U.S. patent application number 12/609439 was filed with the patent office on 2010-05-13 for trans-differentiation and re-differentiation of somatic cells and production of cells for cell therapies.
Invention is credited to Tanja Dominko, Christopher Malcuit, Raymond Page.
Application Number | 20100120079 12/609439 |
Document ID | / |
Family ID | 23220867 |
Filed Date | 2010-05-13 |
United States Patent
Application |
20100120079 |
Kind Code |
A1 |
Page; Raymond ; et
al. |
May 13, 2010 |
Trans-Differentiation And Re-Differentiation Of Somatic Cells And
Production Of Cells For Cell Therapies
Abstract
The invention provides a method for effecting the
trans-differentiation of a somatic cell, i.e., the conversion of a
somatic cell of one cell type into a somatic cell of a different
cell type. The method is practiced by culturing a somatic cell in
the presence of at least one agent selected from the group
consisting of (a) cytoskeletal inhibitors and (b) inhibitors of
acetylation, and (c) inhibitors of methylation, and also culturing
the cell in the presence of agents or conditions that induce
differentiation to a different cell type. The method is useful for
producing histocompatible cells for cell therapy.
Inventors: |
Page; Raymond; (Southbridge,
MA) ; Dominko; Tanja; (Southbridge, MA) ;
Malcuit; Christopher; (Hudson, MA) |
Correspondence
Address: |
HUNTON & WILLIAMS LLP;INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY DEPARTMENT
1900 K STREET, N.W., SUITE 1200
WASHINGTON
DC
20006-1109
US
|
Family ID: |
23220867 |
Appl. No.: |
12/609439 |
Filed: |
October 30, 2009 |
Related U.S. Patent Documents
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Application
Number |
Filing Date |
Patent Number |
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10228296 |
Aug 27, 2002 |
7621606 |
|
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12609439 |
|
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60314654 |
Aug 27, 2001 |
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Current U.S.
Class: |
435/29 ; 435/366;
435/377 |
Current CPC
Class: |
A61K 35/12 20130101;
C12N 2506/1307 20130101; C12N 2501/70 20130101; C12N 2501/999
20130101; C12N 5/0618 20130101 |
Class at
Publication: |
435/29 ; 435/377;
435/366 |
International
Class: |
C12N 5/071 20100101
C12N005/071; C12N 5/00 20060101 C12N005/00; C12Q 1/02 20060101
C12Q001/02 |
Claims
1. A method for effecting trans-differentiation of a somatic cell
comprising (a) culturing a somatic cell in the presence of at least
one agent selected from the group consisting of (a) cytoskeletal
inhibitors and (b) inhibitors of acetylation, and (c) inhibitors of
methylation; (b) culturing the cell in the presence of agents or
conditions that induce differentiation to a cell type different
than that of said somatic cell; and (c) allowing the cell to
trans-differentiate to said different cell type.
2. The method of claim 1, wherein the somatic cell is a mammalian
cell selected from the group consisting of fibroblasts, B cells, T
cells, dendritic cells, keratinocytes, adipose cells, epithelial
cells, epidermal cells, chondrocytes, cumulus cells, neural cells,
glial cells, astrocytes, cardiac cells, esophageal cells, muscle
cells, melanocytes, hematopoietic cells, macrophages, monocytes,
and mononuclear cells.
3. The method of claim 1, wherein the somatic cell is a mammalian
fibroblast.
4. The method of claim 1, further comprising culturing the somatic
cell in serum-free medium before or after performing step (a).
5. The method of claim 1, wherein step (a) comprises culturing the
somatic cell in the presence of at least one cytoskeletal inhibitor
selected from the group consisting of microfilament inhibitors and
microtubule inhibitors.
6. The method of claim 5, wherein the at least one microfilament
inhibitor is selected from the group consisting cytochalasin B, D,
A, E; vimentin, latrunculin, and jasplakinolide.
7. The method of claim 5, wherein the at least one microfilament
inhibitor is cytochalasin B.
8. The method of claim 5, wherein the at least one microtubule
inhibitor is selected from the group consisting of colchicine,
colcemid, nocodazole, and taxol.
9. The method of claim 1, wherein the at least one inhibitor of
acetylation is a deacetylase inhibitor.
10. The method of claim 1, wherein the at least one inhibitor of
methylation is a methylase inhibitor.
11. The method of claim 1, further comprising culturing the somatic
cell in serum-free medium after performing step (a).
12. The method of claim 1, wherein the cell is cultured in the
presence of agents or conditions that induce differentiation to a
different cell type before or after performing step (a).
13. The method of claim 1, wherein the cell is cultured in the
presence of agents or conditions that induce differentiation to a
cell of neuronal lineage.
14. The method of claim 13, wherein cell is cultured in
keratinocyte growth medium or neuro-progenitor growth medium before
or after performing step (a).
15. The method of claim 13, further comprising assaying to detect a
marker of cells of neural lineage.
16. A method for converting a non-neural somatic cell to become a
cell having the phenotype of a cell of neural lineage, comprising:
(a) culturing a non-neural somatic cell in the presence of at least
one agent selected from the group consisting of (a) cytoskeletal
inhibitors and (b) inhibitors of acetylation, and (c) inhibitors of
methylation; (b) culturing the cell in the presence of agents or
conditions that induce differentiation to a cell of neuronal
lineage; and (c) allowing the cell to trans-differentiate to a cell
having the phenotype of a cell of neural lineage.
17. The method of claim 16, wherein the somatic cell is a
fibroblast.
18. The method of claim 16, wherein step (b) comprises cultured the
cell in keratinocyte growth medium or neuro-progenitor growth
medium.
19. The method of claim 18, further comprising assaying to detect a
marker of cells of neural lineage.
20. A composition of cells having the phenotype of cells of neural
lineage. prepared by the method of claim 16.
Description
RELATED APPLICATIONS
[0001] This application is a continuation of U.S. Ser. No.
10/228,296 filed Aug. 27, 2002, which claims benefit of priority to
U.S. Ser. No. 60/314,654 filed on Aug. 27, 2001, each of which is
incorporated by reference in its entirety herein.
FIELD OF THE INVENTION
[0002] This application relates to methods for effecting
trans-differentiation of somatic cells. Trans-differentiation is
the conversion of a cell from one differentiated cell type to
another differentiated cell type.
BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION
[0003] Stem cells obtained from adults (mesenchymal, hematopoietic,
neuronal) are receiving increasing interest as a source of material
for cell and tissue transplantation to treat human disease. To a
large degree, this interest has been stimulated by findings that
report the presence of certain types of stem cells in unexpected
tissue compartments in vivo (e.g. neuronal stem cells in bone
marrow). In addition, some types of stem cells are displaying an
unanticipated plasticity in their ability to trans-differentiate
into other types of cells when transplanted from their niche into
heterologous tissue compartments. Despite these developments,
problems of stem cell accessibility and quantity persist.
[0004] The transdifferentiation potential of adult cells has also
been receiving increasing attention during the past few years
(Eguchi and Kodama, 1993). Trans-differentiation is a physiological
process that occurs during development but has also been described
in a number of adult organs including liver, thyroid, mammary gland
(Hay and Zuk, 1999), and kidney (Stutz et al., 1995). It has been
shown that alteration of cell morphology and function can be
induced artificially in vitro by treatment of cell cultures with
cytoskeletal disruptors, hormones, and Calcium-ionophores.
Trans-differentiation is a physiological process that occurs during
development, and has also been described in a number of adult
organs including liver, thyroid, mammary gland (Hay and Zuk, 1999),
and kidney (Ng et al., 1999). Alteration of cell fate can be
induced artificially in vitro and there is a vast amount of
published data describing trans-differentiation. For example,
embryonic blastomeres can be induced to differentiate in the
presence of microfilament inhibitors (Okado and Takahashi, 1988,
1990; Wu et al., 1990; Pratt et al., 1981). Supplementing growth
media for somatic cells with cytoskeletal inhibitors (Brown and
Benya, 1988; Takigawa et al., 1984; Shea, 1990; Tamai et al., 1999;
Cohen et al., 1999; Fernandez-Valle et al., 1997; Yujiri et al.,
1999; Ulloa and Avila, 1996; Ferreira et al., 1993; Sato et al.,
1991; Zanetti and Solursh, 1984; Kishkina et al., 1983; Hamano and
Asofsky, 1984; Holtzer et al., 1975; Cohen et al., 1999),
Ca-ionophores (Shea, 1990; Sato et al., 1991), corticosteroids
(Yeomans et al., 1976), and DMSO (Hallows and Frank, 1992), causes
changes in cell shape and function. Mammary epithelial cells can be
induced to acquire muscle-like shape and function (Paterson and
Rudland, 1985), spleen cells can be induced to produce both IgM and
IgG immunoglobulins (van der Loo et al., 1979), pancreatic exocrine
duct cells can acquire insulin-secreting, endocrine, phenotype
(Bouwens, 1998a,b), 3T3 cells into adipose cells (Pairault and
Lasnier, 1987), mesenchymal cells into chondroblasts (Rosen et al.,
1986), bone marrow cells into liver cells (Theise et al., 2000),
islets into ductal cells (Yuan et al., 1996), muscle into 7
non-muscle cell types, including digestive, secretory, gland, nerve
cells (Schmid and Alder, 1984), muscle into cartilage (Nathanson,
1986), neural cells into muscle (Wright, 1984), bone marrow into
neuronal cells (Black, 2000). However, complete conversion to a
fully functional and stable different type of cell has never been
demonstrated.
DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS
[0005] FIGS. 1 and 2: Cells with neuronal morphology produced by
treating bovine fetal fibroblasts CB at 2.5-7.5 .mu.g/ml and
culturing them under conditions that induce neural differentiation.
The cells in FIG. 1 were observed with phase contrast microscopy;
those in FIG. 2 were observed by DIC.
[0006] FIG. 1: (A) Control, (B) 2.5 .mu.g/ml, (C) 5.0 .mu.g/ml, (D)
7.5 .mu.g/ml
[0007] FIGS. 3A and B and FIGS. 4A, B, C and D: Cells with neuronal
morphology produced by treating bovine adult fibroblasts CB at 10.0
.mu.g/ml and culturing them under conditions that induce neural
differentiation.
[0008] FIG. 5: Cells with neuronal morphology produced by treating
human fetal fibroblasts CB at 5.0 .mu.g/ml and culturing them under
conditions that induce neural differentiation.
[0009] (A) Control, (B) 2.5 .mu.g/ml, (C) 5.0 .mu.g/ml, (D) 7.5
.mu.g/ml
[0010] FIG. 6: Photographs showing the presence of neural-specific
markers nestin and Tuj1 in human fetal fibroblasts treated with CB
at 5.0 .mu.g/ml and cultured under conditions that induce neural
differentiation.
DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION
[0011] The objective of this invention is to develop technology for
trans-differentiation of cells in vitro that does not utilize early
preimplantation embryos, fetal tissues, or adult stem cells and can
be customized for individual patients using their own cells as
donors.
[0012] The present invention utilizes a cell's ability to respond
to environmental factors after they have been "primed" to do so in
vitro. Priming is achieved by destabilizing cell's cytoskeletal
structure, consequently removing the feedback mechanisms between
cell's shape and nuclear function. Both, shape and function define
the specificity of any cell type. The human cell types used as a
source are differentiated somatic cells, such as fibroblasts and
keratinocytes from skin biopsies, and leukocytes from blood
samples. Cell structure is first destabilized with cytoskeletal
inhibitors, consequently their nuclear structure becomes permissive
to alteration and upon exposure to conditions that promote or
support a desired cell type such that the primed cells acquire this
new morphology and function. Primed cells are multipotent and, upon
application of factors that induce formation of the central nervous
system are capable of differentiating into different neurons,
astrocytes, or oligodendrocytes. The result is populations of newly
differentiated neuronal cell types genetically identical to the
fibroblasts sampled from the donor. The present invention overcomes
barriers and limitations to the derivation of patient-specific
cells, which are: the need for embryos as a source of embryonic
stem cells, histo-incompatibility between the donor and the
recipient, the risk of transmitting animal viruses via
xenotransplantation, insufficient quantities of cells/tissues for
transplantation, and high cost associated with generation of
embryos and embryonic stem cells, life-long immunosuppression, and
the requirement for repeated treatments.
[0013] The methods of the present invention can be used to effect
trans-differentiation of any type of somatic cell into any other
type of somatic cell. Examples of such cells that may be used or
produced include fibroblasts, B cells, T cells, dendritic cells,
keratinocytes, adipose cells, epithelial cells, epidermal cells,
chondrocytes, cumulus cells, neural cells, glial cells, astrocytes,
cardiac cells, esophageal cells, muscle cells, melanocytes,
hematopoietic cells, macrophages, monocytes, and mononuclear
cells.
[0014] The cells used with the methods of the invention may be of
any animal species; e.g., mammals, avians, reptiles, fish, and
amphibians. Examples of mammalian cells that can be
transdifferentiated by the present invention include but are not
limited to human and non-human primate cells, ungulate cells,
rodent cells, and lagomorph cells. Primate cells with which the
invention may be performed include but are not limited to cells of
humans, chimpanzees, baboons, cynomolgus monkeys, and any other New
or Old World monkeys. Ungulate cells with which the invention may
be performed include but are not limited to cells of bovines,
porcines, ovines, caprines, equines, buffalo and bison. Rodent
cells with which the invention may be performed include but are not
limited to mouse, rat, guinea pig, hamster and gerbil cells. Rabbit
cells are an example of cells of a lagomorph species with which the
invention may be performed.
[0015] The present invention is a method by which cells of one
differentiated cell type can be converted to a different
differentiated cell type without necessarily reverting to a
stem-like cell intermediate. This may be done without losing cell
viability, and while and allows the converted cells to retain their
overall biochemical activity and chromatin stability.
[0016] The invention comprises sequentially evaluating each of the
steps required for trans-differentiation. The steps include: 1.
growth of primary cell cultures, effectiveness and reliability of
"priming" agents, assessment of the primed state in vitro, 2. the
ability of primed cells to trans-differentiate upon induction, 3.
design reproducible and reliable induction protocols, 4. ability to
maintain stable cell function, and 5. the ability of newly
trans-differentiated cell types to interact with patient's cells
upon cell transplantation. Primed and newly induced cell types can
be characterized for their gene expression, cell surface antigens,
morphology, excitability, secretory function, synapse formation,
and stable functional grafting in the rat model for Parkinson's
disease.
Abbreviations
[0017] 3-D--three dimensional BFFs--bovine fibroblasts bFGF--basal
fibroblast growth factor BMP-2--bone morphogenic protein-2
CalR1--glial marker CB--cytochalasin B CD14--lipopolysacharide
receptor CD34--leukocyte common antigen CD45--blood cell marker
CNF--necrosis factor CNS--central nervous system CNTF--cilia
neurotropic factor BSA--bovine serum albumin ECM--extracellular
matrix ESC--embryonic stem cells FCS--fetal calf serum GFs--growth
factors DMEM--Dulbecco's modified minimum essential medium
DMSO--dimethylsulfoxide EGF--epidermal growth factor En-1--enolase
FGFR3--fibroblast growth factor receptor 3 G1/G0--gap phases of the
cell cycle GABA--gamma-amino butyric acid GFAP--glial fibrilarin
associated protein HPLC--high pressure liquid chromatography
ICC--immunocytochemistry ICM--inner cell mass IgG--immunoglobulin G
Nurr-1--nuclear receptor Pax8--neuronal inducer PDGF--platelet
derived growth factor PERVS--porcine endogenous retroviruses
RT-PCR--reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction
SCID--severe combined immunodeficiency SHH--sonic hedgehog
T3--tyroxin TH--tyrosine hydroxylase TUJ1--glial marker
[0018] Pharmaceutical strategies for treating a variety of neuronal
disorders are currently available, but all of these organic
chemicals have limitations in their clinical efficacy. For example,
the most widely used drug for treatment of Parkinson's disease,
Levodopa is a dopamine precursor and results in increased dopamine
production from dopaminergic neurons. However, side effects of
Levodopa are debilitating and include hallucination, severe nausea,
and vomiting. Long-term use results in induction of tolerance,
which in turn translates to increasing doses over time, ultimately
leading to a lower clinical benefit to risk ratio. Treatment of
brain disorders using biologics is not practical since the
therapeutic agent must cross the blood-brain barrier, which does
not happen for most proteins and peptides present in the
bloodstream. Due to the limitations of traditional pharmaceutical
and biologic intervention, alternative approaches are being pursued
aggressively. Recent advances in in vitro cell culture and
manipulation technology have led to the prospect of using cell
transplantation as a means for restoring cells or tissues that have
been damaged due to progression of disease. This approach not only
offers the prospect of treating the disease, but also may
ultimately provide a cure, if the grafted cells become fully
integrated and functional upon transplantation into the host
tissue. Currently, there are three major target areas for obtaining
material for cell transplantation therapy for treatment of
candidate diseases such as Parkinson's disease and other
neurological disorders. Each of these approaches is discussed in
turn.
[0019] First, recent derivation of both monkey and human embryonic
stem-like cells from blastocyst inner cell masses has enabled
investigation of differentiation events that has not been possible
in primates before. Embryonic stem-like cells have been shown to
develop into lineages of all three germ layers in vitro.
Consequently, many research groups are focusing their resources on
the use of therapeutic cloning approaches, which uses mammalian
oocytes as a vehicle to exploit factors important for genomic
reprogramming. However, the potential use of specialized cells
derived from ES-like cells for allo-transplantation in humans has
yet to be evaluated (Bain et al., 1995; Brustle et al., 1999;
Fairchild et al., 1995; Keller, 1995).
[0020] Second, an alternative approach to provide patients with
highly specialized cell types relies on a non-embryonic stem cell
as an intermediate. Populations of tissue-specific progenitor
cells, such as mesenchymal, hematopoietic, and neuronal stem cells
are obtained from specific locations within an adult human patient.
These adult tissue-specific stem cells have been isolated,
propagated in vitro, and astonishing progress has been achieved in
differentiation of mesenchymal and neuronal precursors into
adipocytic, chondrocytic, osteocytic cells, blood cells, and
neurons, respectively (Pittenger et al., 1999; Black et al., 2000).
Using this approach, histo-incompatibility between donor cells and
recipient is alleviated. A major disadvantage is that the process
requires cumbersome clinical and laboratory procedures that are not
fully established to obtain sufficient quantities of progenitor
stem cells from adults.
[0021] Finally, a third strategy involves xeno-transplantation
using pig cells as donors. The most advanced program involves
obtaining neurons from pig fetuses and transplanting them into
human patients with minimal in vitro manipulation. On average, 8
fetuses are required for treatment of a single patient, which
limits usefulness of this approach (Studer, personal
communication). In addition, recent concern over transmission of
porcine viruses to humans has slowed otherwise effective and
promising research in this area (Imaizium et al., 2000).
[0022] Despite these discoveries, the path to development of
various tissue specific cell types without embryonic or other stem
cells as an intermediate requirement has not been described.
Consequently, there are strong justifications across the entire
spectrum of biomedical research for developing alternative methods
for production of patient-compatible or autologous specific cell
types. A reliable source of cells would be needed to treat millions
of patients affected with Parkinson's disease, Huntington's
disease, Alzheimer's disease, Multiple Sclerosis, spinal cord
injuries, stroke, burns, heart disease, diabetes, arthritis, and
many genetic and other disorders that could benefit from
cell/tissue therapy. The ability to use embryonic and/or adult stem
cells in reliable and efficient strategies for the production of
specialized cell types and tissues for human cell/tissue therapy
remains to be shown. Notwithstanding these successes and exciting
prospects, the problem of histo-incompatibility between the donor
and the recipient of stem cells remains unsolved, as does the
availability of preimplantation embryos for the derivation of
embryonic stem cells.
[0023] Various types of differentiated neuronal cells can be
generated from a single type of somatic cell taken from an
individual donor (primary cell cultures) and the resulting cells
transplanted into the same individual. The present invention
provides methods for effecting trans-differentiation of highly
specialized somatic cells (e.g. skin fibroblasts) into different,
fully functional specialized cells (dopaminergic neurons,
astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, GABA neurons, serotonin neurons,
acetylcholin transferase neurons, etc.) in vitro. The present
invention does not utilize any part of an oocyte, an early
preimplantation embryo or fetal tissue as a vehicle for
de-differentiation and reprogramming. It can be customized for
individual patients.
[0024] The present invention exploits the fact that all the cells
of an individual contain all the genetic information required for
development. Expression of specific genes that define a cell's
morphology and function is determined largely by genetic
programming and environmental signals, but can be altered upon
environmental insults (as in wound healing, bone regeneration, and
cancer). In order to change the function of the cell, the present
invention uses cytoskeletal disruptors for "priming" of
differentiated cells. Our hypothesis is that priming alters the
cytoskeleton, which disrupts the cell's transport machinery, and
ultimately interferes with the cell type-specific feedback
mechanisms the nucleus receives from the cell's periphery. This
disruption allows the nucleus to become responsive to different or
alternative clues from its environment. After priming, cells are
exposed to an environment that induces and supports differentiation
into the desired cell type (i.e. neurobasal medium for
neurons).
[0025] The benefits of the present invention are significant and
include: [0026] (i) No need for embryos or fetal tissue. With the
present invention, human embryos do not have to be created,
destroyed, or used to generate trans-differentiated cells, thus
eliminating the cost of production, time constraints, and the
concern over ethical issues. [0027] (ii) No need for patient
immuno-suppression. Efficacious allo- and xeno-cell therapy
protocols have been demonstrated in many pre-clinical animal models
and in some clinical human subjects. However, in most cases,
extended graft survival (beyond a few days) has only occurred when
combined with pharmaceutical immuno-suppression. This includes
cases where the cells are encapsulated with artificial matrix
materials, such as alginate, which is designed to exclude
histocompatibility molecules. While the matrix encapsulation
approach may reduce short-term graft rejection, eventually the
transplanted cells are destroyed due to nutrient and oxygen
deprivation, which results from pericapsular fibrosis. This results
in the need for repeated treatment. Therefore, a preferred method
of long term and lasting treatment using cell-based therapy would
involve cells originally derived from the patient. [0028] (iii) No
health risks due to possible transmission of animal viruses. The
present invention avoids the concerns in xenotransplantation
regarding porcine endogenous retroviruses (PERVS). PERVS are
ancestral genes located in the porcine genome that resulted from
retroviral DNA integration. There is a possibility of that the
presence of porcine cells in the human body could induce PERV
expression in an immuno-suppressed patient that might lead to
recombination, thus, producing new pathogens. This would pose a new
health threat not only to the patient, but also to the surrounding
population if the new virus were to be communicable. Since no
component of an animal cell is ever used in the invention, threats
due to animal genomic DNA sequences such as PERVS are not a
concern. [0029] (iv) Availability of large numbers of specialized
cells in a relatively short time. The present invention contrasts
with embryonic methods, which have yielded only small numbers of
starting stem cells (between 10-15 cells from a blastocyst). The
current strategies being developed by our competitors (Geron, Menlo
Park, Calif.) utilize established human embryonic stem cell lines
as the basis for their product. Since the number of cells used to
derive the initial cell line is so low, a vast amount of in vitro
proliferation will have to take place to satisfy the needs of the
millions of patients to be treated with cell therapy. It is known
that extensive proliferation in vitro results in acquired genetic
mutations and even spontaneous imortalization. Since in the present
invention large numbers of cells are be harvested from individual
patients (a single, common source of stem cells is not required any
longer) as starting material, the degree of in vitro proliferation
is only what is needed to prime the cells, trans-differentiate them
and generate enough cells for a needed clinical application. [0030]
(v) Lower cost. The present invention will significantly reduce the
cost of cell therapy by eliminating the need for immuno-suppression
of the patient to reduce hyperacute (in xeno-transplantation) and
delayed rejection (in allo- and xeno-transplantation). Using
current transplantation regimes, patients depend on lifetime
immuno-suppressive therapy, which is not only costly, but results
in increased risk of infections, and lower quality of life. The
need for repeated transplantation procedures would likely also be
alleviated.
Efficacy of the Invention
[0031] Donor cells are treated by the invention in a way that
"primes" them for trans-differentiation without reverting them
necessarily to stem-like cells. This is done without losing cell
viability and allowing them to retain their overall biochemical
activity and chromatin stability; in short, to ensure the cells can
retain their overall functionality.
[0032] In vivo, differentiated cell types vary in their ability to
undergo proliferation and continue cycling upon physiological
demand. Several cell types are known to be terminally arrested in
the G0 phase of the cell cycle and do not proliferate after birth.
Examples are heart smooth muscle cells, neurons, Sertoli cells in
male testes, and oocytes in female ovaries. Other cell types,
however, have been known to have high regeneration ability that is
retained during the post-natal period. They include liver cells,
several connective tissue cell types (cartilage, bone, and
fibroblasts), epithelia (skin and gut); hematopoietic cells (bone
marrow and spleen) and this regeneration response can generally be
induced by trauma. Not only can these cells regenerate themselves
but can also generate cells of distinctly different phenotypes.
Transdifferentiation potential of adult cells has been receiving
increasing attention during the past few years (Eguchi and Kodama,
1993; Strutz and Muller, 2000).
[0033] This invention describes technology for
trans-differentiation of one type of somatic cell into another
using in vitro culture with cytoskeletal inhibitors (cytochalasins
A, B, D and E, latrunculin, jasplakinolide, etc). It further
describes technology for maintenance of the newly
trans-differentiated cell types, stable cell morphology and
cell-specific gene and protein expression. The utility of the
present invention is in developing specific growth factor, matrix
and cytokine combinations that reliably direct differentiation into
a desired cell type. This provides autologous (isogeneic) cell
types for cell transplantation in the same individual that donated
the initial somatic cell sample. The present invention overcomes
immune rejection by the cell transplantation recipient,
significantly shortens the time required for the "new" cells to be
available for therapy, does not use embryo or fetus intermediaries
as vehicles for reprogramming, and does not require generation of
embryonic or any other stem cell precursors. The present invention
produces cells that are primed to develop into neuronal cell
lineages. During the period of time when the cells are being
"primed" they may be used as partially de-differentiated cells for
derivation of other, non-neuronal cell types.
Description of Inventive Methodology
1. Develop an Interaction Matrix Between Donor Cell Type, Optimal
Cell Cycle Stage and the Priming Agent.
[0034] Rationale: Terminally differentiated somatic cells of the
vast majority of mammalian tissues lose their genomic plasticity
during development. Cells are characterized to belong to a specific
tissue based on their location in vivo, their morphological
appearance (shape and size), expression of specific proteins, and
specialized function. Some of these characteristics are retained
when cells are isolated from an individual and propagated in
culture. Conditions that support extensive expansion of various
cell types in culture are well established, as are requirements for
maintenance of their morphology and function largely due to the
fact that maintenance of the desired cell type was the experimental
goal (Basic Cell Culture Protocols, 1997). It has also been
recognized that among factors that determine a cell's fate during
development and differentiation, the environment and clues received
from neighboring cells and extra-cellular matrix (Hohn and Denker,
1994) not only promote proliferation of certain cell types but also
determine their terminally differentiated phenotype (Fuchs et al.,
2000). Several cell types can be induced to trans-differentiate in
culture, such as bone marrow into brain cells (Black et al., 2000)
and liver (Theise et al., 2000), muscle into chondrocytes
(Nathanson, 1986), thyroid cells into neurons (Clark et al., 1995),
and mammary epithelium into muscle (Paterson and Rudland, 1985).
Though possible, trans-differentiation of fibroblasts has not been
examined, and a "primed" state that allows trans-differentiation to
occur has not been described for any cell type.
[0035] Experimental: Factorial experiments can be designed to
investigate the interactions between donor cell type, primer, the
concentration of the primer, duration of priming and the cell cycle
stage of the donor cell. Human primary keratinocytes, fibroblasts,
leukocytes, and liver cells obtained from commercially available
sources (Clonetics, CA and ATCC, Rockville, Md.), will be grown in
vitro and expanded to 1.times.10.sup.7 using standard cell culture
conditions (DMEM, supplemented with amino acids, L-glutamine,
.beta.-mercaptoethanol, 10% fetal calf serum; Gibco, Gaitherburg,
Md.). Cultures will be supplemented with and increasing dose of
cytochalasin B (CB, 0.1-10 .mu.g/ml; Sigma Chemical Co, St. Louis,
Mo.) and cells' morphology recorded at 12-hour intervals over a
period of 72 hours. Control cells can be grown in vitro in the
absence of the inhibitor or in the presence of DMSO (Sigma) alone,
which is used to solubilize CB. At the same experimental time
points, cells will be examined for down-regulation/loss of their
specific gene/protein expression by RT-PCR and immuno-cytochemistry
(ICC) according to published protocols. The majority of the
oligonucleotide primers and antibodies for these studies are
commercially available. Some of the markers are summarized in Table
1. In parallel, the effect of other microfilament inhibitors
(cytochalasin A, D and E) will be examined at concentrations and
times described above.
[0036] Cells are synchronized in G1, S, G2, and M-phase of the cell
cycle using published protocols (Leno et al., 1992). Briefly,
growing primary cultures are synchronized by an initial S phase
block for 20 hours with 2.5 mM thymidine, followed after a 5 hour
interval by a 9 hour mitotic block by demecolcine. Mitotic cells
are shaken off and mitotic index checked on cytospin prepared
slides. Double thymidine block (thymidine for 17 hours, release for
9 hours, thymidine for 15 hours) are used for synchronization of
cells at the beginning of S phase. Seven hours after release of the
second thymidine block, cells are expected to accumulate in G2.
Synchronized cell populations are then exposed to CB as described
for non-synchronized, randomly cycling cell populations.
TABLE-US-00001 TABLE 1 Donor cell types and associated endogenous,
phenotype-specific markers. Donor cell type Endogenous markers Skin
fibroblasts (mesoderm) FSP-1, vimentin, fibronectin Keratinocytes
(ectoderm) keratin, melanin Hepatocytes (endoderm) fibrinogen,
albumin, cytokeratins 8, 18, 19 Blood cells (mesoderm)
immunoglobulins, CD antigens
[0037] Data Collection and Analysis: Changes in cell shape and
general morphology are used as the first indicator of "priming" and
images sequentially recorded by time lapse video imaging (cooled
CCD camera, 40.times. magnification, DIC optics on an upright
Olympus, Metamorph imaging software). Patterns of the
down-regulation/loss of primary cell-specific gene expression and
consequently protein synthesis are evaluated by RT-PCR and ICC and
compared to control primary cells that were grown in culture for
the same period of time, but were not exposed to the inhibitor, or
were exposed to the same concentration of DMSO, which is used as a
solvent for cytochalasin B.
[0038] Adherent cells, such as fibroblasts will change morphology
due to cytoskeletal inhibition. Cells grown in suspension (blood
cells) may display less or no morphological alteration. It is
likely that cells will continue with nuclear progression through
the cell cycle and karyokinesis, while cytokinesis will be
inhibited. Depending on the dose of CB, cells may complete one or
more rounds of DNA replication and karyokinesis in the absence of
cell division. Cells "primed" with cytochalasin B lose their
cell-specific gene expression, and this down-regulation is expected
to correlate with the concentration of the priming agent and the
duration of exposure. There are advantages and disadvantages of
both low and high CB concentration priming protocols. Lower
concentrations of CB may induce slow, step-by-step disruption of
cellular architecture. This would in turn allow cells to gradually
decrease cellular transport of tissue-specific factors to their
cytoplasmic or plasma membrane targets. If inhibition is then
maintained over an extended period of time, function of the cell's
nucleus will gradually become deprived of feedback signals
originating from target sites.
[0039] Without this feedback regulation, the nucleus would adopt a
different gene expression profile which becomes less dependent on
clues received from the immediate environment. A potential
disadvantage of the low dose protocol is that viability of cells
may decline, as the incubation time has to be lengthened. The
environment can be manipulated in such a way that factors which are
beneficial for neuronal development (ascorbic acid, all-trans
retinoic acid, neuro-basal growth medium, bFGF and fibronectin)
will allow for gradual, instead of abrupt, imposition of the cell
to change. On the other hand, high concentration of CB for shorter
period of time may be advantageous when high amounts of specific
protein are required for a short period of time to maintain cell
function (such as hormone secreting, endocrine cells). During
exposure to high concentrations of CB, cells continue to replicate
their DNA and progress through mitosis (karyokinesis) in the
absence of cytokinesis only once. Multiple nuclei within primed
cells are expected after low dose protocol and effect of multiple
nuclei on cell function will have to be evaluated. Under high
concentrations of CB bi-nucleated cells are expected to be the
predominant outcome. In addition to cell type, the stage of the
cell cycle during which a particular cell type is exposed to
"primers" will result in different outcomes after priming. Our
preliminary results show that cells can be kept viable for at least
72 hours in the presence of CB without detrimental effects on their
survival.
[0040] Experiments can be performed using the methodology disclosed
herein to test various values of parameters influencing the
trans-differentiation process to develop a database of
interactions. Such a database will permit one to predict the
results of using a specific cell type, a specific primer, specific
concentration and time of exposure, in terms of obtaining a cell of
a desired morphology and gene down-regulation pattern.
[0041] It has been shown that DMSO can induce change of function on
its own (Hallows and Frank, 1992). If control experiments indicate
that this is indeed a possibility, we will examine effect of DMSO
alone in more detail and design experiments accordingly. Using the
disclosed methods, we have found that fibroblasts respond to CB
treatment with a high degree of repeatability and that virtually
all the cells display a change in phenotype, making them a cell
type of choice for trans-differentiation. However, alternative cell
types such as keratinocytes or white blood cells can also be used.
Source cells selected for use should be easy to obtain, with
minimal invasion and discomfort for the patient. If no distinct
differences can be found between different donor cell types,
fibroblasts can be used.
[0042] Different cytoskeletal inhibitors will induce distinctly
different alteration in cells during priming. Cytoskeletal
inhibitors that are suitable for use in the present invention
include microfilament disruptors (e.g., cytochalasin B, D, A, E;
vimentin, latrunculin, jasplakinolide). These inhibitors act
through different cellular targets in order to depolymerize
microfilament network and a specific mode of action may be
advantageous/disadvantageous for "priming" purposes. Different
priming agents are expected to induce different "primed" state: for
example, CB may be "priming" cell for neuronal development while
cytochalasin D may be "priming" the same cells to undergo
hematopoietic development (confidential preliminary data, not
disclosed).
[0043] Microtubule inhibitors, such as colchicine, colcemid,
nocodazole, and taxol, can also be used as primers in the present
invention. They can be used at concentrations that have been shown
to induce a change of cell function (Cohen et al., 1999). Priming
agents can be used alone or in combination. For example, one or
more microtubule inhibitors may be used alone or together, or in
combination with one or more microfilament inhibitors (Shea, 1990).
A combination of both microfilament and microtubule inhibitors, at
experimentally determined concentrations, can be used to effect
complete destabilization of the cytoskeleton.
[0044] The age of the donor providing fibroblasts may be another
factor in determining "priming" response. Fibroblasts from younger
patients may display higher "priming" potential than fibroblasts
from older patients and will be examined in initial experiments.
Nuclear transfer (NT) experiments in animals indicate that cells
derived from younger donors reprogram better and result in higher
proportions of NT embryos that complete prenatal development than
do embryos created from adult somatic cells (Yang et al.,
2000).
[0045] The extent of priming itself may prove to be limiting. This
could be due to cells' inability to erase nuclear memory to the
extent that is required for a change in function. Similarly, donor
cells obtained from one cell lineage (i.e. ectoderm) may only be
primed to develop into another ectoderm derived cell type. To
overcome this potential pitfall, cells will be conditionally
immortalized/transformed. Transformed, immortalized cells that can
commonly be found in various types of cancer have been shown to be
multipotential and can be viewed as "primed" cells. Conditional
imortalization of cultured primary cells may be accomplished by
transfection with a transgene expressing a mutant, heat labile,
form of the SV40 Large T antigen (Bond et al., 1996; SV40tsA58).
Cells transgenic for this antigen can be immortalized by culture at
33.degree. C., where the Large T antigen is intact and biologically
active. The cells can than be returned to a primary functional
state by increasing the incubation temperature to 37.degree. C.,
where the antigen is truncated and not active at this higher
temperature. Since immortalized cells display qualities of
de-differentiated cells, they may be more easily primed, then
induced to differentiate by supplying the appropriate culture
conditions for the desired cell type. At the same time
differentiation is induced, the cells can be returned to the
non-immortalized state by raising the temperature. This strategy
will be employed if difficulty arises in the transdifferentiation
of primary cultures (above). Ultimately, if this approach proves to
be viable, then the transgene will be flanked with loxp sites, so
that it can be removed from the final product using Cre
recombinase. We will attempt to induce donor cells to acquire
cancer-like characteristics first, and expose them to priming
and/or induced differentiation (Cohen et al., 1999).
[0046] A second approach to enhancing priming involves manipulation
of nuclear structure with drugs that interfere with acetylation
and/or methylation. There is a wealth of published literature
describing the beneficial effects of deacetylase inhibitors
(trichostatin A; Yoshida et al., 1995) and methylase inhibitors
(5-aza-cytidine; Boukamp, 1995) on permissiveness of nuclear
chromatin for transcription factors, transcription enhancers and
other proteins involved in genomic transcription (Kikyo and Wolffe,
2000). Combined use of agents that interfere with acetylation
and/or methylation and agents that disrupt the cytoskeleton may
allow for shorter priming incubations, more complete reversal of
nuclear function and therefore increase the range of cells that can
be derived from primed cell populations. Donor cells of choice
should have a stable karyotype, have to be able to support
expansion in vitro, and survive cryopreservation and subsequent
thawing. Some cell types may be better suited for this purpose than
others. Also, the long-term effect of ploidy changes induced in
trans-differentiated cell will have to be addressed.
2. Utilizing Methods that Effect Induction of Stem Cell
Differentiation to Effect Trans-Differentiation of Primed
Cells.
[0047] Conditions for driving embryonic stem and adult stem cells
into several terminally differentiated phenotypes have been
described (Bain et al., 1995; Pittenger et al., 1999; Fuchs and
Segre, 2000; Lee et al., 2000; Bjornson et al., 2000; Schuldiner et
al., 2000; Brustle et al., 1999). Even though we believe "priming"
will not turn somatic cells into any type of stem cell, culture
conditions that support differentiation of stem cells can be used
to support differentiation of "primed" cells. One of the simplest,
and best-documented differentiation protocols involves the use of
retinoic acid to induce differentiation to neuronal cell
precursors. Obtaining differentiated cells of the CNS (e.g.
dopaminergic neurons, astrocytes, oligodendrocytes) is a good first
step in testing the potency of primed cells, not only because it is
the most direct method of obtaining differentiated cells, but also
due to the size of the commercial markets for neuronal cell types
in the treatment of Parkinson's Disease, Huntington's Disease,
Alzheimer's Disease, multiple sclerosis, and repair of spinal cord
injury.
[0048] Protocols developed for induction of neuronal precursors in
mouse ES cells and human neuronal stem cells can be used for
inducing the trans-differentiation of primed fibroblasts:
serum-free medium, supplemented with retinoic acid, 5 mM ascorbic
acid, bFGF2, PDGF on fibrinogen coated culture dishes. All cultures
can be maintained in low oxygen environment (2-5%) and 5% CO.sub.2
at 36.8.degree. C., as it has been shown that reducing O.sub.2
concentration during cell culture dramatically increases the
proportion of neuronal precursors that differentiate into
dopaminergic neurons (15 to 56%; L. Studer, personal
communication). Simultaneously, primed cells can be grown in
culture conditions that have been described to support
hematopoietic and muscle differentiation pathways (reviewed in
Fuchs and Segre, 2000). Cells can be examined for their morphology
by time-lapse video imaging and induction of expected gene and
protein expression by RT-PCR and ICC, respectively.
TABLE-US-00002 TABLE 2 Initial inducing culture conditions for
primed cells and expected gene markers Expected outcome culture
conditions induction markers Neuronal bFGF, FGF8, SHH, TH, Nurr-1,
Pax 3, 5, 8, EGF, PDGF, En-1, FGFR3, GDNF, T3, CNTF TUJ1, CalR 4B3,
SMP Hematopoietic RPMI-40, interleukins, CD14, CD34, CD45 GM-CSF,
M-CSF, G-CSF, erythropoietin, thrombopoietin Muscle BMP-2 myoD1,
skeletal myosin LC, cardiac actin, desmin smooth muscle actin
[0049] Dopamine release can be induced as described (Cibelli et
al., 2001). Briefly, culture medium is removed and replaced with
Ca-free, Mg-free HBSS. After 15 minutes, this medium is replaced
with Ca-free, Mg-free HBSS, supplemented with 56 mM KCl and samples
of medium collected after 15-20 minute incubation and stored at
-80.degree. C. until assayed.
[0050] Data Collection and Analysis: Control, non-primed cells can
be grown under the same culture conditions and assayed for both,
down-regulation of endogenous genes and proteins, as well as
expression of genes induced by culture conditions. The assay for
dopamine can be performed by HPLC as described elsewhere. Samples
collected prior to KCl induced release can be used for control
measurements. In addition to dopamine, the samples can be assayed
routinely for serotonin, acetylcholin, and GABA.
[0051] Cell type-designed culture conditions will yield cells
resembling the expected cell type. Neuronal cell types show
induction of gene and protein markers described above. For example,
Neurons secrete neuro-transmitters in a time dependent manner that
correlates with cell morphology. If required, electrophysiology
experiments can be designed to test excitability. Control cells are
expected to retain their original phenotype, maintain the
corresponding gene and protein expression and show absence of
non-specific gene and protein expression. Sufficient cell numbers
are available for these analyses since virtually all the primary
cells respond to priming, and therefore their numbers can be
manipulated by expansion prior to priming.
[0052] The gene expression profile specific only to the donor cells
is turned off during priming without reversal into a stem cell-like
state. In addition, during trans-differentiation, only expression
of specific genes corresponding to the predicted types of
trans-differentiated cells is turned on.
3. Combinations of Agents Acting on Intracellular Components and
Extracellular Matrix for Reproducible Induction of a Single Cell
Type.
[0053] Characterization of the type of cell being formed is an
aspect of the present invention. The invention permits analysis and
definition of all of the conditions that enable production of
functional neurons from fibroblasts. It is useful to determine
whether neurons are being produced in a subset of the total
population of induced cells. It is known from induction of
embryonic stem cells that primarily certain cell types are produced
using specific growth factors (GFs) or cytokines. However, these
populations are not pure and other cell types persist. Animal serum
contains a plethora of proteins and peptides of undefined
quantities. Thus, serum contains growth factors and cytokines that
support growth and differentiation of essentially all cell types in
the body. Therefore, serum-free culture conditions can be developed
in order to properly evaluate the effect of specific combinations
of GFs and cytokines on differentiation of primed cells. In
addition, the effect of various artificial extracellular matrices
(ECM) can be tested. The serum-free culture conditions do not
necessarily need to induce proliferation but must sustain viability
of the cells in vitro. The specific type of culture surface can
also be evaluated. Whenever available, human versions of the
required growth factors can be used, since the activity of many
cytokines is not always equivalent across species.
[0054] Due to the human genome project, most of the GFs
commercially available are from recombinant human genes. First,
primary cell cultures are gradually adapted to serum-free
conditions. Then, priming is induced by conditions discussed above.
Primed cells in serum-free conditions can be subjected to culture
conditions that yield or support specific neural cell types. Growth
factors/cytokines that can be used include bFGF, FGF8, SHH, EFG,
PDGF, T3, and CNTF. The cell culture surface and ECM materials that
can be used include tissue culture plastic, bacterial culture
plastic, glass, methylcellulose, fibrinogen, fibronectin, gelatin,
collagen, laminin, poly-L-lysine, and poly-L-ornithine. The effect
of a selected single GF in combination with a single ECM substrate
can be evaluated to optimize conditions. Cells can be assayed for
the presence of critical markers for specific cell types using ICC:
astrocytes (GFAP), oligodendrocytes (O4), and neurons (TH). The
cells produced from induction into neurons can be further assayed
for dopamine, serotonin, acetylcholine, and GABA release. Once the
interaction between individual growth factor/cytokine and ECM that
leads to enrichment of specific neuronal cells types is determined,
combinations of GF's/cytokines with the optimal ECM can be
evaluated. The GF/cytokine and ECM combination result that leads to
the purest population of dopaminergic neurons can thus be
determined experimentally.
[0055] Gene expression at the RNA level can be determined by RT-PCR
and translation products assayed by immunocytochemistry and/or
Western blotting. Markers for the expression of specific genes in
the differentiated state can be identified depending on the cell
type. Immunocytochemistry can also be used to determine the purity
of the cell population. RT-PCR primers and hybridization probes and
antibodies for ICC and Western blotting are commercially available.
Quantitative analysis of gene expression can be analyzed by
Northern blots. Temporal changes in morphology can be recorded at
regular intervals using time-lapse video imaging. Expression of key
marker genes can be monitored at experimentally determined time
points to evaluate the timing of priming and differentiation
events. This approach yields information as to how long it takes
for the donor somatic cell to become responsive to new signals and
how long differentiation takes for various cell types.
[0056] By the methods described above, a combination of
GFs/cytokines and ECM that yields predominantly specific neural
cell types can be identified. For example, optimal conditions that
yield dopaminergic neurons can be identified. In addition to
generation of desired cell types by designed differentiation
protocols, undesired cell types may result. Specific growth factor
and cytokine combinations may result in an array of cell types,
which it may be necessary to characterize. Three-dimensional
factorial design of experiments (cytokine.times.growth
factor.times.matrix) may be performed in conjunction with
development of a comprehensive database for tracking cell response.
Construction of a reasonably informative database includes
catalogued information on donor cell type, primer, priming
conditions, timing of gene/protein down regulation, a list of these
genes/proteins, induction components, timing and expression of
trans-differentiated cell type-specific genes/proteins, a list of
these genes and proteins, cell survival and secretory properties
(if any).
[0057] If cells trans-differentiate into more than one cell type,
single cell cloning may be used to generate pure cell populations.
It is well established that single cell culture is challenging and
many cells do not survive in vitro on their own. Efforts should
therefore be made to develop single cell cultures that keep cells
physically separated while maintaining the same culture
environment. Trans-differentiated cells may have an altered life
span. Whether the lifespan is shortened or lengthened can be
determined by a longevity analysis, which is routinely performed.
If trans-differentiated cells display a shorter lifespan than
control donor cells, lifespan can be maintained by reducing O.sub.2
concentration during culture to <2%, designing shorter priming
protocols, or avoiding excessive in vitro proliferation of donor
cells prior to priming.
[0058] In addition to the foregoing, injection of primed cells into
a live model (mouse) into sites that promote certain cell types can
also be performed as a means for effecting trans-differentiation of
primed cells.
[0059] Finally, trans-differentiation of primed cells can be
effected by culturing the primed cells in the presence of other
cells that are capable of inducing their neighbors to express
specific markers due to paracrine effects. For example, it has been
shown that cells transgenic for Pax-8 cause neighboring cells to
become dopaminergic neurons (L. Studer, personal
communication).
4. Maintain Stable Morphology and Function of Newly Differentiated
Cells.
[0060] In order for newly differentiated cells to be useful for
cell therapy, they must not only attain desired cell shape and
function in vitro but also be able to maintain the newly
established phenotype/function after trans-differentiation. The
maintenance of a stable cell phenotype can be achieved by
terminally arresting the cell cycle in G.sub.0, an event that is
induced in vivo by differentiation itself. While
trans-differentiated cells may retain certain nuclear plasticity,
appropriate conditions in vitro or in vivo should allow for
stabilization of their phenotype. Maintaining the same
environmental signals (same medium, same supplemental factors,
temperature, and matrix conditions) stabilizes cell phenotype.
[0061] Newly trans-differentiated cells can be cultured
continuously and monitored at specific time points for expression
of cell type-specific markers. Culture occurs in the absence of
"priming" agent and under conditions consistent with the "new" cell
type. In addition, the cells can be grown in media (or conditions)
that are not consistent with the new cell type to evaluate
stability. Of particular importance will be the behavior of newly
trans-differentiated cells in culture conditions specific for the
original donor cell type.
[0062] Data Collection and Analysis: Morphology of induced cell can
be monitored and progression recorded by video imaging. Gene
expression and protein expression/localization can be evaluated by
RT-PCR and ICC, respectively for neuronal antigens (neurofilament,
enolase, tyrosin hydroxylase, GFAP, dopamine receptor, myelin),
muscle specific antigens (.beta.-actin, desmin, myosin heavy
chain), and hematopoietic cell markers (CD34).
[0063] After withdrawal of the priming agent (e.g., microfilament
inhibitor), the cells retain their newly acquired phenotype and
either re-enter the cell cycle or remain arrested in G.sub.0,
depending on the cell phenotype. New neurons are expected to remain
in G.sub.0 and not proliferate, retain neuronal morphology, secrete
neurotransmitters, establish synapses and remain viable for up to 4
days in vitro (Lorenz Studer, personal communication).
[0064] It may be challenging to keep population of cells pure since
this is not how they grow in vivo. To maintain a stable function in
vivo, cells have to interact with their neighboring cells that are
of often of a different phenotype (e.g. neurons with glia, muscle
with connective tissue and vascular endothelium, etc). It may be
necessary to grow new cell types under one of the following two
conditions. (1) Growth on a three-dimensional matrix (3-D). This
will allow them to establish a more physiological 3-D structure,
initiate spatial interactions and start producing their own
extracellular matrix. This strategy will be exploited during
induction of differentiation. (2) Grow newly differentiated cells
on monolayers of cell types with which they would interact normally
in vivo.
5. Evaluating Trans-Differentiated Cells for Therapeutic Efficacy
by In Vivo Cell Transplantation into an Animal Model.
[0065] In vivo function of neural cells generated via
trans-differentiation from somatic cells is crucial for evaluating
therapeutic potential. Several standardized test have been
developed in rodents that can reliably mimic clinical symptoms of
specific neurological disorders such as Parkinson's disease,
Huntington's disease, spinal cord injury, epilepsy or stroke.
Transplantation of neurons derived from the developing CNS can
significantly improve clinical symptoms in many of these animal
models. Cell therapy is especially promising in Parkinson's disease
where a relatively small and well-defined population of specific
neurons is lost. Clinical transplantation of fetal dopamine neurons
has been performed in over 300 patients worldwide and long-term
benefit has been demonstrated in patients for at least up to 10
years after transplantation (Piccini et al. 1999). More recently,
encouraging results have also been reported for fetal tissue
grafting in Huntington's disease (Bachoud-Levi et al. 2000).
However, the use of fetal tissue raises significant ethical and
technical concerns that have prevented more widespread use of the
technology (Freeman et al. 2000). The availability of an easily
accessible and renewable source of neural cells will dramatically
improve the technical and social outlook of CNS cell
transplantation in neurodegenerative disorders. The availability of
such a cell source might also obviate the use of immunosuppression
in subjects undergoing CNS transplantation and alleviate some of
the ethical and psychological concerns of implanting brain cells
derived from another individual or species as in the case of fetal
pig dopamine neurons (Deacon et al. 1997).
[0066] Experimental: Parkinsonian rats and mice are created by
unilateral stereotactic injection of the neurotoxin 6-OHDA that is
taken up specifically by dopaminergic terminals and retrogradely
transported to the cell body where it induces apoptotic cell death.
The behavioral outcome of the transplanted cells is assessed using
state of the art behavioral tests including rotometer assays. Upon
stimulation with drugs that mimic dopamine effects Parkinsonian
animals show an asymmetric behavior with postural asymmetry,
ipsilateral rotation and contra lateral hemineglect. Animals
undergo repeated behavioral tests 2-4 weeks after 6-OHDA injection.
Animals with stable behavioral deficits are randomly selected for
cell implantation or control group (12 animals each, controls:
injection of non-dopaminergic cell or saline). Cells are tested for
dopamine production prior to transplantation using non-invasive
measurements of dopamine release (Studer et al. 1996; Studer et al.
1998). Upon intrastriatal implantation of functional dopamine
neurons Parkinsonian symptoms such as rotation behavior should
gradually disappear within a period of 4-16 weeks. After completing
the behavioral studies the animals are perfused with
paraformaldehyde and the brains subjected to immunohistochemical
analyses (Studer et al. 1998). Surviving dopamine neurons in the
host striatum are identified by immunohistochemistry for
tyrosine-hydroxylase, the rate-limiting enzyme in the synthesis of
dopamine. Quantification of cell numbers are performed using
stereology-based computer assisted counting procedures.
[0067] Data Collection and Analysis: Surgical data: We have
described our procedures for inducing neurodegenerative lesions as
well as performing cell transplantation been described previously
in great detail (Tabar and Studer 1997). A hierarchical computer
database linked to behavioral and histological results is set up to
record all relevant data for each animal included in the study.
Behavioral data: Rotation data is collected on a commercially
available rotometer system (San Diego Instruments). ASCII files are
imported into statistical software for further analyses (Microsoft
Excel and Statistica, Statsoft). In vitro functional testing prior
to transplantation: Dopamine and serotonin production of the cells
to be grafted are assayed using reverse-phase HPLC with
electrochemical detection as described previously (Studer et al.
1998; Studer et al. 1996). Data is collected on ESA proprietary
software and exported to Statistica (Statsoft) for further
analyses. Histological analyses: The number of surviving dopamine
neurons in the grafted brain are assessed using stereological
counts of Tyrosine-hydroxylase (TH+) cells in the striatum (Studer
et al. 1998; Gundersen et al. 1988).
[0068] Expected Results: Establishing Parkinsonian lesions in
rodents: Typically about 60-80% of the animals subjected to
stereotactic 6-OHDA injections show a stable rotation response upon
amphetamine injection three weeks after surgery. Recovery of lost
function depends on the number and function of the grafted cells.
It has been established in fetal tissue grafts that about 1000
rodent dopamine neurons are required to completely restore the
rotation behavior of 6-OHDA rodents. The survival rate of dopamine
neurons is typically about 5-10%.
[0069] Potential Difficulties, Limitations and Alternatives: Animal
model: The mouse or rat strain has to be chosen carefully as
certain strains show hypersensitivity to some anesthetics such as
barbiturates or in some cases various sensitivities to the
neurotoxic drugs used. An alternative strain and adaptation in the
dose of the neurotoxic drugs would be required. Behavioral test:
The degree of Parkinsonian symptoms can vary among animals.
Especially in mice the success rate of inducing a stable
Parkinsonian lesion is lower and spontaneous recovery has been
reported. An alternative strain or neurotoxin can be utilized in
such cases. Histology: No difficulties are to be expected if
state-of-the-art technical procedures are followed. Alternative
disease model: The generation of specific dopamine neurons is
challenging. Only about 1:10.sup.4-1:10.sup.5 of all neurons in the
adult brain are midbrain dopamine neurons (Hynes and Rosenthal
2000). If no dopamine but other neuronal subtypes are available for
grafting, an alternative disease model will be chosen such as
ibotenic acid lesion in rodents to mimic Huntington's disease
(Tabar and Studer 1997) with subsequent transplantation of neurons
exhibiting the more common neurotransmitter GABA.
EXAMPLES
Example 1
[0070] Bovine fetal fibroblasts (BFFs) were grown to confluence and
seeded onto 100 mm plates at approximately 250,000 cells/plate.
Cells were grown in DMEM (Gibco) supplemented with 0.03%
L-Glutamine (Sigma), 100 .mu.M non-essential amino acids (Gibco),
10 units/L Penicillin-Streptomycin (Gibco), 154 .mu.M
2-Mercaptoethanol (Gibco) and 15% FBS (HyClone). Four treatments
were used: [0071] 1. A control grown in the medium described above,
[0072] 2. DMEM with 2.5 .mu.g/ml CB, [0073] 3. DMEM with 5.0
.mu.g/ml CB, and [0074] 4. DMEM with 7.5 .mu.g/ml CB.
[0075] Control cells were grown in the presence of DMSO alone to
evaluate its effect on priming and trans-differentiation.
[0076] BFFs cultured in treatment 1 began to rapidly divide and
grow to confluence as was expected. BFFs cultured in treatment 2
did not undergo cytokinesis, however did undergo nuclear division
leading to multinuclear fibroblasts. BFFs cultured in treatments 3
and 4 began to change morphology and by day 2 of treatment began to
take on the appearance of neuronal cells. On day 3 of treatment, a
small population of cells that had been grown on glass cover slips
were fixed from each of the described treatments, and incubated
with an antibody to tyrosine hydroxylase (the rate limiting enzyme
involved in dopamine production, specific to neuronal cells). Cells
were visualized under fluorescence for detection of antibody
labeling. Control cells did not exhibit fluorescence, and cells
from groups 2, 3, and 4 fluoresced in a dose-dependent manner,
which correlated directly with increasing amounts of CB.
[0077] In conclusion, treatment of BFFs with CB at 2.5-7.5 .mu.g/ml
is effective at inducing bovine fetal fibroblasts to undergo
morphological changes toward a neuronal-like lineage as well as
inducing the expression of tyrosine hydroxylase. These results
suggest that trans-differentiation can be primed by microfilament
inhibitors. Our preliminary data suggest that virtually all the
primary fibroblasts (millions from a single patient sample) can be
primed within 12-24 hours of in vitro culture. Results are
presented in FIGS. 1 and 2.
Example 2
[0078] Bovine adult fibroblasts (BAFs) were treated in the manner
described for BFFs in Example 1, with priming carried out using
10.0 .mu.g/ml CB for 72 hours. Like BFFs, treatment of the BAFs
with the priming agent and culturing them under conditions that
induce neural differentiation caused the cells to undergo
morphological changes toward a neuronal-like lineage. See FIGS. 3
and 4. Note that BFFs and BAFs acquire different morphologies of a
neural type.
Example 3
[0079] Transdifferentiation of human neo-natal fibroblasts.
Fibroblasts were purchased from Cambrex company (Clonetics cell
line # CC-2509) and were expanded in Iscove's Modified Dulbecco's
Medium (IMDM, Gibco) supplemented with 20% fetal bovine serum
(HyClone) at 37.degree. C. in 5% CO.sub.2 and 5% O.sub.2. At
passage 14, cells were weaned from serum by replacing medium every
other day with half the concentration of serum over a 2-week
period. When cells had been in the absence of serum for 48 hours,
they were seeded at 50% confluency in 24-well dishes. 24 hours
after passage, IMDM was removed and replaced with conducive medium
(keratinocyte growth medium (KGM, Clonetics) was added to half of
the cultures and neuro-progenitor growth medium (NPMM, Clonetics)
was added to the other half). After 24 hours in conducive medium, 5
ug/ml cytochalasin B (CB, CalBiochem) was supplemented into half of
each media group. Cells were cultured for an additional 72 hours at
which point half of all groups were fixed in 4% paraformaldehyde
(Sigma) in Dulbecco's phosphate-buffered saline (DPBS,
Biowhittaker), and the remaining half were replaced with fresh
medium (KGM and NPMM respectively) without CB. These cells were
then cultured for another 72 hours at which point they were fixed
in 4% paraformaldehyde in DPBS. As with BFFs and BAFs, treatment of
the human fetal fibroblasts BFFs with CB at 5 .mu.g/ml and
culturing them under conditions that induce neural differentiation
is effective at inducing the fibroblasts to undergo morphological
changes toward a neuronal-like lineage (see FIG. 5).
[0080] Immunocytochemistry was conducted using antibodies to
Nestin, Glial Fibriliary Acid Protein (GFAP), Oligo 4 (O4), beta
Tubulin III, Tuj1, Gamma Amino Buteric Acid (GABA), Tyrosine
Hydroxylase, MAP2ab, Calretinin, Tropomyosin. Cells treated with
cytochalasin B were positive for markers of cells of neuronal
lineage--nestin, Tuj-1, and beta tubulin III (see FIG. 6). The
control fibroblasts not treated with CB were negative for all
markers. Nestin is an intermediate microfilament present in neural
stem cells prior to terminal differentiation. Tuj-1 is a
neuron-specific tubulin, and beta Tubulin III is a microtubule that
is present only in neurons.
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