U.S. patent application number 12/785702 was filed with the patent office on 2010-12-23 for composites of polymers and metal/metalloid oxide nanoparticles and methods for forming these composites.
This patent application is currently assigned to NanoGram Corporation. Invention is credited to Shivkumar Chiruvolu, Hui Du, Nobuyuki Kambe.
Application Number | 20100324191 12/785702 |
Document ID | / |
Family ID | 39541696 |
Filed Date | 2010-12-23 |
United States Patent
Application |
20100324191 |
Kind Code |
A1 |
Chiruvolu; Shivkumar ; et
al. |
December 23, 2010 |
COMPOSITES OF POLYMERS AND METAL/METALLOID OXIDE NANOPARTICLES AND
METHODS FOR FORMING THESE COMPOSITES
Abstract
Successful dispersion approaches are described for the formation
of dispersion of dry powders of inorganic particles. In some
embodiments, it is desirable to form the dispersion in two
processing steps in which the particles are surface modified in the
second processing step. Composites can be formed using the well
dispersed particles to form improved inorganic particle-polymer
composites. These composites are suitable for optical applications
and for forming transparent films, which can have a relatively high
index or refraction. In some embodiments, water can be used to
alter the surface chemistry of metal oxide particles.
Inventors: |
Chiruvolu; Shivkumar; (San
Jose, CA) ; Du; Hui; (Sunnyvale, CA) ; Kambe;
Nobuyuki; (Menlo Park, CA) |
Correspondence
Address: |
Dardi & Herbert, PLLC
Suite 205, 1250 Moore Lake Drive
Fridley
MN
55432
US
|
Assignee: |
NanoGram Corporation
|
Family ID: |
39541696 |
Appl. No.: |
12/785702 |
Filed: |
May 24, 2010 |
Related U.S. Patent Documents
|
|
|
|
|
|
Application
Number |
Filing Date |
Patent Number |
|
|
11645084 |
Dec 22, 2006 |
|
|
|
12785702 |
|
|
|
|
Current U.S.
Class: |
524/430 ;
423/592.1 |
Current CPC
Class: |
C09C 1/3684 20130101;
C01P 2002/88 20130101; Y10T 428/268 20150115; C09J 133/02 20130101;
C01P 2004/64 20130101; C09C 1/3676 20130101; C08K 9/06 20130101;
C01P 2002/82 20130101; Y10T 428/256 20150115; C01P 2004/04
20130101; C08K 3/22 20130101; C08K 9/04 20130101; C01P 2004/51
20130101; C01P 2002/84 20130101; C01P 2002/72 20130101; C09C 1/3692
20130101; B82Y 30/00 20130101 |
Class at
Publication: |
524/430 ;
423/592.1 |
International
Class: |
C01B 13/36 20060101
C01B013/36; C08K 3/22 20060101 C08K003/22 |
Claims
1. A method for forming a composite of a polymer and metal oxide
particles having an average primary particle size of no more than
100 nm, the method comprising: gradually blending a portion of a
dispersion comprising surface modified metal oxide particles and a
dispersant, into polymer solution comprising a polymer and a
solvent to form a uniform polymer-inorganic particle composite
wherein the dispersant is miscible with the solvent and wherein the
blending is performed so that effectively no particles settle from
the blend.
2. The method of claim 1 wherein the dispersant comprises an
organic liquid.
3. A method for modifying the surface properties of metal oxide
particles having an average primary particle size of no more than
50 nm, the method comprising: contacting a dry powder of the metal
oxide particles with water to increase the (--OH) content of the
particle surfaces; precipitating the particles through the addition
of a liquid miscible with water; and dispersing the particles in an
alcohol at a concentration of at least about 1 weight percent with
a z-average secondary particle size of no more than about 100
nm.
4. The method of claim 3 wherein the contacting with water is
performed by mixing the particles with an aqueous solution.
5. The method of claim 3 wherein the metal oxide particles are
synthesized using laser pyrolysis.
6. The method of claim 3 wherein the liquid miscible with water
comprises acetone.
7. A method for producing metal oxide particles in a flow with a
surface structure having an enhanced (--OH) contribution, the
method comprising: exposing a product particle flow with water
vapor, wherein the particles are synthesized in the flow from a
reactant flow comprising a metal oxide precursor; and collecting
the water modified particles.
8. The method of claim 7 wherein the synthesis of the particles is
performed in a reaction chamber and wherein the flow is initiated
at a nozzle connected to a reactant delivery system.
9. The method of claim 8 wherein the synthesis of the metal oxide
particles is driven with an intense light beam intersecting the
reactant flow.
10. The method of claim 8 wherein the opening of the nozzle is
elongated with an aspect ratio of at least about 5 and wherein the
laser beam is oriented to propagate along the elongated dimension
of the resulting flow so that effectively the entire reactant flow
passes through the laser beam.
11. The method of claim 8 wherein the water vapor is introduced
through vents that are located in a collection channel connected to
the reaction chamber where the particles are synthesized.
Description
CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS
[0001] This application is a divisional of U.S. Utility patent
application Ser. No. 11/645,084 to Shivkumar Chiruvolu et al.,
entitled "COMPOSITES OF POLYMERS AND METAL/METALLOID OXIDE
NANOPARTICLES AND METHODS FOR FORMING THESE COMPOSITES", filed Dec.
22, 2006, which is incorporated herein by reference.
FIELD OF THE INVENTION
[0002] The invention relates to composite materials comprising a
polymer and inorganic particles. More particularly, the invention
relates to composites of polymers with surface modified inorganic
particles, especially metal/metalloid oxide particles. The
invention further relates to method of making composites and to
dispersions of inorganic particles in liquids that can be used to
form polymer composites or other products.
BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION
[0003] Advances in a variety of fields have created a demand for
many types of new materials. In particular, inorganic powders can
be used in the production of a range of commercial products
including, for example, electronic devices, optical devices and
electro-optical devices. Similarly, technological advances have
increased the demand for improved material processing with strict
tolerances on processing parameters to improve performance of
devices while keeping down costs.
[0004] As miniaturization continues, material processing similarly
falls within stricter tolerances with respect to the dimensions of
the structures. Current integrated circuit technology already
requires tolerances on processing dimensions on a submicron scale.
The consolidation of mechanical, electrical and optical devices
into integral components has created further demands on material
processing with respect to the different compositions incorporated
into a single structure.
[0005] Composite materials can be used to combine desirable
properties of different individual composition incorporated into
the composite as well as to generate new properties that are not
achievable from the individual compositions. Thus, a wider range of
material properties can be exploited through composites.
Alternatively, composite materials can be formed to capture
improved or more flexible processing capabilities associated with
one material of the composite while capturing some aspect of
desirable properties of another component of the composite.
SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION
[0006] In a first aspect, the invention pertains to a composite
comprising a polymer and surface modified metal oxide particles at
a loading of at least 5 weight percent of the composite. In
general, the metal oxide particles have a number average primary
particle size less than about 20 nanometers and a z-average
secondary particle size of no more than about 100 nanometers. The
surface modification can comprise a plurality of bonded molecules
along the surface of the particles. In some embodiments, the
composite formed into a film with a thickness of 5 microns on a
transparent substrate has a transmittance at one visible wavelength
of at least about 90% relative to the transmittance of the
substrate without the composite coating.
[0007] In a further aspect, the invention pertains to a method for
forming a composite of a polymer and metal oxide particles having
an average primary particle size of no more than 100 nm. The method
comprises gradually blending a portion of a dispersion comprising
surface modified metal oxide particles and a dispersant, into a
polymer solution comprising a polymer and a solvent to form a
uniform polymer-inorganic particle composite. In some embodiments,
the dispersant is miscible with the solvent. The blending generally
is performed so that effectively no particles settle from the
blend.
[0008] In additional aspects, the invention pertains to a method
for modifying the surface properties of metal oxide particles
having an average primary particle size of no more than 50 nm. The
method comprises contacting a dry powder of the metal oxide
particles with water to increase the (--OH) content of the particle
surfaces, precipitating the particles through the addition of a
liquid miscible with water, and dispersing the particles in an
alcohol at a concentration of at least about 1 weight percent with
a z-average secondary particle size of no more than about 100
nm.
[0009] In other embodiments, the invention pertains to a method for
producing metal oxide particles in a flow with a surface structure
having an enhanced (--OH) contribution. The method comprises
exposing a product particle flow with water vapor, and collecting
the water modified particles. In some embodiments, the particles
are synthesized in the flow from a reactant flow comprising a metal
oxide precursor.
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS
[0010] FIG. 1 is a schematic sectional view of a reaction chamber
for performing laser pyrolysis synthesis of metal oxide
particles.
[0011] FIG. 2 is a schematic view of a reactant delivery system to
deliver reactants to a laser pyrolysis apparatus.
[0012] FIG. 3 is a representative x-ray diffractogram for rutile
titanium dioxide produced as described in Example 1.
[0013] FIG. 4 is a representative transmission electron micrograph
for rutile titanium dioxide produced as described in Example 1.
[0014] FIG. 5 is a representative Selected Area Diffraction image
for rutile titanium dioxide produced as described in Example 1.
[0015] FIG. 6 is a dynamic light scattering plot of a dispersion of
titanium oxide particles in water at 0.5 weight percent.
[0016] FIG. 7 is a dynamic light scattering plot of a dispersion of
titanium oxide particles in methanol at 0.5 weight percent.
[0017] FIG. 8 is a dynamic light scattering plot of a dispersion of
titanium oxide particles in propylene glycol at 0.5 weight
percent.
[0018] FIG. 9 is a dynamic light scattering plot of a dispersion of
titanium oxide particles in methanol following a pretreatment with
water.
[0019] FIG. 10 is a dynamic light scattering plot of a dispersion
of titanium oxide particles in propylene glycol following a
pretreatment with water.
[0020] FIG. 11 is a dynamic light scattering plot of a dispersion
of titanium oxide particles in propylene glycol following bead
milling.
[0021] FIG. 12 is a dynamic light scattering plot of another
embodiment of a dispersion of titanium oxide particles in propylene
glycol after a water pretreatment.
[0022] FIG. 13 is a dynamic light scattering plot of the particle
of the dispersion of FIG. 12 dispersed in tolulene following
surface modification with octadecyl trimethoxy silane.
[0023] FIG. 14 is a plot of a thermogravametric analysis of the
surface modified particles dispersed in FIG. 13.
[0024] FIG. 15 is a Fourier transform infrared spectrum of the
surface modified particles of the dispersion of FIG. 13.
[0025] FIG. 16 is a transmission electron micrograph of the surface
modified particles of the dispersion of FIG. 13.
[0026] FIG. 17 is a dynamic light scattering plot of another
embodiment of a dispersion of titanium oxide particles in
methanol.
[0027] FIG. 18 is a dynamic light scattering plot of the particle
of the dispersion of FIG. 17 dispersed in methanol following
surface modification with methacyloxy propyl trimethoxy silane.
[0028] FIG. 19 is a plot of a thermogravametric analysis of the
surface modified particles dispersed in FIG. 18.
[0029] FIG. 20 is a Fourier transform infrared spectrum of the
surface modified particles of the dispersion of FIG. 18.
[0030] FIG. 21 is a dynamic light scattering plot of titanium oxide
particles dispersed in methyl ethyl ketone following surface
modification with hexamethyl disilazane.
[0031] FIG. 22 is a plot of a thermogravametric analysis of the
surface modified particles dispersed in FIG. 21.
[0032] FIG. 23 is a dynamic light scattering plot of titanium oxide
particles dispersed in methyl ethyl ketone following surface
modification with allyl trimethoxy silane.
[0033] FIG. 24 is a plot of a thermogravametric analysis of the
surface modified particles dispersed in FIG. 23.
[0034] FIG. 25 is a scanning electron micrograph of a cross section
of a composite film formed with titanium oxide particles surface
modified with metharyloxy propyl trimethoxy silane in an acrylate
copolymer.
[0035] FIG. 26 is a scanning electron micrograph of the surface of
the film in FIG. 25.
[0036] FIG. 27 is a plot of transmittance measurements for the film
in FIG. 25.
DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION
[0037] The effective use of nanoparticles for many applications
involves the dispersion of the particles so that agglomerates of
the particles are reduced. Improved materials described herein
involve well dispersed metal oxide nanoparticles that can be used
as dispersions or incorporated into improved polymer composites. In
some embodiments, improved surface modification of the particles
provides for formation of the improved composites. To form the
improved materials, high quality nanoparticles without significant
hard fusing are used to form highly dispersed liquid dispersion
with small secondary particle sizes. Laser pyrolysis is a desirable
approach to form highly uniform and dispersible nanoparticles. The
well dispersed nanoparticles in a liquid can be used to form
composites with the nanoparticles well dispersed through the
composite. The resulting composites can have an improved uniformity
that results in correspondingly improved properties of the
composites. The composites are particularly desirable for optical
applications due to improved optical properties, such as extremely
good transparency, due to uniform dispersion and small effective
secondary inorganic particle size within the composite. Thus, the
composites described herein are particularly effective for use as
high index of refraction transparent optical materials.
[0038] The concept of particle sizes in the submicron scale is
complicated since different measurement approaches yield different
information relating to particle size. The concept of primary
particle size has evolved since many synthesis approaches yield
hard agglomerates that cannot be directly dispersed. Historically,
flame pyrolysis has resulted in fused chains of primary particles.
However, the primary particles may be visible in micrographs, and
the primary particles may correlate significantly with some
properties of the material, such as surface area. Also, the
irregularity of the fused agglomerates can make it difficult to
pack powders at relatively high tap density. Furthermore, due to
the hard fusing of the particles, there are limits on the
properties achievable with composites formed with these
particles.
[0039] The term physical particles can be used to refer to the
particles in the collection of particles that are not hard fused to
each other. Thus, the primary particles differ from the physical
particles if the primary particles are hard fused. If the particles
are hard fused, a single collection of hard fused primary particles
forms a single physical particle. If the primary particles are not
hard fused, the physical particles are the same as the primary
particles. As described further below, physical particles can
generally be discerned from good transmission electron micrographs.
For some compositions, grinding with high shear may be able to
reduce the physical particle size, for example, by breaking fused
bonds between fused primary particles or fracturing primary
particles. However, grinding with high shear can lower the
crystallinity and otherwise change particle properties in
undesirable ways as well as leading to highly non-uniform physical
particles. Also, due to heat generated by grinding, there may be a
lower limit for many materials on the physical particle size
achievable through grinding since the heat from grinding can sinter
the particles. For particles formed by laser pyrolysis and other
flow based approaches, the physical particles can be approximately
equal to the primary particles reflecting that the particles as
initially formed in the synthesis do not fuse prior to
collection.
[0040] Secondary particle size refers to the particle size in a
dispersion. Secondary particle size can be measured, for example,
using light scattering from a liquid dispersion. The ability of a
liquid to disperse particles within the liquid depends on the
surface properties of the particles, the nature of the liquid, the
concentration of particles and the process used to disperse the
particles as well as the physical particle size. Higher
concentrations of particles tend to favor agglomeration due to
basic thermodynamic principles. However, proper selection of
solvent/dispersant properties based on the surface properties of
the particles can facilitate better dispersion. Similarly, the
application of shear, sound waves and/or other mixing/disruptive
forces can facilitate dispersion of the particles. The high quality
inorganic particles disclosed herein under appropriate conditions
can be dispersed to have secondary particle sizes approximately a
few times larger than the primary particle sizes. These excellent
dispersion properties can be accomplished at moderately high
loadings for dry synthesized metal/metalloid oxide powders, such as
up to 5 weight percent inorganic powders or even higher
concentrations.
[0041] Improved materials can be obtained based on the ability to
combine a selected polymer with highly dispersed inorganic
particles having selectable compositions and properties achievable
through flow-based synthesis approaches. The ability to form good
liquid dispersions of the particles facilitates the uniform
dispersion of the particles through the polymer composite. A more
uniform composite material correspondingly has the behavior as a
single material with hybrid properties rather than having the
behavior of a blended material with coarsely average properties.
With respect to physical properties that have a set distance scale,
the uniform composite can have an appearance of a homogenous
uniform material. In particular, for example, particles with an
average secondary particle size below 50 nm uniformly dispersed in
a polymer can have a structure that behaves like a homogenous
materials with respect to visible light since the wavelength of
light is larger than the inorganic particle size as well as the
distance scales of the inhomogeneities. As a result, visible light
can have a high transmission through the composite. As disclosed
herein, composites can be formed with particle loading, such as
greater than about 5 weight percent or greater concentrations.
[0042] The improved optical properties of the composites depends on
a small average particle size of the particles dispersed in the
polymer and on a narrow distribution of particle sizes of the
particles dispersed in the polymer. The formation of a good
dispersion in the polymer relies on the proper surface modification
of the inorganic particles, which makes the inorganic particles
compatible with the particle matrix and helps to prevent
agglomeration of the particles within the polymer. Obtaining good
surface modification of the particles depends on obtaining well
dispersed particles of the unmodified particles in a dispersant
with a low amount of agglomeration, so that molecules of the
surface modification agent can coat more of the surfaces of the
particles that are not sterically blocked due to agglomeration.
After the particles are surface modified, the particles are
suspended in a solvent that is compatible with the polymer or
monomer to be incorporated into the composite, and this solvent can
be, but does not need to be an optimal dispersant for the surface
modified particles since the liquid just carries the particles for
blending into the polymer. As long as the dispersant for the
surface modified particles has good compatibility with the polymer,
improved composites can be formed once the liquid is removed.
[0043] The inorganic particles may or may not be surface modified
for incorporation into a polymer composite. A surface modifying
agent may or may not chemically bond with the inorganic particle.
If the surface modification agent does not chemically bond with the
particles, this composition may associate with the surface due to
non-specific interactions and/or entropic effects. Similarly, the
polymer may or may not be chemically bonded to the inorganic
particles. If the polymer is chemically bonded to the inorganic
particles, the polymer can be directly bonded to the particle
surface or indirectly bonded through a bond to a surface modifying
composition that is chemically bonded to the particle surface. In a
structure with the polymer bonded to the inorganic particles is
formed, it may be arbitrary to distinguish a linking composition
that originated as a surface modifying composition, but the surface
modifying composition can have an identifiable presence due to the
resulting functional groups formed from the synthetic reactions. As
used herein, chemical bonding refers to bonds with some covalent
character, which can include, for example, bonds found in organic
compositions, metal-ligand bonds and the like.
[0044] Certain functional groups have the ability to form chemical
bonds with inorganic particles. These functional groups can form
the basis for bonding surface modification agents and/or polymers
to the inorganic particle surfaces. Bonding to polymers can take
place through polymer terminal groups and/or through polymer side
chains. The bonding of polymers directly or indirectly with
nanoparticles is discussed further in U.S. Pat. No. 6,599,631 to
Kambe et al., entitled "Polymer-Inorganic Particle Composites,"
incorporated herein by reference. Whether or not a surface
modification composition is chemically bonded to the inorganic
particle, the polymer can be chemically bonded to the surface
modification agent.
[0045] A wide range of polymers can be used individually or in
combination to form the composites described herein. In particular,
organic polymers and silicon-based polymer, such as polysiloxanes,
are suitable for formation of the composites. In some embodiments,
the polymer is selected or modified to have particular functional
groups that are suitable for bonding to surface modification agents
or to inorganic particles. In general, the polymer is selected to
impart desired properties to the resulting composites. The polymers
may or may not be crosslinked within the final composite.
[0046] In general, desirable particles for the composites are
submicron, i.e., the particle collections have an average primary
particle diameter of no more than about 1 micron, which is equal to
1000 nanometers (nm), and for optical applications generally no
more than about 100 nm. In some embodiments, the particles are very
uniform in particle size such that the particle collections have
corresponding uniformity of properties. In some embodiments, the
composites comprises a mixture of inorganic particles that can be
selected to contribute different properties to the ultimate
composite. Suitable nanoparticles can be formed, for example, by
vapor-based flow processes, such as flame pyrolysis, combustion, or
solution-based approaches, such as sol gel approaches.
[0047] Vapor-based particle production techniques in a flow are
desirable due to their flexibility with respect to product particle
composition, ability to form highly crystalline particle either
directly or with mild additional processing and a wide range of
ability to introduce dopants. However, the resulting dry powders of
particles are more difficult to process. In particular, these
particles are more difficult to disperse in a liquid. In contrast,
solution-based synthesis approaches can form particles that are
inherently more dispersible, but the particles can have less
desirable properties due to decreased levels of crystallinity,
limited compound selection and difficulties in selecting among
different crystal structures.
[0048] As described herein, improved approaches are found to
disperse dry nanoparticle powders, perform surface modification of
the particles in a dispersion and to form composites. Using one or
more of the improved processing approaches described herein,
composites can be formed with significantly improved optical
properties as well as high particle loadings with extremely good
dispersion of the particles through the composite. Thus, the
advantages of vapor-based particle synthesis can be combined with
desirable solution based processing approaches with highly
dispersed particles to obtain improved composites with properties
that were previously unachievable.
[0049] In some embodiments of particular interest, the particles
are synthesized by laser pyrolysis in which light from an intense
light source drives the reaction to form the particles. Laser
pyrolysis is a particularly versatile vapor-based particle
synthesis approach. Laser pyrolysis is useful in the formation of
particles that are highly uniform in composition, crystallinity and
size.
[0050] Laser pyrolysis has been successfully used for the synthesis
of a wide range of complex inorganic particles, including, for
example, compositions with multiple metal/metalloid elements as
well as doped materials. For example, phosphor particles with
desirable properties have been produced. See, for example, U.S.
Pat. No. 6,692,660 to Kumar, entitled High Luminescent Phosphor
Particles and Related Particle Compositions," incorporated herein
by reference. Also, high quality rutile titanium oxide particles
are suitable for forming composites with a high index of
refraction. The formation of rutile titanium dioxide is described
further in U.S. Pat. No. 6,599,631 to Kambe et al., entitled
Polymer Inorganic Particle Composites," incorporated herein by
reference. Other desirable inorganic particles formed by laser
pyrolysis are described below.
[0051] The inorganic particles comprise metal elements and/or
metalloid elements in their elemental form or in compounds.
Specifically, the inorganic particles can comprise, for example,
elemental metal or elemental metalloid, i.e. un-ionized elements,
metal/metalloid oxides, metal/metalloid nitrides, metal/metalloid
carbides, metal/metalloid sulfides or combinations thereof.
Metal/metalloid oxide compounds are of particular interest for the
composites described herein. Metalloids are elements that exhibit
chemical properties intermediate between or inclusive of metals and
nonmetals. Metalloid elements include silicon, boron, arsenic,
antimony, and tellurium.
[0052] For crystalline particles, the surface of the particle
represents an abrupt termination of the crystal structure. The
surface chemistry of the particles and the structure of the crystal
at its surface are correlated with each other. Conceptually, simply
ending the crystal structure abruptly results in free radicals or
similar unstable structures due to dangling bonds. While some
radicals can be stable, generally the particle surface rearranges
to form chemically stable species which can have surface stain and
alteration of the crystal structure near the surface.
[0053] For metal oxide particles, the structure along the particle
surface can have bridging oxygen atoms (--O--) or double bonded
oxygen atoms (.dbd.O) to terminate the crystal structure with
appropriate chemical stability. However, these structures tend to
introduce a strained surface but a relatively inert surface.
Alternatively or additionally, the presence of single valent atoms,
such as H or a halogen, can terminate the crystal structure with
stable groups, such as M-Cl or M-O--H, where M is a metal atom of
the crystal. Truncation of the crystal lattice at mono-valent atoms
can reduce surface strain, result in less crystal restructuring
near the particle surface and provide surface groups for later
surface modification.
[0054] It has been discovered that contact of particles formed by
laser pyrolysis with water can modify the surface chemistry. While
not wanting to be limited by theory, this surface modification may
be the result of the water displacing Cl.sup.1- ions or other
reactive groups from the particle surface and replacing these with
(--OH) group. It has been found that this treatment with water
improves dispersion of the particles in alcohols and also improves
the surface modification of the particles with alkoxysilanes.
Particles formed with other flow based techniques with chlorine
atoms bonded at the surface would be expected to be similarly
modified with water. The water treatment can be performed in-flight
or with a separate water contact with the as-formed particles.
[0055] Compositions for surface modification of the inorganic
particles can be selected by their ability to associate with the
surface of particular inorganic particles. The surface modification
composition generally can have no reactive functional groups, one
reactive functional group, two reactive functional groups or more
than two reactive functional groups. The number of reactive
functional groups generally is consistent with the desired chemical
bonding of the surface modification agent with respect to the
particle surface and/or the polymer, although functional groups can
also contribute to non-bonding interactions with the particles as
well as to altering interactions with the solvent/dispersant.
[0056] Alkoxysilanes have been known for some time to chemically
bond with the surface of metal oxide particles. The alkoxy-groups
hydrolyze to form the corresponding alcohol with a silane bonded to
the particle through an oxygen group, i.e. "particle-O-silane." The
resulting group can be referred to for convenience as an oxysilane
group, although it is arbitrary whether or not to consider the
oxygen atom of the group to be part of the particle or part of the
silane group. In general, trialkoxysilanes are used since the
hydrolysis of the three alkoxy groups can result in a very stable
surface modifying group bonded to the particle surface at three
points.
[0057] In general, the processes described herein relate to the
formation of liquid dispersions starting with a dry metal oxide
without surface modification. The metal/metalloid oxide powder can
be formed from a vapor-based flow synthesis method although other
processes can be used, such as solution based processes. While
powders formed in solution can be more conveniently surface
modified before harvesting the particles from the solution after
they are synthesized, it may be desirable to thermally process the
particles as an unmodified dry powder to alter or improve the
properties of the particles in a way inconsistent with a surface
modification. Thus, a dry powder of a metal/metalloid oxide without
surface modification can be formed by solution based methods such
as sol gel. However, unmodified particles formed by solution based
approaches tend to form hard agglomerates upon harvesting and/or
further processing presumably due to the surface chemistry of these
materials.
[0058] With respect to dispersions, in some embodiments the
ultimate objective generally involves the formation of a dispersion
of particles with a surface modifier. These dispersions with
surface modified particles can be formed as stable dispersion at
higher particles concentrations than dispersions with particles
that are not surface modified. However, it has been found that this
dispersion process is better performed with at least two steps in
the process. Specifically, the particles without surface
modification are well dispersed in a liquid, which may or may not
have non-bonding surface active agents. Then, this dispersion with
well dispersed unmodified particles is contacted with a surface
modification compound. This second step may or may not involve a
change of solvent/dispersant liquid.
[0059] Generally, the ability to disperse the unmodified particles
is significantly dependent on the selection of dispersant. If the
dry powders of unmodified inorganic particles can be well dispersed
in a liquid and the surface modifying compound is soluble in the
same liquid, then the surface modifying compound can be added to
the well dispersed unmodified particles. However, the objective is
to have a versatile processing approach with options for producing
a wide range of materials. If the surface modifying compound is not
soluble in a liquid that is a suitable dispersant for the
particles, the surface modifying compound can be dissolved into a
liquid that is miscible with the dispersant for the particles.
Thus, when the surface modifying solution is mixed with the
particle dispersion, the surface modifying compound can effectively
contact the particle surfaces. In this way, very well dispersed
particles can be achieved with a broader range of surface modifying
agents. In addition, the second liquid helps to stabilize the
dispersion of the surface modified particles once they are formed.
Since the particles are well dispersed prior to surface
modification, correspondingly well dispersed surface modified
particles can be obtained with little or no agglomeration.
[0060] In general, the surface modified particles can be well
dispersed at higher concentrations than the unmodified particles.
To achieve the higher concentrations once the surface modification
is performed, the solvent can be evaporated from the dispersion.
However, even if the evaporated solvent is recycled, evaporating
the solvent can consume significant amounts of energy. Therefore,
it can be desirable to precipitate the surface modified particles.
The particles can be precipitated by adding a miscible liquid to
form a liquid blend in which the particles do not remain dispersed.
Once the particles settle from the liquid, the liquid can be
decanted off. The surface modified particles generally are
significantly easier to re-suspend than the original unmodified
powders as long as they do not dry. The surface modified particles
can be re-suspended at the desired concentrations.
[0061] It has been found that metal oxide particles produced by
flow-based synthesis approaches can be well dispersed at moderate
concentrations in unmodified form in alcohols, such as methanol or
propylene glycol. The as-synthesized particles can be stably
dispersed in water at moderate concentrations, although the average
secondary particle size generally is larger than in dispersions in
certain alcohols. Also, it has been discovered that the contact of
the particles with water also can increase the presence of --OH
groups on the surface of the particles. The increased presence of
--OH groups improves the subsequent dispersion of the particles in
alcohols and provides additional functional groups for bonding with
surface modification agents, such as alkoxysilanes. Thus, the
initial contact of the inorganic particles with water and the
subsequent dispersion in a suitable alcohol results in a
surprisingly improved dispersion in the alcohol Improved
dispersions are stable with a relatively smaller average secondary
particle size at a particular concentration.
[0062] As an alternative to the post-formation treatment with
water, the particles can be contacted with water in-flight,
following synthesis of the particles but prior to collection of the
particles. The water can be introduced for example, as an aerosol
into the product flow either downstream from the reaction zone
within the reaction chamber and/or within the conduit of the
collection system. The water can be introduced using appropriate
inlets. In-flight modification of inorganic particles formed by
laser pyrolysis or other reactive flows, such as a flame synthesis
approach, is described further in copending U.S. patent application
Ser. No. 11/438,477, filed May 22, 2006 to Chiruvolu et al.,
entitled "In-Flight Modification of Inorganic Particles Within a
Reaction Product Flow," incorporated herein by reference.
[0063] The well dispersed particles can be delivered as a
dispersion for a range of applications. The particles can be
delivered with or without surface modification. In some
embodiments, it is desirable to ship the surface modified particles
since the dispersions are generally more stable and since the
concentrations are generally higher. Shipping costs are
significantly lower if the dispersions are correspondingly more
concentrated, and shelf life is higher if the dispersions are more
stable. The dispersion can be used to deliver the particles to a
range of structures. The dispersions can be delivered using a range
of delivery approaches, such as spray coatings, spin coating,
printing and the like. However, in some applications, the
dispersions are used to form composite materials that are formed in
solution prior to further processing into structures for
devices.
[0064] While in principle, the incorporation of well dispersed
particles into a polymer composite seems straightforward, but it
can be complex to properly disperse the particles uniformly through
the composite material. A first complication is that the solvent
suitable for the polymer may not be suitable for the particle
dispersion. The particle dispersions generally are very sensitive
to the liquid properties. A second complication is that the
particles tend to clump in the composite even if the particles are
well dispersed prior to forming the composite. If an inorganic
particle surface modifier is properly selected, the polymer
interacts in a stable way with the modified particles so that the
particles if well dispersed in the polymer remain well dispersed.
In particular, the surface modified particles tend to form stable
formations with the polymer whether or not the particles chemically
bond with the polymer. However, if the particles get significantly
agglomerated, the can be difficult subsequently to disperse the
particles uniformly in the polymer.
[0065] Also, the polymer molecules can have a structure in solution
that can discourage incorporation of the particles into a uniform
structure. For example, the polymer molecules can fold to form
nanoscale polymer particles within the solution. The folding of the
polymer molecules within the solution can further discourage
uniform blending of the particles within the composite since only
the surface of the polymer particle may be exposed. Selection of a
solvent to denature tertiary structure of the polymer molecules can
encourage formation of a uniform composite. The molecular weight
distribution of the polymer and the concentration of the polymer
determine the viscosity of the polymer solution in a selected
solvent. A lower viscosity improves the mixing with inorganic
particle dispersions. For a fixed molecular weight, the solvent and
concentration can be adjusted to provide a viscosity in a desired
range. The mixing conditions should be selected to provide an
appropriate amount of time and an environment during the mixing
process for macromolecules to re-configure and for particles to
incorporate into the polymer macromolecules.
[0066] These problems can be significantly overcome through the
gradual addition of the particle dispersion to a solution of the
polymer while mixing the polymer solution. The drop-wise or other
gradual addition of the particle dispersion leaves a low
concentration of particles within the combined solution in which
the particles are not yet associated with the polymer. As inorganic
particles are associated with the polymer, these particles are
generally not available to form agglomerates with other inorganic
particles. Thus, through the gradual addition of the particle
dispersion with the polymer solution, the particles can be very
uniformly distributed through the composite so that on smaller
distance scales the material has the appearance of a uniform
material.
[0067] In some embodiments, the dispersed particles can be blended
with monomers or oligomers in a solvent prior to polymerization. To
get good blending, gradual addition can also be used. The
polymerization can be initiated during the addition of the particle
dispersion or after the particles are blended with the polymer
precursors. Polymerization or crosslinking can be initiated through
the addition of a reactant, such as a radical initiator, a
catalyst, radiation, combinations thereof or the like.
[0068] Solvent stability issues arise with the addition of the
particles to a polymer or polymer precursor solution that are
similar to issues encountered with mixing a surface modification
compound with the inorganic particle dispersion. In particular, the
dispersant used for the particles should be miscible with the
solvent for the polymer or the polymer precursor. Proper selection
of the solvent reduces agglomeration when the particles are added
to the polymer materials. This selection of dispersant improves
dispersion of the particle through the solvent even for embodiments
in which the particles are added gradually to the polymer
solution.
[0069] The composite materials with improved uniformity described
herein provide for significantly improved optical properties. In
particular, since the materials can be significantly more uniform
on a distance scale of visible and infrared, the composite is
significantly more transparent to light with the appropriate
wavelength. While not wanted to be limited by theory, one can
imagine that increased scattering of less uniform composites
results from clustering of the particles or similarly by
microscopic index of refraction variations that are roughly on the
order of magnitude of distances of the wavelength of light.
Nevertheless, the improved uniformity of the composite achieved
herein provides for a transmittance of visible light greater than
90 percent relative to the transmittance through a corresponding
structure formed with the polymer without the particles.
[0070] Other optical properties of the composite can be similarly
improved. For example, the formation of composites with phosphor
particles can result in improved luminescence of the composites due
to the improved uniformity of the materials. Other functional
optical materials similarly have improved performance due to the
improved uniformity of the composite.
Composition of Inorganic Particles
[0071] In general, inorganic particles with any stable composition
can be used to form the composites. In some embodiments, the
particles have an average diameter of no more than about one
micron, and in further embodiments it is desirable to have
particles with smaller particle sizes to introduce desired
properties for resulting materials. The composition of the
particles generally is selected to impart desired properties to the
composite. Thus, in the formation of optical material, for example,
the optical properties of the inorganic particles can be selected
to form a composite material with the desired optical properties,
such as index of refraction, emission and/or transparency.
[0072] Small and uniform inorganic particles can provide processing
advantages with respect to forming uniform composite materials. In
addition, small inorganic particles have desirable properties for
optical applications including, for example, a shifted absorption
spectrum toward the ultraviolet and reduced scattering of visible
light. Suitable nanoparticles can be formed, for example, by laser
pyrolysis, flame synthesis, combustion, or solution-based
processes, such as sol gel approaches. In particular, laser
pyrolysis is useful in the formation of particles that are highly
uniform in composition, crystallinity and size. Laser pyrolysis
involves light from an intense light source that drives the
reaction to form the particles. Laser pyrolysis is an excellent
approach for efficiently producing a wide range of nanoscale
particles with a selected composition and a narrow distribution of
average particle diameters. Alternatively, submicron particles can
be produced using a flame production apparatus such as the
apparatus described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,447,708 to Helble et al.,
entitled "Apparatus for Producing Nanoscale Ceramic Particles,"
incorporated herein by reference. Furthermore, submicron particles
can be produced with a thermal reaction chamber such as the
apparatus described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,842,832 to Inoue et al.,
"Ultrafine Spherical Particles of Metal Oxide and a Method for the
Production Thereof," incorporated herein by reference.
[0073] For convenience, light-based pyrolysis is referred to as
laser pyrolysis since this terminology reflects the convenience of
lasers as a radiation source and is a conventional term in the art.
Laser pyrolysis approaches discussed herein incorporate a reactant
flow that can involve gases, vapors, aerosols or combinations
thereof to introduce desired elements into the flow stream. The
versatility of generating a reactant stream with gases, vapor
and/or aerosol precursors provides for the generation of particles
with a wide range of potential compositions.
[0074] A collection of submicron/nanoscale particles may have an
average diameter for the primary particles of less than about 500
nm, in some embodiments from about 2 nm to about 100 nm,
alternatively from about 2 nm to about 75 nm, or from about 2 nm to
about 50 nm. A person of ordinary skill in the art will recognize
that other ranges within these specific ranges are covered by the
disclosure herein. Primary particle diameters are evaluated by
transmission electron microscopy.
[0075] As used herein, the term "particles" refer to physical
particles, which are unfused, so that any fused primary particles
are considered as an aggregate, i.e. a physical particle. For
particles formed by laser pyrolysis, the particles can be generally
effectively the same as the primary particles, i.e., the primary
structural element within the material. If there is hard fusing of
some primary particles, these hard fused primary particles form
correspondingly larger physical particles. The primary particles
can have a roughly spherical gross appearance, or they can have rod
shapes, plate shapes or other non-spherical shapes. Upon closer
examination, crystalline particles generally have facets
corresponding to the underlying crystal lattice. Amorphous
particles generally have a spherical aspect. Diameter measurements
on particles with asymmetries are based on an average of length
measurements along the principle axes of the particle.
[0076] Because of their small size, the particles tend to form
loose agglomerates due to van der Waals and other electromagnetic
forces between nearby particles. These loose agglomerates can be
dispersed in a dispersant to a significant degree, and in some
embodiments approximately completely to form dispersed primary
particles. The size of the dispersed particles can be referred to
as the secondary particle size. The primary particle size, of
course, is the lower limit of the secondary particle size for a
particular collection of particles, so that the average secondary
particle size can be approximately the average primary particle
size if the primary particles are substantially unfused and if the
particles are effectively completely dispersed in the liquid.
[0077] The secondary or agglomerated particle size may depend on
the subsequent processing of the particles following their initial
formation and the composition and structure of the particles. In
particular, the particle surface chemistry, properties of the
dispersant, the application of disruptive forces, such as shear or
sonic forces, and the like can influence the efficiency of fully
dispersing the particles. In some embodiments, the secondary
particles have an average diameter no more than about 1000 nm, in
additional embodiments no more than about 500 nm, in further
embodiments from about 2 nm to about 300 nm, in other embodiments
about 2 nm to about 100 nm, and alternatively about 2 nm to about
50 nm. A person of ordinary skill in the art will recognize that
other ranges within these specific ranges are contemplated and are
within the present disclosure.
[0078] Secondary particles sizes within a liquid dispersion can be
measured by established approaches, such as dynamic light
scattering. Suitable particle size analyzers include, for example,
a Microtrac UPA instrument from Honeywell based on dynamic light
scattering, a Horiba Particle Size Analyzer from Horiba, Japan and
ZetaSizer Series of instruments from Malvern based on Photon
Correlation Spectroscopy. The principles of dynamic light
scattering for particle size measurements in liquids are well
established.
[0079] Even though the particles may form loose agglomerates, the
nanometer scale of the particles is clearly observable in
transmission electron micrographs of the particles. The particles
generally have a surface area corresponding to particles on a
nanometer scale as observed in the micrographs. Furthermore, the
particles can manifest unique properties due to their small size
and large surface area per weight of material. For example, the
absorption spectrum of crystalline, nanoscale TiO.sub.2 particles
is shifted into the ultraviolet.
[0080] The particles can have a high degree of uniformity in size.
Laser pyrolysis generally results in particles having a very narrow
range of particle diameters. Furthermore, heat processing under
suitably mild conditions generally does not significantly alter the
very narrow range of particle diameters. With aerosol delivery of
reactants for laser pyrolysis, the distribution of particle
diameters is particularly sensitive to the reaction conditions.
Nevertheless, if the reaction conditions are properly controlled, a
very narrow distribution of particle diameters can be obtained with
an aerosol delivery system. As determined from examination of
transmission electron micrographs, the particles generally have a
distribution in sizes such that at least about 95 percent, and in
some embodiments 99 percent, of the particles have a diameter
greater than about 35 percent of the average diameter and less than
about 220 percent of the average diameter. In additional
embodiments, the particles generally have a distribution in sizes
such that at least about 95 percent, and in some embodiments 99
percent, of the particles have a diameter greater than about 40
percent of the average diameter and less than about 160 percent of
the average diameter. In embodiments of particular interest, the
particles have a distribution of diameters such that at least about
95 percent, and in some embodiments 99 percent, of the particles
have a diameter greater than about 60 percent of the average
diameter and less than about 140 percent of the average diameter. A
person of ordinary skill in the art will recognize that other
ranges of uniformity within these specific ranges are covered by
the disclosure herein.
[0081] Furthermore, in some embodiments essentially no particles
have an average diameter greater than about 5 times the average
diameter, in other embodiments about 4 times the average diameter,
in further embodiments 3 times the average diameter, and in
additional embodiments 2 times the average diameter. In other
words, the particle size distribution effectively does not have a
tail indicative of a small number of particles with significantly
larger sizes. This is a result of the small reaction region to form
the inorganic particles and corresponding rapid quench of the
inorganic particles. An effective cut off in the tail of the size
distribution indicates that there are less than about 1 particle in
10.sup.6 have a diameter greater than a specified cut off value
above the average diameter. High particle uniformity can be
exploited in a variety of applications.
[0082] In addition, the nanoparticles for incorporation into the
composite particles may have a very high purity level. Furthermore,
crystalline nanoparticles, such as those produced by laser
pyrolysis, can have a high degree of crystallinity. Similarly, the
crystalline nanoparticles produced by laser pyrolysis can be
subsequently heat processed to improve and/or modify the degree of
crystallinity and/or the particular crystal structure. Impurities
on the surface of the particles may be removed by heating the
particles to achieve not only high crystalline purity but high
purity overall.
[0083] A basic feature of successful application of laser pyrolysis
for the production of desirable inorganic nanoparticles is the
generation of a reactant stream containing one or more
metal/metalloid precursor compounds, a radiation absorber and, in
some embodiments, a secondary reactant. The secondary reactant can
be a source of non-metal/metalloid atoms, such as oxygen, required
for the desired product and/or can be an oxidizing or reducing
agent to drive a desired product formation. A secondary reactant
may not be used if the precursor decomposes to the desired product
under intense light radiation. Similarly, a separate radiation
absorber may not be used if the metal/metalloid precursor and/or
the secondary reactant absorb the appropriate light radiation to
drive the reaction. The reaction of the reactant stream is driven
by an intense radiation beam, such as a light beam, e.g., a laser
beam. In some embodiments, CO.sub.2 lasers can be effectively used.
As the reactant stream leaves the radiation beam, the inorganic
particles are rapidly quenched with particles in present in the
resulting product particle stream, which is a continuation of the
reactant stream. The concept of a stream has its conventional
meaning of a flow originating from one location and ending at
another location with movement of mass between the two points, as
distinguished from movement in a mixing configuration.
[0084] A laser pyrolysis apparatus suitable for the production of
commercial quantities of particles by laser pyrolysis has been
developed using a reactant inlet that is significantly elongated in
a direction along the path of the laser beam. This high capacity
laser pyrolysis apparatus, e.g., 1 kilogram or more per hour, is
described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,958,348, entitled "Efficient
Production Of Particles By Chemical Reaction," incorporated herein
by reference. Approaches for the delivery of aerosol precursors for
commercial production of particles by laser pyrolysis is described
in copending and commonly assigned U.S. Pat. No. 6,193,936 to
Gardner et al., entitled "Reactant Delivery Apparatus,"
incorporated herein by reference.
[0085] In general, nanoparticles produced by laser pyrolysis can be
subjected to additional processing to alter the nature of the
particles, such as the composition and/or the crystallinity. For
example, the nanoparticles can be subjected to heat processing in a
gas atmosphere prior to use. Under suitably mild conditions, heat
processing is effective to modify the characteristics of the
particles without destroying the nanoscale size or the narrow
particle size distribution of the initial particles. For example,
heat processing of submicron vanadium oxide particles is described
in U.S. Pat. No. 5,989,514 to Bi et al., entitled "Processing Of
Vanadium Oxide Particles With Heat," incorporated herein by
reference.
[0086] A wide range of simple and complex submicron and/or
nanoscale particles have been produced by laser pyrolysis with or
without additional heat processing. In general, the inorganic
particles generally include metal or metalloid elements in their
elemental form or in compounds. Specifically, the inorganic
particles can include, for example, elemental metal or elemental
metalloid, i.e. un-ionized elements such as silver or silicon,
metal/metalloid oxides, metal/metalloid nitrides, metal/metalloid
carbides, metal/metalloid sulfides or combinations thereof. In
addition, there is the capability for producing nano-particulate
carbon materials. Particles comprising complex ternary and
quaternary compounds have also been made. In addition, uniformity
of these high quality materials can be substantial. These particles
generally can have a very narrow particle size distribution.
Availability of a wide range of compositions and crystal structures
of nanoparticles provides a corresponding significant range in
potential combinations between nanoparticles and polymers as well
as properties for the resulting composites.
[0087] With respect to the electrical properties of the particles,
some particles include compositions such that the particles are
electrical conductors, electrical insulators or electrical
semiconductors. Suitable electrical conductors include, for
example, elemental metals and some metal compositions. Electrical
conductors, such as metals, generally have a room temperature
resistivity of no more than about 1.times.10.sup.-3 Ohm-cm.
Electrical insulators generally have a room temperature resistivity
of at least about 1.times.10.sup.5 Ohm-cm. Electrical
semiconductors include, for example, silicon, GaN, CdS and InP.
Semiconducting crystals can be classified to include so called,
II-VI compounds, III-V compounds and group IV compounds, where the
number refers to the group in the periodic table. Semiconductors
are characterized by a large increase in conductivity with
temperature in pure form and an increase in electrical conductivity
by orders of magnitude upon doping with electrically active
impurities. Semiconductors generally have a band gap that results
in the observed conductivity behavior. At room temperature, the
conductivity of a semiconductor is generally between that of a
metal and a good electrical insulator.
[0088] Several different types of nanoscale particles have been
produced by laser pyrolysis. Selected inorganic particles can
generally be characterized as comprising a composition with a
number of different elements that are present in varying relative
proportions, where the number and the relative proportions are
selected based on the application for the nanoscale particles.
Materials that have been produced (possibly with additional
processing, such as a heat treatment) or have been described in
detail for production by laser pyrolysis include, for example,
carbon particles, silicon, SiO.sub.2, doped SiO.sub.2, titanium
oxide (anatase and rutile TiO.sub.2), MnO, Mn.sub.2O.sub.3,
Mn.sub.3O.sub.4, Mn.sub.5O.sub.8, vanadium oxide, silver vanadium
oxide, lithium manganese oxide, aluminum oxide
(.gamma.-Al.sub.2O.sub.3, delta-Al.sub.2O.sub.3 and
theta-Al.sub.2O.sub.3), doped-aluminum oxide (alumina), tin oxide,
zinc oxide, rare earth metal oxide particles, rare earth doped
metal/metalloid nitride particles, rare earth metal/metalloid
sulfides, rare earth doped metal/metalloid sulfides, silver metal,
iron, iron oxide, iron carbide, iron sulfide (Fe.sub.1-xS), cerium
oxide, zirconium oxide, barium titanate (BaTiO.sub.3), aluminum
silicate, aluminum titanate, silicon carbide, silicon nitride, and
metal/metalloid compounds with complex anions, for example,
phosphates, silicates and sulfates. The production of a range of
particles by laser pyrolysis is described further in published U.S.
Patent Application 2003/203205A to Bi et al., entitled
"Nanoparticle Production and Corresponding Structures,"
incorporated herein by reference.
[0089] Submicron and nanoscale particles can be produced with
selected dopants using laser pyrolysis and other flowing reactor
systems. Amorphous powders and crystalline powders can be formed
with complex compositions comprising a plurality of selected
dopants. The powders can be used to form optical materials and the
like. Amorphous submicron and nanoscale powders and glass layers
with dopants, such as rare earth dopants and/or other metal
dopants, are described further in U.S. Pat. No. 6,849,334 to Horne
et al., entitled "Optical Materials And Optical Devices,"
incorporated herein by reference. Crystalline submicron and
nanoscale particles with dopants, such as rare earth dopants, are
described further in U.S. Pat. No. 6,692,660 to Kumar et al.,
entitled "High Luminescence Phosphor Particles," incorporated
herein by reference.
[0090] The dopants can be introduced at desired quantities by
varying the composition of the reactant stream. The dopants are
introduced into an appropriate host material by appropriately
selecting the composition in the reactant stream and the processing
conditions. Thus, submicron particles incorporating one or more
metal or metalloid elements as host composition with selected
dopants, including, for example, rare earth dopants and/or complex
blends of dopant compositions, can be formed. For embodiments in
which the host materials are oxides, an oxygen source should also
be present in the reactant stream. For these embodiments, the
conditions in the reactor should be sufficiently oxidizing to
produce the oxide materials.
[0091] Furthermore, dopants can be introduced to vary properties of
the resulting particles. For example, dopants can be introduced to
change the optical properties of the particles that are
subsequently incorporated into polymer-inorganic particle composite
particles. For optical applications, the index-of-refraction can be
varied to form specific optical devices that operate with light of
a selected frequency range or dopants can introduce fluorescent or
phosphorescent properties to the particles such that they can
function as phosphors. Dopants can also be introduced to alter the
processing properties of the material. Furthermore, dopants can
also interact within the materials. For example, some dopants are
introduced to increase the solubility of other dopants.
[0092] In some embodiments, the one or plurality of dopants are
rare earth metals or rare earth metals with one or more other
dopant elements. Rare earth metals comprise the transition metals
of the group IIIb of the periodic table. Specifically, the rare
earth elements comprise Sc, Y and the Lanthanide series. Other
suitable dopants comprise elements of the actinide series. For
optical glasses, the rare earth metals of particular interest as
dopants comprise, for example, Ho, Eu, Ce, Tb, Dy, Er, Yb, Nd, La,
Y, Pr and Tm. Generally, the rare earth ions of interest have a +3
ionization state, although Eu.sup.+2 and Ce.sup.+4 are also of
interest. Rare earth dopants can influence the optical absorption
properties that can enable the application of the materials for the
production of optical amplifiers and other optical devices.
Suitable non-rare earth dopants for various purposes include, for
example, Bi, Sb, Zr, Pb, Li, Na, K, Ba, B, Si, Ge, W, Ca, Cr, Ga,
Al, Mg, Sr, Zn, Ti, Ta, Nb, Mo, Th, Cd and Sn.
[0093] As noted above, laser pyrolysis has been used to produce a
range of powder compositions. The compositions can include multiple
metal/metalloid elements. A representative sample of references
relating to some of these powder materials is presented in the
following.
[0094] As a first example of nanoparticle production, the
production of silicon oxide nanoparticles is described in U.S. Pat.
No. 6,726,990 to Kumar et al., entitled "Silicon Oxide Particles,"
incorporated herein by reference. This patent application describes
the production of amorphous SiO.sub.2. The synthesis by laser
pyrolysis of silicon carbide and silicon nitride is described in
copending and commonly assigned U.S. patent application Ser. No.
09/433,202 to Reitz et al. filed on Nov. 5, 1999, entitled
"Particle Dispersions," incorporated herein by reference. The
production of silicon particles by laser pyrolysis is described in
an article by Cannon et al., J. of the American Ceramic Society,
Vol. 65, No. 7, pp. 330-335 (1982), entitled Sinterable Ceramic
Particles From Laser-Driven Reactions: II, Powder Characteristics
And Process Variables," incorporated herein by reference.
[0095] The production of titanium oxide nanoparticles and
crystalline silicon dioxide nanoparticles is described in U.S. Pat.
No. 6,387,531 to Bi et al., entitled "Metal (Silicon) Oxide/Carbon
Composites," incorporated herein by reference. In particular, this
application describes the production of anatase and rutile
TiO.sub.2. The production of aluminum oxide nanoparticles is
described in copending and commonly assigned, U.S. patent
application Ser. No. 09/136,483 to Kumar et al., entitled "Aluminum
Oxide Particles," incorporated herein by reference.
[0096] Furthermore, mixed metal oxide nanoparticles have been
produced by laser pyrolysis along with or without subsequent heat
processing, as described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,607,706 to Kumar et
al., entitled "Composite Metal Oxide Particles," and U.S. Pat. No.
6,482,374 to Kumar et al., entitled "Reaction Methods for Producing
Lithium Metal Oxide Particles," and U.S. Pat. No. 6,136,287 to
Horne et al., entitled "Lithium Manganese Oxides and Batteries,"
all three of which are incorporated herein by reference. The
formation of submicron and nanoscale particles comprising
metal/metalloid compounds with complex anions is described in
copending and commonly assigned U.S. patent application Ser. No.
09/845,985 to Chaloner-Gill et al., entitled "Phosphate Powder
Compositions And Methods For Forming Particles With Complex
Anions," incorporated herein by reference. Suitable complex anions
include, for example, phosphates, silicates and sulfates.
Dispersion of Inorganic Particles
[0097] The dispersion of inorganic particles formed as a dry powder
depends on several important factors. One important factor is the
surface chemistry of the particles as well as the technique to form
the particles. Also, the nature of the dispersant should be
selected to be appropriate to separate the particles within the
dispersion. In this section, the dispersion of inorganic particles
is discussed without surface modification of the particles. Surface
modification is discussed in the following section. For particles
formed in vapor based processes, better results are obtained by
first dispersing the particles and then performing the surface
modification.
[0098] While the nanoparticles useful for the formation of
composites generally can be produced by any of several approaches,
laser pyrolysis is particularly desirable approach for the
synthesis of the particles. Due to the rapid quenching in the laser
pyrolysis approach, the particles can be formed to be very uniform
and with a suitable surface chemistry to facilitate dispersion of
the particles. Furthermore, the precursors selected for the laser
pyrolysis process influence the surface chemistry of the resulting
particles. For example, the use of a chloride precursor provides
chlorine atoms as a by product that are then available to cap the
particle surfaces.
[0099] For metal/metalloid oxides particles, the crystalline
structure terminates at the surface of the particle. In general,
radicals are too reactive, so that the dangling bonds along the
surface need to be terminated in ways that are made available in
the particular synthesis approach. In some circumstances,
relatively stable radicals are observed, such as titanium dioxide
with a blue hue. Since the presence of the radicals can affect the
optical properties, these materials are generally not desired.
Alternatively, the oxygen atoms along the surface can form oxygen
bridge structures or double bonds with oxygen atoms. Bridge
structures and double bonds distort the crystal properties along
the surface of the particles and introduce strain. The bridge
structures and double bonded oxygen atoms can be expected to form
if the particles are formed under highly oxidizing conditions,
which are generally expected in flame or other thermal pyrolysis
processes. Under less oxidizing conditions, mono-valent atoms can
terminate the crystal surface, such as O--H or M-X bonds, where M
is a metal atom and X can be a halogen atom. As described herein,
evidence indicates that -OH groups along the surface seem favorable
to the excellent dispersion of these particles in alcohols as well
as contributing to a very high crystallinity of the particles.
[0100] In general, the dispersant should be selected based on the
surface properties of the particles since the surface properties
influence the interaction with the solvent. In general, --OH groups
along the surface would favor dispersion in polar solvents. The
surface chemistry also influences the formation of charges along
the surface when the particles are placed in a liquid. The degree
of surface charges can be expressed as a zeta potential, which is a
concept borrowed from the field of colloidal chemistry. Commercial
equipment is available to measure the zeta potential. It may or may
not be desirable to add a surfactant that does not bond to the
particle surface at this stage of the processing. Generally, an
appropriate surfactant is displaced by a surface modifying agent
that bonds to the particle surface at an appropriate stage of
processing. Suitable surfactants can be selected for the particular
particles and may be cationic surfactants, anionic surfactants,
non-ionic surfactants and/or zwitter ionic surfactants.
[0101] In general, the metal oxide particles formed by laser
pyrolysis can be well dispersed in water or alcohols at moderate
concentrations with no surface modification. Suitable alcohols
include, for example, small aliphatic alcohols, such as methanol,
ethanol, propylene glycol, butanediol and the like. These alcohols
generally form better dispersions than water at the same
concentrations. Better dispersions are more stable and/or have a
smaller secondary particle size indicating less agglomeration. In
general, dispersions with well dispersed particles can be formed at
concentrations of up to 15 weight percent inorganic particles, in
other embodiments from about 0.25 to about 10 weight percent and in
further embodiments from about 0.5 to about 9 weight percent. In
some embodiments, for dispersions with well dispersed particles,
the average secondary particle size can be no more than a factor of
four times the average primary particle size, in further
embodiments no more than about 3 times the average primary particle
size and in additional embodiments no more than about 2 times the
average primary particle size. With respect to the particle size
distribution, essentially all of the secondary particles can have a
size no more than 4 times the z-average secondary particle size, in
further embodiments no more than about 3 times the z-average
particle size and in other embodiments, no more than about 2 times
the z-average particle size. Z-average particle sizes are measured
using dynamic light scattering. Alternatively, volume average
particle sizes can be used to evaluate secondary particle sizes,
although z-average values are generally less variable in
measurements. In some embodiments, the average secondary particle
size can approximate the primary particle size. A person of
ordinary skill will recognize that additional ranges of
concentrations and secondary particle sizes within the explicit
ranges above are contemplated and are within the present
disclosure. As used herein, reference to essentially all of the
particles indicates no more than 1 in one million particles.
[0102] In some embodiments, it has been discovered that an initial
mixing of metal oxide particles with water can improve eventual
dispersion in an alcohol. This provides some evidence that the
water can modify the surface chemistry of the particles. While not
wanted to be limited by theory, one explanation is that OH.sup.-1
groups in the water undergo nucleophylic substitution with M-X
groups on the particle surfaces to form M-O--H groups and X.sup.-1
and/or open ring groups formed by bridging oxygen atoms. In
particular, particles formed with chlorine atoms present are
observed to create acidic conditions in the water consistent with
the removal of OH.sup.-1 and generation of Cl.sup.-1. With the
formation of --OH groups along the particle surface, the particles
would be expected to disperse better in alcohols. Such a result has
been found, as shown in Example 2 below. The water can be provides
as a pure solvent or as a water alcohol blend. Also, the water can
be heated, such as over 50.degree. C., to accelerate the reaction
with the water.
[0103] For the alteration of surface chemistry by water, the
particles are mixed in water or aqueous solution. In general, the
water reaction can be performed for at least about 1 minutes, in
further embodiments from about 2 minutes to about 24 hours or more,
although longer presence in the water generally does not further
change the material properties, in other embodiments from about 5
minutes to about 10 hours, and in additional embodiments from about
10 minutes to about 4 hours. A person of ordinary skill in the art
will recognize that additional ranges within these explicit time
ranges are contemplated and are within the present disclosure. The
particles do not need to be well dispersed during the contact with
the water, so that higher concentrations can be used for this step.
After a sufficient time for the dispersion in water, the particles
can be precipitated through the blending of the solvent. In
general, this can be performed through the addition of a sufficient
amount of a less polar solvent that is miscible in water. Suitable
solvents include, for example, acetone. Once the particles are
removed from the aqueous solution, they can be rinsed one or more
times with the selected dispersant to remove residual water. The
particles are then dispersed in the alcohol or other selected
dispersant. Appropriate mixing can be performed at each step. As
noted above, the alteration of surface chemistry using water can be
performed in flight within the reaction system used to synthesize
the particles. Copending U.S. patent application Ser. No.
11/438,477 to Chiruvolu et al., entitled "In-Flight Modification of
Inorganic Particles Within a Reaction Product Flow," incorporated
herein by reference, describes suitable processes and apparatuses
for performing in-flight processing. For example, the laser
pyrolysis apparatus described below can be modified to provide for
the introduction of an aerosol of water into the product flow prior
to the collector.
[0104] Secondary particle size can generally be evaluated using
dynamic light scattering, although other approaches such as laser
diffraction and acoustic scattering can also be used in some
commercial instruments. Measurements of the scattered light can be
used to obtain detailed information on the particle sizes in the
dispersion. Suitable light scattering particle size analyzers are
commercially available. For example, suitable particle size
analyzers are available from Horiba Instruments, Inc, Irvine,
Calif. and Malvern Instruments Ltd., UK.
[0105] The particle dispersions can be stable for extended periods
of time. In general, the particle dispersions can be stable upon
sitting undisturbed for at least about 24 hours in and in some
embodiments at least about a week, and some have been observed to
be stable for at least several months. The dispersions can be
filtered or centrifuged to remove impurities and any rare large
agglomerates. In general, precipitates look dark indicating
impurities that have been introduced to the samples at earlier
handling steps. The filtrate can be used for further processing.
For example, micron scale filters are available from Whatman Inc,
Florham Park, N.J. Similarly, the dispersions can be centrifuged at
3000 rpm to 4000 rpm for from about 3 minutes to about 10 minutes.
After centrifugation, the dispersions can be decanted from any
sediment.
[0106] In general, some type of mixing is used to drive the
formation of the dispersion. For example, the combination of the
particles and dispersant can be mixed through sonication which
delivers sound waves to the blend to mix the combination.
Alternatively or additionally, shear can be applied directly to mix
the blend with a rotary blender, shaker, blade mixer, spin bar or
the like. Generally, the mixing is performed for at least about 5
minutes, in some embodiments for at least about 10 minutes, in
further embodiments for 12 minutes to about 24 hours and in
additional embodiments for about 15 minutes to about 4 hours. A
person of ordinary skill in the art will recognize that additional
ranges of mixing times within the explicit ranges above are
contemplated and are within the present disclosure. Suitable
sonication and blending apparatuses are commercially available.
[0107] Once good dispersions are formed, it is generally desirable
to further process the particles. For example, the particles can be
surface modified with an organic or silicon-based surface modifying
agent. The surface modification can further stabilize the particles
in a dispersion. Thus, the surface modification can be used to form
dispersions with even longer term stability and at even greater
concentrations, as described further below. In addition, the
dispersed particles can be directly processed into a composite
without surface modification. While it may be desirable to have a
greater concentration of dispersed particles prior to composite
formation, the direct use of the particles for composite formation
shortens one step from the process. However, surface modification
provides the ability to uniformly disperse the particles in a
broader range of polymers due to the ability to select surface
modification compositions with side chains that are compatible with
the polymer. Thus, for many embodiments, it is desirable to form
surface modified particles as described in the following
section.
Surface Modification of Inorganic Particles
[0108] The surface modification of the inorganic particles can
improve stability of the particle dispersions, provide for
dispersion of the particles in a wider range of liquids and provide
for desired processing flexibility for the formation of composites
as well as facilitating the uniform dispersion of the inorganic
particles with a wider range of polymers. While surface modifiers
can merely coat the surface, improved stability of the coated
particles is accomplished with surface modifiers that are
chemically bonded to the surface. In particular, alkoxysilanes
react with metal oxides to form silicon-O-metal bonds to form a
stable surface coating with the release of a corresponding compound
from the displaced silane functional group. An improved surface
coating is achieved with improved --OH functional group coverage on
the surface of the metal oxide particles. The surface modification
process can involve a switch of dispersants. For convenience of
terminology, a surface modifying compound refers to a compound that
adds at least 3 atoms to the particle surface when it bonds to the
particle surface, to distinguish compositions, such as water, that
modify the surface of a metal oxide particle such as through the
substitution of an --OH group.
[0109] A range of surface modifying compounds can be used to
chemically bond to the particle surfaces. Suitable functional
groups for bonding to inorganic particles with different
compositions are described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,599,631 to Kambe et
al, entitled "Polymer-Inorganic Particle Composites," incorporated
herein by reference. Alkoxysilanes provide stable bonding to metal
oxide particles. In particular, trialkoxysilanes provide very
stable bonding to the particle surface with potentially three
points of bonding. The fourth side chain of the trialkoxysilanes
provides the ability to influence the dispersability and other
surface properties of the surface modified inorganic particles.
Specifically, the fourth side chain of the silane can be selected
to improve disperability in a selected solvent and/or to provide a
reactive functional group for further processing. Alternatively or
additionally, the fourth side chain can be used to stabilize the
interaction of the surface modified particle with a selected
polymer so that a uniform composite can be formed. Similarly,
polydialkoxysiloxy silanes provide stable bonding with the ability
of each monomer unit to form two bonds to the particle. The polymer
can wrap around the particles during the bonding process. In
addition to alkoxy silanes, chemical compounds with other
functional groups can form bonds to metal oxide particles.
Specifically, compounds with chlorosilicate (--SiCl) groups, some
amine groups, carboxylic acid groups and hydroxide groups can also
bond to metal oxide particle surfaces. Additional functional groups
of these compounds can be similarly selected to yield desirable
properties for the resulting surface modified particles.
[0110] With respect to the alkoxy side chains of the silanes,
methoxy groups and ethoxy groups have been found to be effective in
reacting with metal oxide particle surfaces, and a range of
compounds with these functional groups are commercially available.
Suitable fourth functional groups for the trialkoxy silanes
include, for example, alkyl groups, epoxide groups
(--(CH.sub.2).sub.nCHCH.sub.2O.sub.bridge), methacrylate
(--(CH.sub.2).sub.nOOC.dbd.CH.sub.2), isocyanate
(--(CH.sub.2).sub.nNCO), thiol (--(CH.sub.2).sub.nSH), acetyl
(--(CH.sub.2).sub.nOOCCH.sub.3), hydroxybenzophenyl
(--(CH.sub.2).sub.nOC.sub.6H.sub.5(OH)COC.sub.6H.sub.5), allyl
(--CH.sub.2CH.dbd.CH.sub.2), and phenethyl
(--(CH.sub.2).sub.nC.sub.6H.sub.5). In general, the surface
modifying compound can be coated at a coverage from less than a
monolayer to four or more monolayers. The amount of coverage is
estimated based on the surface area of the particles and the amount
of compound that can be expected to pack along the particle
surface.
[0111] The surface modified particle dispersions can be stably
formed at greater particle concentrations with no visible settling
for at least a week. In particular, stable dispersion can be formed
at greater than about 2 weight percent solids, in further
embodiments at least about 4 weight percent solids and in other
embodiments from about 5 weight percent solids to about 15 weight
percent solids. The surface modified particles can have a z-average
particle size of no more than about 75 nm, in other embodiments no
more than about 60 nm, and in further embodiments no more than
about 50 nm for the z-average particle size. With respect to the
particle size distribution, essentially all of the secondary
particles can have a size no more than 4 times the z-average
particle size, in further embodiments no more than about 3 times
the z-average particle size and in other embodiments, no more than
about 2 times the z-average particle size. In general, the
z-average secondary particle size can be no more than a factor of
four times the number average primary particle size, in further
embodiments no more than about 3 times the number average primary
particle size and in additional embodiments no more than about 2
times the number average primary particle size. A person of
ordinary skill in the art will recognize that additional ranges of
particle loadings and secondary particle sizes and distributions
within the explicit ranges above are contemplated and are within
the present disclosure. Secondary particle sizes are evaluated with
dynamic light scattering.
[0112] Two processes can be used to perform the surface
modification. In one approach, an unstable, high concentration
dispersion can be formed with the particles, and the surface
modification is performed to stabilize the high concentration
dispersion. However, better particle dispersions generally are
obtained through first forming a dilute, stabile dispersion of the
particles without surface modification and then performing the
surface modification.
[0113] In the direct approach, the liquid is selected to balance
the dispersion of the unmodified particles, the solubility of the
surface modifying compound unbound to the particles and the
dispersion of the particles following surface modification.
Generally, the liquid is not a particularly good dispersant for the
unmodified particles. Similarly, the liquid may not be a good
solvent for the surface modifying agent. But if the surface
modifying agent is somewhat soluble in the liquid and the
unmodified particles can be dispersed with mixing, the surface
modification reaction can be performed. As the particles become
surface modified, the dispersion may stabilize as the reaction
proceeds.
[0114] Better dispersion results are obtained if the inorganic
particles without a surface modifier are first stably dispersed
with a desirably small average secondary particle size. As noted
above, alcohols, especially propylene glycol, and water/alcohol
blends are good dispersants for the unmodified metal oxide
particles. The surface modifying compound can be added directly
into the alcohol or water/alcohol blend if it has some solubility,
or the surface modification compound can be dissolved into a
solvent that is miscible with or soluble in the liquid of the
particle dispersion. After the surface modification is complete,
the particles can be precipitated from the dispersant by mixing a
suitable liquid into the dispersion that is soluble or miscible
with the dispersant used to perform the surface modification, and
then re-suspended in a desired dispersant. The surface modified
particles can be stored or shipped in a liquid suitable for further
processing.
[0115] In general, it has been found very effective to settle the
particles by forming a liquid mixture in which the stability of the
dispersion is lost. Centrifugation or filtration can be used to
efficiently separate the particles from the liquid once they are no
longer stably dispersed. If the particles are centrifuged, the
liquid is decanted from the precipitated particles. The particles
can be washed one or more times with a selected dispersant to
remove residual liquid. Then, the particles can be redispersed in
the selected liquid. In this way, the liquid can be changed for a
later processing step through the selection of a surface modifier
that facilitates dispersion in the selected liquid.
Polymer Composite Compositions and Properties
[0116] The inorganic particles can be well dispersed as described
herein within a polymer composite. In general, the particles may or
may not be surface modified, and the polymer may or may not bond
with the particles directly or indirectly. To obtain composites
with desirable optical properties, the particles should be well
dispersed prior to forming the composite and blended uniformly to
form the composite, as described further below. The resulting
composites can have very high transmittance at particle loadings
that significantly increase the composite index of refraction
relative to the index of refraction of the polymer.
[0117] Suitable polymers include, for example, organic polymers,
silicon-based polymers and mixtures thereof Suitable organic
polymers include, for example, polyamides (nylons), polyimides,
polycarbonates, polyurethanes, polyacrylonitrile, polyacrylic acid,
polyacrylates, polyacrylamides, polyvinyl alcohol, polyvinyl
chloride, heterocyclic polymers, polyesters, modified polyolefins
and mixtures and reasonable copolymers thereof. Composites formed
with nylon polymers, i.e., polyamides, and inorganic nanoparticles
can be called Nanonylon.TM.. Suitable silicon-based polymers
include, for example, polysilanes and polysiloxane (silicone)
polymers, such as poly(dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS) and
poly(methylphenyl siloxane) (PMPS). Polysiloxanes can be desirable
polymers because of their transparency to visible and ultraviolet
light, high thermal stability, resistance to oxidative degradation
and their hydrophobicity. Other inorganic polymers include, for
example, phosphazene polymers (phosphonitrile polymers). The
polymers can be crosslinked to provide desired mechanical
properties to the composite.
[0118] Block copolymers can be used, which can have different
blocks of the polymer that segregate, which is a standard property
of many block copolymers. Suitable block copolymers include, for
example, polystyrene-block-poly(methyl methacrylate),
polystyrene-block-polyacrylamide, polysiloxane-block-polyacrylate
and mixtures thereof. Block copolymers with other numbers of blocks
and other types of polymer compositions also can be used. The
inorganic particles can be associated with only one of the polymer
compositions within the block such that the inorganic particles are
segregated with that polymer composition within the segregation
block copolymer. For example, an AB di-block copolymer can have
inorganic particles primarily essentially only within block A.
[0119] If the polymer in the composite is bonded to the inorganic
particles either directly or indirectly, the polymer can be
selected or modified to have suitable reactive functional groups.
For bonding to metal oxide particles, in addition to alkoxy silane
groups, chlorosilicate (--SiCl) groups, some amine groups,
carboxylic acid groups and hydroxide groups can bond to the metal
oxide particles. A surface modifying compound can be selected to
have an appropriate functional group to react with a functional
group of the polymer. A few representative examples which can be
appropriately put on the surface modifier or the polymer, include,
for example, carboxylic acid groups or epoxy group that are each
reactive with amine groups, thiol groups or hydroxide groups.
Suitable functional groups for binding surface modifying
compositions or linkers with a polymer are described further in
U.S. Pat. No. 6,599,631 to Kambe et al., entitled
"Polymer-Inorganic Particle Composites," incorporated herein by
reference.
[0120] The loading of inorganic particles can be selected to
achieve desired properties of the composite. In general, the
properties of interest include mechanical properties, such as
mechanical strength and mechanical stability as well as functional
properties, such as index of refraction. In general, low particle
loadings can be used if desired, but in some embodiments it is
desirable to use high particle loadings. Particle loadings can be
achieved with very good dispersion with up to about 80 weight
percent, in other embodiments from about 1 weight percent to about
75 weight percent and in further embodiments from about 5 weight
percent to about 65 weight percent. For some optical applications,
the composite comprises at least about 5 weight percent particles.
A person of ordinary skill in the art will recognize that
additional ranges of particle loadings within the explicit ranges
above are contemplated and are within the present disclosure.
[0121] The index of refraction of the composite is approximately a
linear combination by the volume ratios of the inorganic particles
and the polymer. In particular, rutile TiO.sub.2 and ZrO.sub.2 have
high indices of refraction such that they are desirable materials
for the formation of high index of refraction composites. If used
in a polymer with an index of refraction of about 1.4 index units,
the composite can be formed with an index of refraction approaching
2 or higher across the visible portion of the light spectrum.
[0122] For optical applications, it can be desirable for the
composite to have a high transmission in the visible portion of the
spectrum. If small inorganic particles are used, the particles do
not absorb light in the visible region. Specifically, since the
particles are much smaller than the wavelength of visible light if
the particle sizes are less than 100 nm, the absorption spectrum of
the particles is shifted into the ultraviolet and the visible
spectrum fall effectively to zero if the average primary particle
diameter is on the order of 20 nm or less and the particles are
highly crystalline. However, the particles in the composite can
scatter visible light, thereby lowing the transmission of visible
light, if the particle are either highly agglomerated or the
particles are not uniformly distributed within the polymer. By
forming a well dispersed particle dispersion with a z-average
secondary particle size is on the order of 100 nanometers or less
and uniformly distributing the particles within the polymer, high
levels of transmission can be achieved for the composite through
the reduction of scattering. Improved composites can be formed if
the z-average secondary particle size is made even smaller.
[0123] The transmission can be measured relative to the polymer
without any inorganic particles to provide a reference point. In
some embodiments with a particle loading of at least about 5 weight
percent in the composite, the composite has a transmission when
formed into a film with a thickness of 5 microns for at least one
visible wavelength of at least 85 percent relative to the polymer
alone, in other embodiments at least about 87.5 percent, in further
embodiments at least about 90 percent, in other embodiments at
least about 92 percent, in some embodiments at least about 95
percent, and in additional embodiments from about 92 percent to
about 98 percent. In some embodiments, these levels of transmission
through the composite film extend across the entire visible
wavelength range. In additional embodiments, these values of
transmission through the composite film are achieved with a
particle loading from about 20 weight percent to about 85 weight
percent within the composite. A person of ordinary skill in the art
will recognize that additional ranges of transmission within the
explicit ranges above are contemplated and are within the present
disclosure.
[0124] The composite can comprise useful additives, such as
conventional additives for polymer materials. Generally the
additives are included in amounts of no more than about 5 weight
percent of the composite weight. Suitable additives include, for
example, viscosity modifiers, antioxidants, UV stabilizers and the
like. These additives can be selected to be transparent to visible
light.
Processes for Forming Polymer-Inorganic Composites
[0125] The processing to form the composite materials is
significant with respect to obtaining desirable properties for the
composite material. In particular, it is desirable to form the
composite with well dispersed particles such that the material
appears uniform on appropriate distance scales for the function
contemplated for the material. For optical materials functioning in
the visible portion of the electromagnetic spectrum, it is
desirable for the material to be essentially uniform on a distance
scale of about 500 nm or less. This uniformity can be indirectly
measured through the resulting transparency and the particles can
be observed in the composite, for example, using transmission
electron microscopy for films and/or scanning electron microscopy
for cross sections and surfaces of thicker films.
[0126] In general, the polymerization can be performed in the
presence of the nanoparticles, and/or the nanoparticles can be
associated with a polymer solution. The surface modification of the
particles should result in a surface chemistry for the modified
particles that is consistent with the polymer so that the particles
do not agglomerate after introduction into the polymer solution.
Generally, it is desirable to use surface modified inorganic
particles so that higher particle concentrations can be used in the
processing to form the composites.
[0127] Assuming that the modified particles are compatible with the
polymer, as the particles are dispersed uniformly within the
polymer during the processing, the particles remain well dispersed.
To have a modified particle compatible with the polymer, the
surface modifying moiety can have a side chain with similar
chemical formula or electronegativity as the polymer. The modified
particles may or may not chemically bond with the polymer. Thus,
processing approaches can be designed that avoid large
concentrations of inorganic particles unassociated with polymer so
that the particles can be more uniformly dispersed and stabilized
within the polymer composition without agglomerating. Once the
inorganic particles significantly agglomerate, it generally is
difficult to de-agglomerate the inorganic particles while in the
process of forming the composite. Once the inorganic particles are
well dispersed within the polymer, the well dispersed composite
solution can then be processed into a finished product, and the
solvent can be removed in this process. Crosslinking of the polymer
can be performed if desired.
[0128] To form a uniform solution of modified inorganic particles
with a polymer, it has been found to be effective to add a good
dispersion of the particles to a mixing solution of the polymer.
Good dispersions are fully described above and generally have
average secondary particle diameters of no more than about 100 nm.
The inorganic particles should be well dispersed prior to addition
to the polymer solution. In general, the rate of addition should
avoid high concentrations of particles not well dispersed with the
polymer. These conditions generally depend on the respective
concentrations of the particle dispersion and the polymer, the
mixing conditions and the apparatus configuration. A person of
ordinary skill in the art will be able to empirically evaluate
these conditions based on the teachings herein.
[0129] In general, the dispersant used to form a good dispersion of
the surface modified inorganic particles may not be the same liquid
as the solvent used to dissolve the polymer. However, the particle
dispersant generally can be selected to be miscible with the
polymer solvent, and the surface modifier composition and the
polymer can be selected to facilitate this selection of liquids. If
this miscibility is satisfied, it has been observed that a uniform
composite can be formed. Therefore, it can be a significant
processing consideration to have the ability to transfer the
modified particles between liquids to obtain a dispersion in an
appropriate liquid.
[0130] In general, the composite can be further processed using a
range of polymer processing technique, including conventional
processing approaches. The composite can be concentrated by
evaporation of solvent and/or precipitating the composite through
the addition of a miscible liquid to form a liquid blend in which
the composite is no longer soluble. The precipitated composite may
or may not be re-suspended in a suitable liquid. In addition,
composite films can be formed through various coating approaches,
such as spin coating, dip coating, spray coating and the like.
Films can be formed with a desired thickness generally from 10 nm
to 1 centimeter, in further embodiments from about 500 nm to about
500 microns and in other embodiments from about 1 micron to about
50 microns. A person of ordinary skill in the art will recognize
that additional ranges of film thicknesses within the explicit
ranges above are contemplated and are within the present
disclosure. In addition, the composite can be cast using injection
molding, compression molding, extrusion or the like. The formed
composite can be assembled into a suitable product.
Applications to High Index Films and Adhesives
[0131] The ability to form highly transparent inorganic particle
composites provides the ability to form high index of refraction
films and high index of refraction adhesives. The high index of
refraction films can be used to form protective coatings over
optical elements. The protective coatings can seal out moisture and
other atmospheric assaults while providing some level of protection
from physical contact. Similarly, the selection of the polymer can
be directed to the selection of a polymer useful as an adhesive.
Adhesives have the ability to wet surface in contact to form an
adhesive bond.
[0132] The polymers incorporated in the composites for the films
and adhesives can be selected to harden or crosslink upon drying,
exposure to atmospheric oxygen and/or upon exposure to radiation,
such as UV light, corona radiation or the like. Many of the
polymers discussed above are suitable for film formation.
[0133] A variety of adhesives are well known in the art.
Representative adhesive compositions are described for example in
U.S. Pat. No. 5,623,011 to Bernard, entitled "Tackified Emulsion
Pressure-Sensitive Adhesive," incorporated herein by reference.
Adhesive suitable for adhering a lens or the like are described in
published U.S Patent Applications 2004/0046501 to Hayashi, entitled
"Sealing Substrate, method of Fabricating the Same, Display Device,
and Electronic Instrument," and 2005/0003220 to Kitahara et al.,
entitled "Composite Molding With Adhesive Layer Comprising
Conjugated Diene Polymer Having Cyclic Structure, and Coating
Material," both of which are incorporated herein by reference.
[0134] Similarly, the composites are suitable for antireflective
films. The formation of antireflective films using inorganic
particles is described further, for example, in published U.S.
patent application 2003/0096102A to Yoshihara et al., entitled
"Coating Composition, Coating Film Thereof, Antireflection Coating,
Antireflection Film, Image Display, and Intermediate Product,"
incorporated herein by reference. Similarly, composites can be used
for brightness enhancing films, index matching films for ophthalmic
lenses and UV blocking films for windows.
Examples
Example 1
Inorganic Particle Synthesis Through Laser Pyrolysis
[0135] In this example, the synthesis of rutile nanoscale TiO.sub.2
is described using laser pyrolysis.
[0136] Referring to FIG. 1, laser pyrolysis system 100 used in
these experiments is shown schematically. Laser pyrolysis system
100 comprises a reactant delivery apparatus 102, reaction chamber
104, shielding gas delivery apparatus 106, collection apparatus 108
and a CW CO.sub.2 laser 110. Referring to FIG. 2, reactant delivery
apparatus 102 comprises a source 120 of a precursor composition.
Precursor source 120 comprises a flash evaporator or a
volatile-vapor bubbler that supplies a vapor of the precursor at a
selected vapor pressure. The precursor used for these experiments
was liquid TiCl.sub.4 (Strem Chemical Inc., Newburyport Mass.).
[0137] The vapor from precursor source 120 is mixed with gases from
C.sub.2H.sub.4 source 124, inert gas source 126 and/or O.sub.2
source 128 by combining the gases in a single portion of tubing
130. The combined gas/vapor in tube 130 passes through a duct 132
into channel 134, which is in fluid communication with reactant
inlet 156 (FIG. 1).
[0138] Reactant supply system 102 connects to the main chamber 150
at injection nozzle 152. The end of injection nozzle 152 has an
annular opening 154 for the passage of inert shielding gas, and a
reactant inlet 156 (left lower insert) for the passage of reactants
to form a reactant stream in the reaction chamber. Reactant inlet
156 is a slit, as shown in the lower inserts of FIG. 1. The flow of
shielding gas through annular opening 154 helps to prevent the
spread of the reactant gases and product particles throughout
reaction chamber 104.
[0139] Tubular sections 160, 162 are located on either side of
injection nozzle 152. Tubular section 160 comprises a ZnSe
cylindrical lens as window 164. Tubular section 162 comprises a
power meter that functions as a beam dump 166. Tubular inlets 168,
170 provide for the flow of inert shielding gas into tubular
sections 160, 162 to reduce the contamination of window 164 and
beam dump 166. Tubular inlets 168, 170 are connected to shielding
gas delivery apparatus 106.
[0140] Referring to FIG. 1, shielding gas delivery system 106
comprises inert gas source 180 connected to an inert gas duct 182.
Inert gas duct 182 flows into annular channel 184 leading to
annular opening 154. A mass flow controller 186 regulates the flow
of inert gas into inert gas duct 182. Flow to tubes 168, 170 is
controlled by a mass flow controller 188.
[0141] The path of the reactant stream continues to collection
nozzle 210. Collection nozzle 210 has a circular opening 212, as
shown in the upper insert of FIG. 1. Circular opening 212 feeds
into collection system 108. The chamber is designed to add
additional inert gas to the flow following particle formation to
cool the particles. Collection system 108 comprises a filter 214
within the gas flow to collect the product particles. Pump 216
maintains collection system 108 at a selected pressure.
[0142] Titanium tetrachloride (>98% pure) was delivered from a
flash evaporator or volatile-vapor bubbler. C.sub.2H.sub.4 gas was
used as a laser absorbing gas, and argon was used as an inert
diluent gas. The reactant mixture containing the titanium
precursor, Ar, O.sub.2 and C.sub.2H.sub.4 was introduced into the
reactant nozzle for injection into the reaction chamber. Additional
parameters of the laser pyrolysis synthesis relating to the
particles of Example 1 are specified in Table 1.
TABLE-US-00001 TABLE 1 1 2 3 TiCl.sub.4 (PPM) 2000 1900 7300
Pressure (Torr) 50 50 50 Nitrogen - Window (SLM) 5 + 5 5 + 5 5 + 5
Argon - Shielding (SLM) 2 1.1 1 Ethylene (SLM) 0.5 1.7 4 Diluent
Gas (Argon) (SLM) 1.9 4.5 4.8 Oxygen (SLM) 1.1 5 10 Laser Input
(Watts) 1500 1500 1500 Laser Output (Watts) 1420 1420 1420
Production Rate (g/hr) 1.0 5.3 20.8 BET (m.sup.2/g) 167 158 108
Phase Purity (% Rutile) 97 78.2 100
[0143] To evaluate the atomic arrangement, the samples were
examined by x-ray diffraction using the Cr(K.alpha.) radiation line
on a Rigaku Miniflex x-ray diffractometer. In each of the samples,
crystalline phases were identified that corresponded to rutile
TiO.sub.2 by comparison with known diffractograms. A representative
x-ray diffractogram is shown in FIG. 3.
[0144] Transmission electron micrographs were taken of similar
samples. These micrographs show a narrow distribution of particle
sizes with diameters ranging from 5 nm to 20 nm. A representative
transmission electron micrograph is shown in FIG. 4. Particles
exhibit crystal lattices consistent with rutile phase TiO.sub.2.
Diffraction patterns obtained from Selected Area Diffraction images
are also consistent with rutile phase TiO.sub.2, as shown in FIG.
5.
Example 2
Dispersion of as-Synthesized Particles
[0145] This example demonstrates the ability to disperse TiO.sub.2
particles formed by laser pyrolysis in several different solvents.
Alcohol dispersions are formed directly and following an initial
dispersion in water.
[0146] The TiO.sub.2 particles were formed essentially as described
in Example 1. The as-synthesized particles had an average primary
particle size from about 7 nm to about 10 nm. The powders of
TiO.sub.2 were added to the liquid so that the inorganic powder was
present at 0.5 weight percent of the dispersion. The mixtures were
sonicated for 2 hours with a Branson bath sonicator (Branson Sonic
Power Co., Danbury Conn.). Following completion of the sonication,
the particle sizes of the dispersed powders was evaluated using
dynamic light scattering with a Mavern Zetasizer. Results for
dynamic light scattering measurements are often reported as an
intensity average, referred to as the z-average or cummulants mean
since this is a relatively more stable measurement than other
averages. Correspondingly, the distribution width is reported as
the polydispersity index (PDI).
[0147] Particle size measurements for representative samples are
shown in FIGS. 6-8 for water, methanol and propylene glycol,
respectively. The samples were centrifuged at 3500 rpm for 5
minutes to remove contaminants. After centrifugation, the
supernatent is transferred to another container and the sediment is
discarded. These samples had z-average particle sizes of 73.2 nm,
54.3 nm and 37.1 nm, respectively, and PDI of 0.249, 0.149 and
0.107, respectively. Similar trends were observed with many samples
of TiO.sub.2 powder. Thus, the best dispersions are observed for
propylene glycol, and water yields reasonable dispersions, but not
as good as obtained with alcohols.
[0148] For the preparation of additional samples, the dispersion of
the particles in the alcohols was performed by first mixing the
powders with water and then transferring the particles to the
alcohol. First, 0.2 g of TiO.sub.2 was added to 2 ml of water. This
mixture was sonicated for about 30 minutes at 60.degree. C. Then,
acetone was added in about an equal volume as the water to drive
the particles from the dispersion, and the dispersion was
centrifuged at 6000 rpm for 10 minutes. The liquid was decanted off
of the settled particles and the particles were rinsed with acetone
to remove any residual water. Then, the particles were added to
alcohol, and the new mixture was sonicated for 2 hours. Then, the
particle size was measured again.
[0149] For the re-dispersion of the particles in methanol and
propylene glycol at 0.5 weight percent solids, the particle size
distributions are shown in FIGS. 9 and 10, respectively, with the
corresponding dispersions without the water pre-treatment shown in
the A plot and the alcohol dispersion following the water
pre-treatment shown in the B plot. The z-average particles sizes
for the alcohol samples were 39.6 nm and 27.3 nm, respectively,
with PDI of 0.216 and 0.232. The alcohol dispersions following
pre-treatment had small clusters of particles around 5 to 6
microns, which can be removed through centrifugation.
[0150] Higher concentrations of inorganic particles in propylene
glycol were stably dispersed following bead milling. The bead
milling was performed with 0.1 mm yttrium-stabilized zirconium
beads at a speed of 3720 rpm using a Netzsch (Germany) MiniCer
brand bead mill with recirculation for 100 minutes. The bead
milling was performed in the presence of polypropylene glycol. The
bead milling was performed under conditions selected not to
fragment the primary particles since this fragmentation would be
expected to lower the crystalline quality of the particles as well
as lowering the uniformity and fusing some particles from the
resulting heat. At the completion of the grinding, the material was
diluted to 9 weight percent solids. The resulting particle size
distribution is shown in FIG. 11. The Z-average particle size was
32.04 nm with a PDI of 0.194.
Example 3
Surface Modification of TiO.sub.2 with Alkoxysilanes
[0151] This example demonstrates the surface modification of
titania particles with four different alkoxysilanes having
different chemical properties. These four different silanes are
discussed in this example as representative compounds of many
tested. The TiO.sub.2 powders were formed essentially as described
in Example 1.
[0152] In the first representative version of silane surface
modification, octadecyl trimethoxy silane is used to surface modify
TiO.sub.2 to form a 5 weight percent solid dispersion in toluene.
The TiO.sub.2 particles were contacted with water to increase the
surface density of --OH groups. This was performed by dispersing
5.5 g of TiO.sub.2 powder in 40 ml water. This dispersion was
sonicated at 60.degree. C. for 0.5 hours. Acetone was added to
precipitate the water treated particles, and the precipitate was
washed once with acetone. The particles were then dispersed in 400
ml propylene glycol, and the new dispersion was sonicated for 1.5
hr. After sonication was completed, the dispersion was centrifuged
at 4000 rpm for 5 minutes, and the precipitate was discarded. The
secondary particle size was measured by dynamic light scattering,
and the particle size distribution is shown in FIG. 12.
[0153] A 5.6 ml quantity of octadecyl trimethoxy silane was
dissolved into 40 ml acetone. The acetone solution was then added
gradually to the TiO.sub.2-propylene glycol dispersion while
shaking and sonicating. The blend of the acetone solution and
propylene glycol dispersion was sonicated for two hours at
65.degree. C. During this period, the dispersion became very cloudy
with a considerable amount of precipitation. At the end of the
sonication period, all of the particles were precipitated with the
addition of more acetone. The precipitate was washed with acetone
once. The washed precipitate was re-dispersed in 110 ml of toluene
and sonicated for 0.5 hr. The secondary particle size of TiO.sub.2
in the toluene dispersion was determined by dynamic light
scattering, and the measured particle size distribution is shown in
FIG. 13. The z-average of the particle size distribution is
approximately equal to the z-average of the particle size
distribution prior to surface modification.
[0154] The degree of coverage of the surface modification compound
was determined through thermogravimetry analysis (TGA) using an
instrument from TA Instruments (New Castle, Del.). In this
technique, the weight is traced as a function of temperature. As
the temperature increases, volatile or combustible constituents are
lost so that the weight correspondingly decreases. The TGA plot for
the octadecyl silane modified particles is shown in FIG. 14. A
weight loss of 28.6% at a temperature of 900.degree. C. indicates
that the particles were surface modified. The surface modified
particles were also analyzed using Fourier transform infrared
(FTIR) spectroscopy. The FTIR spectrum, shown in FIG. 15, has peaks
at 2851 cm.sup.-1 and 2919 cm.sup.-1 corresponding with --CH.sub.2
vibrations, 1087 cm.sup.-1 corresponding with Si--O vibrations and
634 corresponding with TiO.sub.2 vibrations, which provides further
evidence of the surface modification. Referring to FIG. 16,
transmission electron micrographs of the surface modified particles
have a visible layer of organic coating.
[0155] In another representative example, the particles were
surface modified with methacryloxy propyl trimethoxy silane
(CH.sub.2.dbd.CHCOO(CH.sub.2).sub.3Si(OCH.sub.3).sub.3)
(Z-6030.RTM. from Dow-Corning) to form a 4 weight percent
dispersion in methanol. The TiO.sub.2 particles had BET surface
area of 185 m.sup.2/g. Initially, a 0.25 g quantity of TiO.sub.2
particles were dispersed in 50 ml of methanol to form a 0.5 weight
percent dispersion. This dispersion was sonicated for 2 hr. The
sonicated dispersion was then centrifuged at 3500 rpm for 5
minutes, and the precipitate was removed. The secondary particle
size distribution of this sample was measured using dynamic light
scattering, and the results are plotted in FIG. 17.
[0156] To perform the surface modification, a 0.140 ml quantity of
Z-6030.RTM. silane was added to the dispersion, sufficient for a
monolayer of coverage, and the mixture was sonicated for 2 hr at
65.degree. C. Methanol was evaporated off with a rotary-evaporator
until there was 5 ml of dispersion left to have a concentration of
4 to 5 weight percent. The solution was stable and had a bluish
color.
[0157] The secondary particle size of the surface modified
particles was measured with dynamic light scattering, and the
resulting particle size distribution is shown in FIG. 18. The
particle size distribution of the modified particles has two
significant peaks. The smaller peak had a maximum at 11.7 nm, which
is close to the primary particle size. The larger peak had a
maximum at 123 nm, which was about twice the diameter at the peak
for the unmodified particles. The modified particles were further
analyzed with TGA and FTIR. The TGA spectrum is shown in FIG. 19.
An initial drop in weight can be attributed to the loss of solvents
and adsorbed substances and a more significant drop can be
attributed to silane decomposition, with the weight leveling off at
the TiO.sub.2 residue weight. Referring to FIG. 20, the infrared
spectrum of the surface modified particles is compared with the
spectrum of the silane so that the spectrum provides confirming
evidence of surface modification by the silane.
[0158] In a representative third version, surface modification was
performed with poly-dimethoxysiloxane. Each monomer unit of the
polymer has two methoxy groups that can undergo reaction with the
particle surface. Due to the polymeric nature of the surface
modifier, the polymer molecule can be expected to wrap around the
particle to form a highly functionalized shell. The particles can
be pre-reacted with water to increase reactivity, which has been
found to have a synergistic effect with the highly functionalized
particle surface. The polymer modified particles are capped by
reacting the particles with hexamethyldisilazane, which hydrolizes
into two trimethyl silanols that react with surface --OH
groups.
[0159] A water pretreatment was performed by dispersing 100 mg of
TiO.sub.2 powder in 2 ml water and sonicating the blend for 0.5 hr
at 60.degree. C. After sonication, 2 ml of acetone was added, and
the dispersion was centrifuged at 6000 rpm for 5 minutes. The
supernatant was discarded, and the precipitate was further
processed.
[0160] The pre-treated TiO.sub.2 was redispersed in 20 ml of
methanol to make a 0.5 weight percent dispersion. This dispersion
was sonicated for 2 hr at room temperature. After sonication, the
dispersion was centrifuged at 4000 rpm for 5 minutes. The
precipitate with a small amount of carbon particles and large
TiO.sub.2 particles was discarded. Then, 0.025 g of
poly-dimethoxysiloxane (Gelest, Inc.) was added to the supernatant.
Then, this mixture was sonicated at 60.degree. C. for 2 hr.
[0161] A 0.5 ml quantity of hexamethyldisilazane
((CH.sub.3).sub.3SiNHSi(CH.sub.3).sub.3) (Sigma-Aldrich) was
dissolved in 10 ml of methyl ethyl ketone to form a capping
solution. The capping solution was added drop-wise to the
dispersion in methanol. The resulting mixture was sonicated for 2
hr at 60.degree. C. After sonication was complete, 10 ml of acetone
was added to precipitate the modified particles. After the addition
of acetone, the mixture was centrifuged at 6000 rpm for 0.5 hr to
settle the particles. The particles were decanted from the liquid,
and the precipitate was re-dispersed in methyl ethyl ketone. The
re-dispersed particles were sonicated for 5 to 60 minutes to form a
stable 5 weight percent dispersion. The secondary particle size was
measured with dynamic light scattering. The resulting particle
dispersion is shown in FIG. 21. The distribution had two
substantial peaks in which one had a peak maximum at about 14.9 nm
and a second at 130.8 nm. A TGA measurement for the surface
modified particles is shown in FIG. 22. This plot displays an
appropriate shape to correspond with decomposition of the surface
modifying silane indicative of appropriately surface modified
particles.
[0162] In a fourth representative surface modification, the
TiO.sub.2 particles were not well dispersed prior to performing the
surface modification. The surface modification was performed with
allyl trimethoxy silane, CH.sub.2.dbd.CH.sub.2Si(OCH.sub.3).sub.3.
A 0.5 g quantity of TiO.sub.2 powder with a BET surface area of
151.8 m.sup.2/g was dispersed in 12.5 ml methyl ethyl ketone to
form a 5 weight percent dispersion. This dispersion was sonicated
with a probe sonicator, which is more effective than a bath
sonicator, but the particles were not stably dispersed. A 0.23 ml
quantity of allyl trimethoxy silane was added and sonication was
continued for 30 min. The particles dispersed into a very stable
dispersion. The particle size was measured with dynamic light
scattering. The particle size distribution is plotted in FIG. 23. A
small peak is observed with a maximum at 11.6 nm, but most of the
particles were found associated with a peak at a diameter of 152.6
nm, which is larger than secondary particle sizes observed for
modified particles in which the particles were well dispersed prior
to surface modification. The TGA results are shown in FIG. 24. The
TGA plot has weight loss corresponding with decomposition of the
silane.
Example 4
Polymer-Titania Particle Composites
[0163] This example demonstrates the ability to form highly
transparent composite films with a high index of refraction.
[0164] The composite is formed with a copolymer of methyl
methacrylate and methacrylic acid. The copolymer from Polyscience
Inc. (catalogue number 08208) had a monomer ratio of methyl
methacrylate to methacrylic acid of 3:1 and an average molecular
weight of about 1.2 million Daltons. The copolymer was dissolved at
a 5 weight percent solids into a solvent blend of isopropyl alcohol
and water at a volume ratio of 9:1. A particle dispersion at about
4 weight percent of TiO.sub.2 modified with metharyloxy propyl
trimethoxy silane (Z-6030.RTM.) was prepared as described in
Example 3.
[0165] The particle dispersion was added slowly to the polymer
solution with swirling to avoid precipitation. If the polymer
solution is added to the particle dispersion, precipitation is
observed under comparable slow addition with swirling. Once the
particle dispersion is completely added to the polymer solution,
the resulting composite slurry was sonicated for 1.5 to 2.0 hrs at
room temperature. After sonication, the composite slurries were
concentrated. Specifically, the methanol in the slurry was
evaporated with a rotary evaporator. As the methanol is removed,
the viscosity increases, and the solvent removal can be stopped
once a desired viscosity is reached for further processing.
Following solvent removal, the composite slurry was filtered with a
2.7 micron Whatman.RTM. filter to remove any agglomerates. In
general, composites with well dispersed particles were formed with
particle loadings up to 75 weight percent.
[0166] Films were spin coated onto a silicon wafer for thickness
and refractive index measurements and onto a glass slide for
transmittance measurements. Based on the selection of the
viscosity, film thickness values were obtained from 1 micron to 5
microns using a WS-400B-NPP-Lite spin coater from Laurell
Technologies Corp., North Wales, Pa. The spin coatings were formed
in two steps. A first step was performed at 50 rpm for 10 seconds,
and a second step involved spinning at 1500 rpm for three minutes.
The film thickness and refractive index was evaluated with a
FilmTek.TM. 4000 instrument from Scientific Computing
International, Carlsbad, Calif. The film morphology was examined
with a JSM-6330F Scanning Electron Microscope (Joel, Ltd., Tokyo,
Japan). A scanning electron microscope (SEM) image is shown in FIG.
25 of a cross section of a film with a thickness of about 2.5
microns, or a particle loading of 50 weight percent, and a
reflective index of 1.7 index units on a silicon substrate. A SEM
image of the surface of the same film is shown in FIG. 26. The
images show the particles uniformly distributed within the
film.
[0167] Transmittances of the films were evaluated with a SINCO
UV-Visible spectrometer. The results for 6 film samples are shown
in FIG. 27. The transmittance was measured with the glass substrate
as a reference. The refractive index values ranged from 1.49 to
1.80 index units, which corresponded with particle loadings from 0
to 75. The films had a thickness from 1 micron to 4.1 microns. All
of these films had a transmittance greater than 90 percent.
[0168] The embodiments above are intended to be illustrative and
not limiting. Additional embodiments are within the claims. In
addition, although the present invention has been described with
reference to particular embodiments, those skilled in the art will
recognize that changes can be made in form and detail without
departing from the spirit and scope of the invention. Any
incorporation by reference of documents above is limited such that
no subject matter is incorporated that is contrary to the explicit
disclosure herein.
* * * * *