U.S. patent application number 13/466259 was filed with the patent office on 2012-11-01 for electrothermal interface material enhancer.
This patent application is currently assigned to PURDUE RESEARCH FOUNDATION. Invention is credited to Baratunde A. Cola, Timothy S. Fisher.
Application Number | 20120276327 13/466259 |
Document ID | / |
Family ID | 39314819 |
Filed Date | 2012-11-01 |
United States Patent
Application |
20120276327 |
Kind Code |
A1 |
Cola; Baratunde A. ; et
al. |
November 1, 2012 |
ELECTROTHERMAL INTERFACE MATERIAL ENHANCER
Abstract
Vertically oriented carbon nanotubes (CNT) arrays have been
simultaneously synthesized at relatively low growth temperatures
(i.e., <700.degree. C.) on both sides of aluminum foil via
plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition. The resulting CNT arrays
were highly dense, and the average CNT diameter in the arrays was
approximately 10 nm, A CNT TIM that consist of CNT arrays directly
and simultaneously synthesized on both sides of aluminum foil has
been fabricated. The TIM is insertable and allows temperature
sensitive and/or rough substrates to be interfaced by highly
conductive and conformable CNT arrays. The use of metallic foil is
economical and may prove favorable in manufacturing due to its wide
use.
Inventors: |
Cola; Baratunde A.;
(Atlanta, GA) ; Fisher; Timothy S.; (West
Lafayette, IN) |
Assignee: |
PURDUE RESEARCH FOUNDATION
West Lafayette
IN
|
Family ID: |
39314819 |
Appl. No.: |
13/466259 |
Filed: |
May 8, 2012 |
Related U.S. Patent Documents
|
|
|
|
|
|
Application
Number |
Filing Date |
Patent Number |
|
|
11873952 |
Oct 17, 2007 |
8220530 |
|
|
13466259 |
|
|
|
|
60829753 |
Oct 17, 2006 |
|
|
|
Current U.S.
Class: |
428/119 ;
156/272.2; 165/185; 427/331; 427/569; 428/143; 977/742; 977/773;
977/890 |
Current CPC
Class: |
H01L 51/102 20130101;
Y10T 428/13 20150115; Y10T 428/257 20150115; B01J 37/0244 20130101;
H01L 2924/0002 20130101; Y10T 428/24372 20150115; B01J 23/745
20130101; H01L 51/0048 20130101; B82Y 30/00 20130101; Y10T
428/24174 20150115; Y10T 428/256 20150115; B01J 37/0238 20130101;
H01L 2924/00 20130101; B82Y 10/00 20130101; H01L 2924/0002
20130101 |
Class at
Publication: |
428/119 ;
165/185; 428/143; 156/272.2; 427/331; 427/569; 977/773; 977/742;
977/890 |
International
Class: |
F28F 7/00 20060101
F28F007/00; B32B 37/06 20060101 B32B037/06; C23C 16/44 20060101
C23C016/44; B32B 5/16 20060101 B32B005/16; B05D 3/10 20060101
B05D003/10 |
Goverment Interests
GOVERNMENT RIGHTS
[0002] The United States government may have rights to certain
aspects of this invention as a result of funding from Air Force
Research Lab Grant No. FA8750-04-D-2409.
Claims
1.-14. (canceled)
15. An apparatus comprising: a thin flexible member having planar
first and second opposing sides; and a plurality of nanoparticles
grown from said first side, and a heat sensitive material on said
first side, said nanoparticles extending into said heat sensitive
material.
16. The apparatus of claim 15 wherein said heat sensitive member
comprises a thermally setting adhesive.
17. The apparatus of claim 15 wherein said heat sensitive member
comprises a phase change material.
18. The apparatus of claim 15 wherein said member includes a layer
of catalytic material on said first side, and said nanoparticles
are carbon nanotubes grown at a density greater than about
1.times.10.sup.8 nanotubes per mm.sup.2 from said catalytic
material and substantially aligned perpendicularly to said first
side.
19. A method for conducting heat from an object, comprising:
providing a first hotter object having a first surface, a second
cooler object having a second surface, and a separable plastically
deformable member having a third surface and a plurality of
nanostructures on the third surface; placing the member between the
first surface and the second surface; pressing the first object and
the second object together; plastically deforming the member by
said pressing; and conducting heat from the first object through
the member and into the second object.
20. The method of claim 19 wherein the nanostructures are carbon
nanotubes grown from the third surface and substantially aligned
perpendicularly to the third surface.
21. The method of claim 19 wherein the first object generates heat
by conducting electricity and the second object is adapted and
configured to reject heat to ambient conditions.
22. The method of claim 19 wherein said pressing applies a pressure
to the nanostructures greater than about 50 kPa.
23. A method for conducting heat from an object, comprising:
providing a first hotter object having a first surface, a second
cooler object having a second surface, and a thin member having a
third surface and a quantity of phase change material on the third
surface and a plurality of nanostructures attached to the third
surface and in contact with the phase change material; placing the
member between the first surface and the second surface and
creating a heat conduction path from the first object through the
member to the second object; and conducting heat from the first
object through the phase change material and into the second
object.
24. The method of claim 23 wherein said conducting heat changes the
material from solid to liquid, and which further comprises
retaining the liquid material between the first object and the
second object by the nanostructures.
25. The method of claim 23 wherein the nanostructures are carbon
nanotubes substantially aligned perpendicularly to the third
surface.
26. The method of claim 23 wherein the thin member is a metallic
foil.
27. A method for joining two members, comprising: providing a first
member with a first structural interface having a first shape, a
second member with a second structural interface, and a third
flexible member having a plurality of nanoparticles attached
thereto which increase their temperature in response to
electromagnetic radiation; placing the third member at one of the
first interface or the second interface; contacting the first
member to the second member at their respective structural
interfaces, the third member being between the first interface and
the second interface; exposing the third member to electromagnetic
radiation; heating the nanoparticles by said exposing; and joining
the first member to the second member by said heating.
28. The method of claim 27 wherein said joining is by melting a
portion of said first member or said second member.
29. The method of claim 27 wherein at least of said first member or
said second member is fabricated from an organic material.
30. A method comprising: providing a flexible metallic substrate;
placing on the substrate a catalyst for synthesis of carbon
nanotubes; synthesizing with the catalyst a plurality of carbon
nanotubes; and vertically aligning the plurality of nanotubes
relative to the substrate during said synthesizing.
31. The method of claim 30 wherein the material of the substrate
comprises at least one of aluminum, platinum, gold, or copper.
32. The method of claim 30 wherein said synthesizing is by chemical
vapor deposition enhanced with plasma generated by microwave
energy.
33. The method of claim 30 wherein the catalyst is one of Fe, Co,
Ni, and Pd.
34. The method of claim 30 wherein said synthesizing grows the
carbon nanotubes with a density less than about 10.sup.9 nanotubes
per mm.sup.2.
35. The method of claim 34 wherein the density is greater than
about 10.sup.7 nanotubes per mm.sup.2.
Description
CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION
[0001] This application claims the benefit of priority to U.S.
Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 60/829,753, filed Oct. 17,
2006, entitled ELECTROTHERMAL INTERFACE MATERIAL ENHANCER,
incorporated herein by reference.
FIELD OF THE INVENTION
[0003] This invention pertains to flexible structures having
nanostructures attached to a surface, and in particular to
deformable thermal and electrical interface materials using
multiwalled carbon nanotubes.
BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION
[0004] Electrical contacts are vital elements in many engineering
systems and applications at the macro, micro, and nano scales.
Reliability and functionality of electrical contacts can often be a
limiting design factor. A major portion of electrical contact
resistance comes from the lack of ideal mating between surfaces.
Primary causes of this problem involve the mechanical properties of
the surfaces and surface roughness. When two surfaces are brought
together, the actual contact area may be much smaller than the
apparent contact area. The contact between two surfaces can
actually be thought of as the contact of several discrete points in
parallel, referred to as solid spots or .alpha.-spots. Thus, only
the .alpha.-spots act as conductive areas and can be a small
percentage of the total area.
[0005] Since their discovery, carbon nanotubes (CNTs) have been
studied intensively throughout many communities in science and
engineering. Several researchers have reported on the mechanical,
electrical, and thermal properties of individual single-wall carbon
nanotubes (SWNTs). The electrical properties of SWNTs are affected
by the chirality of the SWNTs to the degree that the SWNTs can
exhibit metallic or semiconducting electrical conductivity. The
electrical transport properties of a single SWNT are a well studied
subject. It has been shown that for ballistic transport and perfect
contacts, a SWNT has a theoretical resistance of 6.45 K.OMEGA.,
which is half of the quantum resistance h/2e.sup.2. In MWCNTs, each
layer within the MWCNT can have either a metallic or
semi-conducting band structure depending on its diameter and
chirality. Due to this variation among layers, the net electrical
behavior of a MWCNT is typically metallic and a wide range of
resistance values, e.g., from 478.OMEGA. to 29 K.OMEGA., have been
reported.
[0006] The use of an individual MWCNT may not be low enough to
reduce contact resistance at an interface significantly. However,
by using an array of MWCNTs as an interfacial layer, it is expected
that numerous individual contact spots and contact area enlargement
can create current flow paths through each contact, thus reducing
overall resistance. An additional advantage to using CNTs is that
they can tolerate high current densities. Therefore a MWCNT layer
can be a potential solution to the reliability and functionality
issues faced at electrical interfaces.
[0007] Various embodiments of the present invention present novel
and nonobvious apparatus and methods for improved structural,
electrical, and thermal interfaces.
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS
[0008] FIG. 1A is a schematic diagram of a photoacoustic (PA) test
apparatus.
[0009] FIG. 1B is a schematic representation of a nanoparticle
assembly according to one embodiment of the present invention.
[0010] FIG. 1C is a schematic representation of a nanoparticle
assembly according to another embodiment of the present
invention.
[0011] FIG. 2 is a comparison of contact resistance between a bare
Cu--Cu Interface and a Cu-MWCNT-Cu Interface.
[0012] FIG. 3 depicts a classification of the Contact Surface.
[0013] FIG. 4a is a typical contact configuration of a bare Cu--Cu
contact.
[0014] FIG. 4b shows a contact resistance reduction by parallel
contacts created by MWCNTs according to one embodiment of the
present invention.
[0015] FIG. 5 shows SEM images according to one embodiment of the
present invention of a CNT array synthesized on a Si substrate on a
silicon substrate. (a) A 30.degree.-tilted plane, top view of the
vertically oriented and dense CNT array. The array height is
estimated to be 15 .mu.m. The CNT array has a part across the top
of the image that helps illustrate the uniformity of growth. (b) An
image with higher magnification showing individual CNTs. CNT
diameters range from 15-60 nm.
[0016] FIG. 6 shows SEM images according to one embodiment of the
present invention of a CNT array synthesized on a Cu sheet
according to one embodiment of the present invention. (a)
Cross-section view of the vertically oriented and dense CNT array.
The array height is estimated to be approximately 20 .mu.m; the
inset shows the CNT array grown on a 1 cm tall Cu bar. (b) An image
with higher magnification showing individual CNTs. The CNT
diameters range from 15-60 nm.
[0017] FIG. 7 is a schematic representation of a system for
preparing apparatus according to one embodiment of the present
invention.
[0018] FIG. 8 is a schematic representation of different analytical
models of the inventive sample assemblies during PA measurement.
(a) The CNT array is not considered a layer in the PA model, but
rather as a contributor to the interface resistance between the Si
wafer and the Ag foil, R.sub.Si--Ag. (b) The CNT array is
considered a layer in the PA model; therefore, the component
resistances, R.sub.Si--CNT and R.sub.CNT-Ag, and the thermal
diffusivity of the CNT array can be estimated. (c) The CNT arrays
are not considered as layers in the PA model, but rather as
contributors to the interface resistance between the Si wafer and
the Cu sheet, R.sub.Si--Cu. (d) The CNT arrays are considered as
layers in the PA model; therefore, the component resistances,
R.sub.Si-CNT, R.sub.CNT-CNT, and R.sub.CNT-Cu, and the thermal
diffusivity of each CNT array can be estimated.
[0019] FIG. 9 show phase shift as a function of modulation
frequency for CNT interfaces under 0.241 MPa of pressure. (a)
Lumped one-sided interface fitting results. The mean-square
deviation is 0.5.degree. in phase shift. (b) Resolved one-sided
interface fitting results. The mean-square deviation is 0.5.degree.
in phase shift. (c) Lumped two-sided interface fitting results. The
mean-square deviation is 0.9.degree. in phase shift. (d) Resolved
two-sided interface fitting results. The mean-square deviation is
0.3.degree. in phase shift. The two-sided fitting data is typical
of measurements at each pressure.
[0020] FIG. 10 shows thermal resistance as a function of pressure
for a two-sided CNT interface (R.sub.Si-CNT-CNT-Cu) measured with
the PA method and the 1-D reference bar method according to one
embodiment of the present invention.
[0021] FIG. 11 is a schematic representation of an apparatus
according to one embodiment of the present invention.
[0022] FIG. 12 is a schematic representation of an apparatus
according to another embodiment of the present invention.
[0023] FIG. 13 is a schematic representation of an apparatus and
method according to another embodiment of the present
invention.
[0024] FIG. 14 is a schematic representation of an apparatus and
method according to another embodiment of the present
invention.
[0025] FIG. 15 is a schematic representation of an apparatus and
method according to another embodiment of the present
invention.
[0026] FIG. 16 shows CNT arrays synthesized on both sides of a 10
.mu.m thick CU foil according to another embodiment of the present
invention. The density is .about.10.sup.8 CNTs/mm.sup.2. Both CNT
arrays are approximately 50 .mu.m in height and the average CNT
diameter is approximately 20 nm.
[0027] FIG. 17 Thermal resistances of bare foil interfaces,
R.sub.foil and CNT/foil interfaces, R.sub.CNT/foil, as a function
of contact pressure.
[0028] FIG. 18 Thermal circuit for the CNT/foil interface. The
local resistances sum to give R.sub.CNT/foil.
[0029] FIG. 19 Thermal resistance between the two free surfaces of
the samples. For the bare foil, the resistance is the same as
R.sub.foil. For the CNT/Foil the resistance is the sum of the two
free CNT tip interface resistances.
[0030] FIG. 20 CNT arrays synthesized on both sides of aluminum
foil according to another embodiment of the present invention. The
insert is a higher magnification SEM image that illustrates the CNT
diameters in the array.
[0031] FIG. 21 Resistive network for the aluminum foil/CNT
interface.
[0032] FIG. 22 is an exploded schematic representation of an
apparatus according to another embodiment of the present
invention.
DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT
[0033] For the purposes of promoting an understanding of the
principles of the invention, reference will now be made to the
embodiments illustrated in the drawings and specific language will
be used to describe the same. It will nevertheless be understood
that no limitation of the scope of the invention is thereby
intended, such alterations and further modifications in the
illustrated device, and such further applications of the principles
of the invention as illustrated therein being contemplated as would
normally occur to one skilled in the art to which the invention
relates.
[0034] The present invention pertains to nanoparticles that are
deposited on at least one side of a flexible, easily deformable
substrate. The substrate with attached nanoparticles can then be
placed in contact with the interface of a device. The easily
deformable substrate permits the substrate and nanoparticles to
closely conform to irregularities on the surface of the object. By
virtue of this intimate contact of the nanoparticles with the
object, an interface is formed with improved properties due to the
presence of the nanoparticles and an apparatus prepared according
to various embodiments of the present invention include
improvements in one, some, or all of the following properties:
increased thermal conductance, reduced electrical resistance,
absorption of electromagnetic radiation, increased efficiency in
converting electromagnetic radiation to heat, and mechanical
support. This list of properties provided by the nanoparticles is
by way of example only, and is not an exhaustive list.
[0035] In one embodiment of the present invention, a plurality of
thermally conductive nanoparticles are grown or otherwise adhered
to a thin, readily deformable substrate, such as a flexible sheet
of any solid material, including a foil of metal, and further
including foil of noble metal. The side of the substrate or foil
with nanoparticles is placed in contact with a heat source, such as
a package containing an integrated circuit. Because of their small
size and the easy deformation of the foil, the nanoparticles
readily occupy many surface irregularities of the package. Thus,
the heat transmitted through the wall of the package is more
effectively spread into the foil. The heat transfer to the foil can
be removed by convection or by phase change if a phase change
material is placed in contact with the nanoparticles, or if another
object is placed in contact with the foil, through conduction.
[0036] In another embodiment of the present invention,
nanoparticles are placed on both sides of a substrate that is
plastically deformable with small amounts of pressure.
[0037] In one embodiment, this member is placed inbetween a source
of heat and a sink for heat, such as between an integrated circuit
package and a finned heat exchanger. Since the member plastically
deforms under light pressure, it readily adapts to irregularities
on the adjacent surfaces of the integrated circuit package and
finned heat exchanger. Further, the nanoparticles will fill in some
surface voids and small irregularities and any adjacent surface.
Therefore, heat is more effectively transferred out of the heat
source and more effectively transferred into the heat sink.
[0038] In some embodiments, the nanoparticles are multiwalled
carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs). Although an individual MWCNT has an
electrical resistance measured in thousands of ohms, by arranging a
high density of MWCNTs on surface of the member, the overall
resistance is greatly reduced, since the MWCNTs act as resistances
in parallel.
[0039] In yet other embodiments of the present invention, the
MWCNTs are exposed to an electromagnetic field that preferentially
aligns the MWCNTs during deposition and formation. In one
embodiment, the MWCNTs are arranged such that the central axes of
the tubes are substantially perpendicular to the surface to which
they are attached. However, the present invention is not so limited
and contemplates other directions of alignment.
[0040] In yet another embodiment, a plurality of nanoparticles is
deposited on a thin, metallic, easily deformable substrate and used
as a shield from electromagnetic interference (EMI). This member
can be placed at the mating interface between electrical components
or housings. As one example, an electrically conductive metallic
foil having a plurality of vertically aligned MWCNTs on opposing
sides is placed between a lid of an electronics housing and the
base of the electronics housing. This foil easily conforms to
irregularities in the adjoining surfaces, and both: (1) enhances
the housing's blockage of external and internal EMI; and (2)
reduces the electrical resistance between the lid and the base.
[0041] In yet another embodiment, the ability of MWCNTs to convert
electromagnetic energy to heat is utilized to provide localized
heating of a component subjected to an electromagnetic field. As
one example, a member populated with MWCNTs can be placed at an
interface where two thermosetting plastic materials come into
contact. When the assembly of the plastic materials and
nanopopulated member is subjected to a microwave field, the MWCNTs
cause the thermoset joint to heat and fuse into a structural
joint.
[0042] In one embodiment of the invention there is a product to be
used to reduce the thermal (electrical) interface resistance
between two connecting devices such as an electronic component and
a heat sink (another electrical component). The invention includes
a metal foil with dense carbon nanotube (CNT) arrays directly
synthesized on the surface of both sides. Under moderate applied
pressure, the metal foil deforms to the shape of the interface and
the CNTs act to produce a plurality of thermally (electrically)
conductive surface to surface contact spots which in effect
increases the real contact area in the interface and reduces the
resistance of the interface to heat conduction and electrical flow.
The invention can also be used with existing commercial, wax-based
phase change materials (PCM) to enhance the stability of the PCM in
the interface and to produce increased thermal conduction through
the PCM.
[0043] Various embodiments of the present invention pertain to an
apparatus that can be inserted, with or with out the addition of a
phase change material, between a processor chip or an integrated
circuit (IC) device and a heat sink to allow the chips or IC
devices to operate at lower temperatures.
[0044] Various embodiments of the present invention pertain to an
apparatus that can be inserted between an electrical device and a
connecting electrical device to allow electricity to pass between
the devices with lowered resistance.
[0045] Various embodiments of the present invention produce a
thermal and or electrical interface resistance lower than other
removable interface materials. The invention does not require CNT
synthesis on the devices to be interfaced, which allows for
scalable production and implementation with existing thermal
(electrical) systems. When used without the PCM the embodiment of
the invention is dry so it will be stable in the interface over
continued use. When used with the PCM the embodiment of the
invention acts to hold the PCM in the interface, increasing the
stability of the PCM in the interface while enhancing thermal
conduction through the PCM.
[0046] n some embodiments, dense CNT arrays are directly
synthesized on both sides of metal foil to form a material that is
dry, highly conductive, and conformal to an interface. In yet other
embodiments, wax based phase change material is combined with the
CNT arrays on the foil which enhances the thermal conductivity of
the wax and discourages the wax from running out of the interface
in its liquid phase. The enhancement of CNT arrays can be added to
any existing interface without the need to synthesize CNTs on the
interfaced devices (which can be destroyed by the temperatures
required for CNT growth and limits scalability).
[0047] The use of an N-series prefix for an element number (NXX)
refers to an element that is the same as the non-prefixed element
(XX), except as shown and described. The use of the suffix prime
after an element number (XX') refers to an element that is the same
as the non-suffixed element (XX) except as shown and described.
[0048] Referring to FIG. 1B, a nanoparticle assembly 20 is shown
according to one embodiment of the present invention and fabricated
with three metal layers 50, 52, and 54, including Ti, Al, and Ni,
respectively, (thickness: 30 nm, 10 nm, and 6 nm respectively)
deposited on the one side of a copper substrate 30 using
electron-beam evaporation. Preferably, assembly 20 is adapted and
configured to be easily separable as an assembly, such that it can
be handled as a separate component. Although various specific
quantities (spatial dimensions, materials, temperatures, times,
force, resistance, etc.), such specific quantities are presented as
examples only, and are not to be construed as limiting. The Ti
layer 50 promotes adhesion of MWCNT 40 to the copper substrate 30.
The Al layer 52 acts as a "buffer" layer to enhance the CNT growth
with the Ni catalyst 54 that provides seed sites for CNT
growth.
[0049] Although various materials are described herein, the present
invention also contemplates usage of other materials. For example,
some embodiments of the present invention utilize a central
substrate comprising at least in part aluminum, platinum, gold,
nickel, iron, tin, lead, silver, titanium, indium, or copper.
Further, yet other embodiments of the present invention comprise
the use of an adhesive layer comprising at least in part titanium
or chromium. Yet other embodiments of the present invention include
a buffer material comprising at least in part aluminum, indium,
lead, or tin. Yet other embodiments of the present invention
utilize a catalyst layer 54 comprising cobalt, iron, nickel, or
palladium.
[0050] The CNTs were grown on this substrate surface by a microwave
plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD) process. The feed
gases were H.sub.2 and CH.sub.4. The flow rates of H.sub.2 and
CH.sub.4 were 72 and 8 sccm respectively. The H.sub.2 plasma was
maintained under a microwave power of 150 W. The process
temperature was 800.degree. C., and the growth time was 20 min.
[0051] Referring to FIG. 1C, a nanoparticle assembly 20' is shown
according to another embodiment of the present invention. Assembly
20' includes the nanoparticle assembly 20 previously described, and
includes a mirror image structure on the opposite side of central
substrate 30'. Central substrate 30' further includes an adhesive
layer 50' to promote adhesion of the CNTs to substrate 30'. A
buffer layer 52' of aluminum is deposited on adhesive layer 50. A
catalyst layer 54' is deposited on buffer layer 52'. A plurality
40' of carbon nanotubes are grown from catalytic layer 54'.
[0052] A schematic of a resistance measurement test setup is shown
in FIG. 1A. While subjecting the MWCNT-enhanced Cu substrate 30 to
compressive loading using a Cu probe, electrical resistance change
was monitored by a multimeter (Hewlett Packard 3478A). To precisely
measure small resistance changes, a four wire (point) measurement
scheme was adopted. This method eliminates wire connection
resistance and thereby permits pure contact resistance measurement
at the interface. The probe material was also chosen to be Cu in
order to match the properties of the Cu substrate. The probe tip
area is much smaller in dimension than the substrate so that
multiple measurements can be made with each specimen by changing
the probing location. To make the probe, the end of a copper nail
was polished flat using a polisher (Buheler ECOMET V) and
Al.sub.2O.sub.3 powder (size: 9 to 1 .mu.m). The polished copper
probe tip was observed by optical microscope (Olympus BX60), and
the image was digitized using software (Golden Software Diger 2.01)
to measure the apparent surface area of the probe tip to be 0.31
mm.sup.2.
[0053] A small-scale mechanical testing machine (Bose Endura ELF
3200) was used to control the probe displacement and to measure the
interaction force between the probe and MWCNT-enhanced Cu substrate
surface. The position of the probe tip was adjusted toward the
sample surface while monitoring the position of the probe tip
through a CCD camera. Starting from this non-contacting position
(infinite electrical resistance) the probe was displaced downward
slowly in 1.0 .mu.m increments until first measurable electrical
resistance was observed. This location was set to be the initial
position (Z=0 .mu.m) of the probe, and the probe tip was
subsequently moved downward by 1.0 .mu.m increments. At each step
of displacement, contact resistance and force data were recorded.
When the resistance displayed a trend close to a constant value,
the probe descent was stopped. The probe was then moved upward
(reverse direction) in 1.0 .mu.m increments while measuring the
contact resistance and force until electrical contact was lost
(infinite resistance).
[0054] The measurements were conducted at two different locations
on the same specimen surface, referred to as Test 1 and Test 2. The
resistance ranged from a maximum value of 10.sup.8.OMEGA. to a
minimum value of 4.OMEGA.. As the probe was lowered, resistance
decreased.
[0055] In Test 1, the position corresponding to the first finite
resistance value is identified as initial electrical contact
position (Z=0 .mu.m). The resistance did not change significantly
until the probe moved downward past Z=7 .mu.m. At Z=11 .mu.m, the
first measurable reaction force was observed. The electrical
resistance then reduced significantly to a steady value of 4.OMEGA.
with increased probe movement. Note that between the initial
position (Z=0 .mu.m) and Z=11 .mu.m, there was no measurable force
but electrical contact was maintained (finite resistance was
measured).
[0056] In Test 2, the distance between the initial position (Z=0
.mu.m) and the first measurable force position (Z=18 .mu.m) is
longer than that of Test 1. This can be attributed to the
resolution limits of the load cell and contact characteristics
between the probe and MWCNT layer. In the beginning of contact, a
relatively smaller number of MWCNT touch the probe tip and thus the
force is in the range below the 0.001 N resolution of the load
cell.
[0057] Resistance measured while the probe moved upward (reverse
process) for the first several steps (from Z=20 .mu.m to Z=14 .mu.m
for Test 1 and from Z=28 .mu.m to Z=24 .mu.m for Test 2) showed
similar or slightly higher values at corresponding positions of the
downward measurement. However, the resistance did not increase to
an infinite value when the probe passed the position from where
contact force between two surfaces dropped to zero (Z=13 .mu.m for
Test 1 and Z=23 .mu.m for Test 2). Electrical contact is maintained
even past the initial position (Z=0 .mu.m), up to Z=-7 .mu.m for
Test 1 and to Z=-1 .mu.m for Test 2. This trend is opposite to that
observed for the bare Cu--Cu contact. Also, step-like features of
resistance change are evident during both downward and upward
movements of the probe. These features are thought to be the result
of van der Waals forces.
[0058] The overall trend of force change is more linear than the
control case. The average stiffness during downward movement
(0.173.times.10.sup.6 N/m for Test 1 and 0.123.times.10.sup.6 N/m
for Test 2) is approximately two times higher than the initial
stiffness of the bare Cu--Cu contact (0.067.times.10.sup.6
N/m).
[0059] The differences in the measured resistance and force between
Test 1 and Test 2 are attributed to the global-scale variations of
the MWCNT layer. The density and morphology of the MWCNT layer
generally varies at different probing locations. Also the
sensitivity of the electrical resistance measurements affects how
one defines the initial electrical contact position. However, it is
notable that after the probe registers a measurable force, the
trends of contact resistance versus force for both tests are found
to closely overlap each other, as shown in FIG. 2.
[0060] From the previous results, it is clear that the MWCNT layer
played a key role reducing electrical resistance and increasing
stiffness. A comparison of the bare Cu--Cu contact and the
Cu-MWCNT-Cu contact is shown in FIG. 2. For the same apparent
contact area the Cu-MWCNT-Cu interface showed a minimum resistance
of 4.OMEGA. while the Cu--Cu interface showed a minimum resistance
of 20.OMEGA.. An 80% reduction in resistance was observed under
small compressive loading when MWCNTs are used as an interfacial
material between Cu surfaces. The average stiffness of the
Cu-MWCNT-Cu contact is approximately two times larger than that of
the bare Cu--Cu contact.
[0061] The mechanism of contact resistance reduction due to the
presence of the MWCNT layer 40 can be explained by two phenomena:
(i) enlargement of real contact area through numerous parallel
contacts, (ii) electrical junctions between CNTs combined with
compressive loading. Although CNTs can carry large current
densities, it is known that by simply placing a single CNT on a
metal electrode, the contact resistance was observed to be in the
10.sup.3.OMEGA. to 10.sup.6.OMEGA. range. Also the minimum
resistance between a single CNT and a metal contact can be on the
order of 10.sup.3.OMEGA.. However macroscopic contact resistance
can be reduced by using a MWCNT layer containing numerous
individual MWCNTs that create parallel paths. Note that only a
portion of the apparent contact surface which is indicated as
A.sub.c (.alpha.-spots) in FIG. 3 participates in electrical
conduction. In the case of the Cu-MWCNT-Cu contact, CNTs
significantly increase the size of A.sub.c (.alpha.-spots). While
this contact situation is very complicated, it can be simplified
conceptually. As depicted in FIG. 4, the gap between two contacting
members (see FIG. 4a) is filled with MWCNTs thereby increasing the
contact area (see FIG. 4b) via numerous parallel electrical contact
paths.
[0062] Resistance reduction is also possible though electrical
junctions made between CNTs. The MWCNTs on the substrate's surface
exhibit a random configuration with no preferential direction.
These create electrical junctions among adjacent CNTs to reduce the
contact resistance. Other researchers suggest that contact
resistance vary widely depending upon the relative orientation of
two CNT surfaces and the level of compressive loading on the
junction. When two contacting CNTs are in the A-A configuration it
is called "in registry" which exhibits lower contact resistance
than the A-B configuration ("out of registry"). For example, in the
case of an "in registry" junction, the resistance is 2.05 M.OMEGA.
for rigid tubes. If compressive force is applied on this junction,
the resistance is reduced to 121 K.OMEGA.. In real cases, the
junction resistance likely falls between the lower and the higher
resistances. Therefore it is believed that the ensemble of the
numerous contacts and junctions created during the probe movement
dictate the macroscopic contact resistance.
[0063] For the Cu-MWCNT-Cu interface, the force increased almost
linearly when the Cu probe moved downward. However for the bare
Cu--Cu contact, the force did not increase in a steady manner and
was less than that of the Cu-MWCNT-Cu contact. Note that if the
load bearing area is increased, then the force will increase
accordingly. Thus it can be concluded that MWCNT layer is also
effective in enlarging the load bearing area.
[0064] In yet another embodiment of the present invention, CNT
array samples were grown on Si (R.sub.a=0.01 .mu.m and R.sub.z=0.09
.mu.m, calculated by ASME B46.1-2002) and Cu (R.sub.a=0.05 .mu.m
and R.sub.z=0.5 .mu.m, calculated by ASME B46.1-2002) surfaces with
a tri-layer (Ti/Al/Ni) catalyst configuration by direct synthesis
with microwave plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD)
employing H.sub.2 and CH.sub.4 feed gasses. Si and Cu were chosen
as growth substrates in order to assemble an interface that is
representative of a common heat sink-processor chip interface.
Similar to the work of Xu and Fisher, the thicknesses of Ti, Al,
and Ni metal layers were 30 nm, 10 nm, and 6 nm respectively. The
working pressure of the PECVD chamber was 10 torr, the sample stage
temperature was 800.degree. C., and the microwave plasma power was
150 W. The volumetric flow rates of H.sub.2 and CH.sub.4 were 72
sccm and 8 sccm respectively, and the growth period was
approximately 20 minutes.
[0065] FIG. 5a shows a 30.degree.-tilted plane, top view of the CNT
array synthesized on Si. The array height is approximately 15
.mu.m. CNT diameters for the array on the Si wafer range from 15-60
nm (FIG. 5b). FIG. 6 shows that, with identical catalyst
preparation, the CNT array synthesized on a Cu sheet is very
similar to the array on the Si wafer. The array height is
approximately 20 .mu.m (FIG. 6a), and the CNT diameters also range
from 15-60 nm (FIG. 6b).
[0066] A CNT array was grown on a Cu block, which protruded into
the plasma and had sharp edges, in a prior study (inset of FIG.
6a). The block acted like an antenna to concentrate the plasma
energy around its corners and edges. This plasma concentration had
a strong etching effect on the CNT growth surface. By comparison,
the height and density of the array on the Cu sheet is greatly
improved because the plasma did not concentrate on the sheet during
CNT growth.
[0067] The CNT density, determined by counting CNTs in a
representative area of a scanning electron microscope (SEM) image,
was approximately 6.times.10.sup.8 CNT/mm.sup.2. Assuming an
average CNT diameter of approximately 30 nm, an approximate CNT
volume fraction of 42% can be calculated by assuming the CNTs are
circular tubes of uniform height that are packed in vertical
alignment. Some embodiments of the present invention contemplate
volume fractions of about 30 percent to 50 percent. Considering the
lower porosities in comparison with fullerenes, multi-walled CNTs
should possess a mass density between that of fullerenes, 1900
kg/m.sup.3 and graphite, 2210 kg/m.sup.3. Thus, by assuming a
multi-walled CNT mass density of approximately 2060 kg/m.sup.3, the
effective mass density of all the CNT arrays (including effects of
void space) in this work is estimated to be approximately 865
kg/m.sup.3.
[0068] For some of the test specimens prepared according to one
embodiment of the present invention, a photoacoustic technique was
used to measure resistance. In photoacoustic (PA) measurements a
heating source, normally a laser beam, is periodically irradiated
on a sample surface. The acoustic response of the gas above the
sample is measured and related to the thermal properties of the
sample. The PA phenomenon was first explained by Rosencwaig and
Gersho, and an analytic solution of the PA response of a single
layer on a substrate was developed. A more general analytic
solution derived by Hu et al. that explains the PA effect in
multilayered materials is used in this study. A review of the PA
technique was given by Tam, and the technique has been used
successfully to obtain the thermal conductivity of thin films. The
PA technique has also been used to measure the resistance of
atomically bonded interfaces, for which resistances were orders of
magnitude less than the resistances measured in this study. The use
of the PA technique for the measurement of thermal resistance of
separable (non-bonded) interfaces has not been found in the
literature. Also, the use of the PA technique with a pressurized
acoustic chamber and sample has not been found in the
literature.
[0069] A schematic of the experimental setup is shown in FIG. 7. A
fiber laser operating at a wavelength of 1.1 .mu.m is used as the
heating source. Laser power is sinusoidally modulated by an
acoustic-optical modulator driven by a function generator. For this
study, the modulation frequency ranges from 300-750 Hz. The output
power of the laser is approximately 350 mW in the modulation mode.
After being reflected and focused, the laser beam is directed onto
the sample mounted at the bottom of the PA cell. The PA cell is
pressurized by flowing compressed He as shown in FIG. 7, thus
providing a uniform average pressure on the sample surface. The PA
cell pressure is adjusted using a flow controller and is measured
by a gauge attached to the flow line. The test pressures are chosen
to span a range of pressures commonly applied to promote contact
between a heat sink and a processor chip. A microphone, which is
built into the PA cell, senses the acoustic signal and transfers it
to a lock-in amplifier, where the amplitude and phase of the
acoustic signal are measured. A personal computer, which is
connected to the GPIB interface of the lock-in amplifier and
function generator, is used for data acquisition and control of the
experiment.
[0070] For the one-sided CNT interface prepared according to one
embodiment of the present invention, Ag foil (R.sub.a=0.06 .mu.m
and R.sub.a=0.4 .mu.m, calculated by ASME B46.1-2002) forms the top
of the sample, while for the two-sided CNT interface according to
another embodiment of the present invention the side of the Cu
sheet not coated by the CNT array is the effective top of the
sample. The sample structures according to various embodiments of
the present invention are shown schematically in FIG. 8. To prepare
the samples for PA measurements, an 80 nm top layer of Ti was
deposited by electron beam deposition, thus allowing for the Ti
film to absorb the same amount of laser energy as the Ti film on
the reference sample during measurements. The Ag foil (hard,
Premion.RTM. 99.998% (metals basis); Alfa Aesar, Inc.) was 25 .mu.m
thick, and the Cu sheet (Puratronic.RTM. 99.9999% (metals basis);
Alfa Aesar, Inc.) was 50 .mu.m thick to allow for high sensitivity
to the total interface resistance of the one-sided and two-sided
CNT interfaces, respectively. The Si wafers (double-side polished
and <1 0 0> orientation; Universitywafer.com) were 565 .mu.m
thick to ensure that the layer is thermally thick. Although
particular thicknesses of silver and copper foil for the substrate
have been shown and described, the present invention is not so
limited, and contemplates the use of foil as thick as about 0.1
millimeters. Further, although various purities of silver and
copper have been described, the present invention is not so
constrained and contemplates the use of foils with significantly
more impurities that are cheaper and more commercially
available.
[0071] The one-sided CNT interface sample has an upper and lower
measurement limit of .about.100 mm.sup.2K/W and .about.0.1
mm.sup.2K/W, respectively. The two-sided CNT interface sample has
an upper and lower measurement limit of .about.35 mm.sup.2K/W and
.about.0.4 mm.sup.2KAN respectively. The use of the hard, 25
.mu.m-thick Ag foil in the one-sided CNT sample instead of the 50
.mu.m-thick Cu sheet allows for greater measurement sensitivity to
the expected interface resistance values. Cu sheets less than 50
.mu.m thick can improve measurement sensitivity as well; however,
reduction in interface resistance resulting from the sheet's
surface conformability (deformation between asperities) are to be
carefully considered in such a case.
[0072] In general, the range of measurable resistances expands as
the ratio of the thermal penetration depth to thickness increases
for the top substrate (Ag and Cu in this work). The upper
measurement limit results when the sample's effective thermal
penetration depth is insufficient for allowing heat to pass through
the interface and into the Si substrate; in this limit the
interface is thermally thick. The lower measurement limit results
when the sample's effective thermal penetration depth is much
larger than the `resistive thickness` of the interface; in this
limit the interface is thermally thin. For the frequency range and
sample configurations of this study a 1-D heat diffusion analysis
is applicable because the largest in-plane thermal diffusion length
in the layered one-sided CNT sample, 1/a.sub.Ag=0.43 mm, and
two-sided CNT sample, 1/a.sub.Cu=0.35 mm, are much less than the
laser beam size (approximately 1 mm.times.2 mm)..sup.37
[0073] A reference or calibration sample is used for PA
measurements in order to characterize signal delay due to the time
needed for the acoustic wave to travel from the sample surface to
the microphone and acoustic resonance in the cell (resonance was
not experienced for the cell in the frequency range of this study).
A 565 .mu.m-thick Si wafer with a top 80 nm layer of Ti, deposited
by electron beam deposition, was used as the reference sample (for
uniformity, Ti was deposited on the reference and test samples at
the same time).
[0074] The reference was tested with the PA cell pressurized at
different levels, including the pressure levels at which the
samples were tested. According to PA theory, phase shift is
independent of cell pressure, while amplitude is proportional to
cell pressure. However, the signal delay may be pressure-dependent
for both phase shift and amplitude. The composition of the cell gas
can change the nature of the cell signal delay as well. Air,
N.sub.2, and He were observed to cause different signal delay
responses. Of these gases, He produced the highest signal to noise
ratio, which is expected because the thermal conductivity of He is
approximately an order of magnitude higher than that of air or
N.sub.2. He was therefore used as the cell gas for this work. The
thermal diffusion length in the He filled PA cell, 1/a.sub.He=0.46
mm (at atmospheric pressure), is much less than the PA cell radius
(4 mm) which supports the assumptions of the PA model.
[0075] Using the PA technique, the thermal resistance of a
one-sided CNT interface (Si-CNT-Ag) has been measured at 0.241 MPa,
and the thermal resistance of a two-sided CNT interface
(Si--CNT-CNT-Cu) has been measured as a function of pressure. The
PA technique has also been used to measure the component
resistances of the CNT interfaces and the thermal diffusivities of
the CNT arrays. All CNT interface measurements were performed at
room temperature. After testing, the interfaces were separated, and
the CNT coverage on the Cu and Si substrates was observed visually
to match the pre-test condition. This resiliency is the result of
the strong anchoring of the arrays to their substrates enabled by
the tri-layer catalyst.
[0076] FIG. 9 illustrates the fitted phase shift results at 0.241
MPa for the CNT interface samples. FIGS. 9a, 9b, 9c, and 9d,
correspond to FIGS. 8a, 8b, 8c, and 8d, respectively. To establish
a benchmark for the accuracy of the PA technique, a commercial PCM
(Shin-Etsu 25.times.25 mm thermal pad; Shin-Etsu Chemical Co.,
Ltd.) interface (Si--PCM-Cu) was tested. The PCM changes phase at
48.degree. C. and has a reported resistance of 22 mm.sup.2K/W for a
50 .mu.m-thick layer. A resistance of 20 mm.sup.2K/W was measured
with the PA technique for an approximate interface temperature of
55.degree. C. and pressure of 0.138 MPa, which is in good agreement
with the manufacturer's published value.
[0077] One-sided CNT interface results are shown in Table 1, and
two-sided CNT interface results are illustrated in FIG. 10 and
displayed in detail in Table 2. The resistances at CNT-substrate
interfaces (and CNT-CNT interface for the two-sided interface) and
the intrinsic conductive resistance of the CNT arrays are grouped
into the measured total interface resistances, R.sub.Si--Ag and
R.sub.Si--Cu. This lumping approach has no effect on the measured
results because during each measurement the laser energy penetrates
deep enough to completely pass through R.sub.Si--Ag and
R.sub.Si--Cu and into the Si substrate.
TABLE-US-00001 TABLE 1 One-sided CNT interface results. Fitted
parameters Measured values at 241 kPa R.sub.Si-CNT (mm.sup.2 K/W)
2.3 .+-. 0.4 R.sub.CNT-Ag (mm.sup.2 K/W) 13.4 .+-. 0.2
**R.sub.Total (R.sub.Si--Ag) (mm.sup.2 K/W) 15.8 .+-. 0.2 a.sub.CNT
S-on-Si(M.sup.2/S) 1.7 .+-. 0.3 .times. 10.sup.-4
TABLE-US-00002 TABLE 2 Two-sided CNT interface results. Measured
values Measured values Fitted parameters at 172 kPa at 241 kPa
R.sub.Si-CNT (mm.sup.2 K/W) 0.8 .+-. 0.5 0.8 .+-. 0.5 R.sub.CNT-CNT
(mm.sup.2 K/W) 2.1 .+-. 0.4 2.1 .+-. 0.4 R.sub.CNT-Cu (MM.sup.2
K/w) 1.0 .+-. 0.5 0.9 .+-. 0.5 **R.sub.Total (R.sub.Si--Ag)
(mm.sup.2 K/W) 4.1 .+-. 0.4 4.0 .+-. 0.4 a.sub.CNT
S-on-Si(M.sup.2/S) 3.2 .+-. 0.4 .times. 10.sup.-4 2.3 .+-. 0.4
.times. 10.sup.-4 a.sub.CNT S-on-Cu(M.sup.2/S) 2.1 .+-. 0.4 .times.
10.sup.-4 4.3 .+-. 0.5 .times. 10.sup.-4 **Obtained from data fit
where CNT arrays are not considered as a layer in the PA model.
[0078] At a pressure of 0.241 MPa the one-sided CNT interface
produces a thermal resistance of approximately 16 mm.sup.2K/W. This
photoacoustically measured resistance compares well with one-sided
CNT interface results obtained using a steady state, 1-D reference
bar measurement technique. The resistances at the CNT-substrate
interfaces, R.sub.Si-CNT and R.sub.CNT-Ag, are approximately 2
mm.sup.2K/W and 13 mm.sup.2K/W respectively, and it is clear that
the CNT array free tips to substrate (R.sub.CNT-Ag) interface
dominates the thermal resistance of the one-sided CNT interface. A
similar characteristic for one-sided CNT interfaces was reported in
a previous study as well. A thermal diffusivity of approximately
1.7.times.10.sup.-4 m.sup.2/s is measured for the CNT array on the
Si wafer in the one-sided CNT interface sample.
[0079] At moderate pressures, 0.172-0.379 MPa, the two-sided CNT
interface produces stable and low resistances near 4 mm.sup.2K/W.
For comparison, resistance values of a two-sided CNT interface
measured with a reference bar method are also included in FIG. 10.
FIG. 10 demonstrates that the PA results are similar to the
reference bar results and fall well within the latter results'
uncertainty range. The pressure dependent, two-sided CNT interface
results validate a prior postulate that data scatter in the
resistance--pressure characteristics of the reference bar
measurements is due to the large uncertainty associated with the
method. The resolved resistances of the two-sided CNT interface,
R.sub.Si-CNT, R.sub.CNT-CNT, and R.sub.CNT-Cu, are approximately 1
mm.sup.2K/W, 2 mm.sup.2K/W, and 1 mm.sup.2K/W respectively, and the
CNT-CNT interface dominates the thermal resistance of the
interface. The CNT arrays in the two-sided interface have measured
thermal diffusivities ranging from approximately
2.1-4.3.times.10.sup.-4 m.sup.2/s.
[0080] With the thermal diffusivities measured in this study
ranging from approximately 1.7-4.3.times.10.sup.-4 m.sup.2/s and
assuming the CNT arrays' room temperature effective specific heat
to be approximately 600 J/kgK, the effective thermal conductivities
(including effects of void space) of the CNT arrays in this study
are calculated to range from approximately 88-223 W/mK. This
estimated thermal conductivity range is higher than the thermal
conductivity range, 74-83 W/mK, reported for CNT arrays measured
using the 3.omega. method. Yang et al. reported CNT array thermal
conductivities averaging 15 W/mK.
[0081] The thermal performance revealed by the PA measurement of
the one-sided CNT interface can be attributed to the increase in
real contact area enabled by the high density of CNT to surface
contact spots. The thermal performance revealed by the PA
measurements of the two-sided CNT interface can be attributed to an
even larger increase in real contact area. The contact area between
the two arrays is maximized during the initial loading procedure,
so that further increases in pressure do not cause a significant
increase in array-to-array CNT penetration. Compared to the
resistances of a bare Si--Cu interface and a one-sided CNT
interface (Si--CNT-Cu), which range from 105-196 mm.sup.2K/W and
20-31 mm.sup.2K/W respectively, a two-sided CNT interface produces
much lower thermal contact resistance.
[0082] An interface with a CNT array directly synthesized on one
side of the interface has been measured to have a resistance less
than 25 mm.sup.2 K/W, which is equal to the resistance of the state
of the art commercial thermal interface materials. An interface
created with a directly synthesized CNT array on one side of the
interface and a wax-based phase change material (PCM) added to it
has been measured to have resistances below 5 mm.sup.2 K/W. An
interface with a CNT array directly synthesized on both sides of
the interface has been measured to have a resistance of 4 mm.sup.2
KIW, which is similar to the resistance of a soldered joint.
However, in applications where the materials that form the
interface can not be exposed to the temperatures normally used for
CNT growth, direct synthesis of CNT array interfaces is difficult
to implement.
[0083] In addition, when interface surfaces are relatively rough
(e.g. unpolished Cu--Cu interface as apposed to Si-glass interface)
it can be difficult to directly synthesize CNT arrays dense and
long enough to adequately fill the interface voids. Some
embodiments of the present invention include a new CNT thermal
interface material (TIM) with CNT arrays directly synthesized on
both sides of a metal foil. The invention eliminates the need for
exposing temperature sensitive materials and devices to normal CNT
growth conditions (.about.900.degree. C.) and provides greater
conformability to rough interfaces due to the metal foils ability
to match to the interface geometry.
[0084] Some embodiments of the present invention can be inserted
into several different interface configurations; however, it
differs from other TIMs in that it is dry, removable, and has an
intrinsically high thermal conductivity. The thermal interface
resistance of the invention (without PCM) is measured using a
photoacoustic technique. A resistance of 7 mm.sup.2 K/W was
measured for a Cu-invention-Cu interface under moderate
pressure.
[0085] Many parameters affect the performance of metal foils as
thermal interface materials. Qualitatively, the thermal resistance
of a metal foil interface depends on the thermal and physical
properties of the contacting members, foil, and gas gap, the
contact geometry, the contact pressure, and the interface
temperature. While the foregoing functional dependencies are
difficult to resolve analytically, empirical correlations have been
developed that match experimental results reasonably well.
Experimental observations have revealed the existence of a range of
preferred thicknesses, for which thermal resistance is a minimum
independent of contact pressure, for metal foils used in a given
interface. Additionally, the parameter k.sub.foil/H.sub.foil where
k.sub.foil and H.sub.foil are the thermal conductivity and the
hardness of the metal foil, respectively, has been suggested as a
good measure to predict the performance of a metal foil in a given
application. Higher k.sub.foil/H.sub.foil ratios reduce thermal
resistance at the interface.
[0086] For metal foils with CNT-enhanced surfaces, heat flow paths
and resulting thermal models become substantially more complicated.
In addition to the properties of the metal foil, the effective
thermal and physical properties of CNT/foils depend on, among other
factors, CNT density, CNT diameters in the array, and the bonding
of the CNTs to the foil. Previous studies have shown not only that
CNT arrays conform well in an interface but also that they have
relatively high effective thermal conductivities (.about.80 W/m K)
and can be bonded well to their growth substrate. These CNT array
properties can be exploited, through optimization, to create a
CNT/foil material whose effective thermal to effective hardness
ratio k.sub.CNT/foil H.sub.CNT/foil is greatly increased as
compared to a bare metal foil. Both k.sub.CNT/foil and
H.sub.CNT/foil are affected by the CNT array properties; however,
reducing H.sub.CNT/foil is expected to be the primary means to
increase k.sub.CNT/foil H.sub.CNT/foil Also, CNT/foil
characteristics such as the thicknesses of the CNT arrays and the
metal foil can be controlled such that the contact geometry allows
interfacial void spaces to be filled completely, thus overcoming
the resistance to heat flow caused by the roughness of a given
interface.
[0087] Plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD) was used
to synthesize the CNT arrays 540 according to some embodiments of
the present invention. Referring to FIGS. 16 and 17, a trilayer
catalyst configuration 550, 552, 554 (30 nm Ti/10 nm Al/3 nm Fe,
respectively) was deposited on both sides of 10 .mu.m thick Cu foil
substrate 530, according to another embodiment of the present
invention. The PECVD process gases were H.sub.2 [50 SCCM (SCCM
denotes cubic centimeter per minute at STP)] and CH.sub.4 (10
SCCM), and the growth pressure and temperature were 10 Torr and
900.degree. C., respectively. A 200 W plasma was formed in the
growth chamber, and CNT synthesis was carried out for 10 min. FIG.
16 contains a scanning electron microscope (SEM) image that shows a
side view of the two CNT arrays synthesized on the Cu foil. As
determined from microscopy (SEM and transition electron microscope)
and Raman spectroscopy, the structural characteristics (e.g.,
prevalence of CNT defects and amorphous C) of the CNT arrays are
similar to CNT arrays grown on Si in previous work. Each array 540
is fairly uniform in height (approximately 50 .mu.m) and the
average CNT diameter is approximately 20 nm. The density of each
array is preferably greater than greater than .about.10.sup.7
CNT/mm.sup.2 and preferably is .about.10.sup.8 CNTs/mm.sup.2.
[0088] The room-temperature thermal interface resistance of a
CNT/foil TIM and bare 10 .mu.m thick Cu foil was measured as a
function of pressure using a photoacoustic (PA) technique, The
pressure range was chosen to identify the effects of CNT
enhancement in a range applicable to the thermal management of
electronic components. Two different interfaces, in which the
CNT/foil and bare foil were inserted, were assembled to identify
the effects of surface roughness on the performance of the CNT/foil
TIM. To enable the most accurate PA measurements, both interfaces
use Ag for the top substrate in the interface. The Ag is relatively
smooth, having an average surface roughness R.sub.a of 0.06 .mu.m
and an average peak-to-valley surface height R.sub.z of 0.4 .mu.m.
A polished Si base, having R.sub.a.dbd.O.OI .mu.m and R.sub.z=0.09
.mu.m, was used as the opposing substrate in the first interface
(Si--Ag). A Cu base, having R.sub.a=2.8 .mu.m and R.sub.z=9.3
.mu.m, was used as the opposing substrate in the second interface
(Cu--Ag). The total thermal resistances of the CNT/foil,
R.sub.CNT/foil, and of the bare foil, R.sub.foil, for the two
different interface configurations are presented in FIG. 17.
[0089] For both configurations, the CNT/foil was examined before
and after testing to assess any permanent physical changes to the
material. For the Si--Ag interface, the assembly 520 of CNT/foil
had an appearance that closely resembled the pretest condition upon
removal. For the rough Cu--Ag interface, deformation of the
CNT/foil assembly 520 was apparent such that its shape matched the
interface geometry. In each case, upon separation of the interface,
the CNT arrays 540 remained fully intact on the surfaces of the
foil. To illustrate its robustness, after removal, the CNT/foil was
retested in each interface, and the measured thermal resistances
were consistent with the initial tests.
[0090] The bare Cu foil and the CNT/foil TIMs produce very low
thermal resistances in both interface configurations. This result
is expected because of the relatively smooth contacting member
surfaces, The plots of FIG. 17 illustrate that the CNT arrays
provide greater enhancement to the thermal conductance of the Cu
foil in the rougher Cu--Ag interface. A reduction in resistance of
approximately 30% is achieved at a contact pressure of 275 kPa. For
the smooth Si--Ag interface, enhancement results when sufficient
contact pressure is applied, and an approximately 15% reduction in
resistance is achieved at a contact pressure of 275 kPa. Various
embodiments of the present invention contemplate the use of contact
pressures greater than about 50 kPa.
[0091] The CNT/foil assembly 520 increases conduction in the
interface by two mechanisms, both of which cause an increase in the
number density of contact points between free CNT tips and their
opposing substrate. The first mechanism is the deformation of the
CNT arrays 540 and the second is the deformation of the foil
substrate 530. We postulate that the CNT array deformation is
elastic (i.e., there was no evidence of tube buckling), although
van der Waals interactions among the tubes can cause them to bundle
together after experiencing interfacial compression (mimicking the
geometry of the surface asperities), and that the Cu foil
deformation is both elastic and plastic as in the case of bare
foil. For each interface configuration, the CNT arrays and foil
deform concurrently with increased pressure. For the Si--Ag
interface, the CNT/foil deforms with increased pressure until a
condition exists at which it no longer deforms, and its improved
thermal performance over that of the bare foil becomes constant.
Even for this smooth interface, the slight deformation of the foil
around the surface asperities (primarily on the Ag surface) is
apparently sufficient to increase the number density of contact
points between free CNT tips and their opposing substrate.
[0092] For the relatively rough Cu--Ag interface, the effect of the
Cu foil's deformation is more significant due to the larger surface
asperities that likely prevent CNTs from initially bridging the
interface gap. For this interface, the CNT/foil 520 exhibits better
thermal performance than the bare foil because its foil component
deforms under high local stress to match the asperities of the
interface while the CNTs presumably deform along with it to create
substantially more contact points. For this interface, a maximum
deformation extent did not occur in the tested pressure range, and
it is expected that under higher pressures, the CNT/foil would
continue to conform to the interface, further improving its
performance as compared to that of the bare foil.
[0093] The two deformation mechanisms of the CNT/foil aid in
increasing the number density of contact points between free CNT
tips and their opposing substrate. To better illustrate the
enhancements that occur at both of the free CNT tip interfaces, the
PA method has been used to measure local component resistances
within the interface structure. A resistive network for the
CNT/foil interface is illustrated in FIG. 18. The interface
resistance between a CNT array and its Cu growth substrate
(R.sub.CNT-Cu), approximately 1 mm.sup.2 K/W, and the effective
thermal conductivity of CNT arrays synthesized under conditions
similar to the ones of this study, approximately 80 W/m K (which
corresponds to an intrinsic resistance R.sub.CNT of approximately 1
mm.sup.2 K/W for each CNT array in this study), have been measured
in previous work. For the CNT/foil material, the combined
resistance of both CNT arrays, both CNT-foil interfaces, and the Cu
foil (<0.3 mm.sup.2 K/W) sums to approximately 4 mm.sup.2 K/W.
The remaining resistance in the CNT/foil interface is therefore
produced by the resistance between the CNT arrays' free tips and
the two contacting members (R.sub.Si-CNT+R.sub.CNT-Ag for the
Si--Ag interface and R.sub.Cu-CNT+R.sub.CNT-Ag for the Cu--Ag
interface).
[0094] The resistances at the free surfaces of the bare foil (same
as R.sub.foil) and the free surfaces (i.e., free CNT tips) of the
CNT/foil are illustrated in FIG. 19 for both interface
configurations. Clearly, the thermal resistance at the contacting
member interfaces is greatly reduced by the presence of the CNT
arrays. A reduction in resistance greater than 50% is observed for
both interface configurations at moderate pressure. These results
suggest that the CNT/foil configuration is highly effective in
increasing the number density of contact points between free CNT
tips and their opposing substrate and thus provides an effective
means of increasing the real contact area in a thermal
interface
[0095] In yet another embodiment of the present invention, and
referring to FIGS. 20 and 21, plasma-enhanced chemical vapor
deposition (PECVD) was used to synthesize the CNT arrays 640. A
tri-layer catalyst configuration 650,652,654 (30 nm-Ti/10 nm-A1/2
nm-Fe, respectively) was deposited on both sides of 2 .mu.m-thick
aluminum foil 630.
[0096] The active Fe catalyst layer 654 was about 2 nm to
facilitate the growth of small diameter multiwalled CNTs. Due to
the relatively low melting temperature of aluminum
(.about.660.degree. C.) and to allow the process gases to reach
both of its surfaces, the foil assembly 620 was elevated by ceramic
spacers, 1.2 mm in height, on a growth stage set at 650.degree.
C.
[0097] The PECVD process gases were H.sub.2 (40 sccm) and CH.sub.4
(10 sccm), to promote dense low-temperature growth, and the
pressure was 10 Torr. A 100 W plasma was formed in the growth
chamber and concentrated on a molybdenum shield placed above the
aluminum foil, and synthesis was carried out for 10 min. Shielding
was necessary during growth to prevent excess heating and foil
damage (hardening) due to direct plasma exposure. The temperature
on the top of the molybdenum shield was measured with a pyrometer
to be 655.degree. C. When the plasma shield was not used and/or
when the growth temperature was higher, visible foil damage was
noticed and the aluminum foil/CNT material became very stiff and
brittle (most likely due to exacerbated hydrogen embrittlement of
the aluminum). A scanning electron microscope (SEM) is used to
image the CNT arrays on the aluminum foil as illustrated in FIG.
20. Each array is approximately 10 .mu.m tall, and the average CNT
diameter is approximately 10 nm. The CNT density of each array is
.about.10.sup.9 CNTs/mm.sup.2.
[0098] A resistive network for the aluminum foil/CNT assembly 620
interface is illustrated in FIG. 21. The room-temperature thermal
resistance of the complete interface, R.sub.total, was measured for
smooth and flat mating solids (silver foil and polished silicon)
using a photoacoustic (PA) technique. The PA technique involves
periodically heating the sample surface, which is surrounded by a
sealed acoustic chamber. The temperature-induced pressure response
in the acoustic chamber is measured and used to determine thermal
properties. The transient nature of the PA technique allows for
precise measurement of the thermal resistance of the aluminum
foil/CNT interface (error .about.1 mm.sup.2 K/W), and a resistance
value of approximately 10 mm.sup.2 K/W was achieved at an interface
pressure of 345 kPa.
[0099] The aluminum foil/CNT assembly 620 was also tested in a less
ideal interface (i.e., rougher, wavier, and less flat) and over a
larger area (1.times.1 cm) using a one-dimensional reference bar
technique, and a resistance value of approximately 90 mm.sup.2 K/W
was measured at 345 kPa. We attribute the relatively poor
performance in the less ideal, rougher interface to three
characteristics of the aluminum foil/CNT material fabricated in
this study that may have prevented a significant increase in real
contact area; small CNT array heights, a very large density of
small diameter CNTs in the arrays, and possible stiffening of the
aluminum foil during CNT growth. The small heights may hamper the
ability of the CNT arrays to completely fill the interfacial voids,
especially in highly rough and/or warped areas of contact. For
closely packed, small diameter CNTs, tube-to-tube van der Waals
interactions are strong such the CNTs aid each other in reaming
ridged, which causes the CNT array to be relatively stiff and to
perform like a macro material. Stiffening of the aluminum foil
during CNT growth could further impede the aluminum foil/CNT
materials ability to conform in the interface. These effects are
less significant in the smooth interface because only modest (in
comparison) aluminum foil/CNT material deformation is necessary to
enhance real contact area. After both tests, the interfaces were
separated, and the CNT arrays remained firmly attached to the
aluminum foil, indicating the good adhesion provided by the
reported growth technique.
[0100] FIG. 11 shows one embodiment of the invention in application
(not to scale) with a phase change material (PCM). A thin layer of
wax based PCM is applied to the surfaces of the two devices that
are at the interface. Then, the apparatus is inserted in between
the two wax covered surfaces and a pressure is applied. The wax is
heated until it changes from a solid phase to a liquid phase. In
the liquid phase the PCM wets the CNT array, filling the voids in
the array and interface completely. The CNTs, now embedded in the
PCM, act as a highly conductive thermal path in the newly formed
composite interface material. The wetting of the PCM to the CNTs
also discourages the PCM from running out of the interface in its
liquid phase.
[0101] FIG. 11 shows a nanoparticles assembly 20 located between a
heat source 22 (such as a CPU) and a heat sink 26 (such as a finned
array). Preferably, both surface 23 of CPU 22 and surface 27 of
heat sink 26 include a layer of a phase change material 28.
However, in other embodiments the use of a PCM can be limited to
only one of the surfaces.
[0102] Nanoparticle assembly 20 includes a thin, substantially flat
substrate 30 that plastically deforms under light pressure, such as
the aluminum, copper, and silver foils previously discussed herein.
Further, although certain materials have been shown and described,
the present invention contemplates the use of other materials
having roughly similar conductivity, electrical conductivity, and
ductility.
[0103] Substrate 30 includes the opposing planar surfaces 32 and
34. In one embodiment, each opposing surface has deposited thereon
an array of nanoparticles, including nanofibers, nanorods,
nanowires, nanotubes, or buckyballs. In some embodiments, the
nanoparticles are multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs). Further,
in some embodiments, the nanoparticles are deposited on a single
surface of substrate 30. In yet other embodiments the MWCNTs are
aligned by an electromagnetic field to be substantially
perpendicular to the surface of the substrate.
[0104] FIG. 11 shows the assembly of the heat sink to the CPU. The
nanoparticles 40 combine with a heat sensitive material 28 such as
a phase change material (PCM) to form a composite material 28'
which has increased resistance to flow as compared to phase change
material 28.
[0105] FIG. 12 shows one embodiment of the present invention in an
application (not to scale). The conformable metal foil is
preferably covered with dense CNT arrays on both of its surfaces.
When placed in the interface, under a moderate applied pressure,
the invention conforms to the interface due to the ductile nature
of the substrate or foil. This conformability allows the CNTs to
better span the interface gap and penetrate into the surface
cavities, in effect increasing the real contact area in the
interface. This increase in contact area leads to a reduction in
resistance to heat flow (Q) or electrical current (I) flow through
the interface. The reduction in resistance to heat flow allows a
device to operate at lower temperatures and the reduction in
resistance to current flow allows a device to pass current more
efficiently. The present invention also contemplates the use of
metallic foil or metallic or nonmetallic deformable membranes with
CNT arrays on only a single surface.
[0106] The metal foil used in the invention can be any conductive
(thermal and/or electrical) foil (e.g. copper, aluminium, etc.)
that is thin and ductile enough to mechanically conform to the
roughness of an interface created by mating devices. The CNT arrays
can be synthesized on one or both the foil surfaces using any CNT
synthesis technique that allows for dense, vertically oriented CNT
arrays to be directly grown on both sides of metal substrates while
having strong mechanical adhesion between the CNTs and the surfaces
(as one example, plasma-enhance chemical vapor deposition (PECVD)
and a Ti underlayer on the substrates surfaces to promote
adhesion). The present invention also contemplates those
embodiments in which the CNT arrays are attached to thin, readily
deformable members that are not metallic.
[0107] FIG. 12 shows two devices 24 with a nanoparticle assembly 20
inbetween. Each device 24 can be a heat source, a heat sink, a heat
spreader, or any other type of device in which it is desired to
improve the thermal interface. The respective thermal interfaces 23
and 27 include various surface irregularities, including out of
flatness conditions, roughness pitting, machining marks, and other
microscopic irregularities. These irregularities are shown in
increased amplitude to the right side of FIG. 12.
[0108] Nanoparticle assembly 20 is placed between the devices 24,
and light pressure is applied to cause substrate 30 to conform to
at least some of the surface irregularities. Further, the
nanoparticle arrays 40 fill in various pits and voids.
[0109] FIG. 13 shows apparatus and method for joining two
structures according to one embodiment of the present invention. In
another embodiment of the present invention two members 60 and 62
joined with a nanoparticle assembly 120. As shown in FIG. 13, two
polymer members 60 and 62 are to be joined at a structural
interface, such that these two members 60 and 62 can transfer
mechanical load through the interface. Although flat, planar
structural interfaces are shown, it is understood that the present
invention contemplates the joining of members in which the
structural interfaces are complementary in shape, including but not
limited to tongue in groove joints, dovetail joints, lap joints,
miter joints, and mortise and tenon joints.
[0110] A nanoparticle assembly 120 is placed within the structural
interface. Assembly 120 is substantially the same as assembly 20,
except that the nanoparticle type, nanoparticle material, and
substrate material may be altered for improved compatibility in
this application. As one example, in some embodiments the substrate
material 130 includes a heat sensitive material such as a
thermosetting adhesive.
[0111] The assembly of members 60, 62 and 120 are placed in
contact. Nanoparticle assembly 120 closely follows both the macro
and micro shape of the structural interfaces, including filling in
various voids, pits, and irregularities. In some embodiments,
pressure can be applied to maintain the assembly in contact. The
structural interface is then exposed to appropriate electromagnetic
radiation which the nanoparticles convert into heat. The hot
nanoparticles in turn heat into the adhesive and also the
structural interfaces. For those embodiments where substrate 130 is
a thermosetting adhesive, the heat is sufficient to increase the
temperature of the adhesive to its activation point. In yet other
applications, the temperature is sufficient to melt and fuse the
structural interfaces together.
[0112] FIG. 14 is a cross sectional view of a fluid conduit 68
according to another embodiment of the present invention. Conduit
68 includes on its inner cylindrical surface a layer 220 of a
nanoparticle assembly. In some embodiments nanoparticle assembly
220 further includes a matrix layer 228 which bonds adjacent
nanoparticles 240 together. Preferably, assembly 220 includes
nanoparticles 240 on a single side of substrate 230, such that the
opposite side of substrate 230 (the side without nanoparticles) is
in contact with fluid being transported within conduit 68. The
nanoparticle array 240 provides a highly conductive and efficient
thermal path from the walls of the conduit 68 to the fluid within
the lumen of the conduit. As one example, this additional layer
could be a PVC matrix material 68 which helps prevent any fouling
from the fluid flow within the conduit to the nanoparticles, and
further prevents inadvertent removal of the nanoparticles by
erosion from the fluid flow.
[0113] FIG. 15 shows another embodiment of the present invention as
apparatus and method for thermally insulating an object while
providing low electrical resistance. In one embodiment, a plurality
of nanoparticle assemblies 320 is placed as an interfacing layer
between an energy converting device 70 and a current path 71. In
one embodiment the nanoparticle arrays are embedded within a low
thermal conductivity polymer 328, which lowers the overall thermal
conductivity of the system, while still permitting the
nanoparticles to conduct electrical current with relatively low
resistive losses.
[0114] FIG. 22 is an exploded view of an electronics assembly
according to one embodiment of the present invention. There is an
electrical housing 80 which includes one or more electronic
components 84. Components 86 include any kind of electrical device
which generates electrical noise, or is susceptible to electrical
noise, including CPUs, memory chips, sensors, communication chips,
and the like. Housing 80 includes an opening 81 through which the
various components 86 are assembled into housing 80. A lid 82 is
releasably attached to cover the opening of housing 80 by one or
more fasteners (not shown).
[0115] A flexible and deformable nanoparticle assembly 420 is
adapted to have the shape of the interface between the opening 81
and the lid 82. Preferably, nanoparticle assembly 420 is held
tightly between lid 82 and housing 81 when the fasteners (not
shown) are tightened. In one embodiment, nanoparticle assembly 420
includes a flexible metallic foil substrate that is populated on at
least one side by a plurality of electrically conductive
nanoparticles. Preferably, the nanoparticle array 240 comprises
multiwalled carbon nanotubes grown from one side of substrate 430
and aligned substantially perpendicularly to the attachment
surface. Nanoparticle assembly 420 uses the multiplicity of highly
electrically conductive MWCNTs to establish a barrier to
electromagnetic interference (EMI), and thus act as an EMI
gasket.
[0116] While the inventions have been illustrated and described in
detail in the drawings and foregoing description, the same is to be
considered as illustrative and not restrictive in character, it
being understood that only the preferred embodiment has been shown
and described and that all changes and modifications that come
within the spirit of the invention are desired to be protected.
* * * * *