U.S. patent application number 13/057387 was filed with the patent office on 2011-06-16 for methods of treating cognitive impairment.
This patent application is currently assigned to University of South Florida. Invention is credited to Gary W. Arendash, Steven Bennett, Timothy Boyd, Huntington Potter.
Application Number | 20110142795 13/057387 |
Document ID | / |
Family ID | 41664174 |
Filed Date | 2011-06-16 |
United States Patent
Application |
20110142795 |
Kind Code |
A1 |
Potter; Huntington ; et
al. |
June 16, 2011 |
METHODS OF TREATING COGNITIVE IMPAIRMENT
Abstract
The subject invention concerns materials and methods for
treating a person or animal having cognitive impairment. In one
embodiment, the method comprises administering an effective amount
of one or more inflammatory mediator(s), for example, fms-related
tyrosine kinase 3 (Flt3) ligand, interleukin-6 (IL-6), macrophage
migration inhibitory factor (MIF), interleukin-1 (IL-1),
interleukin-3 (IL-3), erythropoietin (EPO), vascular endothelial
growth factor A (VEGF-A), hypoxia-inducible transcription factor
(HIF-1alpha), insulin like growth factor-1 (IGF-1), tumor necrosis
factor (TNF), granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF),
granulocyte/macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF),
macrophage colony-stimulating factor (M-CSF), Stem Cell Factor
(SCF), Darbepoetin (ARANESP), and metalloproteinases, to an animal
or person in need of treatment.
Inventors: |
Potter; Huntington; (Tampa,
FL) ; Arendash; Gary W.; (Prescott, AZ) ;
Bennett; Steven; (Jupiter, FL) ; Boyd; Timothy;
(Seffner, FL) |
Assignee: |
University of South Florida
Tampa
FL
|
Family ID: |
41664174 |
Appl. No.: |
13/057387 |
Filed: |
August 4, 2009 |
PCT Filed: |
August 4, 2009 |
PCT NO: |
PCT/US09/52742 |
371 Date: |
February 3, 2011 |
Related U.S. Patent Documents
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Application
Number |
Filing Date |
Patent Number |
|
|
61086351 |
Aug 5, 2008 |
|
|
|
Current U.S.
Class: |
424/85.2 ;
424/85.1; 424/94.67; 514/17.7; 514/17.8; 514/44R; 514/7.7; 514/8.1;
514/8.6 |
Current CPC
Class: |
A61P 25/00 20180101;
A61K 38/1816 20130101; A61P 25/28 20180101; A61K 38/193 20130101;
A61K 38/1709 20130101; A61K 38/1816 20130101; A61K 2300/00
20130101; A61K 38/193 20130101; A61K 2300/00 20130101 |
Class at
Publication: |
424/85.2 ;
514/44.R; 424/85.1; 514/7.7; 514/8.1; 514/8.6; 424/94.67; 514/17.7;
514/17.8 |
International
Class: |
A61K 38/20 20060101
A61K038/20; A61K 31/7088 20060101 A61K031/7088; A61K 38/19 20060101
A61K038/19; A61K 38/18 20060101 A61K038/18; A61P 25/00 20060101
A61P025/00; A61P 25/28 20060101 A61P025/28 |
Claims
1: A method for treating cognitive impairment in a person or animal
comprising administering to the person or animal an effective
amount of one or more inflammatory mediator(s), or a functional
fragment or variant thereof that exhibits substantially the same
biological activity as the full-length or non-variant inflammatory
mediator, or a polynucleotide encoding said inflammatory mediator,
or a compound or agent that induces production of said inflammatory
mediator, wherein said inflammatory mediator is able to cross the
blood brain barrier.
2: The method of claim 1, wherein said inflammatory mediator
comprises one or more of a fms-related tyrosine kinase 3 (Flt3)
ligand, interleukin-6 (IL-6), macrophage migration inhibitory
factor (MIF), interleukin-1 (IL-1), interleukin-3 (IL-3),
erythropoietin (EPO), vascular endothelial growth factor A
(VEGF-A), hypoxia-inducible transcription factor (HIF-1alpha),
insulin like growth factor-1 (IGF-1), tumor necrosis factor (TNF),
granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF),
granulocyte/macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF), Stem
Cell Factor (SCF), Darbepoetin (ARANESP), or a metalloproteinase,
or a functional fragment or variant thereof that exhibits
substantially the same biological activity as the full-length or
non-variant inflammatory mediator.
3: The method of claim 1, wherein said inflammatory mediator
comprises GM-CSF, or a functional fragment or variant thereof that
exhibits substantially the same biological activity as the
full-length or non-variant GM-CSF.
4: The method of claim 1, wherein said inflammatory mediator
comprises a biological equivalent of GM-CSF.
5: The method of claim 1, wherein said inflammatory mediator is
capable of reducing amyloid beta levels in the plasma or brain of
the treated person or animal.
6: The method of claim 3, wherein said GM-CSF is capable of
reducing neural tangles in the plasma or brain of the treated
person or animal.
7: The method of claim 1, wherein the cognitive impairment is
caused by or results from Alzheimer's disease.
8: The method of claim 1, wherein the inflammatory mediator is
administered intracranially.
9: The method of claim 1, wherein the inflammatory mediator is
administered by intracranial infusion.
10: The method of claim 1, wherein the inflammatory mediator is
administered to a non-neural cell or tissue.
11: The method of claim 1, wherein said method further comprises
evaluating the person or animal for cognitive impairment prior to
treatment.
12: The method of claim 1, wherein said composition comprises a
pharmaceutically acceptable carrier, diluent, or solute.
13: The method of claim 1, wherein said polynucleotide is provided
in an expression construct.
14: The method of claim 13, wherein said expression construct
provides for expression of said polynucleotide in neural cells.
15: The method of claim 14, wherein said neural cells are human
cells.
16: The method of claim 1, wherein said compound or agent that
induces production of said inflammatory mediator is EPO or
HIF-1.alpha..
17: The method of claim 1, wherein said cognitive impairment is
caused by or results from stroke, Down's syndrome, dementia
pugilistica, traumatic brain injury, AIDS-associated dementia, Lewy
body disease, or Pick's disease.
18: The method of claim 1, wherein i) G-CSF and/or GM-CSF and ii)
Darbepoetin and/or EPO are administered to the person or
animal.
19: A kit comprising in one or more containers one or more
inflammatory mediator(s), or a functional fragment or variant
thereof that exhibits substantially the same biological activity as
the full-length or non-variant inflammatory mediator, or a
polynucleotide encoding said inflammatory mediator, or a compound
or agent that induces production of said inflammatory mediator,
wherein said inflammatory mediator is able to cross the blood brain
barrier.
Description
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION
[0001] The present application claims the benefit of U.S.
Provisional Application Ser. No. 61/086,351, filed Aug. 5, 2008,
which is hereby incorporated by reference herein in its entirety,
including any figures, tables, nucleic acid sequences, amino acid
sequences, and drawings.
BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION
[0002] Memory loss has long been recognized as a common
accompaniment of aging. The inabilities to recall the name of a
recent acquaintance or the contents of a short shopping list are
familiar experiences for everyone, and this experience seems to
become more common as we age.
[0003] Over the last few decades, the medical community has changed
its view of memory loss in the elderly. These problems were viewed
in the past as inevitable accompaniments of aging, often referred
to as "senility" or "senior moments." More recently, physicians
have shifted their view of memory loss, such that memory impairment
of a certain degree is now considered pathological, and thus
indicative of a disease process affecting the brain. The threshold
most physicians use to make this judgment is that memory loss has
progressed to such an extent that normal independent function is
impossible; for instance, if one can no longer successfully manage
one's own finances or provide for one's own basic needs. This
degree of cognitive impairment has come to be referred to as
dementia.
[0004] However, many older individuals may complain of memory
problems, but still manage to independently accomplish all their
customary tasks. Usually, their ability to function well is based
on compensation for these difficulties, such as increased reliance
on a calendar or on reminder notes, lists, etc. In some cases,
these memory difficulties are a sign that worsening memory loss is
on the horizon.
[0005] The syndrome of subjective memory problems has come to be
commonly known as "Mild Cognitive Impairment" (MCI), although other
terms have been used, including "Cognitive Impairment, Not
Dementia" (CND). The patient with MCI complains of difficulty with
memory. Typically, the complaints include trouble remembering the
names of people they met recently, trouble remembering the flow of
a conversation, and an increased tendency to misplace things, or
similar problems. In many cases, the individual will be quite aware
of these difficulties and will compensate with increased reliance
on notes and calendars. Most importantly, the diagnosis of MCI
relies on the fact that the individual is able to perform all their
usual activities successfully, without more assistance from others
than they previously needed.
[0006] Several studies have examined the cognitive performance of
patients with MCI. These have demonstrated that, in general, these
patients perform relatively poorly on formal tests of memory, even
when compared with other individuals in their age group. They also
show mild difficulties in other areas of thinking, such as naming
objects or people (coming up with the names of things) and complex
planning tasks. These problems are similar, but less severe, than
the neuropsychological findings associated with Alzheimer's
disease. Careful questioning has also revealed that, in some cases,
mild difficulties with daily activities, such as performing
hobbies, are evident.
[0007] Several studies have demonstrated that memory complaints in
the elderly are associated with a higher-than-normal risk of
developing dementia in the future. Most commonly, the type of
dementia that patients with MCI are at risk to develop is
Alzheimer's disease, though other dementias, such as Vascular
Dementia or Frontotemporal Dementia may occur as well. However, it
is also clear that some patients with these complaints never
develop dementia.
[0008] Certain features are associated with a higher likelihood of
progression. These include confirmation of memory difficulties by a
knowledgeable informant (such as a spouse, child, or close friend),
poor performance on objective memory testing, and any changes in
the ability to perform daily tasks, such as hobbies or finances,
handling emergencies, or attending to one's personal hygiene.
[0009] One factor that had to be controlled for in many of these
studies was depression, as many patients with depression also
complain about their memory. Several studies have suggested that
certain measurements of atrophy (shrinkage) or decreased metabolism
on images of the brain (PET or MRI scans) increase the chances of
developing dementia in the future.
[0010] Although these above factors increase the chances of going
on to develop dementia, it is not possible currently to predict
with certainty which patients with MCI will or will not go on to
develop dementia. Thus, many of these measures, particularly the
measurements from brain images, are still considered to be useful
only for research.
[0011] One neurological disorder that is most widely known for its
progressive loss of intellectual capacities is Alzheimer's disease
(AD). Worldwide, about 20 million people suffer from Alzheimer's
disease. AD is clinically characterized by the initial loss of
memory, followed by disorientation, impairment of judgment and
reasoning, which is commonly referred to as cognitive impairment,
and ultimately by full dementia. AD patients finally lapse into a
severely debilitated, immobile state between four and twelve years
after onset of the disease.
[0012] The key pathological evidence for AD is the presence of
extracellular amyloid plaques and intracellular tau tangles in the
brain, which are associated with neuronal degeneration (Ritchie and
Lovestone (2002)). The extracellular amyloid plaques are believed
to result from an increase in the insoluble amyloid beta peptide
1-42 produced by the metabolism of amyloid-beta precursor protein
(APP). Following .beta., .gamma. secretion, these amyloid beta 1-42
peptides form amyloid fibrils more readily than the amyloid beta
1-40 peptides, which are predominantly produced in healthy people.
It appears that the amyloid beta peptide is on top of the
neurotoxic cascade: experiments show that amyloid beta fibrils,
when injected into the brains of P301 L tau transgenic mice,
enhance the formation of neurofibrillary tangles (Gotz et al.
(2001)). In fact, a variety of amyloid beta peptides have been
identified as amyloid beta peptides 1-42, 1-40, 1-39, 1-38, 1-37,
which can be found in plaques and are often seen in cerebral spinal
fluid.
[0013] The amyloid beta peptides are generated (or processed) from
the membrane anchored APP, after cleavage by beta secretase and
gamma secretase at position 671 and 711 or 713, respectively. In
addition, high activity of beta secretase results in a shift of the
cleavage at position 1 to position 11. Cleavage of amyloid-beta
precursor protein by alpha secretase activity will generate A.beta.
1-17 and gamma secretase activity at 40 or 42 generates the
non-pathological p3 peptide. Beta secretase was identified as the
membrane anchored aspartyl protease BACE, while gamma secretase is
a protein complex comprising presenilin I (PS1) or presenilin 2
(PS2), nicastrin, Anterior Pharynx Defective 1 (APH1) and
Presenilin Enhancer 2 (PEN2). Of these proteins, the presenilins
are widely thought to constitute the catalytic activity of the
gamma secretase, while the other components play a role in the
maturation and localization of the complex. The identity of the
alpha secretase is still illustrious, although some results point
towards the proteases ADAM 10 and TACE, which could have redundant
functions.
[0014] A small fraction of AD cases (mostly early onset AD) are
caused by autosomal dominant mutations in the genes encoding
presenilin 1 and 2 (PS1; PS2) and the amyloid-beta precursor
protein (APP), and it has been shown that mutations in APP, PS1 and
PS2 alter the metabolism of amyloid-beta precursor protein leading
to such increased levels of amyloid beta 1-42 produced in the
brain. Although no mutations in PS1, PS2 and amyloid-beta precursor
protein have been identified in late onset AD patients, the
pathological characteristics are highly similar to the early onset
AD patients. These increased levels of amyloid beta peptide could
originate progressively with age from disturbed amyloid-beta
precursor protein processing (e.g high cholesterol levels enhance
amyloid beta peptide production) or from decreased amyloid beta
peptide catabolism. Therefore, it is generally accepted that AD in
late onset AD patients is also caused by aberrant increased amyloid
peptide levels in the brains. The level of these amyloid beta
peptides; and more particularly amyloid-beta peptide 1-42, is
increased in Alzheimer patients compared to the levels of these
peptides in healthy persons.
BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION
[0015] The present invention provides materials and methods for
treating a person or animal having cognitive impairment wherein the
method comprises administering an effective amount of an
inflammatory mediator that is able to cross the blood brain
barrier. In one embodiment, the inflammatory mediator provides for
an increase in cognitive responses in the brain and/or exerting a
neural protective effect. Inflammatory mediators contemplated
within the scope of the present invention include, but are not
limited to, fms-related tyrosine kinase 3 (Flt3) ligand,
interleukin-6 (IL-6), macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF),
interleukin-1 (IL-1), interleukin-3 (IL-3), erythropoietin (EPO),
vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGF-A), hypoxia-inducible
transcription factor (HIF-1alpha), insulin like growth factor-1
(IGF-1), tumor necrosis factor (TNF), granulocyte
colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF), granulocyte/macrophage
colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF), macrophage colony-stimulating
factor (M-CSF), Stem Cell. Factor (SCF), Darbepoetin (ARANESP), and
metalloproteinases. In one embodiment, the inflammatory mediator is
GM-CSF, or a functional fragment or variant thereof. In a specific
embodiment, the cognitive impairment is caused by or results from
Alzheimer's disease. In addition, it is also contemplated that
compounds capable of inducing GM-CSF production in a mammal, which
subsequently exert an increase in cognitive responses in the brain,
can be used according to the subject invention. In one embodiment,
the inflammatory mediator is administered or delivered to a
non-neural cell or tissue of the human or animal.
[0016] The subject invention also concerns methods for decreasing
or inhibiting the progression of cognitive impairment in a person
or animal having memory problems associated with cognitive
functions or related dementias, comprising administering an
effective amount of an inflammatory mediator as described
herein.
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS
[0017] FIGS. 1 and 2 show pictures of a typical radial arm water
maze device for cognitive disease behavioral testing in mice. FIG.
1 shows the diagram of the maze as one would look down on the
device. FIG. 2 shows the device itself which is used for the
behavioral testing of animals.
[0018] FIGS. 3 and 4 show GMCSF Interference testing--Block 1 (FIG.
3) and Block 2 (FIG. 4).
[0019] FIGS. 5A and 5B show decreasing levels of insoluble amyloid
beta levels in the hippocampus of mice. FIG. 5C shows an increase
in levels of soluble amyloid beta levels in hippocampus of mice
with increasing plasma concentrations of GM-CSF.
[0020] FIGS. 6A and 6B: FIG. 6A shows intrahippocampal injection of
GM-CSF (left hemisphere) and aCSF (right hemisphere).
Representative coronal tissue cryo-sectioned at 14 .mu.m and
stained with MabTech .alpha.-A.beta./Alexa 546. Image is a montage
of about 145 pictures taken at 10.times.. White spots indicate
amyloid plaque immunolabelling (see FIGS. 13A-13D for
representative montaged sections of all 4 mice). FIG. 6B: overall
plaque reductions seen in all 4 plaque parameters measured,
computated from 5 quantified sections per mouse (n=4 mice). Error
bars are .+-.SEM. Statistical significance obtained by paired
Students t-test with P values (Area: P<1.11E-07; Perimeter:
P<1.41E-06; Feret Diameter: P<2.36E-09; Integrated Density:
P<1.11E-07).
[0021] FIGS. 7A-7F show behavioral analysis following daily
subcutaneous GM-CSF injections. FIGS. 7A-7D show standard Radial
Arm Water Maze errors. Shows substantial impairment in Tg control
mice (n=8) on working memory trials T4 and T5 compared to NT
control mice (n=8) in individual blocks of testing (FIGS. 7A and
7B), and over all 4 days of testing (FIGS. 7C and 7D).
GM-CSF-treated Tg mice (n=7) performed as well as or better than NT
control mice on working memory trials T4 and T5 during individual
blocks and over all. GM-CSF-treated NT mice (n=9) performed
similarly to or slightly better than NT controls (Note
significantly better performance of NT+GMCSF group vs. NT group for
T4 of Block 1, FIG. 7A), although this effect was not significant
overall. Statistical significance determined by one-way ANOVA
(**P<0.05 or higher significance versus all other groups;
P<0.05 or higher significance versus Tg+GM-CSF and NT+GM-CSF).
FIG. 7E shows cognitive Interference Task Overall (4 Days) Shows Tg
control mice are impaired compared to NT mice on all four cognitive
measures assessed. GM-CSF-treated Tg mice exhibited significantly
better 3-trial recall (A1-A3) and delayed recall (A5) compared to
Tg controls and performed similarly to NT mice in all four
cognitive measures. GM-CSF treatment of NT mice did not result in
significantly better performance compared to NT controls, although
trends for a beneficial GM-CSF effect in NT mice were evident
overall. Statistical significance was determined by one-way ANOVA
(*Tg significantly different from NT+GM-CSF, **Tg significantly
different from all other groups). FIG. 7F shows cognitive
Interference Task. Proactive Interference testing (First 2 days).
GM-CSF-treated Tg mice performed significantly better than Tg
controls and equally to NT and GM-CSF-treated NT mice. Statistical
significance determined by one-way ANOVA (**P<0.05 or higher
significance versus all other groups).
[0022] FIGS. 8A-8E show amyloid deposition in subcutaneous
GM-CSF-injected mice. FIGS. 8A-8D are photomicrographs of coronal 5
.mu.m paraffin-embedded sections immunolabelled with anti-A.beta.
antibody (clone 4G8). Pictures are representative of amyloid load
closest to the mean of the GM-CSF- or saline-treated Tg groups.
Scale bar=50 .mu.m. FIG. 8E shows the percent of amyloid burden
from the average of 5 sections per mouse of GM-CSF-treated (n=5)
versus saline-treated (n=6). Statistical significance was
determined by two-tailed homoscedastic Student's t-test: Entorhinal
cortex (*P <0.026), and Hippocampus (P=0.12).
[0023] FIGS. 9A-9E shows synaptophysin immunostaining in
subcutaneous GM-CSF-injected mice. FIGS. 9A-9D are photomicrographs
of coronal 5 .mu.Sum paraffin-embedded sections immunolabelled with
anti-synaptophysin antibody. Pictures are representative of
synaptophysin immunolabelling closest to the mean of the GM-CSF- or
saline-treated groups. Scale bar=50 .mu.m. FIG. 9E shows the
percent of synaptophysin immunoreactivity from the average of 5
sections per mouse of GM-CSF- treated (n=5) versus saline-treated
(n=6). Albeit numerically small, differences between the two groups
were statistically significant by two-tailed homoscedastic
Student's t-test: CA1(P <0.0013), CA3(P<0.0023).
[0024] FIG. 10 shows significant variation of amyloid plaque load
between mice. PS/APP mice of similar age (numbered sequentially
according to date of birth) after bilateral intracerebroventricular
infusions of M-CSF. Mouse numbers 148, 160, 171, and 211 received
M-CSF and mice 164, 170, 176, and 177 received aCSF. Infusions
lasted 2 weeks. Cryosectioned at 14 .mu.m and stained with
6E10/Alexa 488 and Hoechst. Bright green spots indicate amyloid
plaques. Pictures taken at 5.times..
[0025] FIGS. 11A-11C show intrahippocampal injection of M-CSF (left
hemisphere) and aCSF (right hemisphere). In FIG. 11A, the image is
a montage of .about.145 10.times. pictures and is representative of
the effects seen from anterior hippocampus to posterior in all 4
M-CSF-injected mice. The M-CSF-injected hemispheres show no
difference of amyloid deposition between hemispheres. FIG. 11B:
This photo shows enlargement of the M-CSF-injected left hemisphere,
as seen following saline perfusion. Note the small bump at the site
of injection. FIG. 11C is an image showing cyst or tumor-like
growth formed in the needle track at the site of M-CSF injection.
Cryosectioned at 14 .mu.m and stained with 6E10/Alexa 488 and
Hoechst. Bright green staining is non-specific and not indicative
of amyloid plaque. Picture taken at 20.times..
[0026] FIGS. 12A and 12B show intrahippocampal injection of G-CSF
(left hemisphere) and aCSF (right hemisphere). Amyloid plaques
indicated as white spots. Although the brain was sectioned at a
slight angle, visual observation of amyloid plaques show a general
reduction throughout the left G-CSF-injected hemisphere.
Cryosectioned at 14 .mu.m and stained with 6E10/IR800. Scanned on
the Licor Odyssey and enlarged for visualization. Sections numbered
1 through 6 and correspond with anterior to posterior.
[0027] FIGS. 13A-13D show intrahippocampal injection of GM-CSF
(left hemisphere) and aCSF (right hemisphere). Representative
sections of each mouse proximal to injection site. Tissue sections
stained with MabTech .alpha.-A.beta./Alexa 488. White spots
indicate amyloid plaque immunolabelling. Images are montages of
about 145 pictures taken at 10.times.. FIGS. 13A-13C are from 14
.mu.m frozen sections, and FIG. 13D is from a 5 .mu.m
paraffin-embedded section.
[0028] FIGS. 14A-14F show quantification of reduced amyloid
deposition in GM-CSF-injected left hemispheres versus aCSF-injected
contralateral right hemispheres. There were 5 sections per mouse
quantified. Each montaged section contained over 140 10.times.
pictures and of these, 15-25 pictures per hemisphere were selected
to quantify. All pictures per section were taken at the same
exposure on a Zeiss Imager.Z1 fluorescence microscope with a Zeiss
Axiocam Mrm camera (Oberkochen, Germany) using Axiovision 4.7
software. Each figure shows total or average values from the 5
sections/mouse with significance per individual mouse and overall.
Error bars are .+-.SEM: (FIGS. 14A-14B) plaque areas (FIGS.
14C-14D) perimeter values (FIG. 14E) average feret diameters (FIG.
14F) average integrated densities.
DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION
[0029] The present invention provides methods for treating a person
or animal having cognitive impairment wherein the method comprises
administering to the person or animal an effective amount of one or
more inflammatory mediators that are able to cross the blood brain
barrier, or a polynucleotide(s) encoding the inflammatory
mediator(s) (if the inflammatory mediator is a polypeptide), or a
composition comprising the inflammatory mediator(s) or
polynucleotide(s). The cognitive impairment can be a progressive
cognitive impairment. In a specific embodiment, the cognitive
impairment is caused by or results from Alzheimer's disease. In one
embodiment, the cognitive impairment is caused by or results from
stroke, Down's syndrome, dementia pugilistica, traumatic brain
injury, AIDS-associated dementia, Lewy body disease, or Pick's
disease. In one embodiment, the inflammatory mediator provides for
an increase in cognitive responses in the brain and/or a neural
protective effect. In one embodiment, the inflammatory mediator, or
polynucleotide encoding the inflammatory mediator, is of human
origin or sequence.
[0030] Inflammatory mediators contemplated within the scope of the
present invention include, but are not limited to, fins-related
tyrosine kinase 3 (Flt3) ligand, interleukin-6 (IL-6), macrophage
migration inhibitory factor (MIF), interleukin-1 (IL-1),
interleukin-3 (IL-3), erythropoietin (EPO), vascular endothelial
growth factor A (VEGF-A), hypoxia-inducible transcription factor
(HIP-1alpha), insulin like growth factor-1 (IGF-1), tumor necrosis
factor (TNF), granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF),
granulocyte/macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF),
macrophage colony-stimulating factor (M-CSF), Stem Cell Factor
(SCF), Darbepoetin (ARANESP), and metalloproteinases, or a
functional fragment or variant thereof that exhibits substantially
the same biological activity as the full-length or non-variant
inflammatory mediator.
[0031] Typically, to treat cognitive impairment in a human, the
inflammatory mediator will have the sequence of the human protein
or polynucleotide encoding it. The human sequences of the
inflammatory mediators described herein are known in the art (see,
for example, GenBank Accession Nos. NM.sub.--013520.3,
NM.sub.--000799.2, NM.sub.--000759.2, M11220.1, NM.sub.--181054.2,
NG.sub.--011713.1, NG.sub.--008851.1, NM.sub.--000588.3,
NG.sub.--011640.1, NM.sub.--000757.4, NG.sub.--012099.1,
NM.sub.--004530.4, NG.sub.--011468.1, NG.sub.--007462.1, and
NG.sub.--008732.1). In one embodiment, the inflammatory mediator is
GM-CST, or a functional fragment or variant thereof that exhibits
GM-CSF biological activity. In a specific embodiment, the GM-CSF is
human GM-CSF. In one embodiment, GM-CSF and Darbepoetin and/or EPO
are administered in a method of the invention for treating
cognitive impairment. In another embodiment, G-CSF and Darbepoetin
and/or EPO are administered. In addition, it is also contemplated
that compounds capable of inducing production in a mammal of an
inflammatory mediator of the invention, such as GM-CSF, which
subsequently exerts an increase in cognitive responses in the
brain, can be used according to the subject invention. Examples of
such compounds include, but are not limited to, EPO and
HIF-1.alpha. (Fisher (2003)). In one embodiment, the inflammatory
mediator is administered or delivered to a non-neural tissue of the
human or animal.
[0032] In one embodiment, an inflammatory mediator of the
invention, or a polynucleotide encoding the inflammatory mediator,
or a composition containing the inflammatory mediator or
polynucleotide, is delivered at an effective dose subcutaneously or
through infusion, intracranially, orally, parentally, intranasally,
via inhalation, intrathecally, intramuscularly, sublingually, or by
any other known and acceptable methods of drug delivery to a person
or animal in need of such therapy.
[0033] The subject invention also concerns methods for decreasing
or inhibiting the progression of cognitive impairment in a person
or animal having memory problems associated with cognitive
functions or related dementias. In one embodiment, a method of the
invention comprises administering an effective amount of an
inflammatory mediator of the invention, or a polynucleotide
encoding the inflammatory mediator, or a composition containing the
inflammatory mediator or polynucleotide, to the person or
animal.
[0034] In vivo application of the inflammatory mediators of the
invention, polynucleotides encoding the inflammatory mediators,
and/or compositions containing them, can be accomplished by any
suitable method and technique presently or prospectively known to
those skilled in the art. The subject compounds can be formulated
in a physiologically- or pharmaceutically-acceptable form and
administered by any suitable route known in the art including, for
example, oral, nasal, rectal, and parenteral routes of
administration. As used herein, the term parenteral includes
subcutaneous, intradermal, intravenous, intramuscular,
intraperitoneal, and intrasternal administration, such as by
injection. Administration of the subject inflammatory mediators of
the invention can be a single administration, or at continuous or
distinct intervals as can be readily determined by a person skilled
in the art.
[0035] The inflammatory mediators of the subject invention,
polynucleotides encoding the inflammatory mediators, and
compositions comprising them, can also be administered utilizing
liposome technology, slow release capsules, implantable pumps, and
biodegradable containers. These delivery methods can,
advantageously, provide a uniform dosage over an extended period of
time. The inflammatory mediators of the invention can also be
administered in their salt derivative forms or crystalline
forms.
[0036] Inflammatory mediators of the subject invention and
polynucleotides encoding the inflammatory mediators can be
formulated according to known methods for preparing physiologically
acceptable and/or pharmaceutically acceptable compositions.
Formulations are described in detail in a number of sources which
are well known and readily available to those skilled in the art.
For example, Remington's Pharmaceutical Science by E. W. Martin
describes formulations which can be used in connection with the
subject invention. In general, the compositions of the subject
invention will be formulated such that an effective amount of the
compound is combined with a suitable carrier in order to facilitate
effective administration of the composition. The compositions used
in the present methods can also be in a variety of forms. These
include, for example, solid, semi-solid, and liquid dosage forms,
such as tablets, pills, powders, liquid solutions or suspension,
suppositories, injectable and infusible solutions, and sprays. The
preferred form depends on the intended mode of administration and
therapeutic application. The compositions also preferably include
conventional physiologically-acceptable carriers and diluents which
are known to those skilled in the art. Examples of carriers or
diluents for use with the subject compounds include ethanol,
dimethyl sulfoxide. glycerol, alumina, starch, saline, and
equivalent carriers and diluents. To provide for the administration
of such dosages for the desired therapeutic treatment, compositions
of the invention may comprise between about 0.1% and 99%, and
especially, 1 and 15% by weight of the total of one or more of the
subject inflammatory mediator based on the weight of the total
composition including carrier or diluent.
[0037] Inflammatory mediators of the invention, polynucleotides
encoding the inflammatory mediators, and compositions comprising
them, can be delivered to a cell either through direct contact with
the cell or via a carrier means. Carrier means for delivering
inflammatory mediators and compositions to cells are known in the
art and include, for example, encapsulating the composition in a
liposome moiety. Another means for delivery of inflammatory
mediators and compositions of the invention to a cell comprises
attaching the inflammatory mediators to a protein or nucleic acid
that is targeted for delivery to the target cell. U.S. Pat. No.
6,960,648 and Published U.S. Patent Application Nos. 20030032594
and 20020120100 disclose amino acid sequences that can be coupled
to another composition and that allows the composition to be
translocated across biological membranes. Published U.S. Patent
Application No. 20020035243 also describes compositions for
transporting biological moieties across cell membranes for
intracellular delivery. Inflammatory mediators can also be
incorporated into polymers, examples of which include poly (D-L
lactide-co-glycolide) polymer for intracranial delivery;
poly[bis(p-carboxyphenoxy) propane:sebacic acid] in a 20:80 molar
ratio (as used in GLIADEL); chondroitin; chitin; and chitosan.
[0038] While inflammatory mediators of the invention and
polynucleotides encoding the inflammatory mediators can be
administered by themselves, these inflammatory mediators can also
be administered as part of a pharmaceutical composition. The
subject invention thus further provides compositions comprising one
or more inflammatory mediators in association with at least one
pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. The pharmaceutical composition
can be adapted for various routes of administration, such as
enteral, parenteral, intravenous, intramuscular, topical,
subcutaneous, and so forth. Administration can be continuous or at
distinct intervals, as can be determined by a person of ordinary
skill in the art.
[0039] Other formulations of inflammatory mediators and
polynucleotides encoding them suitable for administration include,
for example, aqueous sterile injection solutions, which may contain
antioxidants, buffers, bacteriostats, and solutes that render the
formulation isotonic with the blood of the intended recipient; and
aqueous and nonaqueous sterile suspensions which may include
suspending agents and thickening agents. The formulations may be
presented in unit-dose or multi-dose containers, for example sealed
ampoules and vials, and may be stored in a freeze dried
(lyophilized) condition requiring only the condition of the sterile
liquid carrier, for example, water for injections, prior to use.
Extemporaneous injection solutions and suspensions may be prepared
from sterile powder, granules, tablets, etc. It should be
understood that in addition to the ingredients particularly
mentioned above, the compositions of the subject invention can
include other agents conventional in the art having regard to the
type of formulation in question.
[0040] Inflammatory mediators of the invention, polynucleotides
encoding the inflammatory mediators, and compositions thereof, may
be locally administered at one or more anatomical sites, optionally
in combination with a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier such as
an inert diluent. Inflammatory mediators of the invention, and
compositions thereof, may be systemically administered, such as
intravenously or orally, optionally in combination with a
pharmaceutically acceptable carrier such as an inert diluent, or an
assimilable edible carrier for oral delivery. They may be enclosed
in hard or soft shell gelatin capsules, may be compressed into
tablets, or may be incorporated directly with the food of the
patient's diet. For oral therapeutic administration, the
inflammatory mediators may be combined with one or more excipients
and used in the form of ingestible tablets, buccal tablets,
troches, capsules, elixirs, suspensions, syrups, wafers, aerosol
sprays, and the like.
[0041] The tablets, troches, pills, capsules, and the like may also
contain the following: binders such as gum tragacanth, acacia, corn
starch or gelatin; excipients such as dicalcium phosphate; a
disintegrating agent such as corn starch, potato starch, alginic
acid and the like; a lubricant such as magnesium stearate; and a
sweetening agent such as sucrose, fructose, lactose or aspartame or
a flavoring agent such as peppermint, oil of wintergreen, or cherry
flavoring may be added. When the unit dosage form is a capsule, it
may contain, in addition to materials of the above type, a liquid
carrier, such as a vegetable oil or a polyethylene glycol. Various
other materials may be present as coatings or to otherwise modify
the physical form of the solid unit dosage form. For instance,
tablets, pills, or capsules may be coated with gelatin, wax,
shellac, or sugar and the like. A syrup or elixir may contain the
active compound, sucrose or fructose as a sweetening agent, methyl
and propylparabens as preservatives, a dye and flavoring such as
cherry or orange flavor. Of course, any material used in preparing
any unit dosage form should be pharmaceutically acceptable and
substantially non-toxic in the amounts employed. In addition, the
active compound may be incorporated into sustained-release
preparations and devices.
[0042] Inflammatory mediators, and polynucleotides encoding the
inflammatory mediators, and compositions of the invention,
including pharmaceutically acceptable salts or analogs thereof. can
be administered intravenously, intramuscularly, or
intraperitoneally by infusion or injection. Solutions of the active
agent or its salts can be prepared in water, optionally mixed with
a nontoxic surfactant. Dispersions can also be prepared in
glycerol, liquid polyethylene glycols, triacetin, and mixtures
thereof and in oils. Under ordinary conditions of storage and use,
these preparations can contain a preservative to prevent the growth
of microorganisms.
[0043] The pharmaceutical dosage forms suitable for injection or
infusion can include sterile aqueous solutions or dispersions or
sterile powders comprising the active ingredient which are adapted
for the extemporaneous preparation of sterile injectable or
infusible solutions or dispersions, optionally encapsulated in
liposomes. The ultimate dosage form should be sterile, fluid and
stable under the conditions of manufacture and storage. The liquid
carrier or vehicle can be a solvent or liquid dispersion medium
comprising, for example, water, ethanol, a polyol (for example,
glycerol, propylene glycol, liquid polyethylene glycols, and the
like), vegetable oils, nontoxic glyceryl esters, and suitable
mixtures thereof. The proper fluidity can be maintained, for
example, by the formation of liposomes, by the maintenance of the
required particle size in the case of dispersions or by the use of
surfactants. Optionally, the prevention of the action of
microorganisms can be brought about by various other antibacterial
and anti fungal agents, for example, parabens, chlorobutanol,
phenol, sorbic acid, thimerosal, and the like. In many cases, it
will be preferable to include isotonic agents, for example, sugars,
buffers or sodium chloride. Prolonged absorption of the injectable
compositions can be brought about by the inclusion of agents that
delay absorption, for example, aluminum monostearate and
gelatin.
[0044] Sterile injectable solutions can be prepared by
incorporating an inflammatory mediator of the invention in the
required amount in the appropriate solvent with various other
ingredients enumerated above, as required, followed by filter
sterilization. In the case of sterile powders for the preparation
of sterile injectable solutions, the preferred methods of
preparation are vacuum drying and the freeze drying techniques,
which yield a powder of the active ingredient plus any additional
desired ingredient present in the previously sterile-filtered
solutions.
[0045] For topical administration, inflammatory mediators of the
invention and polynucleotides encoding the inflammatory mediators
may be applied in as a liquid or solid. However, it will generally
be desirable to administer them topically to the skin as
compositions, in combination with a dermatologically acceptable
carrier, which may be a solid or a liquid. Inflammatory mediators
can be applied in a formulation such as an ointment, cream, lotion,
solution, tincture, or the like. Drug delivery systems for delivery
of pharmacological substances to dermal sites can also be used,
such as that described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,167,649.
[0046] Useful solid carriers include finely divided solids such as
talc, clay, microcrystalline cellulose, silica, alumina and the
like. Useful liquid carriers include water, alcohols or glycols or
water-alcohol/glycol blends, in which the compounds can be
dissolved or dispersed at effective levels, optionally with the aid
of non-toxic surfactants. Adjuvants such as fragrances and
additional antimicrobial agents can be added to optimize the
properties for a given use. The resultant liquid compositions can
be applied from absorbent pads, used to impregnate bandages and
other dressings, or sprayed onto the affected area using pump-type
or aerosol sprayers, for example.
[0047] Thickeners such as synthetic polymers, fatty acids, fatty
acid salts and esters, fatty alcohols, modified celluloses or
modified mineral materials can also be employed with liquid
carriers to form spreadable pastes, gels, ointments, soaps, and the
like, for application directly to the skin of the user. Examples of
useful dermatological compositions which can be used to deliver an
inflammatory mediator to the skin are disclosed in U.S. Pat. No.
4,608,392; U.S. Pat. No. 4,992,478; U.S. Patent No. 4,559,157; and
U.S. Pat. No. 4,820,508.
[0048] Useful dosages of the inflammatory mediators,
polynucleotides encoding the inflammatory mediators, and
pharmaceutical compositions of the present invention can be
determined by comparing their in vitro activity, and in vivo
activity in animal models. Methods for the extrapolation of
effective dosages in mice, and other animals, to humans are known
to the art; for example, see U.S. Pat. No. 4,938,949.
[0049] The present invention also concerns pharmaceutical
compositions comprising an inflammatory mediator of the invention,
or a polynucleotide encoding the inflammatory mediator, in
combination with a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier.
Pharmaceutical compositions adapted for oral, topical or parenteral
administration, comprising an amount of a compound constitute a
preferred embodiment of the invention. The dose administered to a
patient, particularly a human, in the context of the present
invention should be sufficient to achieve a therapeutic response in
the patient over a reasonable time frame, without lethal toxicity,
and preferably causing no more than an acceptable level of side
effects or morbidity. One skilled in the art will recognize that
dosage will depend upon a variety of factors including the
condition (health) of the subject, the body weight of the subject,
kind of concurrent treatment, if any, frequency of treatment,
therapeutic ratio, as well as the severity and stage of the
pathological condition.
[0050] To provide for the administration of such dosages for the
desired therapeutic treatment, in some embodiments, pharmaceutical
compositions of the invention can comprise between about 0.1% and
45%, and especially, 1 and 15%, by weight of the total of one or
more of the compounds based on the weight of the total composition
including carrier or diluents. Illustratively, dosage levels of the
administered active ingredients can be: intravenous, 0.01 to about
20 mg/kg; intraperitoneal, 0.01 to about 100 mg/kg; subcutaneous,
0.01 to about 100 mg/kg; intramuscular, 0.01 to about 100 mg/kg;
orally 0.01 to about 200 mg/kg, and preferably about 1 to 100
mg/kg; intranasal instillation, 0.01 to about 20 mg/kg; and
aerosol, 0.01 to about 20 mg/kg of animal (body) weight.
[0051] The subject invention also concerns polynucleotide
expression constructs that comprise a polynucleotide of the present
invention comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding an inflammatory
mediator of the present invention. In one embodiment, the
polynucleotide encodes human GM-CSF, or a fragment or variant
thereof that exhibits substantially the same activity as the
full-length or non-variant GM-CSF.
[0052] As used herein, the term "expression construct" refers to a
combination of nucleic acid sequences that provides for
transcription of an operably linked nucleic acid sequence. As used
herein, the term "operably linked" refers to a juxtaposition of the
components described wherein the components are in a relationship
that permits them to function in their intended manner. In general,
operably linked components are in contiguous relation.
[0053] Expression constructs of the invention will also generally
include regulatory elements that are functional in the intended
host cell in which the expression construct is to be expressed.
Thus, a person of ordinary skill in the art can select regulatory
elements for use in, for example, bacterial host cells, yeast host
cells, plant host cells, insect host cells, mammalian host cells,
and human host cells. Regulatory elements include promoters,
transcription termination sequences, translation termination
sequences, enhancers, and polyadenylation elements.
[0054] An expression construct of the invention can comprise a
promoter sequence operably linked to a polynucleotide sequence
encoding an inflammatory mediator of the invention. Promoters can
be incorporated into a polynucleotide using standard techniques
known in the art. Multiple copies of promoters or multiple
promoters can be used in an expression construct of the invention.
In a preferred embodiment, a promoter can be positioned about the
same distance from the transcription start site as it is from the
transcription start site in its natural genetic environment. Some
variation in this distance is permitted without substantial
decrease in promoter activity. A transcription start site is
typically included in the expression construct.
[0055] For expression in animal cells, an expression construct of
the invention can comprise suitable promoters that can drive
transcription of the polynucleotide sequence. If the cells are
mammalian cells, then promoters such as, for example, actin
promoter, metallothionein promoter, NF-kappaB promoter, EGR
promoter, SRE promoter, IL-2 promoter, NFAT promoter, osteocalcin
promoter, SV40 early promoter and SV40 late promoter, Lek promoter,
BMP5 promoter, TRP-1 promoter, murine mammary tumor virus long
terminal repeat promoter, STAT promoter, or an immunoglobulin
promoter can be used in the expression construct. The baculovirus
polyhedrin promoter can be used with an expression construct of the
invention for expression in insect cells. Promoters suitable for
use with an expression construct of the invention in yeast cells
include, but are not limited to, 3-phosphoglycerate kinase
promoter, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase promoter,
metallothionein promoter, alcohol dehydrogenase-2 promoter, and
hexokinase promoter.
[0056] For expression in prokaryotic systems, an expression
construct of the invention can comprise promoters such as, for
example, alkaline phosphatase promoter, tryptophan (trp) promoter,
lambda P.sub.L promoter, .beta.-lactamase promoter, lactose
promoter, phoA promoter, T3 promoter, T7 promoter, or tac promoter
(de Boer et al., 1983).
[0057] If the expression construct is to be provided in a plant
cell, plant viral promoters, such as, for example, the cauliflower
mosaic virus (CaMV) 35S (including the enhanced CaMV 35S promoter
(see, for example U.S. Pat. No. 5,106,739)) or 19S promoter can be
used. Plant promoters such as prolifera promoter, Ap3 promoter,
heat shock promoters, T-DNA 1'- or 2'-promoter of A. tumafaciens,
polygalacturonase promoter, chalcone synthase A (CHS-A) promoter
from petunia, tobacco PR-1a promoter, ubiquitin promoter, actin
promoter, alcA gene promoter, pin2 promoter (Xu et al., 1993),
maize WipI promoter, maize trpA gene promoter (U.S. Pat. No.
5,625,136), maize CDPK gene promoter, and RUBISCO SSU promoter
(U.S. Pat. No. 5,034,322) can also be used. Seed-specific promoters
such as the promoter. from a .beta.-phaseolin gene (of kidney bean)
or a glycinin gene (of soybean), and others, can also be used.
Constitutive promoters (such as the CaMV, ubiquitin, actin, or NOS
promoter), tissue-specific promoters (such as the E8 promoter from
tomato), developmentally-regulated promoters, and inducible
promoters (such as those promoters than can be induced by heat,
light, hormones, or chemicals) are contemplated for use with the
polynucleotides of the invention.
[0058] Expression constructs of the invention may optionally
contain a transcription termination sequence, a translation
termination sequence, signal peptide sequence, and/or enhancer
elements. Transcription termination regions can typically be
obtained from the 3' untranslated region of a eukaryotic or viral
gene sequence. Transcription termination sequences can be
positioned downstream of a coding sequence to provide for efficient
termination. Signal peptides are a group of short amino terminal
sequences that encode information responsible for the relocation of
an operably linked peptide to a wide range of post-translational
cellular destinations, ranging from a specific organelle
compartment to sites of protein action and the extracellular
environment. Targeting a polypeptide to an intended cellular and/or
extracellular destination through the use of operably linked signal
peptide sequence is contemplated for use with the inflammatory
mediators of the invention. Chemical enhancers are cis-acting
elements that increase gene transcription and can also be included
in the expression construct. Chemical enhancer elements are known
in the art, and include, but are not limited to, the CaMV 35S
enhancer element, cytomegalovirus (CMV) early promoter enhancer
element, and the SV40 enhancer element. DNA sequences which direct
polyadenylation of the mRNA encoded by the structural gene can also
be included in the expression construct.
[0059] Unique restriction enzyme sites can be included at the 5'
and 3' ends of the expression construct to allow for insertion into
a polynucleotide vector. As used herein, the term "vector" refers
to any genetic element, including for example, plasmids, cosmids,
chromosomes, phage, virus, and the like, which is capable of
replication when associated with proper control elements and which
can transfer polynucleotide sequences between cells. Vectors
contain a nucleotide sequence that permits the vector to replicate
in a selected host cell. A number of vectors are available for
expression and/or cloning, and include, but are not limited to,
pBR322, pUC series, M13 series, and pBLUESCRIPT vectors
(Stratagene, La Jolla, Calif.).
[0060] Polynucleotides, vectors, and expression constructs of the
subject invention can be introduced into a cell by methods known in
the art. Such methods include transfection, microinjection,
electroporation, lipofection, cell fusion, calcium phosphate
precipitation, and by biolistic methods. In one embodiment, a
polynucleotide or expression construct of the invention can be
introduced in vivo via a viral vector such as adeno-associated
virus (AAV), herpes simplex virus (HSV), papillomavirus,
adenovirus, and Epstein-Barr virus (EBV). Attenuated or defective
forms of viral vectors that can be used with the subject invention
are known in the art. Typically, defective virus is not capable of
infection after the virus is introduced into a cell.
Polynucleotides, vectors, and expression constructs of the
invention can also be introduced in vivo via lipofection (DNA
transfection via liposomes prepared from synthetic cationic lipids)
(Feigner et al., 1987). Synthetic cationic lipids (LIPOFECTIN,
Invitrogen Corp., La Jolla, Calif.) can be used to prepare
liposomes to encapsulate a polynucleotide, vector, or expression
construct of the invention. A polynucleotide, vector, or expression
construct of the invention can also be introduced in vivo as naked
DNA using methods known in the art, such as transfection,
microinjection, electroporation, calcium phosphate precipitation,
and by biolistic methods.
[0061] Polynucleotides and polypeptides of the subject invention
can also be defined in terms of more particular identity and/or
similarity ranges with those exemplified herein. The sequence
identity will typically be greater than 60%, preferably greater
than 75%, more preferably greater than 80%, even more preferably
greater than 90%, and can be greater than 95%. The identity and/or
similarity of a sequence can be 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57,
58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74,
75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91,
92, 93, 94. 95, 96, 97, 98, or 99% as compared to a sequence
exemplified herein. Unless otherwise specified, as used herein
percent sequence identity and/or similarity of two sequences can be
determined using the algorithm of Karlin and Altschul (1990),
modified as in Karlin and Altschul (1993). Such an algorithm is
incorporated into the NBLAST and XBLAST programs of Altschul et al.
(1990). BLAST searches can be performed with the NBLAST program,
score=100, wordlength=12, to obtain sequences with the desired
percent sequence identity. To obtain gapped alignments for
comparison purposes, Gapped BLAST can be used as described in
Altschul et al. (1997). When utilizing BLAST and Gapped BLAST
programs, the default parameters of the respective programs (NBLAST
and XBLAST) can be used. See NCBI/NIH website.
[0062] The subject invention also contemplates those polynucleotide
molecules (encoding an inflammatory mediator of the invention)
having sequences which are sufficiently homologous with the
polynucleotide sequences encoding an inflammatory mediator of the
invention so as to permit hybridization with that sequence under
standard stringent conditions and standard methods (Maniatis, I. et
al., 1982). As used herein, "stringent" conditions for
hybridization refers to conditions wherein hybridization is
typically carried out overnight at 20-25 C below the melting
temperature (Tm) of the DNA hybrid in 6.times. SSPE, 5.times.
Denhardt's solution, 0.1% SDS, 0.1 mg/ml denatured DNA. The melting
temperature is described by the following formula (Beltz, G.A. et
al., 1983):
[0063] Tm=81.5 C+16.6 Log[Na+]+0.41(%G+C)-0.61(%
formamide)-600/length of duplex in base pairs.
[0064] Washes are typically carried out as follows:
[0065] (1) Twice at room temperature for 15 minutes in 1.times.
SSPE, 0.1% SDS (low stringency wash).
[0066] (2) Once at Tm-20 C for 15 minutes in 0.2.times. SSPE, 0.1%
SDS (moderate stringency wash).
[0067] As used herein, the terms "nucleic acid" and "polynucleotide
sequence" refer to a deoxyribonucleotide or ribonucleotide polymer
in either single- or double-stranded form, and unless otherwise
limited, would encompass known analogs of natural nucleotides that
can function in a similar manner as naturally-occurring
nucleotides. The polynucleotide sequences include both the DNA
strand sequence that is transcribed into RNA and the RNA sequence
that is translated into protein. The polynucleotide sequences
include both full-length sequences as well as shorter sequences
derived from the full-length sequences. It is understood that a
particular polynucleotide sequence includes the degenerate codons
of the native sequence or sequences which may be introduced to
provide codon preference in a specific host cell. The
polynucleotide sequences falling within the scope of the subject
invention further include sequences which specifically hybridize
with the sequences coding for an inflammatory mediator of the
invention. The polynucleotide includes both the sense and anti
sense strands as either individual strands or in the duplex.
[0068] The subject invention also concerns kits comprising an
inflammatory mediator, and/or polynucleotides encoding the
inflammatory mediators, or a composition comprising an inflammatory
mediator, or a compound or agent that induces production of the
inflammatory mediator of the invention in one or more containers.
Kits of the invention can optionally include pharmaceutically
acceptable carriers and/or diluents. A kit of, the invention can
comprise one or more of fins-related tyrosine kinase 3 (Flt3)
ligand, interleukin-6 (IL-6), macrophage migration inhibitory
factor (MIF), interleukin-1 (IL-1), interleukin-3 (IL-3),
erythropoietin (EPO), vascular endothelial growth factor A
(VEGF-A), hypoxia-inducible transcription factor (H1F-1alpha),
insulin like growth factor-1 (IGF-1), tumor necrosis factor (TNF),
granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF),
granulocyte/macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF),
macrophage colony-stimulating factor (M-CSF), and
metalloproteinases. In one embodiment, a kit of the invention
includes one or more other components, adjuncts, or adjuvants as
described herein. In one embodiment, a kit of the invention
includes instructions or packaging materials that describe how to
administer an inflammatory mediator or composition of the kit.
Containers of the kit can be of any suitable material, e.g., glass,
plastic, metal, etc., and of any suitable size, shape, or
configuration. In one embodiment, an inflammatory mediator of the
invention is provided in the kit as a solid, such as a tablet,
pill, or powder form. In another embodiment, an inflammatory
mediator of the invention is provided in the kit as a liquid or
solution. In one embodiment, the kit comprises an ampoule or
syringe containing a compound and/or agent of the invention in
liquid or solution form.
[0069] The subject invention also concerns methods for identifying
a compound that stimulates the activities of GM-CSF and its
biological activities in reducing cognitive impairment.
[0070] The subject invention also concerns methods for identifying
a compound that competitively inhibits the activities of GM-CSF and
its biological activities in reducing cognitive impairment.
[0071] Mammalian species which benefit from the disclosed methods
include, but are not limited to, primates, such as apes,
chimpanzees, orangutans, humans, monkeys; domesticated animals
(e.g., pets) such as dogs, cats, guinea pigs, hamsters, Vietnamese
pot-bellied pigs, rabbits, and ferrets; domesticated farm animals
such as cows, buffalo, bison, horses, donkey, swine, sheep, and
goats; exotic animals typically found in zoos, such as bear, lions,
tigers, panthers, elephants, hippopotamus, rhinoceros, giraffes,
antelopes, sloth, gazelles, zebras, wildebeests, prairie dogs,
koala bears, kangaroo, opossums, raccoons, pandas, hyena, seals,
sea lions, elephant seals, otters, porpoises. dolphins, and whales.
Other species that may benefit from the disclosed methods include
fish, amphibians, avians, and reptiles. As used herein, the terms
"patient" and "subject" are used interchangeably and are intended
to include such human and non-human species. Likewise, in vitro
methods of the present invention can be carried out on cells of
such human and non-human species.
[0072] The following terms are intended to have the meanings
presented therewith below and are useful in understanding the
description of the present invention and are not meant to limit the
scope of the invention.
[0073] The term "neural cell" means any cell of neurological origin
(e.g., brain, spinal cord) including sensory, transmittal and motor
cells from the central nervous system or the peripheral nervous
system such as a neuron, a glial, astrocyte, etc.
[0074] The term "amyloid beta peptide" means amyloid beta peptides
processed from the amyloid beta precursor protein (APP). The most
common peptides include amyloid beta peptides 1-40, 1-42, 11-40 and
11-42. Other species of less prevalent amyloid beta peptides are
described as y-42, whereby y ranges from 2-17, and 1-x whereby x
ranges from 24-39 and 41.
[0075] The term "carrier" means a non-toxic material used in the
formulation of pharmaceutical compositions to provide a medium,
bulk and/or useable form to a pharmaceutical composition. A carrier
may comprise one or more of such materials such as an excipient,
stabilizer, or an aqueous pH buffered solution. Examples of
physiologically acceptable carriers include aqueous or solid buffer
ingredients including phosphate, citrate, and other organic acids;
antioxidants including ascorbic acid; low molecular weight (less
than about 10 residues) polypeptide; proteins, such as serum
albumin, gelatin, or immunoglobulins; hydrophilic polymers such as
polyvinylpyrrolidone; amino acids such as glycine, glutamine,
asparagine, arginine or lysine; monosaccharides, disaccharides, and
other carbohydrates including glucose, mannose, or dextrins;
chelating agents such as EDTA; sugar alcohols such as mannitol or
sorbitol; salt-forming counter ions such as sodium; and/or nonionic
surfactants such as TWEEN, polyethylene glycol (PEG), and
PLUTRONICS.
[0076] The term "contact" or "contacting" means bringing at least
two moieties together, whether in an in vitro system or an in vivo
system.
[0077] The term "condition" or "disease" means the overt
presentation of symptoms (i.e., illness) or the manifestation of
abnormal clinical indicators (e.g., biochemical indicators), or a
genetic or environmental risk of or propensity for developing such
symptoms or abnormal clinical indicators.
[0078] The term "endogenous" shall mean a material' that an animal
naturally produces. Endogenous in reference to, for example and not
limitation, the term "kinase" shall mean that which is naturally
produced by an animal, such as a mammal (for example, and not
limitation, a human) or a virus. In contrast, the term
non-endogenous in this context shall mean that which is not
naturally produced by an animal, such as a mammal (for example, and
not limitation, a human) or a virus. Both terms can be utilized to
describe both "in vivo" and "in vitro" systems. For example, and
not limitation, in a screening approach, the endogenous or
non-endogenous kinase may be in reference to an in vitro screening
system. As a further example, and not limitation, where the genome
of a mammal has been manipulated to include a non-endogenous
constitutively activated kinase, screening of a candidate compound
by means of an in vivo system is viable.
[0079] The term "inhibit" or "inhibiting" or "suppress" or
"suppressing" or "suppressive," in relationship to the term
"response" means that a response is decreased or prevented in the
presence of a compound as opposed to in the absence of the
compound.
[0080] The term "ligand" means an endogenous, naturally occurring
molecule specific for an endogenous, naturally occurring
receptor.
[0081] The term "pharmaceutically acceptable prodrugs" as used
herein means the prodrugs of the compounds useful in the present
invention, which are, within the scope of sound medical judgment,
suitable for use in contact with the tissues of patients with undue
toxicity, irritation, allergic response commensurate with a
reasonable benefit/risk ratio, and effective for their intended use
of the compounds of the invention. The term "prodrug" means a
compound that is transformed in vivo to yield an effective compound
useful in the present invention or a pharmaceutically acceptable
salt, hydrate or solvate thereof. The transformation may occur by
various mechanisms, such as through hydrolysis in blood. The
compounds bearing metabolically cleavable groups have the advantage
that they may exhibit improved bioavailability as a result of
enhanced solubility and/or rate of absorption conferred upon the
parent compound by virtue of the presence of the metabolically
cleavable group, thus, such compounds act as pro-drugs. A thorough
discussion is provided in Bundgaard (1985), Widder et al. (1985),
Krogsgaard-Larsen and Bandaged (1991), Bundgard (1992), Nielsenw
and Bundgaard (1988), Nakeya et al. (1984), Higuchi and Stella
(1987), which are incorporated herein by reference. An example of
the prodrugs is an ester prodrug. "Ester prodrug" means a compound
that is convertible in vivo by metabolic means (e.g., by
hydrolysis) to an inhibitor compound according to the present
invention. For example an ester prodrug of a compound containing a
carboxy group may be convertible by hydrolysis in vivo to the
corresponding carboxy group.
[0082] The term "pharmaceutically acceptable salts" refers to the
non-toxic, inorganic and organic acid addition salts, and base
addition salts, of compounds of the present invention. These salts
can be prepared in situ during the final isolation and purification
of compounds useful in the present invention.
[0083] The term "pharmaceutical excipients" refers to non-toxic
adjuvants or compounds which can be added to the present invention
which is capable of enhancing the biologically active effects of
the peptide or its absorbancy in the body.
[0084] The term "polypeptide" relates to a protein made up of any
one of the natural or synthetic amino acids and their equivalents.
In the present invention, a polypeptide can mean, for example, the
amino acid sequence of a GM-CSF protein or a biologically active
equivalent thereof In certain instances, any one of the naturally
occurring amino acids can be replaced with a functional amino acid
without changing the biological activity of the peptide. For
example, peptides are short, sequence- and length-specific
oligomers composed of amino acids. These familiar biomolecules are
ubiquitous in living cells and assume myriad roles, including cell
receptor ligand, endogenous antibiotic, and even components of
pulmonary surfactant. Each role assumed by a bioactive peptide will
typically correspond to a unique three-dimensional structure. In
this way, nature has exquisitely refined bioactive peptide
sequences and activities through evolution and, naturally, there
has been significant interest in exploiting these molecules as
pharmaceutical lead compounds. Often second generation
pharmaceutical therapies have focused on the creation of
non-natural peptide mimics. These `peptidomimetics` can be based on
any oligomer that mimics peptide primary structure through use of
amide bond isosteres and/or modification of the native peptide
backbone, including chain extension or heteroatom incorporation.
Peptidomimetic oligomers are often protease-resistant, and may have
reduced immunogenicity and improved bioavailability relative to
peptide analogues. In addition to primary structural mimicry, a
select subset of the sequence-specific peptidomimetic oligomers,
the so-called `foldamers,` exhibits well-defined secondary
structural elements such as helices, turns and small, sheet-like
structures. When a peptide's bioactivity or its biological
equivalent is contingent upon a precise 3-D structure, the capacity
of a biomimetic oligomer to fold can be indispensable. Examples of
simple peptidomimetics include azapeptides, oligocarbamates and
oligoureas, and common foldamer examples include .beta.-peptides,
.gamma.-peptides, oligo(phenylene ethyylenes), vinylogous
sulfonopeptides and poly-N-substituted glycines (peptoids).
Therefore, peptidomimetics of a an inflammatory mediator of the
present invention, such as GM-CSF polypeptide are within the scope
of the present invention.
[0085] The term "solvate" means a physical association of a
compound useful in this invention with one or more solvent
molecules. This physical association can include hydrogen bonding.
In certain instances the solvate will be capable of isolation, for
example when one or more solvent molecules are incorporated in the
crystal lattice of the crystalline solid. "Solvate" encompasses
both solution-phase and isolable solvates. Representative solvates
include hydrates, ethanolates and methanolates.
[0086] The term "effective amount" or "therapeutically effective
amount" means that amount of a compound or agent that will elicit
the biological or medical response of a subject that is being
sought by a medical doctor or other clinician. In particular, with
regard to treating a neuronal disorder, the term "effective amount"
is intended to mean that effective doses of medicament which can
decrease cognitive impairment in a subject. The typical weight for
an average mouse is approximately 0.025 kg with a metabolic rate of
approximately 7.2 times that of a human. The typical weight for an
average person is approximately 70 kg. With the standard weight and
metabolic rate adjustments, it is within the scope of one of
ordinary skill in the art to be able to derive effective doses for
therapies of medicament of the invention as described herein. For
example, effective amounts within the scope of the invention are
equivalent mouse doses which is within about 5 mcg/day for a period
as needed to achieve cognitive effects which is within about 2
mg/day for humans. Alternatively, effective doses for humans can
also be within the range of about 50 mcg/day to about 2 mg/day, or
alternatively 50 mcg/day, or 100 mcg/day, or 250 mcg/day, or 500
mcg/day, or 750 mcg/day or 1 mg/day or 1.25 mg/day, or 1.5 mg/day
or 2 mg/day, or 2.25 mg/day, or 2.5 mg/day or adjusted as needed
for the weight, metabolism and metabolic needs of the individual to
at least achieve the effective cognitive effects of such
individual.
[0087] The term "treating" means an intervention performed with the
intention of reversing or preventing the development or altering
the pathology of, and thereby alleviating a disorder, disease or
condition, including one or more symptoms of such disorder,
disease, or condition. Preventing refers to prophylactic or
preventative measures. The related term "treatment," as used
herein, refers to the act of treating a disorder, symptom, disease
or condition, as the term "treating" is defined above.
[0088] Flt3 ligand is a ligand for the FLT3 tyrosine kinase
receptor and belongs to a small group of growth factors that
regulate proliferation of early hematopoietic cells. Multiple
isoforms of Flt3 ligand have been identified. The predominant form
is the transmembrane form, which is biologically active on the cell
surface. When proteolytically cleaved the transmembrane isoform
generates a soluble form, which is also biologically active. Flt3
ligand binds to cells expressing the tyrosine kinase receptor Flt3.
Flt3 ligand alone cannot stimulate proliferation, but synergizes
well with other Colony Stimulating Factors (CSFs) and interleukins
to induce growth and differentiation.
[0089] Interleukin 6 (IL-6) is a multifunctional 24 kDa protein
originally discovered in the medium of RNA stimulated fibroblastoid
cells. It is upregulated by IL-1, TNF, PDGF, IFN-beta, TNF-alpha,
NGF, IL-17 and downregulated by glucocorticoids IL-4, TGF-beta.
IL-6 appears to be directly involved in the responses that occur
after infection and cellular injury, and it may prove to be as
important as IL-1 and TNF-alpha in regulating the acute phase
response. IL-6 has also been implicated in regulating adipose mass.
IL-6 is reported to be produced by fibroblasts, activated T cells,
activated monocytes or macrophages and endothelial cells. It acts
upon a variety of cells including fibroblasts, myeloid progenitor
cells, T cells, B cells and hepatocytes. In addition, IL-6 appears
to interact with IL-2 in the proliferation of T lymphocytes. IL-6
potentiates the proliferative effect of IL-3 on multipotential
hematopoietic progenitors.
[0090] Macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF), originally
described as a T lymphocyte-derived factor that inhibited the
random migration of macrophages, is an enigmatic cytokine for
almost 3 decades. In recent years, the discovery of MIF as a
product of the anterior pituitary gland and the cloning and
expression of bioactive, recombinant MIF protein have led to the
definition of its critical biological role in vivo. MIF has the
unique property of being released from macrophages and I
lymphocytes that have been stimulated by glucocorticoids. Once
released, MIF overcomes the inhibitory effects of glucocorticoids
on TNF alpha, IL-1 beta, IL-6, and IL-8 production by
LPS-stimulated monocytes in vitro and suppresses the protective
effects of steroids against lethal endotoxemia in vivo. MIF also
antagonizes glucocorticoid inhibition of T-cell proliferation in
vitro by restoring IL-2 and IFN-gamma production. This observation
has resulted in the identification of a pivotal role for MIF within
the immune system and fills an important gap in our understanding
of the control of inflammatory and immune responses.
Glucocorticoids have long been considered to be an integral
component of the stress response to infection or tissue invasion
and serve to modulate inflammatory and immune responses. MIF is the
first mediator to be identified that can counter-regulate the
inhibitory effects of glucocorticoids and thus plays a critical
role in the host control of inflammation and immunity.
[0091] Tumor necrosis factor (TNF) is a member of a superfamily of
proteins, each with 157 amino acids, which induce necrosis (death)
of tumor cells and possess a wide range of proinflammatory actions.
Tumor necrosis factor is a multifunctional cytokine with effects on
lipid metabolism, coagulation, insulin resistance, and the function
of endothelial cells lining blood vessels.
[0092] Interleukin-1 (IL-1) is one of the first cytokines ever
described. Its initial discovery was as a factor that could induce
fever, control lymphocytes, increase the number of bone marrow
cells and cause degeneration of bone joints. At this time, IL-1 was
known under several other names including endogenous pyrogen,
lymphocyte activating factor, haemopoetin-1 and mononuclear cell
factor, amongst others. It was around 1984-1985 when scientists
confirmed that IL-1 was actually composed of two distinct proteins,
now called IL-1.alpha. and IL-1.beta..
[0093] Interleukin-3 (IL-3), a 152 amino acid protein, usually
glycosylated, was originally found as a T lymphocyte-derived factor
which induced 20alpha-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase synthesis within
hematopoietic cells. It is secreted by activated T cells and binds
to the IL-3 receptor that heterodimerizes with a common beta c
receptor subunit, which is shared by GM-CSF and IL-5. IL-3
functions similarly to GM-CSF and the human IL-3 gene is located on
chromosome 5, nine kilobases away from the GM-CSF gene. IL-3 has
been shown to support the proliferation of many hematopoietic cell
types and is involved in a variety of cell activities such as cell
growth, differentiation and apoptosis.
[0094] Erythropoietin (EPO) is a 30.4 kDA glycoprotein hormone,
produced mainly by peritubular fibroblasts of the renal cortex, and
it works to protect erythrocytes from apoptosis, as well as promote
proliferation and maturation of erythroid progenitor cells through
synergistic actions with other growth factors (IGF-1, IL-3, and
GM-CSF). Blood oxygenation is thought to regulate EPO's expression
through constitutively-synthesized transcription factors called
hypoxia-inducible factors. EPO has also been reported to have
neuroprotective and angiogenic properties.
[0095] Vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGF-A) is a
multi-functional protein that belongs to the platelet-derived
growth factor family and is involved in vasculogenesis and
angiogenesis. It is produced in hypoxic cells and released by
HIF-1.alpha. expression to bind to cell surface receptors VEGFR-1
(Flt-1) or VEGFR-2 (KDR/Flk-1), inducing various functions
accordingly. It has been shown to stimulate endothelial cell
mitogenesis and migration, vasodilation, and be chemotactic to
monocytic-lineage hematopoietic cells.
[0096] Hypoxia-inducible transcription factor alpha (HIF-1.alpha.)
is a transcription factor that responds to changes in available
cellular oxygen. In normoxic conditions, it is rapidly degraded by
the proteasome upon prolyl hydroxylation by FIIF
prolyl-hydroxylase, which subsequently induces its ubiquitination.
Hypoxic conditions prevents this prolyl hydroxylation, and
HIF-1.alpha. is stabilized and acts to upregulate several genes
which promote hypoxic survival, such as EPO, and VEGF. HIF-1.alpha.
thus increases vasculogenesis and angiogenesis through upregulation
of these genes.
[0097] Insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) is a 70 amino acid
polypeptide protein hormone similar in molecular structure to
insulin and is produced primarily by the liver. IGF-1 binds to the
IGF-1 receptor (IGF-R) and the insulin receptor (IR), and is a
potent activator of the cell growth and anti-apoptotic AKT
signaling pathway. Although produced throughout life, its
expression is lowest in infancy and old age, and IGF-R and IR have
been reported to be reduced in Alzheimer's disease (AD) and
correlate with neurodegeneration. IGF-1 has also been implicated in
the pathogenesis of type 2 diabetes, a positive-risk factor for AD,
through vascular complications resulting from its deficient
signaling with insulin and EPO.
[0098] Granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF or GCSF) is a
colony-stimulating factor hormone. It is a glycoprotein, growth
factor or cytokine produced by a number of different tissues to
stimulate the bone marrow to produce granulocytes and stem cells.
G-CSF then stimulates the bone marrow to release them into the
blood. It also stimulates the survival, proliferation,
differentiation, and function of neutrophil precursors and mature
neutrophils. G-CSF is also known as colony-stimulating factor 3
(CSF-3).
[0099] Granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) is
a protein secreted by macrophages, T cells, mast cells. endothelial
cells and fibroblasts. GM-CSF is a cytokine that functions as a
white blood cell growth factor. GM-CSF stimulates stern cells to
produce granulocytes (neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils),
monocytes, and dendritic cells. Monocytes exit the circulation and
migrate into tissue, whereupon they mature into macrophages. It is
thus part of the immune/inflammatory cascade, by which activation
of a small number of macrophages can rapidly lead to an increase in
their numbers, a process crucial for fighting infection. The active
form of the protein is found extracellularly as a homodimer.
[0100] Macrophage colony-stimulating factor (M-CSF or CSF-1) is a
secreted cytokine which influences hemopoietic monocytic cells to
proliferate and differentiate into macrophages or other related
cell types, such as osteoclasts, as well as activating mature
macrophages, osteoclasts, and microglia. M-CSF has been recently
reported to have decreased expression in AD patients, and its
peripheral administration in an amyloidosis murine animal model of
AD ameliorated amyloid deposition and cognitive function.
[0101] Metalloproteinases (or metalloproteases) constitute a family
of enzymes from the group of proteinases, classified by the nature
of the most prominent functional group in their active site. There
are two subgroups of metalloproteinases: exopeptidases called
metalloexopeptidases and endopeptidases called
metalloendopeptidases. Well known metal loendopeptidases include
ADAM proteins and matrix metalloproteinases.
[0102] Darbepoetin is a novel erythropoetin-stimulating factor
(NESP) that has a longer plasma half-life than EPO, and only varies
by native human EPO at 5 amino acid positions. Darbepoetin would
also be expected to act synergistically with GM-CSF in the
maturation and proliferation of the burst-forming and
colony-forming erythroid units to the normoblast stage of
erythropoiesis (Fisher (2003)). Erythropoiesis is important in
Alzheimer's disease due to oxygenation of neuronal cells, and to
clearance of complement-bound circulating amyloid beta proteins via
the expression of complement receptor 1 (CR1) on the erythrocyte
surface (Rogers el al. (2006); Cadman and Puttfarcken (1997); Helmy
et at. (2006)).
[0103] Stem Cell Factor (SCF) is a cytokine which has been reported
to stimulates the growth and development of primitive
multipotential and unipotential hematopoietic stem cells either
alone or in combination with other cytokines such as GM-CSF, G-CSF,
and EPO (Fisher (2003)). SCF also acts to stimulate the function of
mature granulocytes (Czygier et al. (2007)).
[0104] All patents, patent applications, provisional applications,
and publications referred to or cited herein are incorporated by
reference in their entirety, including all figures and tables, to
the extent they are not inconsistent with the explicit teachings of
this specification.
[0105] Following are examples that illustrate procedures for
practicing the invention. These examples should not be construed as
limiting. All percentages are by weight and all solvent mixture
proportions arc by volume unless otherwise noted.
Example 1
[0106] Radial Arm Water Maze Testing--Working (short-term) memory
is evaluated in the radial arm water maze (RAWM) task, using the
same pool that was involved in both Morris water maze and platform
recognition testing. This task also uses the same clear platform
and visual cues as in Morris maze testing.
[0107] For the radial arm water maze task of spatial working
memory, an aluminum insert was placed into a 100 cm circular pool
to create 6 radially distributed swim arms emanating from a central
circular swim area. An assortment of 2-D and 3-D visual cues
surrounded the pool. The number of errors prior to locating which
one of the 6 swim arms contained a submerged escape platform (9 cm
diameter) was determined for 5 trials/day over 8 days of
pre-treatment testing and 4 days of post-treatment testing. There
was a 30-min time delay between the 4th trial (T4; final
acquisition trial) and 5th trial (T5; memory retention trial). The
platform location was changed daily to a different arm, with
different start arms for each of the 5 trials semi-randomly
selected from the remaining 5 swim arms. During each trial (60 s
maximum), the mouse was returned to that trial's start arm upon
swimming into an incorrect arm and the number of seconds required
to locate the submerged platform was recorded. If the mouse did not
find the platform within a 60-s trial, it was guided to the
platform for the 30-s stay. The numbers of errors and escape
latency during trials 4 and 5 are both considered indices of
working memory and are temporally similar to the standard
registration/recall testing of specific items used clinically in
evaluating AD patients.
[0108] Following post-treatment completion of RAWM testing (4
days), all mice were further evaluated in a novel cognitive
interference task for 6 days. This task involves two radial arm
water maze set-ups in two different rooms, and 3 different sets of
visual cues. The task required animals to remember a set of visual
cues, so that following interference with a different set of cues,
the initial set of cues can be recalled to successfully solve the
radial arm water maze task. A set of five behavioral measures were
examined. Behavioral measures were: A1-A3 (Composite three-trial
recall score from first 3 trials performed in RAWM "A"), "B"
(proactive interference measure attained from a single trial in
RAWM "B"), A4 (retroactive interference measure attained during a
single trials in RAWM "A"), and "A5" (delayed-recall measure
attained from a single trial in RAWM "A" following a 20 minute
delay between A4 and A5). As with the stand RAWM task, this
interference task involved the platform location being changed
daily to a different arm for both of the RAWM set-ups utilized, and
different start arms for each day of testing for both RAWM set-ups.
For Al and B trials, the animal was initially allowed one minute to
find the platform on its own before it was guided to the platform.
Then the actual trial was performed in each case.
[0109] Mouse recombinant GM-CSF was used in each experiment using
PS/APP mice. 5 .mu.g per injection were reconstituted in saline and
injected into treated mice subcutaneously over the period of the
study as outlined below.
Cohort 1: 29 mice, F8 White Generation, DOB Apr. 20-May 7, 2007 8
APP mice, 21 Non-transgenic mice Pre-testing RAWM: Mice 1 year
old
8 Days of RAWM: Apr. 25-May 2, 2008
[0110] 15-Day delay between pre-testing and starting injections
Begin Treatment May 17, 2008
[0111] 10 Days of injections (5 .mu.g/day s.c.) before RAWM
post-testing with daily injections throughout entire testing
period. Begin post-testing RAWM May 27, 2008-May 30, 2008; no
testing May 31, 2008-Jun. 1, 2008 but daily injections continued;
begin Interference RAWM Jun. 2, 2008- Jun. 7, 2008 Additional mice
added to study=Cohort 2 8 mice: F8 Bright Orange, DOB May 27, 2007
3 APP/PS1, 4 APP
F7 Light Blue, DOB Jun. 27, 2007, 1 APP
Pre-Testing RAWM
8 Days of RAWM: May 12-May 19, 2008
[0112] Started 17 days after cohort 1 15-Day delay between
pre-testing and starting injections
Begin Treatment Jun. 3, 2008
[0113] 10 Days of injections (5 .mu.g/day s.c.) before RAWM
post-testing with injections each day throughout entire testing
period. Begin post-testing RAWM Jun. 12, 2008-Jun. 15, 2008; no
testing Jun. 16, 2008-Jun. 17, 2008 but daily injections continued;
Begin Interference RAWM Jun. 18, 2008-Jun. 23, 2008
RESULTS
[0114] FIGS. 3, 4, and 7 depict the results of the GM-CSF testing.
FIGS. 7A-7D: Standard RAWM errors (4 days of testing; two 2-day
blocks). For both Blocks 1 and 2 of testing, the untreated APP
transgenic group shows clear impairment compared to all or most
other groups on working memory trials T4 and T5. Performance over
all post-treatment days of testing revealed that the untreated APP
transgenic group was substantially impaired compared to all 3 other
groups, which performed similarly to each other.
FIG. 7E: GM-CSF Interference Testing--Overall
[0115] The untreated APP transgenic group was very impaired in
immediate recall trials (A1-A3) compared to all 3 other groups. The
untreated APP transgenic group showed significantly impaired
performance for both proactive (Trial B) and retroactive (Trial A4)
interference trials compared to GM-CSF treated nontransgenic
littermate controls. APP transgenie GM-CSF treated group performed
no differently from treated and untreated nontransgenic littermate
control groups on these trials. The untreated APP transgenic group
was very impaired in the delayed recall trial (A5) compared to all
3 other groups, which did not differ from one another in
performance.
FIGS. 3 and 4: GM-CSF Interference Testing--Block 1 and Block
2.
[0116] During both blocks, the untreated APP transgenic group
showed impaired immediate recall (A1-A3) and impaired delayed
recall (A5) compared to all 3 other groups, which exhibited no
differences from one another in performance. During Block 1, the
APP untreated transgenic group showed a selective impairment in
proactive interference performance (Trial B). All the other groups
performed much better during this trial and performances was
identical to one another. During both blocks, the untreated APP
transgenic group was impaired in retroactive interference (A4)
compared to the GM-CSF treated nontransgenic littermate group.
[0117] it is evident from both standard RAWM testing and RAWM
interference testing that the untreated APP transgenic group is
consistently impaired in working memory, proactive interference,
retroactive interference, and delayed recall compared to the other
3 groups. By contrast, the GM-CSF treated APP transgenic group's
performance is never statistically different from that of the
nontransgenic littermates which were GM-CSF treated or untreated.
It is clearly indicated that the untreated APP transgenie group
performed much poorer across multiple cognitive measures in
comparison to the other 3 groups.
[0118] Further, in a separate set of experiments wherein groups of
mice were treated with caffeine and plasma levels of GM-CSF were
ascertained to determine if there was a correlation between GM-CSF
levels and amyloid beta levels in the hippocampus, it was found
that there were strong inverse correlations between plasma GM-CSF
and hippocampal insoluble A-beta levels, e.g. see FIGS. 5A and SB.
By contrast, there was a significant positive correlation between
plasma GM-CSF and hippocampal soluble A-beta levels (see FIG. 5C).
This separate observational study using animals in a different set
of experiments suggested that GM-CSF was in some way removing
insoluble deposited A-beta from the brain, resulting in increased
soluble A-beta in the brain. Perhaps the elevated soluble A-beta is
the transport mechanism for clearance of the beta plaques into the
plasma. This may suggest a mechanism of cognitive benefits of
GM-CSF. Other mechanisms which may explain the cognitive benefits
of GM-CSF or its biological equivalents are possible and within the
scope of the invention as described herein, would include
neovascularization in the brain with increased cerebral blood flow,
reductions in plaques and their associated inflammation,
bone-marrow-derived neurogenesis, or neuroprotection against
microvascular plaque-induced ischemia and resulting oxidative
stress. It is also considerable that any combination of these
mechanisms mentioned herein is considered as attributable to the
effects of GM-CSF and its biological equivalents on cognitive
benefits and would be within the scope of practice of the claimed
invention as described herein.
Materials and Methods for Example 2
[0119] Transgenic Mice Involving Intracerebral Administration of
CSFs. PS/APP mice were generated by crossing heterozygous PDGF-hAPP
(V717F) mice with PDGF-hPS1 (M146L) on both Swiss Webster and
C57BL/6 backgrounds. Transgene detection was performed using
comparative real-time PCR (Bio-Rad iCycler- Hercules, Calif.). The
pathogenic phenotype in this model is robust amyloid plaque
accumulation beginning 6-8 months of age. All procedures involving
experimentation on animals were performed in accordance with the
guidelines set forth by the University of South Florida Animal Care
and Use Committee.
[0120] Intracranial Infusions of M-CSF. Animals (PS/APP, all
8.8-9.6 months, 25-35 g, both genders) were anesthetized with 1-2%
isoflurane, shaved and scrubbed with 10% Betadine solution at the
site of incision, and placed into a stereotaxic frame (Kopf
Instruments, Tujunga, Calif.). A small (4 cm) incision was made,
exposing the skull, and double bladed scissors were used to form a
subcutaneous pocket along the animal's back into which osmotic
minipumps (Alzet model 1004, Durect Corp., Cupertino, Calif.) were
inserted. Two holes were drilled into the skull (from Bregma -0.1
mm anterior-posterior, +/-0.9 mm medial-lateral, and the 30 gauge
catheters were inserted at depth of 3.0 mm, corresponding to the
lateral ventricles). Leading from the Alzet pump is a proprietary
catheter system (International Application No. PCT/U.S. Pat. No.
08/73974) with the delivery tips fashioned to the contours of the
skull rather than the commercially-available pedestal cannula. This
completely subcutaneously-contained system allows bilateral
intracerebral infusion of test substances. This capability
overcomes the problem of the variance in amyloid deposition between
animals (see FIG. 10), by allowing for infusion into each
hemisphere, where a test substance can be delivered ipsilaterally
and vehicle contralaterally, effectively making each animal its own
control. Moreover. the scalp heals and reduces chronic inflammation
and irritation to the mice from the open wound, seen with
pedestal-mounted cannula usage. Once the cannulae are both
inserted, they are affixed to the skull using Locktite 454 adhesive
(Plastics One, Roanoke, Va.) and secured with 1 cm diameter
nitrile. After the adhesive cures, the scalp is sutured with 6-7
silk sutures and the animal is given an immediate dose of
ketoprofen (10 mg/kg) and again every 6 hours as needed for another
48 hours.
[0121] M-CSF was bilaterally infused directly into the lateral
ventricles (5 .mu.g/day) for 14 days using Alzet model 1004 with an
average flow rate of 0.12 .mu.L/hour. The pumps and catheters were
primed for 48 hours in a 37.degree. C. water bath prior to
implantation. After the 14-day period, the animals are given an
overdose (.about.100 mg/kg, i.p.) of sodium pentobarbital followed
by transcardial perfusion with 0.9% cold saline.
[0122] Stereotaxic Injection of CSFs. All 3 CSFs were
stereotaxically-injected (5 .mu.g/injection) into the (ipsilateral)
hippocampus, with vehicle (artificial cerebrospinal fluid (aCSF))
injected contralaterally into four PS/APP mice each (all 10-12
months old, 25-35 g, both genders). Two holes were drilled into the
skull (from bregma -2.5 mm anterior-posterior, +/-2.5 mm
medial-lateral, and the 30 gauge needle inserted to a depth of 2.5
mm). Mice were euthanized and 0.9% cold saline-perfused 7 days
later. Recombinant mouse GM-CSF (rmGM-CSF), recombinant murine
G-CSF (rmG-CSF), and recombinant mouse M-CSF (rmM-CSF) (R&D
Systems) will be referred to as GM-CSF, G-CSF, and M-CSF throughout
this publication.
[0123] Immunohistochemistry and Image Analysis of
Intrahippocampal-injected Mice. Perfused brain tissues from the
intrahippocampus-injected mice were fixed in 10% neutral buffered
formalin for 24-36 hours and then placed through a sucrose gradient
(10-30%) over another 72 hours. Brains were then frozen to the
peltier (Physitemp, Clifton, N.J.) of the histoslide (Leica,
Heerbruug, Switzerland) and sectioned coronally at 14 .mu.m.
Alternatively, selected brains were paraffin-embedded after 10%
neutral buffered formalin fixation, sectioned at 5 .mu.m, and
adhered to slides. Deparaffination and antigen retrieval (boiled in
10 mM Sodium Citrate buffer for 20 min) were performed before
immunohistochemical staining. To significantly reduce cost of
reagents and antibodies with paraffin-embedded slides, a novel
magnetic immunohistochemical staining device was developed.
Standard immunohistochemical techniques used anti-AP antibodies,
6E10(1:1000), and MabTech's (1:5000). to immunolabel amyloid
deposition followed by Alexa 488 and/or 564 secondary fluorophores
(1:1000, 1:4000-Invitrogen), and Hoechst (Sigma) nuclear staining
The tissues were visualized on a Zeiss Imager.Z1 fluorescence
microscope with a Zeiss Axiocam Mrm camera (Oberkochen, Germany)
using Axiovision 4.7 software. Photomicrographs were taken at
10.times. and montaged with Axiovision Panarama Module to select
equal areas from corresponding loci of each brain hemisphere. There
were 5 coronal sections/mouse with 15-25 10.times.
pictures/hemisphere analyzed (varied according to
anterior-posterior location). Amyloid quantification was performed
using ImageJ software program (developed at and available from
National Institutes of Health). Briefly, each analyzed picture per
coronal section was thresholded equally to the same standard
deviation from the histogram mean, and we used the same area
threshold to minimize background artifacts, and analyzed for area,
perimeter, feret diameter, and integrated density parameters. The
feret diameter is the longest distance across a given plaque, and
the integrated density is the product of the area and the average
gray value of the plaque's pixels.
[0124] Behavioral Transgenic Mouse Study Involving GM-CSF
Treatment. Mice in this study were derived from the Florida
Alzheimer's Disease Research Center transgenic mouse colony,
wherein heterozygous mice carrying the mutant APPK670N, M671L gene
(APPsw) are routinely crossed with heterozygous PS1 (Tg line 6.2)
mice to obtain offspring consisting of APPsw/PS1, APPsw, PS1, and
non-transgenic (NT) genotypes on a mixed C57/B6/SW/SJL background.
Eleven APPsw, 4 APPsw/PS1, and 17 NT mice, all 12-months old, were
selected for use in this study, and evaluated in the RAWM task of
working memory for 8 days (see protocol below). Numerous
experiments have revealed that various genotypes of AD perform
equally once they reach cognitive impairment. Thus, the 15 Tg mice
were divided into two groups, balanced in RAWM performance, with 2
APPsw mice included in each group. The 17 NT mice were also divided
into two groups, balanced in RAWM performance. Two weeks following
completion of pre-treatment testing, one group of Tg mice (n=7) and
one group of NT mice (n=9) were started on a 10-day treatment
protocol with GM-CSF (5 .mu.g/day given subcutaneously), while
animals in the control Tg and NT groups (n=8 per group) received
daily vehicle (saline) treatment subcutaneously over the same
10-day period. On the 11.sup.th day of injections, all mice began
evaluation for four days in the RAWM task, given 2 days of rest,
then followed by an additional 4 days of testing in the novel
Cognitive Interference task (see protocol below). Daily GM-CSF and
saline injections were continued throughout the behavioral testing
period. After completion of behavioral testing at 3 weeks into
treatment, all mice were euthanatized, brains fixed as described
above, and paraffin-embedded. Careful visual examination of all
tissues upon necropsy revealed no morphological abnormalities, and
the mice tolerated daily subcutaneous injections well.
[0125] Immunohistochemistry and Image Analysis of Subcutaneous
GM-CSF-treated Mice. Perfused brain tissues from the subcutaneously
injected, behaviorally-tested mice were fixed in 10% neutral
buffered formalin for 24-36 hours, and then paraffin-embedded. At
the level of the hippocampus (bregma -2.92 mm to -3.64 mm), five
5-.mu.m sections (150 .mu.m apart) were made from each mouse brain
using a sliding microtome, and mounted per slide.
Immunohistochemical staining was performed following the
manufacturer's protocol using a Vectastain ABC Elite kit (Vector
Laboratories, Burlingame, Calif.) coupled with the diaminobenzidine
reaction, except that the biothinylated secondary antibody step was
omitted for A.beta. immunohistochemical staining. The following
primary antibodies were used for immunohistochemical staining: a
biothinylated human A.beta. monoclonal antibody (clone 4G8; 1:200,
Covance Research Products, Emeryville, Calif.) and rabbit
synaptophysin polyclonal antibody (undiluted, DAKO, Carpinteria,
Calif.). For A.beta. immunohistochemical staining, brain sections
were treated with 70% formic acid prior to the pre-blocking step.
Phosphate-buffered saline (0.1 mM, pH 7.4) or normal rabbit serum
(isotype control) was used instead of primary antibody or ABC
reagent as a negative control. Quantitative image analysis was done
based on previous methods (Sanchez-Ramos et al. (2009)). Images
were acquired using an Olympus BX60 microscope with an attached
digital camera system (DP-70, Olympus, Tokyo, Japan), and the
digital image was routed into a Windows PC for quantitative
analysis using SimplePCI software (Compix Inc., Imaging Systems,
Cranberry Township, Pa.). Images of five 5-.mu.m sections (150
.mu.m apart) through both anatomic regions of interest (hippocampus
and entorhinal cortex) were captured from each animal, and a
threshold optical density was obtained that discriminated staining
from background. Each region of interest was manually edited to
eliminate artifacts. For A.beta. burden analysis, data are reported
as percentage of immunolabeled area captured (positive pixels)
relative to the full area captured (total pixels). To evaluate
synaptophysin immunoreactivity, after the mode of all images was
converted to gray scale, the average intensity of positive signals
from each image was quantified in the CA1 and CA3 regions of
hippocampus as a relative number from zero (white) to 255 (black).
Each analysis was done by a single examiner blinded to sample
identities (T. M.).
[0126] Behavioral Tasks. Each analysis was done by a single
examiner (N. G.) blinded to sample identities, and statistical
analyses were performed by a single examiner (M. R.) blinded to
treatment group identities. The code was not broken until analyses
were completed.
[0127] Radial Arm Water Maze. For the RAWM task of spatial working
memory (Arendash et al. (2001); Ethell et al. (2006); Arendash et
al. (2007)), an aluminum insert was placed into a 100 cm circular
pool to create 6 radially-distributed swim arms emanating from a
central circular swim area. An assortment of 2-D and 3-D visual
cues surrounded the pool. The number of errors prior to locating
which one of the 6 swim arms contained a submerged escape platform
(9 cm diameter) was determined for 5 trials/day. There was a 30-min
time delay between the 4th trial (T4; final acquisition trial) and
5th trial (T5; memory retention trial). The platform location was
changed daily to a different arm, with different start arms for
each of the 5 trials semi-randomly selected from the remaining 5
swim arms. During each trial (60 s maximum), the mouse was returned
to that trial's start arm upon swimming into an incorrect arm and
the latency time required to locate the submerged platform was
recorded. If the mouse did not find the platform within a 60-s
trial, it was guided to the platform for a 30-s stay. The numbers
of errors and escape latency during trials 4 and 5 are both
considered indices of working memory and are temporally similar to
standard registration/recall testing of specific items used
clinically in evaluating AD patients.
[0128] Cognitive Interference Task. This task was designed to
mimic, measure-for-measure, a cognitive interference task recently
utilized clinically to discriminate between normal aged, MCI, and
AD patients (Loewenstein et al. (2004)). The task involves two RAWM
set-ups in two different rooms, with two sets of visual cues
different from those utilized in standard RAWM testing. The task
requires animals to remember a set of visual cues (in. RAWM-A), so
that following interference with a different set of cues (in
RAWM-B), the initial set of cues can be recalled to successfully
solve the RAWM task. Five behavioral measures were examined: A1-A3
(Composite three-trial recall score from first 3 trials performed
in RAWM-A), B (proactive interference measure attained from a
single trial in RAWM-B), A4 (retroactive interference measure
attained during a single trial in RAWM-A), and A5 (delayed-recall
measure attained from a single trial in RAWM-A following a 20-min
delay between A4 and A5). As with the standard RAWM task, this
interference task involves the platform location being changed
daily to a different arm for both RAWM set-ups. For A1 and B
trials, the animal is initially allowed one minute to find the
platform on their own before being guided to the platform. Then the
actual trial is performed in each case. As with the standard RAWM
task, animals were given 60 s to find the escape platform per
trial, with the number of errors and escape latency recorded per
trial.
[0129] Statistical Analysis. Statistical analysis of amyloid plaque
parameters from ipsilateral GM-CSF administration versus
contralateral aCSF-injection hemispheres was performed using paired
Student t-test with a P-Value of <0.05 considered significant.
For statistical analysis of RAWM data, the 8-days of pre-treatment
testing (four 2-day blocks) or the 4-days of post-treatment testing
(two 2-day blocks) were evaluated for individual blocks, as well as
over all blocks, using one-way ANOVAs. Thereafter, post hoc
pair-by-pair differences between groups were resolved with the
Fisher LSD (least significant difference) test. For statistical
analysis of cognitive interference data, both 2-day blocks were
analyzed separately, as were all four days collectively. One way
ANOVA's were employed for each of the four behavioral measures
analyzed, followed by post hoc Fisher's LSD test to determine
significant group differences at P<0.05. Statistical analysis of
amyloid plaque deposition and synaptophysin staining from
subcutaneous GM-CSF administration was performed using two-tailed
homoscedastic Student t-test with a P value of <0.05 considered
significant.
Example 2
[0130] Alzheimer's disease is an age-related, progressive
neurodegenerative disorder that presents as increasing decline in
cognitive and executive function. Alzheimer dementia is associated
with cerebrovascular dysfunction (Humpel and Marksteiner (2005)),
extracellular accumulation of amyloid .beta. (A.beta.) peptides in
the brain parenchyma and vasculature walls (Rhodin et al. (2000);
Scheuner et al. (1996)) (predominantly A.beta..sub.1-42 and
A.beta.1-40), and intraneuronal accumulation of neurofibrillary
tangles consisting of hyperphosphorylated Tau proteins (Rapoport et
al. (2002)). Associated neuroinflammation may contribute to AD
pathogenesis (Griffin et al. (1989); Akiyama et al. (2000);
Wyss-Coray (2006)), as the inflammatory proteins apolipoprotein E
(apoE) and a .alpha.1-Antichymotrypsin (ACT) catalyze the
polymerization of A.beta. peptides into amyloid filaments in vivo
and in vitro (Wisniewski et al. (1994); Ma et al. (1996); Potter et
al. (2001); Nilsson et al. (2004); Padmanabhan et al. (2006)).
However, NSAIDs have failed to reverse or prevent AD pathology, and
dystrophic microglia are suggested to precede neurodegenerative
dementia (Streit et al. (2009)). It has also been shown that
amyloid plaques form rapidly and then become decorated by microglia
(Koenigsknecht-Talboo et al. (2008); Meyer-Luehmann et al. (2008)),
both resident and bone marrow-derived, suggesting an ability and
intention to remove amyloid (Maim et al. (2005); Simard and Rivest
(2004); Simard et al. (2006)).
[0131] Rheumatoid arthritis is an autoimmune disease in which
inflamed synovial tissue and highly vascularized pannus forms,
irreparably damaging the cartilage and bone. In this inflammatory
pannus, leukocyte populations are greatly expanded, and many
proinflammatory factors are produced that work together in
feed-forward mechanisms, further increasing leukocytosis,
cytokine/chemokine release, osteoclastogenesis, angiogenesis, and
autoantibody production (rheumatoid factors and anti-citrullinated
protein antibodies) (Szekanecz and Koch (2007); van der Voort et
al. (2005); Schellekens et al. (2000)). Additionally, the adaptive
immune system presents a Th17 phenotype within CD4.sup.+
lymphocytes, with ultimate production of interleukin (IL-17) which
is then responsible for inducing much of the pro-inflammatory
effects (Parsonage et al. (2008); Cox et al. (2008)). Further
enhancements of leukocyte populations come from local expression of
colony-stimulating factors: M-CSF (macrophage), G-CSF
(granulocyte), and GM-CSF (granulocyte-macrophage) (Seitz et al.
(1994); Leizer et al. (1990); Nakamura et al. (2000)).
[0132] Although up-regulated leukocytes in RA could potentially
enter into the brain and inhibit development of AD pathology and/or
neuronal dysfunction, lymphocytic infiltrates into AD patient
brains have not been reported. The lack of infiltration suggests
that activation of the innate immune system might be responsible
for preventing AD pathology in RA patients. For instance,
complement proteins are up-regulated in AD brain, and inhibition of
C3 convertase significantly increases amyloid pathology in AD mice
(Wyss-Coray et al. (2002)). Bone marrow-derived microglia play a
critical role in restricting amyloid deposition, but this
association declines with age, while AD pathology increases (Simard
et al. (2006)). El Khoury and colleagues have shown that microglia
are actually protective against AD pathogenesis in multiple ways,
i.e. through delay of amyloidosis via chemokine receptor (CCR2)
recruitment, by up-regulation of its ligand, monocyte chemotactic
protein-1 (MCP-1/CCL2), by induced expression of AP-binding
scavenger receptors (CD36, scavenger receptor A, and receptor for
advanced glycation end products), and by induced expression of
AP-degrading enzymes [neprilysin, insulysin, and matrix
metalloproteinase (MMP9)]. However, the expression of these
receptors and enzymes also decreases with age (Hickman et al.
(2008); El. Khoury et al. (2007)).
[0133] To investigate the interplay of the innate immune system and
AL), we studied the effects on AD pathology of the three
structurally-unrelated colony-stimulating factors (M-CSF, G-CSF,
and GM-CSF), which are all up-regulated in RA (Seitz et al. (1994);
Leizer et al. (1990); Nakamura et al. (2000)). These CSFs enhance
the survival of their respective leukocytes and drive their
proliferation and differentiation from monocytic precursors. M-CSF
and G-CSF induce specific subsets of the innate immune system,
while GM-CSF induces the full range of innate cells. Using
bilateral intracerebroventricular infusion of M-CSF for two weeks
into PS/APP mice, we first examined M-CSF's effect on plaque
deposition. Immunohistochemical analysis showed considerable
variances of amyloid deposition between mice of similar age (FIG.
10), significantly compromising our ability to determine M-CSF's
effect in a limited mouse cohort. While improving our drug delivery
system by developing novel bilateral brain infusion catheters, we
found that parenchymally-infused recombinant peptides remained
localized to the infused hemisphere. These findings led us to
administer the CSFs as a unilateral intrahippocampal bolus with a
contralateral injection of vehicle as control, thus obviating the
need for large numbers of transgenic mice and age-matched
littennate controls to obtain statistical significance. Each CSF
was stereotaxically injected into the hippocampus of 4 mice, with
artificial cerebrospinal fluid vehicle (aCSF) injected
contralaterally. The mice were sacrificed 7 days
post-injection.
[0134] Remarkably, M-CSF injections resulted in visible swelling of
the entire treated hemisphere, noticeable fragility on sectioning,
and in one mouse, an apparent hyperplasia at the injection site
(FIG. 11C). Overexpression of M-CSF and/or its receptor in mammary
glands has similarly resulted in tumor formation and hyperplasia
(Firma et al. (2004)). Amyloid plaque loads were not significantly
changed in the M-CSF-injected hemispheres as compared to the
control sides (data not shown). However, Boissonneault et al.
(2009) published that chronic intraperitoneal (i.p.) injection of
M-CSF prevents and reverses amyloid deposition and cognitive
impairment. Using MT-expressing bone marrow, the authors also found
that M-CSF induced a significant accumulation of bone
marrow-derived microglia (Boissonneault et al. (2009)). Differences
between these data and ours point to different study lengths and
dosage effects, with Boissonneault et al. delivering chronic i.p.
1.3 .mu.g M-CSF per injection, compared to our 5 .mu.g
intrahippocampal bolus.
[0135] In contrast to M-CSF, G-CSF injections did not induce
swelling and showed some modest reductions of amyloid deposition
(FIGS. 12A and 12B), which was corroborated by independent
observations by fellow investigators (Sanchez-Ramos et al. (2009)).
However, GM-CSF injections resulted in pronounced amyloid
reductions, as compared to control hemispheres (FIGS. 13A-13D), and
therefore all our subsequent experiments focused on studying the
effects of GM-CSF in AD mice. Quantification of amyloid plaques
revealed significant reductions within individual mice and overall
significant reductions for all plaque parameters measured (FIG. 6B
and FIGS. 14A-14D-1). The feret diameter and the integrated density
parameters were reduced throughout the GM-CSF-injected hemispheres
of all 4 mice, indicating that the overall plaque sizes and dense
cores were reduced simultaneously. The percent reduction in plaque
deposition between individual sections of the same mouse and
between different mice varied within a range of 8 to 62% (data not
shown) and thereby further highlights the variance of amyloid
depositions throughout each brain and between multiple mice.
[0136] Based upon these pathology data, we investigated the effect
of subcutaneous GM-CSF injection on AD pathology and cognitive
function. Prior to GM-CSF treatment, APPsw+PS1(Tg) mice were first
confirmed by RAWM testing to be cognitively-impaired for working
memory. Both the non-transgenic control mice (NT) and the Tg mice
were then sub-divided into two cognitively-balanced groups, for
either GM-CSF or saline treatment. RAWM testing post-injection
re-confirmed that Tg control mice were substantially impaired
compared to NT control mice. This impairment was evident in
individual blocks of testing, but also over all 4 days of testing
(FIGS. 7A-7D). In sharp contrast, GM-CSF-treated Tg mice performed
equally well or better than NT control mice during individual
blocks and overall. GM-CSF-treated NT mice performed as well as or
slightly better than NT controls (FIGS. 7A-7D). Before evaluation
in the Cognitive Interference Task, the mice rested two days.
[0137] This task mimics human interference testing, which
distinguishes mild cognitive impairment (MCI) patients from aged
controls with a high degree of accuracy (Loewenstein et al.
(2004)). In all four cognitive interference measures assessed over
4 days of testing (FIG. 7E), Tg control mice were clearly impaired
compared to NT mice, and Tg mice treated with GM-CSF exhibited
significantly better 3-trial recall and delayed recall compared to
Tg controls. Indeed, for all four cognitive measures,
GM-CSF-treated transgenic AD mice performed similarly to NT mice. A
particularly strong effect of GM-CSF treatment in Tg mice was
evident for the proactive interference measure during the first
half of testing (FIG. 7F), wherein GM-CSF-treated Tg mice performed
substantially better than Tg controls and identically to both
groups of NT mice. Susceptibility to proactive interference has
been reported to be a more sensitive marker for differentiating MCI
and AD patients from aged normals than traditional measures of
delayed recall and rate of forgetting (Loewenstein et al. (2004)).
Parenthetically, even the GM-CSF-treated NT mice showed a trend
towards improved cognition in behavioral studies, albeit not
statistically significant. Subsequent analysis of brains from Tg
mice of this study revealed that GM-CSF treatment induced large
reductions in amyloid burdens within entorhinal cortex
(.dwnarw.55%) and hippocampal (.dwnarw.57%) compared to control Tg
mice (FIG. 8E).
[0138] The improved cognitive function and reduced cortical
amyloidosis of GM-CSF-treated Tg mice were paralleled by increased
synaptophysin immunoreactivity in both CA1 and CA3 (FIGS. 9A-9E),
indicating increased synaptic density in these hippocampal areas.
Prior work has shown that adult neural stem cells in hippocampal
dentate gyrus (DG) express GM-CSF receptors, and GM-CSF increases
neuronal differentiation of these cells in a dose-dependent fashion
(Kruger et al. (2007)). Thus, one mechanism for the observed
GM-CSF-induced cognitive improvement is enhanced removal of
deposited A.beta. in hippocampus, with ensuing neuronal
growth/synaptic differentiation of DG mossy fiber innervation to
CA3, resulting in increased innervation/synaptogenesis of Schaffer
collaterals into CAL Removal of deposited AP from entorhinal cortex
may also increase perforant pathway viability to hippocampal
projection fields in DG and CAL Thus GM-CSF-induced enhancement of
hippocampal/entorhinal cortex circuitry, critical for working
(short-term) memory, may underlie GM-CSF's reversal of working
memory impairment in Alzheimer's Tg mice.
Example 3
[0139] Four 10-12 month old PS/APP mice were stereotaxically
injected with 5 .mu.g rmGM-CSF into the hippocampus in one
hemisphere of the brain and with vehicle (aCSF:
[0140] artificial cerebrospinal fluid) contralaterally. Mice were
euthanized and saline-perfused 7 days later, fixed with 10%
Formalin, and either cryosectioned at 14 .mu.m or paraffin-embedded
and sectioned at Sum. Standard immunohistochemical techniques used
6E10, and MabTech's anti-A.beta. antibodies to label amyloid
deposition. Microscopy and image processing were performed on a
Zeiss ImagerZ1 using Axiovision software. ImageJ was utilized to
quantify amyloid deposition.
[0141] Sixteen 10-12 month old PS/APP mice and sixteen
non-transgenic age-matched controls were cognitively pretested by
RAWM, a working memory paradigm. Eight mice from each group were
semi-randomly chosen for sub-cutaneous injections (5 .mu.g/day) of
rmGM-CSF. The other half received daily injections of vehicle
(saline). There was a 15 day rest period after pre-testing before
daily injections began. Mice were injected for 10 days prior to 4
days of RAWM post-testing. There was a 2 day rest period before 6
days of Cognitive Interference task testing. Injections were given
throughout testing and more than 1 hour before behavioral tests
were performed. Behavioral testing and analysis were performed by
separate staff, who were blinded to group identities.
RESULTS
[0142] Bolus intrahippocampal injection of rmGM-CSF reduced amyloid
plaque deposition, throughout the respective brain hemispheres, by
as much as 60%. In the rmGM-CSF sub-cutaneous injections, PS/APP
mice, shown to be cognitively impaired compared to controls,
significantly reversed their cognitive impairment in the standard
RAWM task. In the Cognitive Interference task, the PS/APP mice that
received rmGM-CSF showed similar results as that of the
non-transgenic mice in all 4 cognitive measures. However,
reductions in amyloid plaque deposition were not observed in the
sub-cutaneous study.
[0143] GM-CSF significantly reverses Alzheimer's disease-like,
pathology and improves cognition in vivo.
[0144] It should be understood that the examples and embodiments
described herein are for illustrative purposes only and that
various modifications or changes in light thereof will be suggested
to persons skilled in the art and are to he included within the
spirit and purview of this application and the scope of the
appended claims. In addition, any elements or limitations of any
invention or embodiment thereof disclosed herein can be combined
with any and/or all other elements or limitations (individually or
in any combination) or any other invention or embodiment thereof
disclosed herein, and all such combinations are contemplated with
the scope of the invention without limitation thereto.
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