U.S. patent application number 13/027355 was filed with the patent office on 2012-04-19 for particle population and methods of making and using.
This patent application is currently assigned to LIFE TECHNOLOGIES CORPORATION. Invention is credited to Wolfgang HINZ, John Leamon, David Light, Jonathan Rothberg.
Application Number | 20120094871 13/027355 |
Document ID | / |
Family ID | 43220931 |
Filed Date | 2012-04-19 |
United States Patent
Application |
20120094871 |
Kind Code |
A1 |
HINZ; Wolfgang ; et
al. |
April 19, 2012 |
Particle Population and Methods of Making and Using
Abstract
The invention provides particle compositions having applications
in nucleic acid analysis. Nucleic acid polymer particles of the
invention allow polynucleotides to be attached throughout their
volumes for higher loading capacities than those achievable solely
with surface attachment. In one aspect, nucleic acid polymer
particles of the invention comprise polyacrylamide particles with
uniform size distributions having low coefficients of variations,
which result in reduced particle-to-particle variation in
analytical assays. Such particle compositions are used in various
amplification reactions to make amplicon libraries from nucleic
acid fragment libraries.
Inventors: |
HINZ; Wolfgang; (New Haven,
CT) ; Leamon; John; (Guilford, CT) ; Light;
David; (Guilford, CT) ; Rothberg; Jonathan;
(Guilford, CT) |
Assignee: |
LIFE TECHNOLOGIES
CORPORATION
Carlsbad
CA
|
Family ID: |
43220931 |
Appl. No.: |
13/027355 |
Filed: |
February 15, 2011 |
Related U.S. Patent Documents
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Application
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Filing Date |
Patent Number |
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12785685 |
May 24, 2010 |
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13027355 |
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12474897 |
May 29, 2009 |
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12785685 |
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12475311 |
May 29, 2009 |
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12474897 |
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61242369 |
Sep 14, 2009 |
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61263734 |
Nov 23, 2009 |
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61291788 |
Dec 31, 2009 |
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61297203 |
Jan 21, 2010 |
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Current U.S.
Class: |
506/16 |
Current CPC
Class: |
C12N 15/1093 20130101;
C40B 40/08 20130101; C40B 50/06 20130101; B01J 19/0046 20130101;
C12Q 1/6874 20130101; B01J 2219/00466 20130101; Y10T 428/2982
20150115; B01J 2219/00596 20130101; B01J 2219/00722 20130101; B01J
2219/005 20130101 |
Class at
Publication: |
506/16 |
International
Class: |
C40B 40/06 20060101
C40B040/06 |
Foreign Application Data
Date |
Code |
Application Number |
May 27, 2010 |
US |
PCT/US2010/001549 |
Claims
1.-23. (canceled)
24. An amplicon library comprising a plurality of particles, each
particle including an amplicon and a porous non-nucleosidic polymer
network, each amplicon including a plurality of polynucleotides
that are attached to a non-nucleosidic polymer network throughout
its volume at a density of at least about 6.9.times.10.sup.4 per
.mu.m.sup.3, where at least one particle includes a polynucleotide
having a sequence that is different from a polynucleotide of any
other particle in the population.
25. The amplicon library of claim 24, where the volume of at least
one particle of the plurality of particles is less than about
1.4.times.10.sup.4 .mu.m.sup.3.
26. The amplicon library of claim 24, wherein the volume of at
least one particle of the plurality of particles is less than about
1.8.times.10.sup.3 .mu.m.sup.3.
27. The amplicon library of claim 24, wherein at least one particle
of the plurality of particles is spheroidal in shape.
28. The amplicon library of claim 24, wherein the non-nucleosidic
polymer network of at least one particle of the plurality of
particles includes a polyacrylamide gel having a T value from 5% to
10% and a C value from 5% to 10%.
29. The amplicon library of claim 24, wherein at least one particle
of the plurality of particles includes a one or more
polynucleotides having an average length of about 100 to about
1,200 nucleotides.
30. The amplicon library of claim 24, wherein at least one particle
of the plurality of particles includes one or more polynucleotides
that are double stranded.
31. The amplicon library of claim 24, wherein at least one particle
of the plurality of particles includes one or more polynucleotides
that are attached to the non-nucleosidic polymer network of the
particle throughout the volume of the network at an average nearest
neighbor distance of from about 15 to about 22 nm.
32. The amplicon library of claim 24, wherein the coefficient of
variation of the volumes of the plurality of particles is no
greater than about 15 percent.
33. The amplicon library of claim 24, wherein the plurality of
particles are disposed on an array comprising a plurality of
reaction chambers, wherein at least one reaction chamber comprises
or is capacitively coupled to a field effect transistor (FET).
34. The array of claim 33, wherein the field effect transistor is
an ion-sensitive field effect transistor (ISFET).
Description
[0001] This is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent applications
Ser. Nos. 12/474,897 and 12/475,311 both filed 29 May 2009, and
claims priority under U.S. provisional applications Ser. No.
61/263,734 filed 23 Nov. 2009; Ser. No. 61/291,788 filed 31 Dec.
2009; and Ser. No. 61/297,203 filed 21 Jan. 2010. All of the
foregoing applications are incorporated by reference in their
entireties.
BACKGROUND
[0002] In order to generate sufficient signal for analysis, many
applications in genomics and biomedical research require the
conversion of nucleic acid molecules in a library into separate, or
separable, libraries of amplicons of the molecules, e.g. Margulies
et al, Nature 437: 376-380 (2005); Mitra et al, Nucleic Acids
Research, 27: e34 (1999); Shendure et al, Science, 309: 1728-1732
(2005); Brenner et al, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., 97: 1665-1670
(2000); and the like. Several techniques have been used for making
such conversions, including hybrid selection (e.g., Brenner et al,
cited above); in-gel polymerase chain reaction (PCR) (e.g. Mitra et
al, cited above); bridge amplification (e.g. Shapero et al, Genome
Research, 11: 1926-1934 (2001)); and emulsion PCR (emPCR) (e.g.
Margulies et al, cited above). Most of these techniques employ
particulate supports, such as beads, which spatially concentrate
the amplicons for enhanced signal-to-noise ratios, as well as other
benefits, such as, better reagent access.
[0003] These techniques have several drawbacks. In some cases,
amplicons are either in a planar format (e.g. Mitra et al, cited
above; Adessi et al, Nucleic Acids Research, 28: e87 (2000)), which
limits ease of manipulation and/or reagent access, or the amplicons
are on bead surfaces, which lack sufficient fragment density or
concentration for adequate signal-to-noise ratios. In other cases,
amplifications must be done in emulsions in order to obtain clonal
populations of templates. Such emulsion reactions are labor
intensive and require a high degree of expertise, which
significantly increases costs. It would be very useful if supports
were available which were capable of providing a higher density of
analyte binding or attachment sites, particularly for clonal
populations of nucleic acid fragments. It would also be
advantageous if such supports did not require emulsion reactions
for producing clonal populations.
[0004] Gels have been widely used as supports in analytical and
synthetic processes and as encapsulating agents, e.g. Weaver et al,
U.S. Pat. No. 5,055,390; Tmovsky et al, U.S. Pat. No. 6,586,176,
and have interiors accessible to analytical reagents. However, such
particulates are limited in that they are typically produced with
widely varying size distributions, particularly at lower size
ranges, e.g. less than about 30 .mu.m, which makes them unsuitable
for many exacting analytical applications, such as large scale DNA
sequencing.
[0005] It would be highly useful if methods and compositions were
available for creating small-sized monodisperse populations of
gel-based particulate supports, which could be readily loaded with
analytes, such as amplicons of nucleic acid fragments.
SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION
[0006] The present invention is generally directed to particle
compositions for nucleic acid analysis, which address the
aforementioned issues with current methodologies, as well as other
related issues. The present invention is exemplified in a number of
implementations and applications, some of which are summarized
below and throughout the specification.
[0007] In one aspect, the invention includes the production and use
of porous microparticles for increasing the number of
polynucleotides templates within a defined volume. In one
embodiment such porous microparticles comprise three-dimensional
scaffolds for attaching greater numbers of template molecules than
possible with solid beads that have only a two-dimensional surface
available for attachment. In one embodiment, such porous
microparticles are referred to herein as nucleic acid polymer
particles.
[0008] In another embodiment, such porous microparticles comprise
particles having shapes with larger surface to volume ratios than
spherical particles. Such shapes include tubes, shells, hollow
spheres with accessible interiors (e.g. nanocapsules), barrels,
multiply connected solids, including doubly connected solids, such
as donut-shaped solids and their topological equivalents, triply
connected solids and their topological equivalents, four-way
connected solids and their topologically equivalents, and the like.
Such porous microparticles are referred to herein as
"non-spheroidal microparticles." Techniques for producing and
characterizing such particles are disclosed in Elaissari, editor,
Colloidal Polymers: Synthesis and Characterization (Marcel Dekker,
Inc., New York, 2003), and like references.
[0009] In another aspect the invention provides a composition of
nucleic acid polymer particles each comprising polynucleotides
attached to a non-nucleosidic polymer network, each such polymer
network having a volume and the polynucleotides being attached to
the polymer network throughout its volume, wherein the number of
attached polynucleotides is at least 6.9.times.10.sup.4 per
.mu.m.sup.3 and wherein the oligonucleotides have an average
nearest neighbor distance of 22 nm or less. In one aspect, the
polynucleotide is a DNA fragment in the range of from 100 to 500
nucleotides in length, or in the range of from 100 to 200
nucleotides in length. In another aspect, such polynucleotide is a
double stranded DNA (dsDNA) having a length in the range of from
150 to 250 basepairs.
[0010] In another aspect, the invention provides amplicon
libraries, such libraries comprising a plurality of amplicons, each
amplicon comprising a clonal population of a single polynucleotide
from a nucleic acid library, each polynucleotide of the clonal
population being attached to a non-nucleosidic polymer network,
each such polymer network having a volume and the polynucleotides
of the clonal population being attached to the polymer network
throughout its volume, wherein the number of attached
polynucleotides is at least 6.9.times.10.sup.4 per .mu.m.sup.3. In
another aspect, polynucleotides of such amplicons have an average
nearest neighbor distance of 22 nm or less, or an average nearest
neighbor distance of 20 nm or less. In still another aspect, such
polynucleotides are each a double stranded DNA (dsDNA) having a
length in the range of from 150 to 250 basepairs, or a length in
the range of from 150 to 200 basepairs.
[0011] In one aspect, an amplicon library of the invention
comprises a plurality of amplicons, each amplicon comprising a
clonal population of a single polynucleotide from a nucleic acid
library, each polynucleotide of the clonal population being
attached to a non-nucleosidic polymer network, each such polymer
network having a volume and the polynucleotides of the clonal
population being attached to the polymer network throughout its
volume, wherein the number of attached polynucleotides is at least
6.9.times.10.sup.4 per .mu.m.sup.3. In one embodiment, a plurality
of amplicons is in the range of from 10.sup.4 to 10.sup.7
amplicons.
[0012] In another aspect, the invention provides methods of making
monodisperse populations of gel particles by combining a
monodisperse emulsion of a gel reaction mixture without an
initiator and an emulsion with a dispersed phase containing an
initiator or a continuous phase solution saturated with an
initiator. In one embodiment, volumes of the gel particles of such
monodisperse populations have coefficients of variation of less
than fifteen percent, or in another embodiment, less than twelve
percent.
[0013] In another aspect, the invention provides a method of making
amplicon libraries comprising the steps: (a) combining in an
amplification reaction mixture a library of polynucleotide
fragments each having at least one primer binding site and a
population of non-nucleosidic polymer networks, each such polymer
network having a volume of less than 1.4.times.10.sup.4 .mu.m.sup.3
and having primers attached thereto, and the volumes of the
non-nucleosidic polymer networks having a coefficient of variation
of fifteen percent or less; (b) performing an amplification
reaction so that primers of the polymer networks are each extended
along a polynucleotide fragment annealed thereto so that clonal
populations of such polynucleotide fragments are formed on the
polymer networks, thereby forming an amplicon library. In one
embodiment, the method of making amplicon libraries further
includes a step of enriching polymer networks having clonal
populations of polynucleotide fragments attached by separating them
from polymer networks without such fragments. In another
embodiment, such separation is accomplished by affinity separation
or by electrophoretic separation.
[0014] In still another aspect, the invention includes methods of
using monodisperse gel particle compositions to make amplicon
libraries without an emulsion reaction.
[0015] These above-characterized aspects, as well as other aspects,
of the present invention are exemplified in a number of illustrated
implementations and applications, some of which are shown in the
figures and characterized in the claims section that follows.
However, the above summary is not intended to describe each
illustrated embodiment or every implementation of the present
invention.
BRIEF DESCRIPTIONS OF THE DRAWINGS
[0016] FIG. 1 illustrates the presence of nucleic acid polymer
particles inside microwells of a semiconductor sequencing device
and the effects of different polymer network sizes within a
library.
[0017] FIG. 2A schematically illustrates production of spheroidal
gel particles by membrane emulsification using a micromachined
membrane and continuous polymerization by heat.
[0018] FIG. 2B schematically illustrates another embodiment for
producing spheroidal gel particles by membrane emulsification and
batch mode polymerization by heat.
[0019] FIG. 3 diagrammatically illustrates a bridge PCR on a
surface.
[0020] FIG. 4 diagrammatically illustrates bridge PCR on a
suspension of nucleic acid polymer particles.
[0021] FIG. 5 illustrates a method of minimizing
cross-contamination of bridge PCR templates among closely packed
particles.
[0022] FIG. 6 illustrates a method of using adaptor
oligonucleotides to allow one kind of nucleic acid polymer particle
to be used to capture and amplify a selected set of nucleic acids,
such as particular exons of one or more genes.
[0023] FIG. 7 shows a simple thermocycler for carrying out PCRs
while preventing porous particles from settling at the bottom of a
reaction vessel.
[0024] FIG. 8 illustrates steps of a nucleic acid sequencing method
using nucleic acid polymer particles of the invention.
DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION
[0025] The practice of the present invention may employ, unless
otherwise indicated, conventional techniques and descriptions of
organic chemistry, molecular biology (including recombinant
techniques), cell biology, and biochemistry, which are within the
skill of the art. Such conventional techniques include, but are not
limited to, preparation of synthetic polynucleotides,
polymerization techniques, chemical and physical analysis of
polymer particles, nucleic acid sequencing and analysis, and the
like. Specific illustrations of suitable techniques can be had by
reference to the example herein below. However, other equivalent
conventional procedures can, of course, also be used. Such
conventional techniques and descriptions can be found in standard
laboratory manuals such as Genome Analysts: A Laboratory Manual
Series (Vols. I-IV), PCR Primer: A Laboratory Manual, and Molecular
Cloning: A Laboratory Manual (all from Cold Spring Harbor
Laboratory Press), Hermanson, Bioconjugate Techniques, Second
Edition (Academic Press, 2008); Merkus, Particle Size Measurements
(Springer, 2009); Rubinstein and Colby, Polymer Physics (Oxford
University Press, 2003); and the like.
[0026] The invention is directed to methods and compositions for
enhancing the sensitivity of nucleic acid analysis, particularly
where many different nucleic acid fragments are assayed
simultaneously, such as in large-scale parallel DNA sequencing
reactions. In one aspect, the compositions of the invention result
from the conversion of a library of individual nucleic acid
fragments into a library of individual solid phase amplicons that
provide higher concentrations of fragments per amplicon and greater
uniformity of amplicon size than current methodologies. Solid phase
amplicons of the invention are composite materials made up of a
framework, or scaffold, of a hydrophilic covalent non-nucleosidic
polymer (referred to herein as a "polymer network" or as a "porous
microparticle") and covalently attached copies of usually one kind
of nucleic acid fragment, or in some embodiments, two kinds of
nucleic acid fragment. In some preferred embodiments, such nucleic
acid fragment is a nucleic acid primer. In other preferred
embodiments, such nucleic acid fragment is a DNA fragment from a
library, which may have been formed on a polymer network by
extension of a covalently attached primer. (In such embodiments, it
is understood that a single "kind" in this case, may include
unextended primers or partially extended primers, which have
different lengths but otherwise identical sequences). Such solid
phase amplicons are synonymously referred to as "scaffolded nucleic
acid polymer particles" or simply "nucleic acid polymer particles."
Compositions of the invention include libraries or collections of
such solid phase amplicons, or equivalently, nucleic acid polymer
particles. In one aspect, the invention includes compositions
comprising populations of such solid phase amplicons. In one
aspect, polymer networks are stable in a wide pH range, e.g. from 4
to 10, and especially from 6 to 9, and they are chemically and
physically stable in physiological salt solutions and/or
electrolytes. Likewise, polymer networks are preferably inert to
reactants, reagents and/or reaction conditions and buffers used in
analytical assays and reactions for nucleic acids, including, but
not limited to, polymerase reactions, ligase reactions, nuclease
reactions, polymerase chain reactions, and the like. Polymer
networks are preferably chemically and physically stable over a
wide temperature range, e.g. 0.degree. C. to 100.degree. C., and
5.degree. C. to 95.degree. C. In one aspect, polymer networks are
substantially nonswelling in under a wide range of reaction
conditions, particularly polymerase extension reaction conditions.
In one aspect, by substantially nonswelling, it is meant that the
volume of a polymer network changes by no more than five percent
within a temperature range of from 25.degree. C. to 70.degree. C.
and under chemical conditions of physiological or assay salt and pH
in the range of from 6 to 10, and especially in the range of from 7
to 9. In one aspect, the porosity of polymer networks permits free
or substantially free diffusion of proteins having a size in the
range of from 50 to 200 kilodaltons, or from 50 to 150 kilodaltons,
or from 50 to 125 kilodaltons. In another aspect, the porosity of
polymer networks permits free or substantially free diffusion of
nucleic acid polymerases. In various embodiments, such porosity may
be selected to permit free or substantially free diffusion of
primers and/or a DNA polymerase, including but not limited to, a
Taq polymerase, a 9.degree. N polymerase, an E. coli DNA polymerase
I, a T7 DNA polymerase, a Bsu DNA polymerase, a Klenow fragment DNA
polymerase, a Phusion DNA polymerase, a Vent DNA polymerase, a Bst
DNA polymerase, a phi29 DNA polymerase, a T4 DNA polymerase, or the
like. In another embodiment, polymer networks have a porosity that
renders them permeable to proteins having a size in the range of
from 50 to 200 kilodaltons, or from 50 to 150 kilodaltons, or from
50 to 125 kilodaltons. In one embodiment, the porosity of polymer
networks is selected so that such permeability is at least fifty
percent of the diffusability in polymer-free solution, or at least
twenty-five percent of such diffusability, or at least ten percent
of such diffusability. In another aspect, polymer networks have an
average pore size in the range of from 20 to 200 nm in diameter, or
from 25 to 100 nm in diameter, or from 30 to 100 nm in
diameter.
[0027] In another aspect, polymer networks may have empty channels
or hollow cores that when taken together with the polymer network
volume comprise at least 10%, at least 20%, at least 30%, at least
40%, at least 50%, at least 60%, at least 70%, at least 80%, at
least 90% of the combined volume.
[0028] In another aspect, nucleic acid fragments are uniformly
attached throughout the volume of polymer networks. In some
embodiments, nucleic acid fragments are uniformly and randomly
attached throughout the volume of polymer networks (i.e. as
approximately a Poisson distribution). In yet other embodiments,
nucleic acid fragments may be attached throughout a layer or
portion of a polymer network. In further embodiments, nucleic acid
fragments may be attached non-uniformly throughout the volume of
polymer networks. For example, in spherically shaped polymer
networks, a concentration of attached nucleic acid fragments may be
a function of distance from the center of such polymer network. In
one such embodiment, such function describes a monotonically
decreasing concentration from the surface of a polymer network to
its center.
[0029] The density of nucleic acids may be expressed in terms of
expected or average nearest neighbor distance, which allows surface
densities to be compared with volume densities. Equivalent
densities of nucleic acids distributed throughout a spheroidal
volume have larger expected nearest neighbor distances than those
of nucleic acids distributed on the surface of such a volume.
Expected nearest neighbor distances for Poisson distributed points
or molecules are readily computed for surfaces or volumes, e.g.
Pielou, Introduction to Mathematical Ecology (Wiley-Interscience,
New York, 1977). Since large molecules or molecular complexes of
interest (e.g. template-primer-polymerase complexes) have volumes
roughly in the range of from 1000 to 1.2.times.10.sup.5 nm.sup.3
(Holmes et al, Electrophoresis, 12: 253-263 (1991)), higher
concentrations of such can be achieved by attaching them throughout
a volume rather than on a surface. In one aspect, nucleic acid
polymer particles of the invention have 150 to 200 basepair nucleic
acids immobilized throughout a spheroidal volume having a diameter
in the range of from 0.5 to 10 .mu.m in an approximate Poisson
distribution having an expected nearest neighbor distance in the
range of from 15 to 22 nm. In another aspect, such spheroidal
volume has a diameter in the range of from 1 to 10 .mu.m and such
Poisson distribution of dsDNAs has an expected nearest neighbor
distance in the range of from 18 to 20 nm.
[0030] Polymer networks may have a variety of shapes, including but
not limited to, spherical, cylindrical, barrel shaped, toroidal,
conical, tubular, hemispherical, cubical, and topological
equivalents of the foregoing. In one aspect, polymer networks are
spherically shaped, which are readily obtained from emulsion-based
methods of making them. An important application of nucleic acid
polymer particle compositions is their use in massively parallel
sequencing reactions where nucleic acids attached to the polymer
networks making up such particles are derived from fragments of a
target polynucleotide of interest, such as a genome. In several
large scale sequencing approaches, clonal populations of fragments,
usually attached to separate beads, are subjected to sequencing
reactions in microwells, or equivalent enclosures, e.g. as
disclosed in Rothberg et al, U.S. patent publication 2009/0127589;
Gamal et al, U.S. Pat. No. 7.595,883; Leamon et al, U.S. Pat. No.
7,323,305; and the like. In particular, approaches based on making
electrochemical measurements, such as Rothberg et al (cited above),
benefit from populations of nucleic acid polymer particles that
have low coefficients of variation. For example, FIGS. 1A and 1B
illustrate top views of ISFET sensor arrays (100), e.g. as
disclosed in Rothberg et al (cited above), which include a
rectilinear array of microwells (102) filled with microparticles
(104) and electrolyte (106). In FIG. 1A, the coefficient of
variation of the diameters of microparticles (104) is 51%, and in
FIG. 1B the corresponding coefficient of variation is 22%. Whenever
electrical measurements are made through or across the microwells,
differences in microparticle sizes and motions give rise to
resistive noise; thus, the greater the coefficient of variation in
microparticle size, the greater the noise. Generally, if the
coefficient of variation of the size of a particle is large,
several difficulties can arise: (i) flows of reagents across the
beads or particles may dislodge and wash away some particles, e.g.
small particles or particles too large to completely fit into a
microwell, (ii) in the case of ion-based sequencing approaches,
such as pH-based sequencing disclosed in Rothberg et al (cited
above), fluid noise sensed by a electronic-based sensor will vary
depending on the fluid gap around the particle in the well, and
(iii) signals generated by reactions taking place on the nucleic
acids of a particle will vary with the size of the particle, which
adds a signal processing complication because many sequencing
chemistries generate a signal that depends on the number of bases
incorporated in a polymerase extension reaction. As a consequence,
it is advantageous to have populations of nucleic acid polymer
particles with sizes, e.g. volumes, or diameters for spherical
particles, which have a low coefficient of variation. In one
aspect, such populations of particles have volumes with
coefficients of variation less than 25 percent; and in further
aspects, such populations of particles have volumes with
coefficients of variation less than 20 percent; and in further
aspects, such populations of particles have volumes with
coefficients of variation less than 15 percent; and in further
aspects, such populations of particles have volumes with
coefficients of variation less than 10 percent; or less than 5
percent. Preferably, populations of spherical polymer networks have
coefficients of variation less than 15 percent, and more
preferably, less than 10 percent, or less than 5 percent.
[0031] In another aspect, spherical polymer networks have average
sizes (diameters) less than 30 .mu.m, or in the range of from 0.5
.mu.m to 30 .mu.m, or in the range of from 0.5 .mu.m to 15 .mu.m,
or in the range of from 0.5 .mu.m to 10 .mu.m.
[0032] In some embodiments, the porous microparticle is hollow
(i.e., it has a hollow core); while in other embodiments it has a
porous core.
[0033] As mentioned above, an aspect of the invention includes
amplicon libraries comprising a plurality of solid phase amplicons
each, in turn, comprising nucleic acid polymer particles each
having a clonal population of polynucleotides, such as genomic
fragments, attached throughout the volume of a polymer network.
Compositions
[0034] Polymer networks may be made of a wide variety of components
and the method of manufacturing may vary widely. Design factors for
making polymer networks include, but are not limited to, the
following: (i) the polymers of the networks are hydrophilic, (ii)
they are capable of having a pore and/or network structure (e.g.
average pore diameter, tortuosity, and the like) that permits
interior access to various enzymes, especially polymerases, (iii)
they are physically and chemically stable under conditions where
biomolecules, such as enzymes, are functional and they are
substantially non-swelling under the same conditions. There is a
great amount of guidance in the art for selecting polymers and
polymerization methodologies to produce polymer networks meeting
such performance criteria, such as the following exemplary
references, which are incorporated by reference: Saltzman and
Langer, J. Biophys., 55:163 (1989); Ghosh et al, U.S. Pat. No.
5,478,893; Mirzabekov, U.S. Pat. No. 6,656,725; Johnson et al, U.S.
Pat. No. 6,372,813; Tang and Xiao, Biosensors and Bioelectronics,
24: 1817-1824 (2009); Boles et al, U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,932,711 and
6,180,770; Xiao et al, Electrophoresis, 28: 1903-1912 (2007);
Holmes et al, Electrophoresis, 12: 253-263 (1991); Shapero et al,
Genome Research, 11: 1926-1934 (2001); Righetti et al, J. Biochem.
Biophys. Methods, 4: 347-363 (1981); Mitra et al, Nucleic Acids
Research, 27: e34 (1999); Rehman et al, Nucleic Acids Research, 27:
649-655 (1999); Smith, U.S. Pat. No. 4,485,224; Chiari et al, U.S.
Pat. No. 5,785,832; Rickwood and Hames, Editors, Gel
Electrophoresis of Nucleic Acids (IRL Press, Oxford, 1982);
Chrambach, The Practice of Quantitative Gel Electrophoresis (VCH,
Deerfield Beach, 1985); Mitra et al, Anal. Biochem., 320: 55-65
(2003); Kenney et al, Biotechniques, 25: 516 (1998); Elaissari,
editor, Colloidal Polymers: Synthesis and Characterization (Marcel
Dekker, Inc., New York, 2003); and the like.
[0035] In one aspect, polymer networks comprise polymers selected
from the following group: agarose; polyoxybutylene;
diethylacrylamide; polyoxyethylene; polyacrylamide;
polyoxypropylene; N,N-polydimethylacrylamide;
poly(N-isopropylacrylamide); polyvinylpyrrolidone;
poly-N-hydroxyacrylamide; and the like. As described more fully
below, such polymers may be formed into polymer networks using
conventional methodologies, e.g. cross-linking methods, methods for
producing desired shapes, and the like.
[0036] In some embodiments, the nucleic acids are bound to polymer
networks with one or more non-nucleic acid polymers or linking
groups. In some embodiments, the non-nucleic acid polymers are
polyethylene glycol (PEG) polymers. The PEG polymers may be of
varying lengths. In some embodiments, the non-nucleic acid polymers
are dextran polymers and/or chitosan polymers. In some embodiments,
the non-nucleic acid polymers include PEG polymers and dextran
polymers. In some embodiments, the non-nucleic acid polymers
include PEG polymers and chitosan polymers. The non-nucleic acid
polymers may be linear or branched. Still other methods for
attaching nucleic acids to beads are taught by Lund et al., Nucleic
Acids Research, 1988, 16(22):10861-10880, Joos et al. Anal Biochem,
1997, 247:96-101, Steinberg et. al. Biopolymers, 2004, 73:597-605,
and Steinberg-Tatman et al. Bioconjugate Chem 2006 17:841-848.
[0037] In one embodiment, nucleic acid polymer particles are made
by first making polymer networks that incorporate either
bromoacetyl groups or alternative thiol groups, then reacting
either a thiol derivatized oligonucleotide or a
bromoacetyl-derivatized oligonucleotide respectively, as taught by
Ghosh et al, U.S. Pat. No. 5,478,893, which is incorporated by
reference. Synthesizing bromoacetyl-derivatized and
thiol-derivatized oligonucleotides is further disclosed by
Gryaznov, U.S. Pat. No. 5,830,658, which is incorporated by
reference. In one aspect, polyacrylamide particles are employed
that may be size selected either before or after bromoacetyl- and
thiol-derivatized components are reacted.
[0038] In another embodiment, nucleic acid polymer particles are
made by preparing a polymer network that incorporates a click
chemistry functionality then combining it with oligonucleotides
having a complementary click chemistry functionality, so that rapid
and specific bonds are formed and a nucleic acid polymer particle
results. Click chemistry functionalities and reactions are
well-known and are disclosed in the following references, which are
incorporated by reference: Lahann, editor, Click Chemistry for
Biotechnology and Material Science (Wiley, 2009); Kolb et al,
Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 40: 2004-2021 (2001); Binder et al,
Macromolecular Rapid Comm., 28: 15-54 (2007); Sharpless et al, U.S.
Pat. No. 7,375,234; Carell et al, U.S. patent publication
2009/0215635; and the like. Reagents containing click chemistry
reactive functionalities and complementary functionalities are
commercially available from Glen Research (Sterling, Va.); Sigma
Aldrich (St. Louis, Mo.), baseclick GmbH (Tutzing, Germany); and
like companies. In one aspect, the click chemistry reactive
functionality is an azide and the click chemistry complementary
functionality is an alkene. In one embodiment, a reaction between
such functionalities is catalyzed by copper(I). In another aspect,
a click chemistry reactive functionality or complementary
functionality is incorporated into a polyacrylamide polymer
matrix.
[0039] Of particular interest are polymer networks comprising
polyacrylamide gels. Polyacrylamide gels are formed by
copolymerization of acrylamide and bis-acrylamide ("bis,"
N,N'-methylene-bisacrylamide). The reaction is a vinyl addition
polymerization initiated by a free radical-generating system.
Polymerization is initiated by ammonium persulfate and TEMED
(tetramethylethylenediamine): TEMED accelerates the rate of
formation of free radicals from persulfate and these in turn
catalyze polymerization. The persulfate free radicals convert
acrylamide monomers to free radicals which react with unactivated
monomers to begin the polymerization chain reaction. The elongating
polymer chains are randomly crosslinked by bis, resulting in a gel
with a characteristic porosity which depends on the polymerization
conditions and monomer concentrations. Riboflavin (or
riboflavin-5'-phosphate) may also be used as a source of free
radicals, often in combination with TEMED and ammonium persulfate.
In the presence of light and oxygen, riboflavin is converted to its
leuco form, which is active in initiating polymerization, which is
usually referred to as photochemical polymerization. In a standard
nomenclature for forming polyacrylamide gels, T represents the
total percentage concentration (w/v, in mg/mL) of monomer
(acrylamide plus crosslinker) in the gel. The term C refers to the
percentage of the total monomer represented by the crosslinker. For
example, an 8%, 19:1 (acrylamide/bisacrylamide) gel would have a T
value of 8% and a C value of 5%.
[0040] In one aspect, polymer networks comprise polyacrylamide gels
with total monomer percentages in the range of from 3-20 percent,
and more preferably, in the range of from 5 to 10 percent. In one
embodiment, crosslinker percentage of monomers is in the range of
from 5 to 10 percent. In a particular embodiment, polymer networks
comprise 10 percent total acrylamide of which 10 percent is
bisacrylamide.
[0041] Accordingly, in one aspect, the invention includes a
polyacrylamide particle composition comprising a population of
polyacrylamide particles with an average particle size of less than
15 .mu.m with a coefficient of variation of less than 15 percent.
In one embodiment, the polyacrylamide particles have a
weight:volume percentage of twenty-five percent or less. In another
embodiment, the polyacrylamide particles are spheroidal and have an
average diameter of less than 15 .mu.m with a coefficient of
variation of less than 15 percent.
Methods of Making Nucleic Acid Polymer Particles
[0042] Nucleic acid polymer particles of the invention may be made
by a wide variety of methods. In one aspect, such method include
steps of (i) forming a reaction mixture whose polymerization may be
controlled by physical conditions, e.g. heat, or the addition of a
catalyst; (ii) performing a polymerization reaction to produce
polymer networks or candidate polymer networks or nucleic acid
polymer particles or candidate polymer particles depending on
reactants and conditions employed, and (iii) optionally, selecting
candidate polymer networks or candidate nucleic acid polymer
particles in a predetermined size range. Nucleic acid polymer
particles may be made by first making polymer networks followed by
attachment of polynucleotides, or they may be made by
co-polymerization of oligonucleotide components along with monomers
and crosslinkers. In addition to the chemical processes that
determine the composition of polymer networks and nucleic acid
polymer particles, physical process are employed to create such
networks and particles with desired shapes and size distributions.
Such physical processes include, but are not limited to, flow
focusing using microfluidics devices, e.g. Nisisako et al, LabChip,
8: 287-293 (2008); Kumaresan et al, Anal. Chem., 80: 3522-3529
(2008), pneumatic disruption of a sheath-sample flow stream, e.g.
Lin et al, Biomed Microdevices, 9: 833-843 (2007); sieving,
molding, e.g. Rolland et al, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 127: 10096-10100
(2005), sonication, controlled shearing, and membrane emulsion.
Further exemplary references include the following: Mak et al. Adv.
Funct. Mater. 2008 18:2930-2937; Morimoto et al. MEMS 2008 Tucson
Ariz. USA Jan. 13-17, 2008 Poster Abstract 304-307; Lee et al. Adv.
Mater. 2008 20:3498-3503; Martin-Banderas et al. Small. 2005
1(7):688-92; and published PCT application WO03/078659. Of
particular interest are the following three methods of forming
polymer networks.
[0043] UV polymerization. Polymer networks may be made by
polymerization of acrylamide spray droplets generated by single or
multiple nozzles located on an oscillating membrane, such as in a
commercially available system from The Technology Partnership
(www.ttp.com) which sprays droplets from single or multiple nozzles
located on a stainless steel membrane by piezo electronically
actuating the membrane and allowing it to oscillate at its natural
resonance frequency. This yields monodispersed droplets in a
gaseous atmosphere (such as Argon) at rates of tens of thousands to
millions of droplets per second. These droplets are then streamed
passed a strong UV light source for photoinitiated
polymerization.
[0044] Polymerization with molding. This approach involves the
molding of a paste which disperses the acrylamide, bisacrylamide
and acrydite labeled oligonucleotides in a sacrificial "porogen"
followed by, but not limited to, photoinitiated radical
polymerization of the acrylamide monomers with subsequent removal
of the porogen my dissolution and repeated washing. The molding
technology is available through Liquidia Technologies (Research
Triangle Park, N.C.) and disclosed in DeSimone et al, PCT
publication WO 2007/024323, and like references. Such approached
are particularly useful for producing non-spheroidal microparticles
in defined shapes, such as tetrahedral shapes, hemispherical
shapes, barrel shapes, open capsular shapes, toroidal shapes, tube
shapes, and the like, which have greater surface areas than
spheroidal shaped particles with the same solid volume. Preferably,
the areas of the non-spheroidal microparticles in a composition are
substantially the same. In one aspect, substantially the same in
reference to non-spheroidal microparticles means that the areas of
the microparticles in a composition have a coefficient of variation
of less than 15 percent, or less than 10 percent, or less than 5
percent. In one embodiment, non-spherical microparticles of the
invention have at least twice the surface area of a sphere with
equal volume, or preferably, at least three times the surface area,
or at least four time the surface area, or at least five times the
surface area: In another embodiment, non-spheroidal microparticles
are composed of polyacrylamide gel. In still another embodiment
such polyacrylamide gel is made using acryldite oligonucleotides so
that the resulting non-spheroidal microparticles have covalently
attached oligonucleotides, which may be used as primers in
extension reactions, ligation reactions, amplification reactions,
or the like. Alternatively, oligonucleotides or other reagents,
such as antibodies, may be attached by using linking groups and
chemistries known in the art, such as described above. In further
preference, non-spheroidal microparticles are compact in that they
may be closely enclosed within a microwell or other reaction
chamber. In one embodiment, non-spheroidal microparticles of the
invention may be enclosed by a sphere having a volume twice that of
the non-spheroidal microparticle, or a volume three times that of
such microparticle, or four time that of such microparticle. In
another embodiment, non-spheroidal microparticles of the invention
are enclosed by a cylinder having a diameter:height aspect ratio of
1:1.5 and a diameter of 10 .mu.m, or 5 .mu.m, or 2 .mu.m, or a
cylinder having a diameter:height aspect ratio of 1:1 and a
diameter of 10 .mu.m, or 5 .mu.m, or 2 .mu.m, or 1 .mu.m.
[0045] Membrane emulsification. Polymerization of emulsified
acrylamide requires a) control of particle size distribution during
polymerization, and b) a controllable polymerization method.
Control of size distribution requires both the minimization of
polydispersity due to the emulsification process as well as
minimization of instability of the emulsion leading to coalescence
of individual drops prior to polymerization. Highly monodisperse
emulsions may be achieved through microsieve emulsification
techniques (such as provided commercially by Nanomi B. V., The
Netherlands) and disclosed the following exemplary references:
Wissink et al, PCT publication WO2005/115599; Nakajima et al, U.S.
Pat. No. 6,155,710; Qiu et al, U.S. Pat. No. 7,307,104;
Gijsbertsen-Abrahase, "Membrane emulsification: process
principles," (Ph.D. Thesis, Wageningen Universiteit, 2003);
Geerken, "Emulsification with micro-engineered devices", Ph.D.
Thesis, University of Twente, ISBN: 90-365-2432-6, 1974; Yuan,
et.al., "Manufacture of controlled emulsions and particulates using
membrane emulsification", Desalination, 224, 2008; Geerken, et.al.,
"Interfacial aspects of water drop formation at micro-engineered
orifices", Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, 312, 2007;
Sotoyama, et.al., "Water/Oil emulsions prepared by the membrane
emulsification method and their stability", Journal of Food
Science, Vol. 64, No 2, 1999; Kosvintsev, et.al., "Membrane
emulsification: Droplet size and uniformity in the absence of
surface shear", Journal of Membrane Science, 313, 2008; Egidi,
et.al., "Membrane emulsification using membranes of regular pore
spacing: Droplet size and uniformity in the presence of surface
shear", Journal of Membrane Science, 323, 2008; Abrahamse, et.al.,
"Analysis of droplet formation and interactions during cross-flow
membrane emulsification", Journal of Membrane Science, 204, 2002;
Katoh, et.al., "Preparation of food emulsions using a membrane
emulsification system", Journal of Membrane Science, 113, 1996;
Charcosset, et.al., "The membrane emulsification process--a
review", Journal of Chemical Technology and Biotechnology, 79,
209-218, 2004; and the like.
[0046] In membrane-based emulsification to produce particles, a
discontinuous phase (aqueous solution of monomers and other
components) is extruded through a plate with multiple through holes
where the other side of the plate is constantly washed with a
stream of continuous phase (oil formulation with surfactant) such
that the droplets that break off from the individual orifices are
carried away by a stream of continuous phase. The droplet stream is
then passed through a heated section of tubing which will initiate
the polymerization and is finally collected in bulk for extraction
of the polymer particles.
[0047] FIG. 2A illustrates apparatus in one approach to membrane
emulsification. Aqueous phase gel reaction mixture (200) is passed
through membrane (208) held in reaction vessel (210). Membrane
(208) has pores or orifices (209) that create droplets (211) of a
predetermined size (as shown in expanded view (212)) dispersed in
an immiscible continuous phase fluid (202). As droplets (211) are
formed, slowly flowing continuous phase (222) sweeps them away from
membrane (208) to tubing (214) where (in this embodiment) droplets
(211) are polymerized by applying heat (216). The flow of
continuous phase (202) may be controlled by syringe pump (204). The
length and diameter of tubing (214) is selected to correspond to
the amount of time required for polymerization given the amount of
heat applied. Polymerized droplets (218) are deposited in
collection vessel (220), after which they are removed and washed to
remove traces of continuous phase (202). The volume of the aqueous
phase gel reaction mixture (200) is a relatively small (200 ul-5
ml) and is pumped at low flow rates (200 uL/hr to 1 mL/hr) such
that the rate of droplet formation at each orifice (209) is about
2-20 drops/second. A syringe pump or gravity flow may be used for
this purpose. Continuous phase (202), an oil/surfactant formulation
is a much larger volume, e.g. 100-1000.times. greater than the
aqueous flow. A large syringe pump (204) or pressure driven flow
(pneumatic) may be used to control its flow and volume. In this
embodiment, as mentioned above, the stream containing an emulsion
of aqueous drops in oil/surfactant formulation passing through
tubing (214) is passed through a heated section of tubing (the I.D.
of the tubing may be increased to reduce the linear flow rate,
backpressure and increase the residence time in the heated section.
The polymerized particles are finally collected in collection
vessel (220) for extraction of the polymer particles.
[0048] In one aspect, membrane (208) is microfabricated, e.g. from
a silicon substrate, using conventional micromachining techniques
described in the above references. Typically, the diameters of
orifices (209) are 25 to 35 percent of the expected diameters of
particles (211). It is important that the aqueous solution (200)
does not wet the membrane surfaces, particularly in and/or at the
orifices so that the droplets or micelles entering the continuous
phase have a quick break off from the rest of the aqueous
phase.
[0049] In another aspect, droplets of gel reaction mixture (less
initiator) may be formed then polymerized by exposure to initiator
and heat in a batch mode by at least the following methods. In
particular, monodisperse polyacrylamide particles may be made by
first producing an emulsion with monodisperse droplets of
polyacrylamide reaction mixture without an initiator followed by
combining with either a second emulsion with an initiator in the
disperse phase or a continuous phase (equivalent to that of the
first emulsion) saturated with an initiator. Method 1. A
monodisperse emulsion is mixed with a micro or macro emulsion of
initiator in the same oil/surfactant system. The initiator emulsion
is generated rapidly by vortexing or using an Ultra Turrax, or like
immiscible phase fluid. Since the monomers are soluble in the
continuous phase polymerization of monomer in the initiator
emulsion has been observed. Method 2. An initiator soluble in the
continuous phase is used to initiate the polymerization in a
previously generated emulsion. Use of oil-soluble initiators is
well-known in the art as evidenced by the following references,
which are incorporated by references: Alduncin et al,
Macromolecules, 27: 2256-2261 (1994); Capek, Adv. Colloid and
Interface Science, 91: 295-334 (2001); Gromov et al, Vysokomol.
Soyed. A30: 1164-1168 (1988); U.S. Pat. No. 3,284,393. The pre-made
emulsion is simply diluted with a saturated solution of initiator
(for example, a 1:1 ratio of emulsion to initiator solution in a
polyacrylamide system) and heated to a temperature up to or below
96.degree. C. In one aspect of making polyacrylamide nucleic acid
polymer particles, the emulsion is heated to 90.degree. C. for 2 h.
Alternatively a water soluble initiator can be used which will not
require the dilution of the emulsion, or the oil used during the
formation of the monodisperse emulsion can be saturated with an
appropriate initiator. For method 1, only water soluble initiators
would be used which includes azo type compounds as well as
inorganic peroxides. Exemplary initiators include ammonium
persulfate, hydroxymethanesulfinic acid monosodium salt dihydrate,
potassium persulfate, sodium persulfate, and the like. For methods
2. both water soluble (in dispersed phase) or oil soluble
initiators may be used. Example of each are given below in Tables I
and II. Note: The temperature at which the initiator has a
half-life of 10 h is given. The lower the temperature the more
reactive the initiator. Selection of appropriately reactive
initiator allows one of ordinary skill in the art to tune the rate
at which the polymerization is initiated and what maximum
temperatures are used during the reaction.
[0050] This approach is illustrated in FIG. 2B. Nucleic acid
polymer particles may be made in a batch-mode process where a
polymerization initiator is introduced after droplets of gel
reaction mixture are formed. A similar membrane emulsion apparatus
(248) as described in FIG. 2A is used to generate spheroidal
droplets of gel reaction mixture (249) in an immiscible continuous
phase (202), except that gel reaction mixture in this embodiment
does not contain a polymerization initiator. After leaving
apparatus (248), continuous phase and droplets (250) are placed in
tube (252), after which the mixture is centrifuged (254) to drive
droplets (255) to the bottom of the tube and supernatant (257)
comprising the continuous phase is removed (256). Droplets (253)
are then resuspended (258) in continuous phase fluid that contains
a suitable initiator, after which the mixture is immediately placed
(260) in oven (261) where it is heated to drive the polymerization
reaction. After polymerization is complete, the mixture is cooled
and washed (262) several times to remove the continuous phase
material from the resulting nucleic acid polymer particles.
[0051] In one aspect, the invention include a method of making
nucleic acid polymer particles comprising the following steps: (a)
combining in a reaction mixture hydrophilic monomers each having at
least one reactive functionality and at least one complementary
functionality and hydrophilic cross-linkers each having at least
two of either the reactive functionality or complementary
functionality, (i) wherein the reactive functionality and
complementary functionality are capable of reacting with one
another under catalytic conditions to form covalent linkages, (ii)
wherein a proportion of the monomer have an ancillary functionality
or an oligonucleotide attached, the ancillary functionality being
capable of reacting with a capture moiety without cross reacting
with the reactive functionality or the complementary functionality,
and (iii) wherein concentrations of the monomers and cross-linkers,
and the proportion of monomers having an ancillary functionality or
oligonucleotide in the reaction mixture are selected so that a
cross-linked polymer is capable of forming that has a density of
oligonucleotides or ancillary functionalities of at least
1.times.10.sup.5 per .mu.m.sup.3 and an average pore size in the
range of from 20 to 150 nm; (b) passing the reaction mixture
through a porous membrane into a non-aqueous phase so that
spherical droplets of reaction mixture are dispersed into the
non-aqueous phase; and (c) subjecting the spherical droplets of the
reaction mixture to catalytic conditions so that polymer networks
are formed. Ancillary functionalities include monomer derivatives
that include reactive groups such as thiol or bromoacetyl groups
disclosed by Ghosh et al (cited above), groups comprising one of a
pair of click chemistry reactants, or the like In one aspect, the
porous membrane comprises a silicon membrane having a plurality of
identical orifices through which the reaction mixture passes. In
another aspect, the method includes a further step of removing the
polymer networks from said non-aqueous phase and washing the
polymer networks. In one embodiment, the hydrophilic monomer is an
acrylamide and the hydrophilic cross-linker is an
N,N'-methylenebisacylamide. In another embodiment, a proportion of
the hydrophilic monomer is an acrydite oligonucleotide.
[0052] In another aspect, the invention includes a method of making
monodisperse populations of polyacrylamide particles comprising the
step of combining a monodisperse emulsion of a polyacrylamide
reaction mixture without an initiator and an emulsion with a
dispersed phase containing an initiator or a continuous phase
solution saturated with an initiator. In one embodiment such
reaction mixture includes a nucleic acid acrydite monomer.
TABLE-US-00001 TABLE I Water Soluble Azo Initiator Compounds 10
hour half-life decom- position Structure temperature ##STR00001##
44.degree. C. ##STR00002## 47.degree. C. ##STR00003## 56.degree. C.
##STR00004## 57.degree. C. ##STR00005## 60.degree. C. ##STR00006##
61.degree. C. ##STR00007## 67.degree. C. ##STR00008## 80.degree. C.
##STR00009## 87.degree. C.
TABLE-US-00002 TABLE II Oil Soluble Azo Initiator Compounds 10 hour
half-life decomposition Structure temperature ##STR00010##
30.degree. C. ##STR00011## 51.degree. C. ##STR00012## 66.degree. C.
##STR00013## 67.degree. C. ##STR00014## 88.degree. C. ##STR00015##
96.degree. C. ##STR00016## 104.degree. C. ##STR00017## 110.degree.
C. ##STR00018## 111.degree. C.
Measuring Size Distributions of Nucleic Acid Polymer Particles
[0053] In one aspect, size distributions of bulk manufactured
polymer networks and/or nucleic acid polymer particles are
controlled so that their coefficients of variation are as small as
possible. For such control, it is important to be able to
conveniently measure the sizes of a sample of candidate particles
to determine whether their populations have appropriate
coefficients of variation. Many techniques are available for making
such measurements, including laser diffraction, flow cytometry,
coulter counting, image analysis, acoustical spectroscopy, and the
like. Instruments for laser diffraction are commercially available,
e.g. Malvern Instruments (Malvern, United Kingdom); instruments for
flow analysis are commercially available from Becton Dickinson (San
Jose, Calif.); Image analysis systems and software are widely
available commercially, e.g. Becton Dickinson, BioImaging Systems
(Rockville, Md.). The foregoing techniques for characterizing
particles are disclosed in Dukhin and Goetz, Ultrasound for
Characterizing Colloids (Elsevier Science, 2002); Elaissari,
editor, Colloidal Polymers: Synthesis and Characterization (Marcel
Dekker, Inc., New York, 2003); Shapiro, Practical Flow Cytometry,
4.sup.th edition (Wiley-Liss, 2003); and like references. In the
case of polymer networks comprising polyacrylamide, fluorescent
monomers are available that may be added to gel reaction mixtures
for incorporation into the polymer networks to aid in their
tracking and sizing, e.g. U.S. Pat. No. 5,043,406.
Making Amplicon Libraries with Nucleic Acid Polymer Particles
[0054] Nucleic acid polymer particles of the invention are
particularly useful in multiplex genetic assays, including analysis
of single nucleotide polymorphisms, DNA sequencing, and the like,
where polynucleotide analytes, i.e. target polynucleotides, in a
sample must be amplified in the course of analysis. Such analytical
techniques use a wide variety of amplification methodologies which
can be used with nucleic acid polymer particles of the invention,
including, but not limited to, emulsion PCR (emPCR), bridge
amplification, NASBA, rolling circle amplification, and the like.
Exemplary references disclosing such techniques are described in
the following references, which are incorporated by reference:
Marguiles et al, Nature, 437: 376-380 (2005); Adams et al, U.S.
Pat. No. 5,641,658; Boles et al, U.S. Pat. No. 6,300,070; Berka et
al, U.S. patent publication 2005/0079510; Shapero et al (cited
above); and the like.
[0055] Bridge PCR amplification on surfaces is described in Adessi
et al (cited above) and in Boles et al, U.S. Pat. No. 6,300,070,
which is incorporated by reference. Briefly, the technique is
illustrated in FIG. 3. A substrate (300) is provided that has
attached via their 5' ends at least two primer sequences, A (302)
and B (304). Template (306) having 3' primer binding site A' (308)
(that is complementary to A) and primer sequence A (310) (that has
the same sequence as B on surface (300)) anneals to a primer A on
surface (300) so that primer A may be extended, e.g. by a
polymerase, along template (306) to produce double stranded product
(316). Template (306) is melted off (314) leaving single stranded
extension product (318) attached to surface (300). Conditions are
applied so that single stranded extension product (318) anneals to
an adjacent primer B (302) on surface (300) so that such primer B
may be extended (320) to form extension product (322). After
melting, extension products (318) and (322) are available (324) for
additional cycles of annealing and extension which form populations
of extension products having identical sequences to (318) and
(322). In some embodiments, one of primers A and B may have a
scissile linkage for its removal to obtain a single population on
surface (300).
[0056] In accordance with a method of the invention, a bridge PCR
may be performed on nucleic acid polymer particles described
herein. The method may be employed to make amplicon libraries
without the use of emulsion reactions. As illustrated in FIG. 4,
suspension (400) of nucleic acid polymer particles (402) is
combined with template (404), the latter being in a very dilute
concentration relative to the concentration of nucleic acid polymer
particles, so that the probability of two different templates
annealing to the same nucleic acid polymer particle is very low. On
a molar basis, for example, nucleic acid polymer particle may be
present at 10 times, or 100 times the concentration of template. As
in FIG. 3, template (404) has primer binding region at its 5' end
(406) that is complementary to one (408) of two primers on the
nucleic acid polymer particles and a sequence at its 3' end (409)
identical to that of the other primer on the nucleic acid polymer
particles. After template (404) anneals to primer (408), primer
(408) is extended to form extension product (410), after which
template (404) is melted and released (414). Extension product
(410) may then anneal to other primers on the nucleic acid polymer
particle to form additional extension products and eventually a
bi-clonal population (412) of templates and its complement in
reverse orientation. As released template (404) may participate in
further amplifications on other nucleic acid polymer particles,
preferably the spacing or concentration of such particles is
controlled to reduce the probability that such an event occurs
(which otherwise may cross contaminate another particle with a
second template amplicon). In particular, whenever handling or
operations result in nucleic acid polymer particles settling out of
solution, a closely packed mass of particles forms, which could
facilitate such cross contamination. As illustrated in FIG. 5, this
may be prevented or reduced by including inert spacer particles
(500) along with nucleic acid polymer particles (502). In one
embodiment, the number and size of spacing particles (500) may be
selected to control expected distance (504) between nucleic acid
polymer particles (502). In another embodiment, for nucleic acid
polymer particles and spacer particles of approximately the same
size, a ratio of spacer particle to nucleic acid polymer particle
is 10:1, or 100:1, or 1000:1. Spacer particles may also be selected
that are smaller in size than nucleic acid polymer particles so
that interstitial spaces between them have smaller cross sections
and create longer diffusion paths. In one embodiment, spacer
particles may be swellable so that interstitial spaces are reduced
or eliminated upon swelling. Spacer particles may also contain
tethered nucleases for digesting released or unused surplus
templates that remain in the reaction solution. Compositions and
techniques for making selecting and making spacer particles with
covalently attached or trapped nucleases are described in
Hermanson, Bioconjugate Techniques, 2.sup.nd edition (Academic
Press); and like references.
[0057] In one aspect, the invention provides a method of making an
amplicon library comprising the steps of: (a) combining in a
polymerase chain reaction mixture a library of polynucleotide
fragments each having a first primer binding site at one end and a
second primer binding site at the other end, and a population of
nucleic acid polymer particles each comprising a non-nucleosidic
polymer network having attached thereto a first primer and a second
primer each at a concentration of at least 1.times.10.sup.5 primers
per .mu.m.sup.3 such that each polynucleotide fragment is capable
of annealing to a first primer by its first primer binding site and
to a second primer by a complement of its second primer binding
site; and (b) performing a polymerase chain reaction in the
presence of a quantity of spacer particles so that primers of the
polymer networks are extended along polynucleotide fragments
annealed thereto so that clonal populations of complements of such
polynucleotide fragments are formed on the polymer networks,
thereby forming an amplicon library, the quantity of spacer
particles being selected to prevent cross-contamination of
amplicons. In one aspect, the polymer networks each have a volume
and a concentration of the polynucleotide fragments and a
concentration of said polymer networks are selected so that in said
step of combining at least 10 percent of said polymer networks have
at a single said polynucleotide fragment within its volume. For
some embodiments, the non-nucleosidic polymer network has a volume
of less than 1.4.times.10.sup.4 .mu.m.sup.3.
[0058] In still another aspect, the invention provides a method of
making an amplicon library by performing a bridge polymerase chain
reaction on a composition of monodisperse nucleic acid polymer
particles. In an embodiment of such method the composition of
monodisperse nucleic acid polymer particles includes a quantity of
spacer particles.
[0059] Alternatively, nucleic acid polymer particles being used in
bridge PCR may be amplified in a thermocycler instrument that
provides agitation or rotation of the reaction chambers or tubes to
present settling or prolonged particle-particle contact. A simple
device shown in FIG. 7 may be used as such a thermocycler. Reaction
tubes (not shown) are placed in holders near the outer periphery of
wheel (702) which may be lowered into heated oil bath (700) and
rotated by motor (704). Wheel (702) rotates at a predetermined
speed and depth in oil bath (700), whose temperature is controlled
by controller (710) by way of thermometer (708) and heater (706).
By programming controller (710) a thermocycler is provided, which
ensures that nucleic acid polymer particles do not settle during
amplification.
[0060] Methods of making amplicon libraries may also include a step
of enriching nucleic acid polymer particles having clonal
populations of polynucleotide fragments. In one embodiment, such
enrichment may be accomplished by affinity purification, for
example, by annealing an oligonucleotide with a capture moiety,
such as biotin, to a primer binding site of the polynucleotide
fragments, after which the resulting complexes may be captured,
e.g. by streptavidinated magnetic beads, and separated from
particles without polynucleotide fragments. In another embodiment,
nucleic acid polymer particles having clonal populations of
polynucleotide fragments may be separated from particles without
polynucleotide fragments by electrophoresis, e.g. using a
commercially available instrument (such as, PippinPrep automated
prep gel system, Sage Science, Beverly, Mass.).
[0061] Nucleic acid polymer particles may further be used in
analysis of selected sets of genes or other polynucleotide
sequences. Sets of such particles with specificities for particular
predetermined polynucleotide targets are readily prepared from a
single batch of particles using the technique outlined in FIG. 6.
To a batch of nucleic acid polymer particles (600) that have the
same primers (608) attached by their 5' ends, is annealed adaptor
oligonucleotide (602) that comprises 3' end (604) that is
complementary to primer (608) and that includes 5' end (606) which
has a sequence identical to a target polynucleotide to be captured
and amplified. After such annealing, polymerase (610) is added in a
conventional polymerase reaction mixture so that primer (608) is
extended along 5' end of oligonucleotide (602) as a template. After
such extension (614), oligonucleotide (602) is released to leave
sequence-specific primer (616) on nucleic acid polymer particle
(600). In the same reaction (by providing oligonucleotide (602) as
a mixture of A and B primers) or in a subsequent reaction, the same
steps may be followed to add a second primer for bridge
amplification on the resulting set of nucleic acid polymer
particles. Alternatively, primer (608) (or a second primer) may be
extended in a template-driven ligation reaction, where a 5'
phosphorylated oligonucleotide (not shown) complementary to 5'
segment (606) is provided. This technique may be used to prepare a
set of nucleic acid polymer particles containing a plurality of
particles each with a different specificity. Such a set may be used
to selectively amplify a predetermined set of target
polynucleotides in a bridge PCR for analysis.
Nucleic Acid Sequencing with Nucleic Acid Polymer Particles
[0062] In one aspect, the invention may be used for carrying out
label-free DNA sequencing, and in particular, pH-based DNA
sequencing. The concept of label-free DNA sequencing, including
pH-based DNA sequencing, has been described in the literature,
including the following references that are incorporated by
reference: Rothberg et al, U.S. patent publication 2009/0026082;
Anderson et al, Sensors and Actuators B Chem., 129: 79-86 (2008);
Pourmand et al, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., 103: 6466-6470 (2006); and
the like. Briefly, in pH-based DNA sequencing, base incorporations
are determined by measuring hydrogen ions that are generated as
natural byproducts of polymerase-catalyzed extension reactions.
Nucleic acid polymer particles are used advantageously in pH-based
sequencing because greater concentrations of templates may be
attached to them thereby increasing the signal-to-noise ratio of
the pH signal associated with base incorporations. Nucleic acid
polymer particles are used to make amplicon libraries as described
above which, in turn, are used with apparatus as described in
Rothberg et al (cited above). In one embodiment, templates each
having a primer and polymerase operably bound are loaded into
reaction chambers (such as the microwells disclosed in Rothberg et
al, cited above), after which repeated cycles of deoxynucleoside
triphosphate (dNTP) addition and washing are carried out. In some
embodiments, such templates may be attached as clonal populations
to a solid support, such as a microparticle, bead, or the like, and
such clonal populations are loaded into reaction chambers. For
example, templates may be prepared as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No.
7,323,305, which is incorporated by reference. As used herein,
"operably bound" means that a primer is annealed to a template so
that the primer's 3' end may be extended by a polymerase and that a
polymerase is bound to such primer-template duplex, or in close
proximity thereof so that binding and/or extension takes place
whenever dNTPs are added. In each addition step of the cycle, the
polymerase extends the primer by incorporating added dNTP only if
the next base in the template is the complement of the added dNTP.
If there is one complementary base, there is one incorporation, if
two, there are two incorporations, if three, there are three
incorporations, and so on. With each such incorporation there is a
hydrogen ion released, and collectively a population of templates
releasing hydrogen ions changes the local pH of the reaction
chamber. The production of hydrogen ions is monotonically related
to the number of contiguous complementary bases in the template (as
well as the total number of template molecules with primer and
polymerase that participate in an extension reaction). Thus, when
there is a number of contiguous identical complementary bases in
the template (i.e. a homopolymer region), the number of hydrogen
ions generated, and therefore the magnitude of the local pH change,
is proportional to the number of contiguous identical complementary
bases. (The corresponding output signals are sometimes referred to
as "1-mer", "2-mer", "3-mer" output signals, and so on). If the
next base in the template is not complementary to the added dNTP,
then no incorporation occurs and no hydrogen ion is released (in
which case, the output signal is sometimes referred to as a "0-mer"
output signal.) In each wash step of the cycle, an unbuffered wash
solution at a predetermined pH is used to remove the dNTP of the
previous step in order to prevent misincorporations in later
cycles. Usually, the four different kinds of dNTP are added
sequentially to the reaction chambers, so that each reaction is
exposed to the four different dNTPs one at a time, such as in the
following sequence: dATP, dCTP, dGTP, dTTP, dATP, dCTP, dGTP, dTTP,
and so on; with each exposure followed by a wash step. The process
is illustrated in FIG. 8 for template (882) with primer binding
site (881) attached to nucleic acid polymer particle (880). Primer
(884) and DNA polymerase (886) operably bound to template (882).
Upon the addition (888) of dNTP (shown as dATP), polymerase (886)
incorporates a nucleotide since "T" is the next nucleotide in
template (882). Wash step (890) follows, after which the next dNTP
(dCTP) is added (892). Optionally, after each step of adding a
dNTP, an additional step may be performed wherein the reaction
chambers are treated with a dNTP-destroying agent, such as apyrase,
to eliminate any residual dNTPs remaining in the chamber, which may
result in spurious extensions in subsequent cycles.
[0063] In one embodiment, a sequencing method exemplified in FIG. 8
may be carry out using the apparatus of the invention in the
following steps: (a) disposing a plurality of template nucleic
acids into a plurality of reaction chambers disposed on a sensor
array, the sensor array comprising a plurality of sensors and each
reaction chamber being disposed on and in a sensing relationship
with at least one sensor configured to provide at least one output
signal representing a sequencing reaction byproduct proximate
thereto, and wherein each of the template nucleic acids is
hybridized to a sequencing primer and is bound to a polymerase; (b)
introducing a known nucleotide triphosphate into the reaction
chambers; (c) detecting incorporation at a 3' end of the sequencing
primer of one or more nucleotide triphosphates by a sequencing
reaction byproduct if such one or more nucleotide triphosphates are
complementary to corresponding nucleotides in the template nucleic
acid; (d) washing unincorporated nucleotide triphosphates from the
reaction chambers; and (e) repeating steps (b) through (d) until
the plurality of template nucleic acids are sequenced. For
embodiments where hydrogen ion is measured as a reaction byproduct,
the reactions further should be conducted under weak buffer
conditions, so that the maximum number of hydrogen ions reacts with
a sensor and not extraneous components (e.g. microwell or solid
supports that may have surface buffering capacity) or chemical
constituents (in particular pH buffering compounds). In one
embodiment, a weak buffer allows detection of a pH change of at
least .+-.0.1 in said reaction chamber, or at least .+-.0.01 in
said reaction chambers.
EXAMPLE 1
Making Polyacrylamide Nucleic Acid Polymer Particles by Membrane
Emulsification
[0064] This example describes the method and apparatus for
production of uniformly sized droplets of aqueous solution in
non-miscible continuous phase by extrusion through a micro
fabricated plate with multiple through holes (nozzles, orifices)
and the subsequent transformation of the emulsion into polymer
particles by radical polymerization. The fabrication of the plate
with multiple through holes is described in the above
references.
[0065] A solution of specific amounts of acrylamide and
methylene-N,N-bisacrylamide containing a specified concentration of
acrodyte oligonucleotides (primers for PCR) is degassed by bubbling
an inert atmosphere (Argon, Nitrogen, Helium) through the solution
for a minimum of 30 minutes. Just prior to emulsification, a
radical initiator is added. The radical initiator can be a
combination of ammonium persulfate (APS) and
N,N,N',N'-tetramethylethylenediamine (TMED) which catalyses the
radical initiation by APS. The amount of TMED used needs to be
carefully adjusted to allow sufficient time for emulsification. APS
and V-50 (see below) initiate thermally above .about.65 degrees
celsius. Alternatively a photoinitiator such
2,2'-Azobis(2-methylpropionamidine)dihydrochloride (V-50) may be
used in conjunction with a UV light source with strong emission
peaks at 220 nm and 365 nm. The aqueous solution above may be
dispersed into a continuous phase via several techniques. For
example: The aqueous solution may be subdivided into droplets by a
vibrating membrane with several appropriately sized holes
(typically 50-70% smaller than the intended diameter of the
droplet) after which the droplets are allowed to enter an
immiscible continuous phase which may or may not contain
surfactants. The droplets may be irradiated with UV prior to
entering the continuous phase (after leaving the nozzle, in mid
air) or after entering the continuous phase. In one implementation
the drops are allowed to polymerize prior to entering the
continuous phase which may be miscible with the un-polymerized
dispersed phase. In either case, the humidity of the atmosphere
needs to be controlled to prevent uncontrolled evaporative
shrinking of the droplets and the atmosphere needs to be largely
oxygen free to allow radical polymerization in the droplets. An
alternative emulsification technique can be described as follows:
The aqueous phase is pumped through a porous membrane (with
uniformly sized pores) into an immiscible continuous phase. After
polymerization, the beads are recovered from the continuous phase
by either breaking the emulsion (by addition of n-butanol,
n-propanol i-propanol or other appropriate chemicals) followed by
centrifugation to pellet the beads in the bottom of the eppendorf
tube or filtration through an appropriately sized filter. After
washing with an appropriate buffer, the beads can be used for PCR
amplification of DNA library elements or direct hybridization of
DNA fragments with the reverse complement to the attached
oligonucleotide.
EXAMPLE 2
Making Polyacrylamide Nucleic Acid Polymer Particles by Membrane
Emulsification with Batch Mode Initiation
[0066] This example describes membrane emulsification and the
subsequent transformation of the aqueous micelles of the emulsion
into polyacrylamide particles by radical polymerization in batch
mode using an initiator-saturated oil phase. The steps of the
process comprise (a) formation of a gel reaction mixture-in-oil
emulsion using a membrane, (b) particle polymerization, and (c)
particle extraction and washing.
[0067] The following reagents are employed in the process: (a)
SNAPP Oil comprises the following mixture: Tegosoft.TM. DEC oil
(730 mL), ABIL WE09 (70 gm), and mineral oil (200 mL) (SNAPP oil is
stored under argon); (b) SNAPP Buffer: 1.times. TE, 0.1% Triton
X-100, 0.02% sodium azide; (c) Acrylamide Solution: 50 mg
N,N-methylene bisacrylamide, 450 mg acrylamide, 550 uL double
distilled H.sub.2O kept under argon; (d) DNA Mix: 10 umol 30-mer
acrydite oligonucleotide with 18 C spacer in 2.5 mL H.sub.2O. Gel
Reaction Mixture is formed by mixing the following together under
argon for a total volume of 1400 uL: 526.4 uL DNA Mix, 14 mL TMED,
299.6 mL H.sub.2O, and 560 mL Acrylamide Solution. Under argon, 1
mL of the Gel Reaction Mixture is added to the upper compartment of
a two-compartment rig (see FIGS. 2A & 2B) having an
emulsification membrane dividing the upper compartment from the
lower compartment, so that the Gel Reaction Mixture flows under
gravity from the upper compartment through the emulsification
membrane (thereby forming droplets or micelles) into a flow of
SNAPP Oil in the lower compartment. SNAPP Oil is driven into the
lower chamber at a rate of 2.4 mL/hr. About 50 mL of the SNAPP
Oil-Gel Reaction Mixture emulsion is collected in a centrifuge
tube, after which it is centrifuged so that the Gel Reaction
Mixture micelles are driven to the bottom. All but about 1 mL of
the supernatant SNAPP Oil is removed, after which the micelles are
resuspended by adding 20 mL of initiator
(1,1'-azobis(cyclohexanecarbonitrile))-saturated SNAPP Oil.
(Initiator-saturated SNAPP Oil is made by mixing 500 mg initiator
in 25 mL SNAPP Oil under argon with vigorous mixing). The
resuspended micelles undergo polymerization by placing them in an
oven at 90.degree. C. under argon and constant rotation for 2 hr.
and 2 min, after which they are removed and immediately place in a
4.degree. C. refrigerator for at least 1 hr. The SNAPP Oil is
removed from the polymerized particles by centrifuging to form a
pellet followed by resuspension in butanol with vortexing, and then
repeating, after which the polymerized particles are resuspended in
0.1% SDS and sonicated for 3 min. The polymerized particles are
then twice centrifuged, resuspended in SNAPP Buffer, and sonicated
for 3 min, after which they are resuspended in SNAPP Buffer and
stored at 4.degree. C.
[0068] The size distribution of the above nucleic acid polymer
particles may be measured using a Guava flow cytometer after
hybridizing a labeled oligonucleotide with a sequence complementary
to at least one of those of the nucleic acid polymer particle. An
exemplary protocol is as follows: (1) suspend about 5 million
particles in 9 .mu.L 1.times. PBS 0.2% Tween, (2) add 2 .mu.L of
100 .mu.M biotinylated oligonucleotide complement, (3) anneal at
95.degree. C. for 2 min followed by 37.degree. C. for 2 min, (4)
centrifuge to remove supernatant, (5) wash 2.times. with 1.times.
PBS 0.2% Tween, (6) resuspend in 10 .mu.L 1.times. PBS 0.2% Tween,
(7) add 0.5 .mu.L strcptavidin-FITC (commercial reagent, c.g.
Anaspec, Fremont, Calif.), (8) wash 2.times. with 1.times. PBS 0.05
Tween, (9) add to 1 mL 1.times. PBS 0.05% Tween, and (10) run
sample on flow cytometer (e.g. EasyCyte mini, Guava
Technologies).
[0069] Size distributions of nucleic acid polymer particles may
also be measured by staining and counting them using a fluorescent
microscope with automatic particle counting software. A series of
dilutions of nucleic acid polymer particles are stained with a
series of concentrations of a nucleic acid stain, such as SYBR Gold
(Invitrogen), after which they are place in separate wells of
multi-welled poly-1-lysine coated slides (e.g. Tekdon Inc.). A
comparison of particle sizing and counting data from flow system
and microscope measurements shows good correlation. CVs of size
distributions of samples from a batch of nucleic acid polymer
particles, designated B4, was determined by slide counting
(described above) and by flow cytometry counting (described above).
For slide counting, three samples of particles (4.32 million/uL)
were analyzed and coefficients of variation were determined to be
12.9%, 13.8%, and 9.6%, respectively. A single sample of particles
(3.8 million/uL) was analyzed and a coefficient of variation was
determined to be 5.88%.
[0070] While the present invention has been described with
reference to several particular example embodiments, those skilled
in the art will recognize that many changes may be made thereto
without departing from the spirit and scope of the present
invention. The present invention is applicable to a variety of
implementations and other subject matter, in addition to those
discussed above.
Definitions
[0071] Unless otherwise specifically defined herein, terms and
symbols of nucleic acid chemistry, biochemistry, genetics, and
molecular biology used herein follow those of standard treatises
and texts in the field, e.g. Kornberg and Baker, DNA Replication,
Second Edition (W.H. Freeman, New York, 1992); Lehninger,
Biochemistry, Second Edition (Worth Publishers, New York, 1975);
Strachan and Read, Human Molecular Genetics, Second Edition
(Wiley-Liss, New York, 1999).
[0072] "Amplicon" means the product of a polynucleotide
amplification reaction; that is, a clonal population of
polynucleotides, which may be single stranded or double stranded,
which are replicated from one or more starting sequences. The one
or more starting sequences may be one or more copies of the same
sequence, or they may be a mixture of different sequences that
contain a common region that is amplified, for example, a specific
exon sequence present in a mixture of DNA fragments extracted from
a sample. Preferably, amplicons are formed by the amplification of
a single starting sequence. Amplicons may be produced by a variety
of amplification reactions whose products comprise replicates of
the one or more starting, or target, nucleic acids. In one aspect,
amplification reactions producing amplicons are "template-driven"
in that base pairing of reactants, either nucleotides or
oligonucleotides, have complements in a template polynucleotide
that are required for the creation of reaction products. In one
aspect, template-driven reactions are primer extensions with a
nucleic acid polymerase or oligonucleotide ligations with a nucleic
acid ligase. Such reactions include, but are not limited to,
polymerase chain reactions (PCRs), linear polymerase reactions,
nucleic acid sequence-based amplification (NASBAs), rolling circle
amplifications, and the like, disclosed in the following references
that are incorporated herein by reference: Mullis et al, U.S. Pat.
Nos. 4,683,195; 4,965,188; 4,683,202; 4,800,159 (PCR); Gelfand et
al, U.S. Pat. No. 5,210,015 (real-time PCR with "taqman" probes);
Wittwer et al, U.S. Pat. No. 6,174,670; Kacian et al, U.S. Pat. No.
5,399,491 ("NASBA"); Lizardi, U.S. Pat. No. 5,854,033; Aono et al,
Japanese patent publ. JP 4-262799 (rolling circle amplification);
and the like. In one aspect, amplicons of the invention are
produced by PCRs. As used herein, the term "amplifying" means
performing an amplification reaction. An "reaction mixture,"
including an "amplification reaction mixture," means a solution
containing all the necessary reactants for performing a reaction,
which may include, but not be limited to, buffering agents to
maintain pH at a selected level during a reaction, salts,
co-factors, scavengers, and the like. A "solid phase amplicon"
means a solid phase support, such as a particle or bead, having
attached a clonal population of nucleic acid sequences, which may
have been produced by a process such as emulsion PCR, or like
technique. One aspect of the invention is solid phase amplicons
comprising nucleic acid polymer particles. In some embodiments,
amplicons may be produced by isothermal reactions, such as rolling
circle amplification reactions, NASBAs, or helicase-mediated
amplification reactions, e.g. U.S. Pat. No. 7,282,328, which is
incorporated by reference.
[0073] "Microwell," which is used interchangeably with "reaction
chamber," means a special case of a "reaction confinement region,"
that is, a physical or chemical attribute of a solid substrate that
permit the localization of a reaction of interest. Reaction
confinement regions may be a discrete region of a surface of a
substrate that specifically binds an analyte of interest, such as a
discrete region with oligonucleotides or antibodies covalently
linked to such surface. Usually reaction confinement regions are
hollows or wells having well-defined shapes and volumes which are
manufactured into a substrate. These latter types of reaction
confinement regions are referred to herein as microwells or
reaction chambers, and may be fabricated using conventional
microfabrication techniques, e.g. as disclosed in the following
references: Doering and Nishi, Editors, Handbook of Semiconductor
Manufacturing Technology, Second Edition (CRC Press, 2007);
Saliterman, Fundamentals of BioMEMS and Medical Microdevices (SPIE
Publications, 2006); Elwenspoek et al, Silicon Micromachining
(Cambridge University Press, 2004); and the like. Preferable
configurations (e.g. spacing, shape and volumes) of microwells or
reaction chambers are disclosed in Rothberg et al, U.S. patent
publication 2009/0127589; Rothberg et al, U.K. patent application
GB24611127, which are incorporated by reference. Microwells may
have square, rectangular, or octagonal cross sections and be
arranged as a rectilinear array on a surface. Microwells may also
have hexagonal cross sections and be arranged as a hexagonal array,
which permit a higher density of microwells per unit area in
comparison to rectilinear arrays. Exemplary configurations of
microwells are as follows: In some embodiments, the reaction
chamber array comprises 10.sup.2, 10.sup.3, 10.sup.4, 10.sup.5,
10.sup.6 or 10.sup.7 reaction chambers. As used herein, an array is
a planar arrangement of elements such as sensors or wells. The
array may be one or two dimensional. A one dimensional array is an
array having one column (or row) of elements in the first dimension
and a plurality of columns (or rows) in the second dimension. The
number of columns (or rows) in the first and second dimensions may
or may not be the same. Preferably, the array comprises at least
100,000 chambers. Preferably, each reaction chamber has a
horizontal width and a vertical depth that has an aspect ratio of
about 1:1 or less. Preferably, the pitch between the reaction
chambers is no more than about 10 microns. Briefly, in one
embodiment microwell arrays may be fabricated as follows: After the
semiconductor structures of a sensor array are formed, the
microwell structure is applied to such structure on the
semiconductor die. That is, the microwell structure can be formed
right on the die or it may be formed separately and then mounted
onto the die, either approach being acceptable. To form the
microwell structure on the die, various processes may be used. For
example, the entire die may be spin-coated with, for example, a
negative photoresist such as Microchem's SU-8 2015 or a positive
resist/polyimide such as HD Microsystems HD8820, to the desired
height of the microwells. The desired height of the wells (e.g.,
about 3-12 .mu.m in the example of one pixel per well, though not
so limited as a general matter) in the photoresist layer(s) can be
achieved by spinning the appropriate resist at predetermined rates
(which can be found by reference to the literature and manufacturer
specifications, or empirically), in one or more layers. (Well
height typically may be selected in correspondence with the lateral
dimension of the sensor pixel, preferably for a nominal 1:1-1.5:1
aspect ratio, height:width or diameter.) Alternatively, multiple
layers of different photoresists may be applied or another form of
dielectric material may be deposited. Various types of chemical
vapor deposition may also be used to build up a layer of materials
suitable for microwell formation therein. In one embodiment,
microwells are formed in a layer of tetra-methyl-ortho-silicate
(TEOS). The invention encompasses an apparatus comprising at least
one two-dimensional array of reaction chambers, wherein each
reaction chamber is coupled to a chemically-sensitive field effect
transistor ("chemFET") and each reaction chamber is no greater than
10 .mu.m.sup.3 (i.e., 1 pL) in volume. Preferably, each reaction
chamber is no greater than 0.34 pL, and more preferably no greater
than 0.096 pL or even 0.012 pL in volume. A reaction chamber can
optionally be 2.sup.2, 3.sup.2, 4.sup.2, 5.sup.2, 6.sup.2, 7.sup.2,
8.sup.2, 9.sup.2, or 10.sup.2 square microns in cross-sectional
area at the top. Preferably, the array has at least 10.sup.2,
10.sup.3, 10.sup.4, 10.sup.5, 10.sup.6, 10.sup.7, 10.sup.8,
10.sup.9, or more reaction chambers. The reaction chambers may be
capacitively coupled to the chemFETs, and preferably are
capacitively coupled to the chemFETs.
[0074] "Polymerase chain reaction," or "PCR," means a reaction for
the in vitro amplification of specific DNA sequences by the
simultaneous primer extension of complementary strands of DNA. In
other words, PCR is a reaction for making multiple copies or
replicates of a target nucleic acid flanked by primer binding
sites, such reaction comprising one or more repetitions of the
following steps: (i) denaturing the target nucleic acid, (ii)
annealing primers to the primer binding sites, and (iii) extending
the primers by a nucleic acid polymerase in the presence of
nucleoside triphosphates. Usually, the reaction is cycled through
different temperatures optimized for each step in a thermal cycler
instrument. Particular temperatures, durations at each step, and
rates of change between steps depend on many factors well-known to
those of ordinary skill in the art, e.g. exemplified by the
references: McPherson et al, editors, PCR: A Practical Approach and
PCR2: A Practical Approach (IRL Press, Oxford, 1991 and 1995,
respectively). For example, in a conventional PCR using Taq DNA
polymerase, a double stranded target nucleic acid may be denatured
at a temperature >90.degree. C., primers annealed at a
temperature in the range 50-75.degree. C., and primers extended at
a temperature in the range 72-78.degree. C. The term "PCR"
encompasses derivative forms of the reaction, including but not
limited to, RT-PCR, real-time PCR, nested PCR, quantitative PCR,
multiplexed PCR, concatemeric PCR, and the like. Reaction volumes
range from a few hundred nanoliters, e.g. 200 nL, to a few hundred
.mu.L, e.g. 200 .mu.L.
[0075] "Polymer network" means a structure comprising covalently
connected subunits (monomers, crosslinkers, and the like) in which
all such subunits are connected to every other subunit by many
paths through the polymer phase, and wherein there are enough
polymer chains bonded together (either physically or chemically)
such that at least one large molecule is coextensive with the
polymer phase (i.e. the structure is above its gel point).
Preferably a polymer network has a volume in the range of from 65
aL to 15 pL, or from 1 fL to 1 pL.
[0076] "Polynucleotide" or "oligonucleotide" are used
interchangeably and each mean a linear polymer of nucleotide
monomers. Monomers making up polynucleotides and oligonucleotides
are capable of specifically binding to a natural polynucleotide by
way of a regular pattern of monomer-to-monomer interactions, such
as Watson-Crick type of base pairing, base stacking, Hoogsteen or
reverse Hoogsteen types of base pairing, or the like. Such monomers
and their internucleosidic linkages may be naturally occurring or
may be analogs thereof, e.g. naturally occurring or non-naturally
occurring analogs. Non-naturally occurring analogs may include
PNAs, phosphorothioate internucleosidic linkages, bases containing
linking groups permitting the attachment of labels, such as
fluorophores, or haptens, and the like. Whenever the use of an
oligonucleotide or polynucleotide requires enzymatic processing,
such as extension by a polymerase, ligation by a ligase, or the
like, one of ordinary skill would understand that oligonucleotides
or polynucleotides in those instances would not contain certain
analogs of internucleosidic linkages, sugar moities, or bases at
any or some positions. Polynucleotides typically range in size from
a few monomeric units, e.g. 5-40, when they are usually referred to
as "oligonucleotides," to several thousand monomeric units.
Whenever a polynucleotide or oligonucleotide is represented by a
sequence of letters (upper or lower case), such as "ATGCCTG," it
will be understood that the nucleotides are in 5'.fwdarw.3' order
from left to right and that "A" denotes deoxyadenosine, "C" denotes
deoxycytidine, "G" denotes deoxyguanosine, and "T" denotes
thymidine, "I" denotes deoxyinosine, "U" denotes uridine, unless
otherwise indicated or obvious from context. Unless otherwise noted
the terminology and atom numbering conventions will follow those
disclosed in Strachan and Read, Human Molecular Genetics 2
(Wiley-Liss, New York, 1999). Usually polynucleotides comprise the
four natural nucleosides (e.g. deoxyadenosine, deoxycytidine,
deoxyguanosine, deoxythymidine for DNA or their ribose counterparts
for RNA) linked by phosphodiester linkages; however, they may also
comprise non-natural nucleotide analogs, e.g. including modified
bases, sugars, or internucleosidic linkages. It is clear to those
skilled in the art that where an enzyme has specific
oligonucleotide or polynucleotide substrate requirements for
activity, e.g. single stranded DNA, RNA/DNA duplex, or the like,
then selection of appropriate composition for the oligonucleotide
or polynucleotide substrates is well within the knowledge of one of
ordinary skill, especially with guidance from treatises, such as
Sambrook et al, Molecular Cloning, Second Edition (Cold Spring
Harbor Laboratory, New York, 1989), and like references.
[0077] "Primer" means an oligonucleotide, either natural or
synthetic that is capable, upon forming a duplex with a
polynucleotide template, of acting as a point of initiation of
nucleic acid synthesis and being extended from its 3' end along the
template so that an extended duplex is formed. Extension of a
primer is usually carried out with a nucleic acid polymerase, such
as a DNA or RNA polymerase. The sequence of nucleotides added in
the extension process is determined by the sequence of the template
polynucleotide. Usually primers are extended by a DNA polymerase.
Primers usually have a length in the range of from 14 to 40
nucleotides, or in the range of from 18 to 36 nucleotides. Primers
are employed in a variety of nucleic amplification reactions, for
example, linear amplification reactions using a single primer, or
polymerase chain reactions, employing two or more primers. Guidance
for selecting the lengths and sequences of primers for particular
applications is well known to those of ordinary skill in the art,
as evidenced by the following references that are incorporated by
reference: Dieffenbach, editor, PCR Primer: A Laboratory Manual,
2.sup.nd Edition (Cold Spring Harbor Press, New York, 2003).
[0078] "Sample" in one aspect means a quantity of material from a
biological, environmental, medical, or patient source in which
detection or measurement of one or more analytes is sought. A
sample may also include a specimen of synthetic origin. Biological
samples may be animal, including human, fluid, solid (e.g., stool)
or tissue, as well as liquid and solid food and feed products and
ingredients such as dairy items, vegetables, meat and meat
by-products, and waste. Biological samples may include materials
taken from a patient including, but not limited to cultures, blood,
saliva, cerebral spinal fluid, needle aspirates, and the like.
Biological samples also may be obtained from animals. Environmental
samples include environmental material such as surface matter,
soil, water and industrial samples, as well as samples obtained
from food and dairy processing instruments, apparatus, equipment,
utensils, and the like. In another aspect, "sample" means a
material or substance extracted, partially purified, separated, or
otherwise obtained by sample preparation techniques from a sample
as defined in the previous sentences (collectively referred to as
"extracted material"). Such extracted materials that are
occasionally referred to herein as "samples" include but are not
limited to nucleic acids (for example, DNA or RNA extracted
material), protein extracted material, lipid extracted material,
and the like.
* * * * *