.sub.2PtCl.sub.6.6H.sub.2O in 49.9 g of purified water. Next,
250 mL of decane and 21.7 g of AOT were added to a beaker, and
stirring was carried out for 1 hour with a magnetic stirrer. Then,
5.28 mL of the aqueous 0.1 mol/L H.sub.2PtCl.sub.6 solution was
added to the stirred solution, following which stirring was carried
out for 1 hour, thereby giving a dispersion of reversed micelles
containing platinum ions. Mixing of the reversed micelles,
photoreduction, carbon support and firing were subsequently carried
out in the same way as in Example 6, thereby giving the
carbon-supported catalyst particles of Example 8 which were covered
with a platinum 10-atom layer.
[0183] 1-2-5. Method of Manufacture Using SnO.sub.2
Particle-Containing Reversed Micelles and Platinum Ion-Containing
Reversed Micelles
Example 9
[0184] Preparation of the reversed micelles containing partially
reduced SnO.sub.2 particles and preparation of the reversed
micelles containing platinum ions was the same as in Example 4
described above. SBH was added to the SnO.sub.2 particle-containing
reversed micelles in a molar ratio with respect to tin of 0.5 and
stirring was carried out for 1 hour. A dispersion of reversed
micelles containing platinum ions was then mixed into the reaction
mixture, following which sorbitol was added as a sacrificial
reagent in an amount of 2 moles per mole of platinum and the
mixture was irradiated with light for 3 days using a high-pressure
mercury vapor lamp. Following light irradiation, carbon support and
vacuum filtration were carried out in the same way as in Example 4,
giving the carbon-supported catalyst particles of Example 9.
[0185] 2. Analysis of Catalyst Particles
[0186] 2-1. Analysis of Carbon-Supported Catalyst Particles of
Example 3
[0187] Structural and compositional analyses of the
carbon-supported catalyst particles of Example 3 were carried out
by measurement using the HAADF method and measurement using
EDS.
[0188] FIGS. 4 A and 4B are electron micrographs which capture the
results of HAADF measurement of the carbon-supported catalyst
particles of Example 3, and FIGS. 5A to 5C are electron micrographs
which capture the results of EDS surface analysis of the
carbon-supported catalyst particles of Example 3. The HAADF
measurement conditions were as follows. Dark-field scanning
transmission electron microscopic (STEM) observation was carried
out using a field emission transmission electron microscope
(JEM-2100F with Cs corrector, manufactured by JEOL Ltd.) and at an
acceleration voltage of 200 kV, both over a visual field of 0.3
.mu.m.times.0.3 .mu.m (magnification, 400,000.times.; FIG. 4A) and
over a visual field of 8 nm.times.8 nm (magnification,
17,500,000.times.; FIG. 4B). It is apparent from FIG. 4B that the
primary particle size of the catalyst particles obtained was about
10 to 20 nm. The EDS measurement conditions were as follows.
Mapping analysis by EDS was carried out using a field emission
transmission electron microscope (JEM-2100F with Cs corrector,
manufactured by JEOL Ltd.) equipped with a UTW-type Si (Li)
semiconductor detector, and regions where platinum atoms and
TiO.sub.2 are both present were detected. FIGS. 5A to 5C are
electron micrographs captured showing elements in the same visual
field as in FIG. 4A. FIG. 5A is an image captured of the element
titanium, FIG. 5B is an image captured of the element platinum, and
FIG. 5C is an image obtained by superimposing FIGS. 5A and 5B. As
is apparent from FIG. 5C, because places where the element titanium
is present and places where the element platinum is present
substantially overlapped, it was possible to confirm that, in the
carbon-supported catalyst particles of Example 3, platinum is
present on the surface of crystalline TiO.sub.2.
[0189] STEM observation was carried out on the TiO.sub.2 particles
just before adding SBH powder in Example 3, and on the
carbon-supported catalyst particles in Example 3. The STEM
observation conditions were as follows. Dark-field STEM observation
was carried out using a field emission transmission electron
microscope (JEM-2100F with Cs corrector, manufactured by JEOL Ltd.)
and at an acceleration voltage of 200 kV, both over a visual field
of 25 nm.times.25 nm (magnification, 5,000,000.times.; FIG. 6A) and
over a visual field of 12 nm.times.12 nm (magnification,
10,000,000.times.; FIG. 6B).
[0190] FIG. 6A is an electron micrograph of a TiO.sub.2 particle
just prior to the addition of SBH powder in Example 3. A lattice
fringe distinctive to TiO.sub.2 can be seen in the area surrounded
by a border at the center of the image. The interplanar spacing is
2.89 .ANG., which value agrees with the lattice constant for the
(101) plane of anatase-type TiO.sub.2. FIG. 6B is an electron
micrograph of a carbon-supported catalyst particle of Example 3.
The area surrounded by the larger border at the center of the image
represents a region occupied by TiO.sub.2 and uncrystallized
platinum, and the area surrounded by the smaller border represents
a region occupied by crystallized platinum. As is apparent from
FIG. 6B, no lattice fringe like that seen in FIG. 6A is apparent
whatsoever in the region occupied by TiO.sub.2 and uncrystallized
platinum. This indicates that, in the carbon-supported catalyst
particles of Example 3, reduction of the TiO.sub.2 resulted in a
collapse of the crystal structure of TiO.sub.2, giving rise to
oxygen defects.
[0191] In Example 3, XRD measurement was carried out on TiO.sub.2
particles just prior to SBH powder addition, TiO.sub.2 particles
following SBH powder addition and just prior to firing, and on the
carbon-supported catalyst particles in Example 3. The hardware and
measurement conditions used in XRD measurement were as follows.
Hardware
[0192] Apparatus: XPert PRO MPD (from Spectorias) [0193] Target: Cu
(wavelength, 1.541 .ANG.) [0194] X-ray output: 45 kV, 40 mA [0195]
Monochromation (CuK.sub..alpha.): Ni filter method [0196] Optical
system: focusing optics [0197] Goniometer radius: 240 mm [0198]
Detector: semiconductor array detector
Measurement Conditions
[0198] [0199] Scanning method: Continuous method [0200] Scan axis:
2.theta..theta. (symmetric reflection) [0201] Steps:
2.theta.=0.008356.degree. [0202] Average time/step: 29.845 seconds
[0203] Scan range: 2.theta.=4.0 to 90.0.degree. [0204] Fixed
divergence slit: 1/2.degree.
[0205] FIG. 7A is a diagram in which part of an XRD spectrum for
TiO.sub.2 particles just prior to SBH powder addition is shown
overlapped with part of an XRD spectrum for TiO.sub.2 particles
after SBH powder addition and just prior to firing. As is apparent
from the diagram, a peak indicating diffraction by the (101) plane
of TiO.sub.2 near 2.theta.=25.degree. appears prior to SBH
reduction. However, after SBH reduction, the peak near
2.theta.=25.degree. has substantially disappeared. This indicates
that the crystallinity of TiO.sub.2 has been strongly deteriorated
due to SBH reduction. These results agree with the fact that, in
the above-described STEM observations, a TiO.sub.2 lattice fringe
could not be observed in catalyst particles after the SBH powder
has been added. FIG. 7B is a diagram in which part of the XRD
spectrum for TiO.sub.2 particles after SBH powder addition and just
prior to firing is shown overlapped with part of the XRD spectrum
for the carbon-supported catalyst particles of Example 3. As is
apparent from the diagram, prior to firing, a peak is not observed
within the range of 2.theta.=30 to 35.degree.. However, in the
catalyst particles after firing at 700.degree. C., a peak
indicating diffraction by Pt.sub.5Ti.sub.3 appears near
2.theta.=33.degree.. It is apparent from this that Pt--Ti bonds
have been formed by firing.
[0206] 2-2. Analysis of Carbon-Supported Catalyst Particles of
Example 4
[0207] Scanning electron microscopic (SEM) examination was carried
out on the carbon-supported catalyst particles obtained in Example
4. The SEM examination conditions were as follows. Using a scanning
electron microscope (S-5500, manufactured by Hitachi), SEM
observations were carried out at an acceleration voltage of 30 kV
and at magnifications of 800,000.times. (FIG. 8A), 600,000.times.
(FIG. 8B) and 500,000.times. (FIG. 8C).
[0208] FIGS. 8A to 8C are electron micrographs of the
carbon-supported catalyst particles of Example 4. The dark area at
the center is the SnO.sub.2 inner particle, and the relatively
light outer area is the platinum outermost layer. In FIG. 8A, the
white arrows indicate the diameter of the overall catalyst
particle, and the black arrows indicate the thickness of the
platinum outermost layer. As is apparent from FIGS. 8A to 8C, the
diameter of the SnO.sub.2 inner particle is about 20 nm, and the
thickness of the platinum single-atom layer is 1 nm or less. It is
also apparent from these SEM images that the platinum outermost
layer is a continuous layer which entirely covers the SnO.sub.2
inner particle. From these results, it is apparent that a platinum
continuous layer can be made to cover the SnO.sub.2 particle to a
high coverage.
[0209] 2-3. Carbon-Supported Catalysts of Examples 6 to 8
[0210] Particle Analysis: SEM examination was carried out on the
carbon-supported catalyst particles obtained in Examples 6 to 8.
The SEM examination conditions were as follows. Using a scanning
electron microscope (S-5500, manufactured by Hitachi), SEM
examination was carried out at an acceleration voltage of 30 kV and
at magnifications of 1,800,000.times. (FIG. 9A), 2,000,000.times.
(FIG. 9B), 1,000,000.times. (FIG. 10A) and 1,300,000.times. (FIG.
10B).
[0211] FIGS. 9A and 9B are electron micrographs of carbon-supported
catalyst particles of Example 6. FIGS. 10A and 10B are electron
micrographs of a carbon-supported catalyst particle of Example 7
(FIG. 10A) and a carbon-supported catalyst particle of Example 8
(FIG. 10B). The dark area at the center is the TiO.sub.2 inner
particle, and the relatively light outer area is the platinum
outermost layer. As is apparent from FIGS. 9A and 9B, the size of
the TiO.sub.2 inner particle is about 16 nm, and the thickness of
the platinum single-atom layer is about 0.25 nm. As is apparent
from FIG. 10A, the TiO.sub.2 inner particle has a diameter of about
23 nm, whereas the platinum three-atom layer has a thickness of
about 1.0 nm. In addition, as is apparent from FIG. 10B, the
TiO.sub.2 inner particle has a diameter of about 27 nm, whereas the
platinum 10-atom layer has a thickness of about 3 nm. It can be
seen from these SEM images that the platinum outermost layer is a
continuous layer which entirely covers the TiO.sub.2 inner
particle. From these results, it is evident that by selectively
reducing the platinum using the photoreducing ability of TiO.sub.2,
the TiO.sub.2 crystalline particle can be covered with a platinum
continuous layer to a high coverage. In addition, it is evident
that the thickness of the outermost layer can be controlled by
means of the reducing conditions.
[0212] 3. Investigations of Catalyst Particle Activity and
Durability
[0213] 3-1. Potential Treatment of Catalyst Particles
[0214] Before carrying out evaluation with a rotating disc
electrode, the carbon-supported catalyst particles of Example 3
were subjected to potential treatment for the purpose of cleaning
the platinum. FIG. 11A shows portions of the XRD spectra for
catalyst particles on which, based on the manufacturing method in
Example 3, firing was carried out at temperatures of, respectively,
500.degree. C., 600.degree. C. and 700.degree. C. As is apparent
from FIG. 11A, the 2.theta.=40.degree. peak (the peak indicated as
"Pt(111)") in the firing temperature 500.degree. C. spectrum
substantially disappears in the firing temperature 700.degree. C.
spectrum. On the other hand, it is apparent from FIG. 11A that the
2.theta.=30.degree. peak (the peak indicated as "PtS(002)(101)")
which is completely absent in the firing temperature 500.degree. C.
spectrum emerges at a strong intensity in the firing temperature
700.degree. C. spectrum. These results show that by raising the
firing temperature, some of the platinum becomes PtS, indicating
that the platinum oxidizes. Therefore, it is evident that cleaning
of the platinum is essential for carrying out correct
electrochemical evaluation of the carbon-supported catalyst
particles after high-temperature firing.
[0215] FIG. 22 is a perspective schematic view of the apparatus
used to carry out potential treatment. An aqueous perchloric acid
solution 52 was added to a glass cell 51, and a rotating disc
electrode 54 coated with a slurry 53 of the carbon-supported
catalyst particles of Example 3 was placed therein. The rotating
disc electrode 54 is connected to a tachometer 55. In addition to
the rotating disc electrode 54, a counterelectrode 56 and a
reference electrode 57 are also arranged in the aqueous perchloric
acid solution 52 so as to be fully immersed therein, and these
three electrodes are electrically connected to a dual
electrochemical analyzer. Also, an argon inlet tube 58 is disposed
so as to be immersed in the aqueous perchloric acid solution 52 and
argon is bubbled for a fixed period of time at room temperature
into the aqueous perchloric acid solution 52 from an argon feed
source (not shown) situated outside of the cell, thereby placing
the interior of the aqueous perchloric acid solution 52 in an
argon-saturated state. The circles 59 indicate bubbles of argon.
Details on the apparatus are given below.
Aqueous perchloric acid solution: 0.1 mol/L HClO.sub.4 Rotary disc
electrode: An electrode made of glassy carbon
Tachometer: HR-201 (Hokuto Denko)
[0216] Counterelectrode: Platinum electrode (Hokuto Denko)
Reference electrode: Hydrogen electrode (KM Laboratory) Dual
electrochemical analyzer: ALS 700C (BAS Inc.)
[0217] Using the apparatus shown in FIG. 22, the potential was
swept for 120 cycles over a potential sweep range of 0.05 to 1.2 V
(vs. RHE) and at a potential sweep rate of 100 mV/s. FIG. 11B is a
CV showing the potential treatment results. In FIG. 11B, the CVs on
the outside have an increasingly larger number of cycles. As is
apparent from FIG. 11B, the platinum peak becomes distinct as
potential treatment is repeated. In addition, it was found that
when the above potential treatment is extended even after platinum
cleaning has been completed, the platinum outermost layer within
the catalyst particles dissolves. The principle underlying this is
the same as for thickness control of the platinum layer.
[0218] 3-2. Carbon-Supported Catalyst of Example 3
[0219] Particle Evaluations
[0220] (a) Calculation of ECSA
[0221] The electrochemical surface area (ECSA) of the
carbon-supported catalyst particles of Example 3 was calculated.
Using the apparatus shown in FIG. 22, the potential was swept for 2
cycles over a potential sweep range of from 0.05 V to 1.2 V (vs.
RHE) at a potential sweep rate of 50 mV/s. The ECSA was calculated
from the CV for the second cycle. FIG. 12A is the result obtained
by the above-described CV. The ECSA calculated from this CV was 30
m.sup.2/g-Pt. This value corresponds to the ECSA of platinum
particles having a particle size of 6 nm.
[0222] (b) Measurement of Specific Activity and Mass Activity
[0223] Electrochemical measurements were carried out on the
carbon-supported catalyst particles of Example 3, and the specific
activity and mass activity, which are indicators of the oxygen
reduction reaction (ORR) activity of the particles, were measured.
The potential was swept for 2 cycles over a potential sweep range
of 0.1 V to 1.05 V (vs. RHE) at a potential sweep rate of 10 mV/s
while bubbling oxygen through the aqueous perchloric acid solution
52 within the glass cell 51 of the apparatus shown in FIG. 22. The
kinetically controlled current (IK) was calculated from the current
value at 0.9 V in the ORR curve for the second cycle. The value
obtained by dividing this IK by the above-described ECSA was used
as the specific activity, and the value obtained by dividing this
IK by the mass of the platinum on the glassy carbon electrode was
used as the mass activity.
[0224] FIG. 12B is an electrochemical curve obtained from the above
electrochemical measurements. The specific activity calculated from
this electrochemical curve was 710 .mu.A/cm.sup.2-Pt. This value
corresponds to 3.5 times the specific activity of platinum
particles having a particles size of 4.5 nm, and to 4 times the
specific activity of platinum particles having a particle size of 3
nm. The mass activity calculated from this electrochemical curve
was 0.28 A/mg-Pt. This value corresponds to 2.3 times the mass
activity of platinum particles having a particle size of 4.5 nm,
and 1.7 times the mass activity of platinum particles having a
particle size of 3 nm.
[0225] (c) Evaluation of Durability
[0226] Electrochemical measurement was carried out on the
carbon-supported catalyst particles of Example 3, and the
durability was evaluated. Conditions employed for the
electrochemical measurement were explained in detail below. The
catalyst particles were subjected to square-wave potential cycles
from 0.65 to 1.0 V/5 sec over 5,000 cycles (vs. RHE) while bubbling
oxygen through the aqueous perchloric acid solution 52 within the
glass cell 51 of the apparatus shown in FIG. 22. After 5,000 cycles
of sweeping, cyclic voltammetry was carried out in the same way as
the method described above in the "(a) Calculation of ECSA"
section, and the ECSA was calculated. Sweeping was then carried out
once again under the same conditions over another 5,000 cycles (for
a total of 10,000 cycles). After 10,000 cycles of sweeping, cyclic
voltammetry was carried out in the same way as the method described
above in the "(a) Calculation of ECSA" section, and the ECSA was
calculated.
[0227] FIG. 12C is a graph of the durability evaluation results
obtained from the above electrochemical measurements, with the ECSA
retention (%) being plotted on the ordinate, and the number of
cycles being plotted on the abscissa. Data for a catalyst obtained
by supporting platinum particles having an average particle size of
3 nm (TEC10E50E, from Tanaka Kikinzoku Kogyo) on carbon is also
plotted on the graph as Comparative Example 1. The graph shows the
evaluation results for Example 3 plotted as white squares, and the
evaluation results for Comparative Example 1 plotted as black
diamonds. As is apparent from FIG. 12C, in Comparative Example 1,
the ECSA retention after 5,000 cycles was 82%, and the ECSA
retention after 10,000 cycles was 78%. By contrast, in Example 3
according to the invention, the ECSA retention after 5,000 cycles
was 96%, and the ECSA retention after 10,000 cycles was 96%.
Therefore, in Example 3, the durability of the carbon-supported
catalyst particles was higher than the durability of the
carbon-supported platinum particles in Comparative Example 1.
Moreover, the ECSA after 10,000 cycles was substantially unchanged
from the ECSA prior to use.
[0228] In addition, the carbon-supported catalyst particles of
Example 3 and a catalyst (Comparative Example 2) obtained by
supporting on carbon conventional catalyst particles composed of
palladium particles coated with platinum were immersed for 12 hours
in 2N H.sub.2SO.sub.4. As a result, palladium dissolving from the
catalyst of Comparative Example 2 was 80%, whereas titanium
dissolving from the carbon-supported catalyst particles of Example
3 was 0%. It is apparent from these results that the TiO.sub.2
forming the inner particle undergoes no dissolving whatsoever.
[0229] It is apparent from the above that the carbon-supported
catalyst particles of Example 3 have an ECSA equivalent to that of
platinum particles having a particle size of 6 nm and that, even
after 10,000 cycles, this ECSA remains substantially unchanged from
that prior to use. Moreover, it is apparent that the
carbon-supported catalyst particles of Example 3 have a specific
activity about 4 times greater, and a mass activity about 2 times
greater, than those of platinum particles which have hitherto been
used. It is thus evident that the carbon-supported catalyst
particles of the embodiments have a higher catalyst activity and a
better durability than the carbon-supported platinum particles
which have hitherto been used as electrode catalysts.
[0230] 3-3. Evaluations of Carbon-Supported Catalyst Particles of
Example 6
[0231] (a) Calculation of Surface Area Per Unit Mass of
Platinum
[0232] Calculations were carried out on the carbon-supported
catalyst particles of Example 6, which are TiO.sub.2 particles
covered with platinum, for cases in which the coating platinum is a
single-atom layer, a two-atom layer, a three-atom layer and a
four-atom layer, and the surface area per unit mass of platinum in
each case was determined. FIG. 13A is a graph which collectively
presents these calculated results, the surface area (m.sup.2/g) per
gram of platinum being plotted on the ordinate and the particle
size (nm) of the TiO.sub.2 particles which are the inner particles
being plotted on the abscissa. The dashed line in the graph
indicates the surface area (62 m.sup.2/g) per gram of platinum in
conventional platinum-supported carbon (average particle size, 4.5
nm). It is apparent from FIG. 13A that, as the particle size of the
inner particle becomes larger, the surface area per unit mass of
platinum decreases. Taking note of the fact that the calculated
results are largest at a TiO.sub.2 particle size of 40 nm, the
surface area per unit mass of platinum exceeds 200 m.sup.2/g in the
case of a platinum single-atom layer, exceeds 100 m.sup.2/g in the
case of a platinum two-atom layer, and exceeds 60 m.sup.2/g in the
case of a platinum three-atom layer. Each of these values is higher
than the surface area per unit mass of platinum for conventional
platinum-supported carbon. However, in the case of a platinum
four-atom layer, when the particle size of the inner particle
exceeds 10 nm, the surface area per unit mass of the platinum
becomes smaller than in conventional platinum-supported carbon.
From the above, by having the platinum-containing outermost layer
be a layer of three or fewer atoms, the surface area per unit mass
of platinum can be made larger than in conventional
platinum-supported carbon.
[0233] (b) Relationship between Platinum Particle Size and ECSA
Retention
[0234] FIG. 13B shows the simulation results for the correlation
between catalyst particle size and ECSA retention. This is a graph
in which the ECSA retention (%) after the durability test period is
plotted on the ordinate, and the particle size (nm) is plotted on
the abscissa. The durability test period was set to 10 years. The
amount of catalyst was calculated as including 0.1 mg of platinum
per cm.sup.2 of the membrane electrode assembly. From the diagram,
it is apparent that as the catalyst particle size becomes larger,
the ECSA retention rises. However, the rate of increase in ECSA
retention becomes smaller as the catalyst particle size
increases.
[0235] (c) Relationship between Platinum Particle Size and Specific
Activity
[0236] FIG. 13C is a graph showing the ratio of the ECSA of
platinum catalyst particles having a specific particle size
relation to the ECSA of platinum catalyst particles having a
particle size of 3 nm. This graph plots the ratio on the ordinate,
and plots the platinum catalyst particles size (nm) on the
abscissa. From the graph, it is apparent that as the catalyst
particle size becomes larger, the ECSA ratio rises. Therefore,
theoretically, catalyst particles having a high activity can be
obtained as the catalyst particle size becomes larger. However, in
the case of platinum catalyst particles, as the particle size
becomes larger, the activity per unit cost becomes lower. In the
case of catalyst particles having an inner particle composed of an
oxide as in the invention disclosed herein, because there are no
particle size constraints due to cost, an increased activity can be
achieved by increasing the particles size as much as possible.
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