U.S. patent application number 12/830338 was filed with the patent office on 2011-09-29 for novel catalyst mixtures.
This patent application is currently assigned to Dioxide Materials Inc. Invention is credited to Richard Isaac Masel.
Application Number | 20110237830 12/830338 |
Document ID | / |
Family ID | 44657192 |
Filed Date | 2011-09-29 |
United States Patent
Application |
20110237830 |
Kind Code |
A1 |
Masel; Richard Isaac |
September 29, 2011 |
Novel catalyst mixtures
Abstract
Catalysts comprised of at least one catalytically active element
and at least one helper catalyst are disclosed. The catalysts may
be used to increase the rate, the selectivity or lower the
overpotential of chemical reactions. These catalysts may be useful
for a variety of chemical reactions including in particular the
electrochemical conversion of carbon dioxide to formic acid.
Inventors: |
Masel; Richard Isaac;
(Champaign, IL) |
Assignee: |
Dioxide Materials Inc
Champaign
IL
|
Family ID: |
44657192 |
Appl. No.: |
12/830338 |
Filed: |
July 4, 2010 |
Related U.S. Patent Documents
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Application
Number |
Filing Date |
Patent Number |
|
|
61317955 |
Mar 26, 2010 |
|
|
|
Current U.S.
Class: |
562/550 ;
502/167 |
Current CPC
Class: |
B01J 31/0268 20130101;
B01J 31/0278 20130101; B01J 2231/62 20130101; G01N 33/004 20130101;
B01J 31/0288 20130101; G01N 27/30 20130101; B01J 31/0239 20130101;
C25B 11/04 20130101; Y02P 20/133 20151101; B01J 31/0284 20130101;
B01J 31/0289 20130101; C25B 3/25 20210101; B01J 31/0281
20130101 |
Class at
Publication: |
562/550 ;
502/167 |
International
Class: |
C07C 51/15 20060101
C07C051/15; B01J 31/02 20060101 B01J031/02 |
Claims
1. A electrocatalyst comprised of at least one Catalytically Active
Element and at least one Helper Catalyst wherein the catalyst is
active for the electrochemical synthesis of formic acid using a
reactant comprised of carbon dioxide.
2. The electrocatalyst in claim 1 where the Catalytically Active
Element is comprised of one or more of Pb, Hg, Tl, In, Cd, Bi. Zr,
Cr, Sn, W, Pd, Ru.
3. The electrocatalyst in claim 1 wherein The Helper Catalyst is
comprised at least one of the following: phosphines, imidazoniums,
pyridiniums, pyrrolidiniums, phosphoniums, sulfoniums, prolinates,
methioninates, and cholines
4. The electrocatalyst in claim 1 wherein the Helper Catalyst is
comprised of one or more of choline chloride, choline bromide, or
choline iodide
5. A catalyst for the electrochemical conversion of CO.sub.2
comprised of at least one Catalytically Active Element and at least
one Helper Catalyst
6. The catalyst in claim 5 wherein the Catalytically Active Element
comprised of at least one of the following chemical elements: V,
Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Sn, Zr, Nb, Mo, Ru, Rh, Pd, Ag, Cd, Hf, Ta,
W, Re, Ir, Pt, Au, Hg, Al, Si, C, In, Sn, Tl, Pb, Bi, Sb, Te, U,
Sm, Tb, La, Ce, Nd
7. The catalyst in claim 5 wherein the Helper Catalyst comprises at
least one organic cation and or at least one organic anion.
8. The catalyst in claim 7 wherein the Helper Catalyst has a
concentration of between about 0.0000062% and 99.9999% by
weight.
9. The catalyst in claim 8 wherein The Helper Catalyst is comprised
at least one of the following: phosphines, imidazoniums,
pyridiniums, pyrrolidiniums, phosphoniums, sulfoniums, prolinates,
methioninates, and cholines
10. The catalyst in claim 5 wherein the Helper Catalyst is a
solvent, electrolyte or additive.
11. A process for the formation of formic acid wherein carbon
dioxide reacts in an electrochemical cell containing a catalyst
comprised of at least one Catalytically Active Element and at least
one Helper Catalyst.
Description
CROSS-REFERENCES TO RELATED APPLICATIONS
[0001] This application claims priority to and the benefit under 35
U.S.C. .sctn.119(e) to provisional application 61/317,955, filed
Mar. 26, 2010, the disclosure of which is expressly incorporated
herein by reference in its entirety.
FIELD OF THE INVENTION
[0002] The field of the invention is catalysis and catalysts. The
catalysts of this invention are applicable, for example, to the
electrochemical conversion of carbon dioxide into formic acid.
BACKGROUND
[0003] There is a present need to decrease carbon dioxide
(CO.sub.2) emissions from industrial facilities. Over the years, a
number of electrochemical processes have been suggested for the
conversion of CO.sub.2 into useful products. Processes for CO.sub.2
conversion and the catalysts for them are discussed in U.S. Pat.
Nos. 3,959,094 4,240,882 4,523,981 4,545,872, 4,595,465 4,608,132
4,608,133 4,609,441 4,609,440, 4,620,906, 4,668,349, 4,673,473,
4,711,708, 4,756,807, 4,756,807, 4,818,353 5,064,733 5,284,563
5,382,332 5,709,789, 5,928,806, 5,952,540 6,024,855 6,660,680
6,987,134 (the '134 patent), 7,157,404, 7,378,561, 7,479,570,
patent application 20080223727 (The '727 application) and papers
reviewed by Hori (Modern Aspects of Electrochemistry, 42, 89-189,
2008) ("The Hori Review"), Gattrell, et al. (Journal of
Electroanalytical Chemistry, 594, 1-19, 2006) ("The Gattrell
Review"), DuBois (Encyclopedia of Electrochemistry, 7a, 202-225,
2006) ("The DuBois Review"), and the papers Li, et al. (Journal of
Applied Electrochemistry, 36, 1105-1115, 2006, Li, et al. (Journal
of Applied Electrochemistry, 37, 1107-1117, 2007, and Oloman, et
al. (ChemSusChem, 1, 385-391, 2008) ("The Li and Oloman
Papers")
[0004] Generally an electrochemical cell contains an anode (50), a
cathode (51) and an electrolyte (53) as indicated in FIG. 1.
Catalysts are placed on the anode, and or cathode and or in the
electrolyte to promote desired chemical reactions. During
operation, reactants or a solution containing reactants is fed into
the cell. Then a voltage is applied between the anode and the
cathode, to promote an electrochemical reaction.
[0005] When an electrochemical cell is used as a CO.sub.2
conversion system, a reactant comprising CO.sub.2, carbonate or
bicarbonate is fed into the cell. A voltage is applied to the cell
and the CO.sub.2 reacts to form new chemical compounds. Examples of
cathode reactions in The Hori Review include
CO.sub.2+2e-.fwdarw.CO+O.sup.2-
2CO.sub.2+2e-.fwdarw.CO+CO.sub.3.sup.2-
CO.sub.2+H.sub.2O+2e-.fwdarw.CO+2OH.sup.-
CO.sub.2+2H.sub.2O+4e-.fwdarw.HCO.sup.-+3OH.sup.-
CO.sub.2+2H.sub.2O+2e-.fwdarw.H.sub.2CO+2OH.sup.-
CO.sub.2+H.sub.2O+2e-.fwdarw.(HCO.sub.2).sup.-+OH.sup.-
CO.sub.2+2H.sub.2O+2e-.fwdarw.H.sub.2CO.sub.2+2OH.sup.-
CO.sub.2+6H.sub.2O+6e-.fwdarw.CH.sub.3OH+6OH.sup.-
CO.sub.2+6H.sub.2O+8e-.fwdarw.CH.sub.4+8OH.sup.-
2CO.sub.2+8H.sub.2O+10e-.fwdarw.C.sub.2H.sub.4+12OH.sup.-
2CO.sub.2+9H.sub.2O+10e-.fwdarw.CH.sub.3CH.sub.2OH+12OH.sup.-
2CO.sub.2+6H.sub.2O+8e-.fwdarw.CH.sub.3COOH+8OH.sup.-
2CO.sub.2+5H.sub.2O+8e-.fwdarw.CH.sub.3COO.sup.-+7OH.sup.-
2CO.sub.2+10H.sub.2O+10e-.fwdarw.C.sub.2H.sub.6+14OH.sup.-
CO.sub.2+2H.sup.++2e-.fwdarw.CO+H.sub.2O acetic acid, oxylic acid,
oxylate
CO.sub.2+4H.sup.++4e-.fwdarw.CH.sub.4
where e- is an electron. The examples given above are merely
illustrative and are not meant to be an exhaustive list of all
possible cathode reactions.
[0006] Examples of reactions on the anode mentioned in The Hori
Review include
2O.sup.2-.fwdarw.O.sub.2+4e-
2CO.sub.3.sup.2.fwdarw.O.sub.2+CO.sub.2+4e-
4OH.sup.-.fwdarw.O.sub.2+2H.sub.2O+4e-
2H.sub.2O.fwdarw.O.sub.2+2H.sup.++2e-
The examples given above are merely illustrative and are not meant
to be an exhaustive list of all possible anode reactions.
[0007] In the previous literature, catalysts comprising one or more
of V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Sn, Zr, Nb, Mo, Ru, Rh, Pd, Ag, Cd,
Hf, Ta, W, Re, Ir, Pt, Au, Hg, Al, Si, C, In, Sn, Tl, Pb, Bi, Sb,
Te, U, Sm, Tb, La, Ce, and Nd have all shown activity for CO.sub.2
conversion. Reviews include Ma, et al. (Catalysis Today, 148,
221-231, 2009) Hori (Modern Aspects of Electrochemistry, 42,
89-189, 2008), Gattrell, et al. (Journal of Electroanalytical
Chemistry, 594, 1-19, 2006), DuBois (Encyclopedia of
Electrochemistry, 7a, 202-225, 2006) and references therein.
[0008] The results in The Hori Review show that the conversion of
CO.sub.2 is only mildly affected by solvent unless the solvent also
acts as a reactant. Water can act like a reactant, so reactions in
water are different than reactions in non-aqueous solutions. But
the reactions are the same in most non-aqueous solvents, and
importantly, the overpotentials are almost the same in water and in
the non-aqueous solvents.
[0009] Zhang, et al. (ChemSusChem, 2, 234-238, 2009) and Chu, et
al. (ChemSusChem, 1, 205-209, 2008) report CO.sub.2 conversion
catalyzed by an ionic liquid. Zhao, et al. (The Journal of
Supercritical Fluids, 32, 287-291, 2004) and Yan et al
Electrochimica Acta 54 (2009) 2912-2915 report the use of an ionic
liquid as a solvent and electrolyte, but not a co-catalyst, for
CO.sub.2 electroconversion. Each or these papers are incorporated
by reference. The catalysts have been in the form of either bulk
materials, supported particles, collections of particles, small
metal ions or organometallics. Still according to Bell Basic
Research Needs, Catalysis For Energy, US Department Of Energy
Report PNNL-17214, 2008), ("The Bell Report") "The major obstacle
preventing efficient conversion of carbon dioxide into
energy-bearing products is the lack of catalyst" with sufficient
activity at low overpotentials and high electron conversion
efficiencies.
[0010] The overpotential is associated with lost energy of the
process and so one needs the overpotential to be as low as
possible. Yet, according to The Bell Report "Electron conversion
efficiencies of greater than 50 percent can be obtained, but at the
expense of very high overpotentials" This limitation needs to be
overcome before practical processes can be obtained.
[0011] The '134 patent also considers the use of salt (NaCl) as a
secondary "catalyst" for CO.sub.2 reduction in the gas phase but
salt does not lower the overpotential for the reaction.
[0012] A second disadvantage of many of the catalysts is that they
also have low electron conversion efficiency. Electron conversion
efficiencies over 50% are needed for practical catalyst
systems.
[0013] The examples above consider applications for CO.sub.2
conversion but the invention overcomes limitations for other
systems. For example some commercial CO.sub.2 use an
electrochemical reaction to detect the presence of CO.sub.2. At
present, these sensors require over 1-5 watts of power, which is
too high for portable sensing applications.
[0014] Finally, the invention considers new methods to form formic
acid. Other methods are discussed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 7,618,725,
7,612,233, 7.420088, 7,351,860, 7,323,593, 7,253,316, 7,241,365,
7,138,545, 6,992,212, 6,963,909, 6,955,743, 6,906,222, 6,867,329,
6,849,764, 6,841,700, 6,713,649, 6,429,333, 5,879,915, 5,869,739,
5,763,662, 5,639,910, 5,334,759, 5,206,433, 4,879,070, 4,299,891.
These processes do not use CO.sub.2 as a reactant.
BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION
[0015] The invention provides a novel catalyst mixture that can
overcome one or more of the limitations of low rates, high
overpotentials and low electron conversion efficiencies (i.e.
selectivities) for catalytic reactions and high powers for sensors.
The catalyst mixture includes at least one Catalytically Active
Element, and at least one Helper Catalyst. When the Catalytically
Active Element and the Helper Catalyst are combined the rate and/or
selectivity of a chemical reaction can be enhanced over the rate
seen in the absence of the Helper Catalyst. For example, the
overpotential for electrochemical conversion of carbon-dioxide can
be substantially reduced and the current efficiency (i.e.
selectivity) for CO.sub.2 conversion can be substantially
increased.
[0016] The invention is not limited to catalysts for CO.sub.2
conversion. In particular, catalysts that include Catalytically
Active Elements and Helper Catalysts might enhance the rate of a
wide variety of chemical reactions. Reaction types include:
homogeneously catalyzed reactions, heterogeneously catalyzed
reactions, chemical reactions in chemical plants, chemical
reactions in power plants, chemical reactions in pollution control
equipment and devices, chemical reactions in fuel cells, chemical
reactions in sensors. The invention includes all of these examples.
The invention also includes processes using these catalysts.
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS
[0017] FIG. 1 is a diagram of a typical electrochemical cell.
[0018] FIG. 2 is a schematic of how the potential of the system
moves as it proceeds along the reaction coordinate in the absence
of the ionic liquid if the system goes through a (CO.sub.2).sup.-
intermediate The reaction coordinate indicates the fraction of the
reaction that has completed. A high potential for (CO.sub.2).sup.-
formation can create a high overpotential for the reaction.
[0019] FIG. 3 illustrates how the potential could change when a
helper catalyst is used. In this case the reaction could go through
a CO.sub.2-EMIM complex rather than a (CO.sub.2).sup.-
substantially lowering the overpotential for the reaction.
[0020] FIGS. 4A, 4B and 4C illustrate some of the cations that may
be used to form a complex with (CO.sub.2).sup.-
[0021] FIGS. 5A and 5B illustrates some of the anions that may
stabilize the (CO.sub.2).sup.- anion.
[0022] FIG. 6 illustrates some of the neutral molecules that may be
used to form a complex with (CO.sub.2).sup.-
[0023] FIG. 7 shows a schematic of a cell used for the experiments
in Examples 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5.
[0024] FIG. 8 shows comparison of the cyclic voltametry for a blank
scan where the catalyst was synthesized as in Example 1 where i)
the EMIM-BF4 was sparged with argon and ii) a scan where the
EMIM-BF4 was sparged with CO.sub.2. Notice the large negative peak
associated with CO.sub.2 formation
[0025] FIG. 9 shows a series of Broad Band Sum Frequency Generation
(BB-SFG) taken sequentially as the potential in the cell was
scanned from +0. to -1.2 with respect to SHE.
[0026] FIG. 10 shows a CO stripping experiment done by holding the
potential at -0.6 V for 10 or 30 minutes and them measuring the
size of the CO stripping peak between 1.2 and 1.5 V with respect to
RHE.
[0027] FIG. 11 shows a comparison of the cyclic voltametry for a
blank scan where the catalyst was synthesized as in Example 3 where
i) the water-choline iodide mixture was sparged with argon and ii)
a scan where the water-choline iodide mixture was sparged with
CO.sub.2.
[0028] FIG. 12 shows a comparison of the cyclic voltametry for a
blank scan where the catalyst was synthesized as in Example 4 where
i) the water-choline chloride mixture was sparged with argon and
ii) a scan where the water-choline chloride mixture was sparged
with CO.sub.2.
[0029] FIG. 13 shows a comparison of the cyclic voltametry for a
blank scan where the catalyst was synthesized as in Example 5 where
i) the water-choline chloride mixture was sparged with argon and
ii) a scan where the water-choline chloride mixture was sparged
with CO.sub.2.
[0030] FIG. 14 shows a schematic of the sensor.
[0031] FIG. 15 shows a schematic of where EMBF4 is placed on the
sensor.
[0032] FIG. 16 shows the current measured when the voltage on the
sensor was exposed to various gases, the applied voltage on the
sensor was swept from 0 to 5 volts at 0.1 V/sec.
[0033] FIG. 17 shows the resistance of the sensor, in nitrogen and
in carbon dioxide. The resistance was determined by measuring the
voltage needed to maintain a current of 1 microamp. Time is the
time from when the current was applied.
DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION
[0034] It is understood that the invention is not limited to the
particular methodology, protocols, and reagents, etc., described
herein, as these may vary as the skilled artisan will recognize. It
is also to be understood that the terminology used herein is used
for the purpose of describing particular embodiments only, and is
not intended to limit the scope of the invention. It also is to be
noted that as used herein and in the appended claims, the singular
forms "a," "an," and "the" include the plural reference unless the
context clearly dictates otherwise. Thus, for example, a reference
to "a linker" is a reference to one or more linkers and equivalents
thereof known to those skilled in the art.
[0035] Unless defined otherwise, all technical and scientific terms
used herein have the same meanings as commonly understood by one of
ordinary skill in the art to which the invention pertains. The
embodiments of the invention and the various features and
advantageous details thereof are explained more fully with
reference to the non-limiting embodiments and/or illustrated in the
accompanying drawings and detailed in the following description. It
should be noted that the features illustrated in the drawings are
not necessarily drawn to scale, and features of one embodiment may
be employed with other embodiments as the skilled artisan would
recognize, even if not explicitly stated herein.
[0036] Any numerical values recited herein include all values from
the lower value to the upper value in increments of one unit
provided that there is a separation of at least two units between
any lower value and any higher value. As an example, if it is
stated that the concentration of a component or value of a process
variable such as, for example, size, angle size, pressure, time and
the like, is, for example, from 1 to 90, specifically from 20 to
80, more specifically from 30 to 70, it is intended that values
such as 15 to 85, 22 to 68, 43 to 51, 30 to 32 etc., are expressly
enumerated in this specification. For values which are less than
one, one unit is considered to be 0.0001, 0.001, 0.01 or 0.1 as
appropriate. These are only examples of what is specifically
intended and all possible combinations of numerical values between
the lowest value and the similar manner.
[0037] Moreover, provided immediately below is a "Definition"
section, where certain terms related to the invention are defined
specifically. Particular methods, devices, and materials are
described, although any methods and materials similar or equivalent
to those described herein can be used in the practice or testing of
the invention. All references referred to herein are incorporated
by reference herein in their entirety.
DEFINITIONS
[0038] The term "electrochemical conversion of CO.sub.2" as used
here refers to any electrochemical process, where carbon dioxide,
carbonate, or bicarbonate is converted into another chemical
substance in any step of the process.
[0039] The term "CV" as used here refers to a cyclic voltamogram or
cyclic voltammetry.
[0040] The term "Overpotential" as used here refers to the
potential (voltage) difference between a reaction's
thermodynamically determined reduction or oxidation potential and
the potential at which the event is experimentally observed.
[0041] The term "Cathode Overpotential" as used here refers to the
overpotential on the cathode of an electrochemical cell.
[0042] The term "Anode Overpotential" as used here refers to the
overpotential on the anode of an electrochemical cell.
[0043] The term "Electron Conversion Efficiency" refers to
selectivity of an electrochemical reaction. More precisely, it is
defined as the fraction of the current that is supplied to the cell
that goes to the production of a desired product.
[0044] The term "Catalytically Active Element" as used here refers
to any chemical element that can serve as a catalyst for the
electrochemical conversion of CO.sub.2.
[0045] The term "Helper Catalyst" refers to any organic molecule or
mixture of organic molecules that does at least one of the
following:
[0046] 1) Speeds up an electochemical reaction
[0047] 2) Lowers the overpotential of the reaction
[0048] without being substantially consumed in the process.
[0049] The term "Active Element, Helper Catalyst Mixture" refers to
any mixture that includes one or more Catalytically Active Element
and at least one Helper Catalyst
[0050] The term "Ionic Liquid" refers to salts or ionic compounds
that form stable liquids at temperatures below 200.degree. C.
[0051] The term "Deep Eutectic Solvent" refers to an ionic solvent
that includes of a mixture which forms a eutectic with a melting
point lower than that of the individual components.
Specifics
[0052] The invention relates generally to Active Element, Helper
Catalyst Mixtures where the mixture does at least one of the
following:
[0053] Speeds up a chemical reaction
[0054] Lowers the overpotential of the reaction
[0055] without being substantially consumed in the process.
[0056] For example such mixtures can lower the overpotential for
CO.sub.2 conversion to a value less than the overpotentials seen
when the same Catalytically Active Element is used without the
Helper Catalyst.
[0057] According to The Hori Review, Gattrell, et al. (Journal of
Electroanalytical Chemistry, 594, 1-19, 2006), DuBois (Encyclopedia
of Electrochemistry, 7a, 202-225, 2006) and references therein,
catalysts include one or more of V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Sn, Zr,
Nb, Mo, Ru, Rh, Pd, Ag, Cd, Hf, Ta, W, Re, Ir, Pt, Au, Hg, Al, Si,
In, Sn, Tl, Pb, Bi, Sb, Te, U, Sm, Tb, La, Ce, and Nd all show
activity for CO.sub.2 conversion. Products include one or more of
CO, OH.sup.-, HCO.sup.-, H.sub.2CO, (HCO.sub.2).sup.-,
H.sub.2CO.sub.2, CH.sub.3OH, CH.sub.4, C.sub.2H.sub.4,
CH.sub.3CH.sub.2OH, CH.sub.3COO.sup.-, CH.sub.3COOH,
C.sub.2H.sub.6, CH.sub.4, O.sub.2, H.sub.2(COOH).sub.2,
(COO.sup.-).sub.2. Therefore, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Sn, Zr,
Nb, Mo, Ru, Rh, Pd, Ag, Cd, Hf, Ta, W, Re, Ir, Pt, Au, Hg, Al, Si,
In, Sn, Tl, Pb, Bi, Sb, Te, U, Sm, Tb, La, Ce, and Nd are each
examples of Catalytically Active Elements but the invention is not
limited to this list of chemical elements. Possible products of the
reaction are include one or more of CO, OH.sup.-, HCO.sup.-,
H.sub.2CO, (HCO.sub.2).sup.-, H.sub.2CO.sub.2, CH.sub.3OH,
CH.sub.4, C.sub.2H.sub.4, CH.sub.3CH.sub.2OH, CH.sub.3COO.sup.-,
CH.sub.3COOH, C.sub.2H.sub.6, CH.sub.4, O.sub.2,
H.sub.2(COOH).sub.2, (COO.sup.-).sub.2, but the invention is not
limited to this list of products.
[0058] The Hori Review also notes that Pb. Hg, Tl, In, Cd, Bi. Zr,
Cr, Sn and W are best for formic acid production. Furuya, et al.
(Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry, 431, 39-41, 1997) notes
that Pd/Ru is also active.
[0059] The Hori Review notes that there has been over 30 years of
work on the electrochemical conversion of CO.sub.2 into saleable
products, but still, according to page 69 of The Bell Report
"Electron conversion efficiencies of greater than 50 percent can be
obtained, but at the expense of very high overpotentials" This
limitation needs to be overcome before practical processes can be
obtained.
[0060] FIGS. 2 and 3 illustrate one possible mechanism by which a
Helper Catalyst can enhance the rate of CO.sub.2 conversion.
According to Chandrasekaran, et al. (Surface Science, 185, 495-514,
1987) the high overpotentials for CO.sub.2 conversion occur because
the first step in the electroreduction of CO.sub.2 is the formation
of a (CO.sub.2) intermediate. It takes energy to form the
intermediate as illustrated in FIG. 2. This results in a high
overpotential for the reaction.
[0061] FIG. 3 illustrates what might happen if a solution
containing 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium (EMIM.sup.+) cations is
added to the mixture. EMIM.sup.+ might be able to form a complex
with the (CO.sub.2).sup.- intermediate. In that case, the reaction
could proceed via the EMIM.sup.+-(CO.sub.2).sup.- complex instead
of going through a bare (CO.sub.2).sup.- intermediate as
illustrated in FIG. 3. If the energy to form the
EMIM.sup.+-(CO.sub.2).sup.- complex is less than the energy to form
the (CO.sub.2).sup.- intermediate, the overpotential to for
CO.sub.2 conversion could be substantially reduced. Therefore any
substance including EMIM.sup.+ cations could act as a Helper
Catalyst for CO.sub.2 conversion.
[0062] Those trained in the state of art should recognize that in
most cases, solvents only have small effects on the progress of
catalytic reactions. The interaction between a solvent and an
adsorbate is usually much weaker than the interaction with a
Catalytically Active Element, so the solvent only makes a small
perturbation to the chemistry occurring on metal surfaces. The
diagram in FIG. 3 postulates that such an effect could be
large.
[0063] Of course a Helper catalyst, alone, will be insufficient to
convert CO.sub.2. Instead, one still needs a Catalytically Active
Element that can catalyze reactions of (CO.sub.2) in order to get
high rates of CO.sub.2 conversion. Catalysts include at least one
of the following Catalytically Active Elements have been previously
reported to be active for electrochemical conversion of CO.sub.2
[0064] V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Sn, Zr, Nb, Mo, Ru, Rh, Pd, Ag,
Cd, Hf, Ta, W, Re, Ir, Pt, Au, Hg, Al, Si, In, Sn, Tl, Pb, Bi, Sb,
Te, U, Sm, Tb, La, Ce, and Nd. Many of these catalysts also show
activity for a number of other reactions. All of these elements are
specifically included as Catalytically Active Elements for the
purposes of the invention. This list of elements is meant for
illustrative purposes only, and is not meant to limit the scope of
the invention.
[0065] Further, those skilled in the art should realize that the
diagram in FIG. 3 could be drawn for any molecule that could form a
complex with (CO.sub.2).sup.-. Previous literature indicates that
solutions including one or more of: ionic liquids, deep eutectic
solvents, amines, and phosphines, including specifically
imidazoniums, pyridiniums, pyrrolidiniums, phosphoniums, ammoniums
sulfoniums, prolinates, methioninates, form complexes with
CO.sub.2. Consequently, they may serve as Helper Catalysts. Also
Davis Jr, et al. (In ACS Symposium Series 856: Ionic Liquids as
Green Solvents Progress and Prospects, 100-107, 2003) list a number
of other salts that show ionic properties. Specific examples
include compounds including one or more of Acetocholines, alanines,
aminoacetonitriles, methylammoniums, arginines, aspartic acids,
threonines, chloroformamidiniums, thiouroniums, quinoliniums,
pyrrolidinols, serinols, benzamidines, sulfamates, acetates,
carbamates, triflates, and cyanides. These salts may act as helper
catalysts. These examples are meant for illustrative purposes only,
and are not meant to limit the scope of the invention.
[0066] Of course, not every substance that forms a complex with
(CO.sub.2).sup.- will act as a helper catalyst. Masel (Chemical
Kinetics and Catalysis, Wiley 2001, p717-720), notes that when an
intermediate binds to a catalyst, the reactivity of the
intermediate decreases. If the intermediate bonds too strongly to
the catalyst, the intermediate will become unreactive, so the
substance will not be effective. This provides a key limitation on
substances that act as helper catalysts. The helper catalyst cannot
form too strong of a bond with the (CO.sub.2).sup.- that the
(CO.sub.2).sup.- is unreactive toward the Catalytically Active
Element.
[0067] More specifically, one wishes the substance to form a
complex with the (CO.sub.2).sup.- so is that the complex is stable
(i.e. has a negative free energy of formation) at potentials less
negative than -1 V with respect to SHE. However the complex should
not be so stable, that the free energy of the reaction between the
complex and the Catalytically Active Element is more positive than
about 3 kcal/mol.
[0068] For example Zhao, et al. (The Journal of Supercritical
Fluids, 32, 287-291, 2004) examined CO.sub.2 conversion over copper
in 1-n-butyl-3-methylimidazolium hexafluorophosphate (BMIM-PF6) but
FIG. 3 in Zhao et al shows that the BMIM-PF6 did NOT lower the
overpotential for the reaction (i.e. the BMIM-PF6 did not act as a
Helper Catalyst)/ This may be because the BMIM-PF6 formed such a
strong bond to the (CO.sub.2).sup.- that the CO.sub.2 was
unreactive with the copper. Similarly Yuan et al Electrochimica
Acta 54 (2009) 2912-2915 examined the reaction between methanol and
CO.sub.2 in 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium bromide (BMIM-Br). The
BMIM-Br did not act as a helper catalyst. This may be because the
complex was too weak or that the bromine poisoned the reaction.
[0069] Solutions consisting of one or more of the cations in FIG.
4, the anions in FIG. 5, the neutral species in FIG. 6, where R1,
R2 and R3 include H, OH or any ligand containing at least on carbon
atom are believed to form complexes with CO.sub.2 or
(CO.sub.2.sup.-. Specific examples include: imidazoniums,
pyridiniums, pyrrolidiniums, phosphoniums, ammoniums and
sulfoniums, prolinates, methioninates. All of these examples might
be able to be used as Helper Catalysts for CO.sub.2 conversion and
are specifically included in the invention. These examples are
meant for illustrative purposes only, and are not meant to limit
the scope of the invention.
[0070] Further the Helper Catalyst could be in any one of the
following forms i) a solvent for the reaction, ii) an electrolyte,
iii) an additive to any component of the system, or iv) something
that is bound to at least one of the catalysts in a system. These
examples are meant for illustrative purposes only, and are not
meant to limit the scope of the invention.
[0071] Those trained in the state of the art should recognize that
one might only need a tiny amount of the Helper Catalyst to have a
significant effect. Catalytic reactions often occur on distinct
active sites. The active site concentration can be very low so in
principle a small amount of Helper Catalyst can have a significant
effect on the rate. One can obtain an estimate of how little of the
helper catalyst would be needed to change the reaction from Pease
et al, JACS 47, 1235 (1925)'s study of the effect of carbon
monoxide (CO) on the rate of ethylene hydrogenation on copper. This
paper is incorporated into this disclosure by reference. Pease et
al found that 0.05 cc's (62 micrograms) of carbon monoxide (CO) was
sufficient to almost completely poison a 100 gram catalyst towards
ethylene hydrogenation. This corresponds to a poison concentration
of 0.0000062% by weight of CO in the catalyst. Those trained in the
state of the art know that if 0.0000062% by weight of the poison in
a Catalytically Active element-poison mixture could effectively
suppresses a reaction, then as little as 0.0000062% by weight of
Helper Catalyst in an Active Element, Helper Catalyst Mixture could
enhance a reaction. This provides a lower limit to the Helper
Catalyst concentration in an Active Element, Helper Catalyst
Mixture.
[0072] The upper limit is illustrated in Example 1 below where the
Active Element, Helper Catalyst Mixture has approximately 99.999%
by weight of Helper Catalyst, and the helper catalyst can be an
order of magnitude more concentrated. Thus the range of Helper
Catalyst concentrations for the invention here may be 0.0000062% to
99.9999%
[0073] FIG. 3 only considered the electrochemical conversion of
CO.sub.2, but the method is general. There are many examples where
energy is needed to create a key intermediate in a reaction
sequence. Examples include: homogeneously catalyzed reactions,
heterogeneously catalyzed reactions, chemical reactions in chemical
plants, chemical reactions in power plants, chemical reactions in
pollution control equipment and devices, chemical reactions in
safety equipment, chemical reactions in fuel cells, and chemical
reactions in sensors. Theoretically, if one could find a Helper
Catalyst that forms a complex with a key intermediate the rate of
the reaction should increase. All of these examples are within the
scope of the invention.
[0074] Specific examples of specific processes that may benefit
with Helper Catalysts, include the electrochemical process to
produce products including one or more of Cl.sub.2, Br.sub.2,
I.sub.2, NaOH, KOH, NaClO, NaClO.sub.3, KClO.sub.3,
CF.sub.3COOH.
[0075] Further, the Helper Catalyst, could enhance the rate of a
reaction even if it does not form a complex with a key
intermediate. Examples of possible mechanisms of action include the
Helper Catalyst i) lowering the energy to form a key intermediate
by any means ii) donating or accepting electrons or atoms or
ligands, iii) weakening bonds or otherwise making them easier to
break, iv) stabilizing excited states, v) stabilizing transition
states, vi) holding the reactants in close proximity or in the
right configuration to react vii) block side reactions. Each of
these mechanisms are described on pages 707 to 742 of Masel,
Chemical Kinetics and Catalysis, Wiley, NY 2001. All of these modes
of action are within the scope of the invention.
[0076] Also, the invention is not limited to just the catalyst.
Instead it includes any process or device that uses an Active
Element, Helper Catalyst Mixture as a catalyst. Fuel cells are
sensors are specifically included in the invention.
[0077] Without further elaboration, it is believed that one skilled
in the art using the preceding description can utilize the
invention to the fullest extent. The following examples are
illustrative only, and not limiting of the disclosure in any way
whatsoever. These are merely illustrative and are not meant to be
an exhaustive list of all possible embodiments, applications or
modifications of the invention.
Specific Example 1
Using a Active Element, Helper Catalyst Mixture including of
Platinum and 1-ethyl-3-Methylimidazoilum Tetrafluoroborate
(EMIM-BF.sub.4) to Lowering the Overpotential for Electrochemical
Conversion of CO.sub.2 and Raising the Selectivity (Current
Efficiency) of the Reaction
[0078] The experiments used the glass three electrode cell shown in
FIG. 7. The cell consisted of a Three neck flask (101), to hold the
anode (108), and the cathode (109). A silver/0.01 molar silver ion
reference electrode (103) in acetnonitrile was connected to the
cell through a Luggin Cappillary (102). The reference electrode
(103) was fitted with a vycor frit to prevent any of the reference
electrode solution from contaminating the ionic liquid in the
capillary. The reference electrode was calibrated against the
Fc/Fc.sup.+ redox couple. A conversion factor of +535 was used
convert our potential axis to reference the Standard Hydrogen
Electrode (SHE). A 25.times.25 mm Platinum gauze (size 52) (113)
was connected to the anode while a 0.33 cm.sup.2 polycrystalline
gold plug (115) was connected to the cathode.
[0079] Prior to the experiments all glass parts were put through a
1% Nochromix bath (2 hrs), followed by a 50/50 v/v Nitric
Acid/Water bath (12 hrs), followed by rinsing with Millipore water.
In addition the gold plug (115) and platinum gauze (113) were
mechanically polished using procedures known to workers trained in
the art. They were then cleaned in a sulfuric acid bath for 12
hours.
[0080] During the experiment a catalyst ink comprising a
Catalytically Active Element, platinum was first prepared as
follows: First 0.0056 grams of Johnson-Matthey Hispec 1000 platinum
black purchased from Alfa-Aesar was mixed with 1 grams of milipore
water and sonicating for 10 minutes to produce a solution
containing a 5.6 mg/ml suspension of platinum black in Millipore
water. A 25 .mu.l drop of the ink was placed on the gold plug and
allowed to dry under a heat lamp for 20 min, and subsequently
allowed to dry in air for an additional hour. This yielded a
catalyst with 0.00014 grams of Catalytically Active Element, a
platinum, on a gold plug. The gold plug was mounted into the three
neck flask (101). Next a Helper Catalyst, EMIM-BF.sub.4 (EMD
chemicals) was to heated to 120.degree. C. under a -23 inch Hg
vacuum for 12 hours to remove residual water and oxygen. The
concentration of water in the ionic liquid after this procedure was
found to be ca. 90 mM by conducting a Karl-Fischer titration. (i.e.
the ionic liquid contained 99.9999% of helper catalyst) 13 grams of
the EMIM-BF.sub.4 was added to the vessel, creating an Active
Element, Helper Catalyst Mixture that contained about 99.999% of
the Helper Catalyst. The geometry was such that the gold plug
formed a meniscus with the EMIM-BF.sub.4 Next ultra-high-purity
(UHP) Argon was fed through the sparging tube (104) and glass frit
(112) for 2 hours at 200 sccm to further remove any moisture picked
up by contact with the air.
[0081] Next the cathode was connected to the working electrode
connection in a SI 1287 Solatron electrical interface, the anode
was connected to the counter electrode connection and the reference
electrode was connected to the reference electrode connection on
the Solartron. Then the potential on the cathode was swept from
-1.5 V versus a standard hydrogen electrode (SHE) to 1V vs. SHE and
then back to -1.5 volts versus SHE thirty times at a scan rate of
50 mV/s. The current produced during the last scan is labeled as
the "blank" scan in FIG. 8.
[0082] Next carbon dioxide was bubbled through the sparging tube at
200 sccm for 30 minutes and the same scanning technique was used.
That produced the CO.sub.2 scan in FIG. 8. Notice the peak starting
at -0.2 volts with respect to SHE, and reaching a maximum at -0.4 V
with respect to SHE. That peak is associated with CO.sub.2
conversion.
[0083] We have also used broad-band sum frequency generation
(BB-SFG) to look for products of the reaction. We only detect our
desired produce carbon monoxide in the voltage range shown (i.e.
the selectivity is about 100%) Oxylic acid is detected at higher
potentials.
[0084] Tables 1 compares these results to results from the previous
literature. The table shows the actual cathode potential. More
negative cathode potentials correspond to higher overpotentials.
More precisely the overpotential is the difference between the
thermodynamic potential for the reaction (about -0.2 V with respect
to SHE) and the actual cathode potential. The values of the cathode
overpotential are also given in the table. Notice that the addition
of the Helper Catalyst has reduced the cathode overpotential (i.e.
lost work) on platinum by a factor of 4.5 and improved the
selectivity to nearly 100%.
TABLE-US-00001 TABLE 1 A comparison of the data in example 1 to
results in the previous literature. Cathode Selectivity potential
to carbon Catalytically versus Cathode containing Reference active
element SHE overpotential products Data Here Platinum + -0.4 V 0.2
V ~100% EMIM-BF.sub.4 The Hori Review Platinum + -1.07 V 0.87 V
.sup. 0.1% table 3 water The Li and Oloman Tin -2.5 to -3.2 V 2.3
to 3 V 40-70% Papers and the `727 application
TABLE-US-00002 TABLE 2 The cathode potentials where CO.sub.2
conversion starts on a number of Catalytically Active Elements as
reported in The Hori Review. Cathode Cathode Cathode potential
potential potential Metal (SHE) Metal (SHE) Metal (SHE) Pb -1.63 Hg
-1.51 Tl -1.60 In -1.55 Sn -1.48 Cd -1.63 Bi -1.56 Au -1.14 Ag
-1.37 Zn -1.54 Pd -1.20 Ga -1.24 Cu -1.44 Ni -1.48 Fe -0.91 Pt
-1.07 Ti -1.60
[0085] Table 2 indicates the cathode potential needed to convert
CO.sub.2. Notice that all of the values are more negative than -0.9
V. By comparison, FIG. 8 shows that CO.sub.2 conversion starts at
-0.2 V with respect to RHE, when the Active Element, Helper
Catalyst Mixture is used as a catalyst. More negative cathode
potentials correspond to higher overpotentials. This is further
confirmation Active Element, Helper Catalyst Mixtures are
advantageous for CO.sub.2 conversion.
[0086] FIG. 9 shows a series of BB-SFG spectra taken during the
reaction. Notice the peak at 2350 cm.sup.-1. This peak corresponds
to the formation of a stable complex between the Helper Catalyst
and (CO.sub.2).sup.-. It is significant that the peak starts at
-0.1 with respect to SHE. According to The Hori Review,
(CO.sub.2).sup.- is thermodynamically unstable unless the potential
is more negative than -1.2 V with respect to SHE on platinum. Yet
FIG. 9 shows that the complex between EMIM-BF.sub.4 and
(CO.sub.2).sup.- is stable at -0.1 V with respect to SHE.
[0087] Those trained in the art should recognize that this result
is very significant. According to The Hori Review, The Dubois
Review and references therein, the formation of (CO.sub.2).sup.- is
the rate determining step in CO.sub.2 conversion to CO, OH.sup.-,
HCO.sup.-, H.sub.2CO, (HCO.sub.2).sup.-, H.sub.2CO.sub.3,
CH.sub.3OH, CH.sub.4, C.sub.2H.sub.4, CH.sub.3CH.sub.2OH,
CH.sub.3COO.sup.-, CH.sub.3COOH, C.sub.2H.sub.6, CH.sub.4, O.sub.2,
H.sub.2, (COOH).sub.2, (COO.sup.-).sub.2 on V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni,
Cu, Sn, Zr, Nb, Mo, Ru, Rh, Pd, Ag, Cd, Hf, Ta, W, Re, Ir, Pt, Au,
Hg, Al, Si, In, Sn, Tl, Pb, Bi, Sb, Te, U, Sm, Tb, La, Ce, and Nd.
The (CO.sub.2).sup.- is thermodynamically unstable at low
potentials, which leads to a high overpotential for the reaction as
indicated in FIG. 2. The data in FIG. 9 shows that one can form the
EMIM-BF4-(CO.sub.2) complex at low potentials. The complex is
thermodynamically. Thus, the reaction can follow a low energy
pathway for CO.sub.2 conversion to CO, OH.sup.-, HCO.sup.-,
H.sub.2CO, (HCO.sub.2).sup.-, H.sub.2CO.sub.2, CH.sub.3OH,
CH.sub.4, C.sub.2H.sub.4, CH.sub.3CH.sub.2OH, CH.sub.3COO.sup.-,
CH.sub.3COOH, C.sub.2H.sub.6, CH.sub.4, O.sub.2, H.sub.2,
(COOH).sub.2, (COO.sup.-).sub.2 on V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Sn,
Zr, Nb, Mo, Ru, Rh, Pd, Ag, Cd, Hf, Ta, W, Re, Ir, Pt, Au, Hg, Al,
Si, In, Sn, Tl, Pb, Bi, Sb, Te, U, Sm, Tb, La, Ce, and Nd as
indicated in FIG. 3.
[0088] Those trained in the state of the art also recognize that
this effect is very unusual. In most cases, the interaction between
a solvent and an adsorbate is weak, so the solvent only makes a
small perturbation to the chemistry occurring on metal surfaces.
Here the effect is large.
[0089] In order to understand the economic consequences of this
result, we calculated the cost of the electricity needed to create
100,000 metric tons per year of formic acid via two processes, i)
the process described in The Li and Oloman Papers and the '727
application, and ii) a similar process using the catalyst in this
example. In both cases we assumed that the anode would run at +1.4
V with respect to SHE and that electricity would cost $0.06/kW-hr
and we scaled the current to be reasonable. The results of the
calculations are given in Table 2. Notice that the calculations
predict that the electricity cost will go down by almost a factor
of 5 if the new catalysts are used. These results demonstrate the
possible impact of the new catalysts disclosed here.
TABLE-US-00003 TABLE 3 A comparison of the projected costs using
the catalyst in the The Li and Oloman papers and the `727
application, and ii) a similar process using the catalyst in this
example. Cathode Anode Net Yearly potential, Potential, Potential
Electricity Catalyst V (SHE) V (SHE) V Selectivity cost The Li and
Oloman -3.2 1.2 4.4 0.6 $65,000,000 Papers and the `727 application
Active Element, -0.4 1.2 1.6 1 $14,000,000 Helper Catalyst
Mixture
Specific Example 2
The Effect of Dilution on the Electrochemical Conversion of
CO.sub.2
[0090] This example shows that water additions speed the formation
of CO. The experiment used the Cell and procedures in Example 1,
with the following exception: a solution containing 98.55% EMIM-BF4
and 0.45% water was substituted for the 99.9999% EMIM-BF4 used in
Example 1, the potential was held for 10 or 30 minutes at -0.6V
with respect to RHE, and then the potential was ramped positively
at 50 mV/sec. FIG. 10 shows the result. Notice the peak at between
1.2 and 1.5 eV. This is the peak associated with CO formation and
is much larger than in example 1. Thus the addition of water has
accelerated the formation of CO presumably by acting as a
reactant.
Specific Example 3
Using a Active Element, Helper Catalyst Mixture that include
Palladium and choline Iodide to Lowering the Overpotential for
Electrochemical Conversion of CO.sub.2 in Water
[0091] The next example is to demonstrate that the invention can be
practiced using Palladium as an active element and Choline Iodide
as a Helper Catalyst.
[0092] The experiment used the cell and procedures in Example 1,
with the following exceptions: ii) A 10.3% by weight of a Helper
Catalyst, choline iodide in water solution was substituted for the
1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium tetrafluoroborate and ii) a 0.25
cm.sup.2 Pd foil purchased from Alfa Aesar was substituted for the
gold plug and platinum black on the cathode, and a silver/silver
chloride reference was used.
[0093] FIG. 11 shows a CV taken under these conditions. There is a
large negative peak near zero volts with respect with SHE
associated with iodine transformations and a negative going peak
starting at about 0.8 V associated with conversion of CO.sub.2. By
comparison the data in Table 2 indicates that one needs to use a
voltage more negative that -1.2 V to convert CO.sub.2 on palladium
in the absence of the Helper Catalyst. Thus, the helper catalyst
has lowered the overpotential for CO.sub.2 formation by about 0.5
V.
[0094] This example also demonstrates that the invention can be
practiced with a second active element, palladium, and a second
helper catalyst choline iodide. Further, those trained in the state
of the art will note that there is nothing special about the choice
of palladium and choline iodide. Rather, this example shows that
the results are general and not limited to the special case in
example 1.
Specific Example 4
Using a Active Element, Helper Catalyst Mixture that includes
Palladium and Choline Chloride to Lowering the Overpotential for
Electrochemical Conversion of CO.sub.2 to Formic Acid
[0095] The next example is to demonstrate that the invention can be
practiced using a third Helper Catalyst, choline chloride.
[0096] The experiment used the Cell and procedures in Example 3,
with the following exception: a 6.5% by weight choline chloride in
water solution was substituted for choline iodide solution.
[0097] FIG. 12 shows a comparison of the cyclic voltametry for a
blank scan where i) the water-choline chloride mixture was sparged
with argon and ii) a scan where the water-choline iodide mixture
was sparged with CO.sub.2. Notice the negative going peaks starting
at about -0.6. This shows that CO.sub.2 is being reduced at -0.6 V.
By comparison the data in Table 2 indicates that one needs to use a
voltage more negative than -1.2 V is needed to convert CO.sub.2 on
palladium in the absence of the Helper Catalyst. Thus, the
overpotential for CO.sub.2 conversion has been lowered by 0.6 V by
the Helper Catalyst.
[0098] Another important point is that there is no strong peak for
hydrogen formation. A bare palladium, catalyst would produce a
large hydrogen peak at about -0.4 V at a pH of 7. While the
hydrogen peak moves to -1.2 V in the presence of the helper
catalyst. The Hori Review reports that palladium is not an
effective catalyst for CO.sub.2 reduction because the side reaction
producing hydrogen is too large. The data in FIG. 12 show that the
helper catalysts are effective in suppressing hydrogen
formation.
[0099] We have also used CV to analyze the reaction products.
Formic Acid was the only product detected. By comparison The Hori
Review reports that the reaction is only 2.8% selective to formic
acid in water. Thus the Helper Catalyst has substantially improved
the selectivity of the reaction to formic acid.
[0100] This example also demonstrates that the invention can be
practiced with a third helper catalyst choline chloride. Further,
those trained in the state of the art will note that there is
nothing special about the choice of palladium and choline chloride.
Rather, this example shows that the results are general and not
limited to the special case in example 1.
Specific Example 5
Using a Active Element, Helper Catalyst Mixture that includes
nickel and Choline Chloride to Lowering the Overpotential for
Electrochemical Conversion of CO.sub.9 to CO
[0101] The next example is to demonstrate that the invention can be
practiced using a third metal, nickel.
[0102] The experiment used the Cell and procedures in Example 4,
with the following exception: a nickel foil from Alfa Aesar was
substituted for the palladium foil.
[0103] FIG. 13 shows a comparison of the cyclic voltametry for a
blank scan where i) the water-choline chloride mixture was sparged
with argon and ii) a scan where the water-choline chloride mixture
was sparged with CO.sub.2. Notice the negative going peaks starting
at about -0.6. This shows that CO.sub.2 is being reduced at -0.6 V.
By comparison the data in Table 2 indicates that one needs to use a
voltage more negative than -1.48 V is needed to convert CO.sub.2 on
nickel in the absence of the Helper Catalyst. Thus, the Helper
Catalyst has lowered the overpotential for CO.sub.2 conversion.
[0104] Another important point is that there is no strong peak for
hydrogen formation. A bare nickel, catalyst would produce a large
hydrogen peak at about -0.4 V at a pH of 7. While the hydrogen peak
moves to -1.2 V in the presence of the helper catalyst. The Hori
Review reports that nickel is not an effective catalyst for
CO.sub.2 reduction because the side reaction producing hydrogen is
too large. The data in FIG. 13 show that the helper catalysts are
effective in suppressing hydrogen formation.
[0105] Also the helper catalyst is very effective in improving the
selectivity of the reaction. The Hori Review reports that hydrogen
is the major product during carbon dioxide reduction on nickel in
aqueous solutions. The hydrolysis shows 1.4% selectivity to formic
acid, and no selectivity to carbon monoxide. By comparison,
analysis of the reaction products by CV indicate that carbon
monoxide is the major product during CO.sub.2 conversion on nickel
in the presence of the Helper Catalyst. There may be some formate
formation. However, no hydrogen is detected. This example shows
that the helper catalyst has tremendiously enhanced the selectivity
of the reaction toward CO and formate.
[0106] This example also demonstrates that the invention can be
practiced with a third metal, nickel. Further, those trained in the
state of the art will note that there is nothing special about the
choice of nickel and choline chloride. Rather, this example shows
that the results are general and not limited to the special case in
example 1.
[0107] Those trained in the state of art should realize that since
choline chloride, and choline iodide are active, other chlorine
salts such as choline bromide, choline fluoride and choline acetate
should be active too.
Specific Example 6
Demonstration that an Active Element (Gold), Helper Catalyst
Mixture is useful in a CO.sub.2 Sensor
[0108] This example demonstrates that the invention can be
practiced with a fourth active element gold. It also demonstrates
that the catalysts are useful in sensors.
[0109] The sensor will be a simple electrochemical device where an
in an Active Element, Helper Catalyst Mixture is placed on an anode
and cathode in an electrochemical device, then the resistance of
the sensor is measured. If there no CO.sub.2 present, the
resistance will be high, but not infinite because of leakage
currents. When CO.sub.2 is present, the Active Element, Helper
Catalyst Mixture may catalyze the conversion of CO.sub.2. That
allows more current to flow through the sensor. Consequently, the
sensor resistance decreases. As a result, the sensor may be used to
detect carbon dioxide.
[0110] An example sensor was fabricated on a substrate made from a
100 mm Silicon wafer (Silicon Quest, 500 .mu.m thick, <100>
oriented, 1-5 .OMEGA.cm nominal resistivity) which was purchased
with a 500 nm thermal oxide layer. On the wafer, 170 .ANG. chromium
was deposited by DC magnetron sputtering (.about.10.sup.-2 Ton of
argon background pressure). Next, 1000 .ANG. of a Catalytically
Active element, gold, was deposited on the chromium and the
electrode was patterned via a standard lift-off photolithography
process to yield the device shown schematically in FIG. 14.
[0111] At this point, the device consisted of an anode (200) and
cathode (201) separated by a 6 .mu.m gap, wherein the anode and
cathode were coated with a Catalytically Active element, gold. At
this point the sensor could not detect CO.sub.2.
[0112] Next 2 .mu.l of a Helper Catalyst, EMIM BF.sub.4 (202) was
added over the junction as shown FIG. 15. The device was mounted
into a sensor test cell with wires running from the anode and
cathode.
[0113] Next, the anode and cathode were connected to a SI 1287
Solatron electrical interface, and the catalysts were condition by
sweeping from o volts to 5 volts at 0.1 V/sec and then back again.
The process was repeated 16 times. Then the sensor was exposed to
either nitrogen, oxygen, dry air or pure CO.sub.2, and the sweeps
were recorded. The last sweep is shown in FIG. 16. Notice that
there is a sizable peak at an applied voltage of 4 volts in pure
CO.sub.2. That peak is associated with the electrochemical
conversion of CO.sub.2.
[0114] Notice that the peak is absent, when the sensor is exposed
to oxygen or nitrogen, but it is clearly seen when the sensor is
exposed to air containing less than 400 ppm of CO.sub.2. Further
the peak grows as the CO.sub.2 concentration increases. Thus, the
sensor can be used to detect the presence of CO.sub.2.
[0115] We have also run the sensor in a galvanastatic mode, were we
measured the voltage needed to maintain the current constant at 1
microamp, and measured the voltage of the device. FIG. 17 shows
that less voltage is needed to maintain the current when CO.sub.2
is added to the cell. This shows that the sensor that include an
Active Element, Helper Catalyst Mixture responds to the presence of
CO.sub.2.
[0116] Table 4 compares the sensor here to those in the previous
literature. Notice that the new sensor uses orders of magnitude
less energy than commercial CO.sub.2 sensors. This is a key
advantage for many applications.
[0117] This example also illustrates that the invention can be
practiced with a third active element, gold.
TABLE-US-00004 TABLE 4 A comparison of the power needed to run the
present sensor to that needed to operate commercially available
CO.sub.2 sensors. Sensor Power Sensor Power Specific 5 .times.
10.sup.-7 watts GE Ventostat 8100 1.75 watts Example 3 Honeywell 3
watts Vaisala CARBOCAP about 1 watt C7232 GMP343
[0118] The examples given above are merely illustrative and are not
meant to be an exhaustive list of all possible embodiments,
applications or modifications of the invention. Thus, various
modifications and variations of the described methods and systems
of the invention will be apparent to those skilled in the art
without departing from the scope and spirit of the invention.
Although the invention has been described in connection with
specific embodiments, it should be understood that the invention as
claimed should not be unduly limited to such specific embodiments.
Indeed, various modifications of the described modes for carrying
out the invention which are obvious to those skilled in the
chemical arts or in the relevant fields are intended to be within
the scope of the appended claims.
[0119] The disclosures of all references and publications cited
above are expressly incorporated by reference in their entireties
to the same extent as if each were incorporated by reference
individually.
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