U.S. patent application number 11/050184 was filed with the patent office on 2005-08-11 for contact fabrication of emitter wrap-through back contact silicon solar cells.
This patent application is currently assigned to Advent Solar, Inc.. Invention is credited to Gee, James M., Hacke, Peter.
Application Number | 20050172996 11/050184 |
Document ID | / |
Family ID | 34831070 |
Filed Date | 2005-08-11 |
United States Patent
Application |
20050172996 |
Kind Code |
A1 |
Hacke, Peter ; et
al. |
August 11, 2005 |
Contact fabrication of emitter wrap-through back contact silicon
solar cells
Abstract
Back contact solar cells including rear surface structures and
methods for making same. The rear surface has small contact areas
through at least one dielectric layer, including but not limited to
a passivation layer, a nitride layer, a diffusion barrier, and/or a
metallization barrier. The dielectric layer is preferably screen
printed. Large grid areas overlay the dielectric layer. The methods
provide for increasing efficiency by minimizing p-type contact
areas and maximizing n-type doped regions on the rear surface of a
p-type substrate.
Inventors: |
Hacke, Peter; (Albuquerque,
NM) ; Gee, James M.; (Albuquerque, NM) |
Correspondence
Address: |
PEACOCK MYERS AND ADAMS P C
P O BOX 26927
ALBUQUERQUE
NM
871256927
|
Assignee: |
Advent Solar, Inc.
Albuquerque
NM
|
Family ID: |
34831070 |
Appl. No.: |
11/050184 |
Filed: |
February 3, 2005 |
Related U.S. Patent Documents
|
|
|
|
|
|
Application
Number |
Filing Date |
Patent Number |
|
|
60542454 |
Feb 5, 2004 |
|
|
|
60542390 |
Feb 5, 2004 |
|
|
|
Current U.S.
Class: |
136/256 ;
438/98 |
Current CPC
Class: |
Y02P 70/521 20151101;
H01L 31/022458 20130101; H01L 31/1804 20130101; Y02E 10/547
20130101; Y02P 70/50 20151101; H01L 31/0682 20130101 |
Class at
Publication: |
136/256 ;
438/098 |
International
Class: |
H01L 031/00 |
Claims
What is claimed is:
1. A method for making a back-contact solar cell, the method
comprising the steps of: forming a plurality of holes extending
from a front surface of a semiconductor substrate to a rear surface
of the substrate, the substrate comprising a first conductivity
type; providing a diffusion comprising an opposite conductivity
type on the front surface, the rear surface, and on surfaces
enclosing the holes; depositing a patterned dielectric layer on the
rear surface; alloying a plurality of contacts comprising the first
conductivity type with the substrate; disposing a first conductive
grid on the dielectric layer in electrical contact with the
contacts; and disposing a second conductive grid on the rear
surface in electrical contact with the diffusion.
2. The method of claim 1 wherein the alloying step is performed
through existing regions of the dielectric layer.
3. The method of claim 1 wherein the alloying step is performed
after removing regions of the dielectric layer to expose regions of
the rear surface.
4. The method of claim 1 wherein the diffusion is lightly
doped.
5. The method of claim 1 wherein the contacts occupy less than 30%
of the area of the rear surface.
6. The method of claim 5 wherein the contacts occupy less than 20%
of the area of the rear surface.
7. The method of claim 6 wherein the contacts occupy less than 10%
of the area of the rear surface.
8. The method of claim 1 wherein substantially all portions of the
rear surface not occupied by the contacts comprise the
diffusion.
9. The method of claim 1 wherein the contacts comprise
aluminum.
10. The method of claim 1 wherein material comprising the second
conductive grid at least partially fills the holes.
11. The method of claim 1 wherein a width of a grid line of the
first conductive grid is wider than a width of the contact.
12. The method of claim 1 wherein the first conductive grid is
interdigitated with the second conductive grid.
13. The method of claim 1 wherein at least one of the first
conductive grid or the second conductive grid comprise grid lines
having a tapered width.
14. A back-contact solar cell made according to the method of claim
1.
15. A method of making a back-contact solar cell, the method
comprising the steps of: forming a plurality of holes extending
from a front surface of a semiconductor substrate to a rear surface
of the substrate, the substrate comprising a first conductivity
type; depositing a patterned diffusion barrier on the rear surface;
providing a diffusion comprising an opposite conductivity type on
the front surface, regions of the rear surface not covered by the
diffusion barrier, and on surfaces enclosing the holes; disposing a
first conductive grid on the diffusion barrier in electrical
contact with the substrate in a subset of the regions; and
disposing a second conductive grid on the rear surface in
electrical contact with the diffusion.
16. The method of claim 15 further comprising the step of changing
the conductivity type of the subset of the regions substantially to
the first conductivity type.
17. The method of claim 15 wherein the depositing step comprises
using screen printing.
18. The method of claim 15 wherein the first conductive grid
comprises aluminum.
19. The method of claim 15 wherein material comprising the second
conductive grid at least partially fills the holes.
20. The method of claim 15 wherein a width of a grid line of the
first conductive grid is wider than a width of one of the
regions.
21. The method of claim 15 wherein the second conductive grid
partially overlaps the diffusion barrier.
22. The method of claim 15 wherein the first conductive grid is
interdigitated with the second conductive grid.
23. The method of claim 15 wherein at least one of the first
conductive grid or the second conductive grid comprise grid lines
having a tapered width.
24. A back-contact solar cell made according to the method of claim
15.
25. A method of making a back-contact solar cell, the method
comprising the steps of: forming a plurality of holes extending
from a front surface of a semiconductor substrate to a rear surface
of the substrate, the substrate comprising a first conductivity
type; depositing a patterned diffusion barrier on the rear surface;
providing a diffusion comprising an opposite conductivity type on
the front surface, first regions of the rear surface not covered by
the diffusion barrier, and on surfaces enclosing the holes;
removing the diffusion barrier; depositing a metallization barrier
on the rear surface, the metallization barrier comprising: first
openings smaller than the first regions and aligned with the holes;
and second openings aligned with and smaller than second regions of
the rear surface that had been covered by the diffusion barrier;
disposing a first conductive grid partially on the metallization
barrier and in electrical contact with the diffusion through the
first openings; and disposing a second conductive grid partially on
the metallization barrier and in electrical contact with the
substrate through the second openings.
26. The method of claim 25 wherein the metallization barrier
provides passivation to the rear surface.
27. The method of claim 25 wherein the metallization barrier
comprises a transition metal oxide.
28. The method of claim 25 wherein the depositing steps comprise
using screen printing.
29. The method of claim 25 wherein the second conductive grid
comprises aluminum.
30. The method of claim 25 wherein material comprising the first
conductive grid at least partially fills the holes.
31. The method of claim 25 wherein a width of a grid line of the
first conductive grid is wider than a width of a first opening.
32. The method of claim 25 wherein a width of a grid line of the
second conductive grid is wider than a width of a second
opening.
33. The method of claim 25 wherein the second openings occupy less
than 30% of the area of the rear surface.
34. The method of claim 33 wherein the second openings occupy less
than 20% of the area of the rear surface.
35. The method of claim 34 wherein the second openings occupy less
than 10% of the area of the rear surface.
36. The method of claim 25 wherein a majority of the rear surface
not occupied by the second openings comprises the diffusion.
37. The method of claim 25 wherein the first conductive grid is
interdigitated with the second conductive grid.
38. The method of claim 25 wherein at least one of the first
conductive grid or the second conductive grid comprise grid lines
having a tapered width.
39. A back-contact solar cell made according to the method of claim
25.
40. A back-contact solar cell comprising: a substrate comprising a
first conductivity type; a diffusion comprising an opposite
conductivity type on portions of a rear surface of said substrate;
a screen printed dielectric layer on said rear surface; a plurality
of openings in said dielectric layer, wherein regions of the rear
surface exposed through said openings comprise said first
conductivity type; a plurality of conductive contacts disposed in
said openings; and a plurality of gridlines electrically connected
to said contacts, said gridlines comprising a width greater than a
width of said openings.
41. The solar cell of claim 40 wherein said dielectric layer is
selected from the group consisting of passivation layer, nitride
layer, diffusion barrier, and metallization barrier.
42. The solar cell of claim 40 wherein said contacts comprise
aluminum.
43. The solar cell of claim 40 wherein said openings comprise less
than 30% of the surface area of said rear surface.
44. The solar cell of claim 43 wherein said openings comprise less
than 20% of the surface area.
45. The solar cell of claim 44 wherein said openings comprise less
than 10% of the surface area.
44. The solar cell of claim 40 wherein a majority of the rear
surface not exposed through said openings comprises the
diffusion.
45. The solar cell of claim 40 wherein said substrate comprises
holes extending from a front surface of said substrate to said rear
surface.
46. The solar cell of claim 45 wherein material comprising a
metallization in contact with said diffusion at least partially
fills the holes.
Description
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS
[0001] This application claims the benefit of the filing of U.S.
Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 60/542,390, entitled
"Fabrication of Back-Contact Silicon Solar Cells", filed on Feb. 5,
2004, and of U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No.
60/542,454, entitled "Process for Fabrication of Buried-Contact
Cells Using Self-Doping Contacts", filed on Feb. 5, 2004. This
application is related to U.S. Utility Patent Application Attorney
Docket No. 31474-1006-UT, entitled "Back-Contact Solar Cells and
Methods for Fabrication", by James M. Gee and Peter Hacke, filed
concurrently herewith, and U.S. Utility Patent Application Attorney
Docket No. 31474-1004-UT, entitled "Buried Contact Solar Cells With
Self-Doping Contacts", by James M. Gee and Peter Hacke, also filed
concurrently herewith. The specifications of all said applications
are incorporated herein by reference.
BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION
[0002] 1. Field of the Invention (Technical Field)
[0003] The present invention relates to methods and processes for
making the back-contact structure in a back-contact silicon solar
cell and solar cells made by such methods.
[0004] 2. Background Art
[0005] Note that the following discussion refers to a number of
publications and references. Discussion of such publications herein
is given for more complete background of the scientific principles
and is not to be construed as an admission that such publications
are prior art for patentability determination purposes.
[0006] The solar cell design in widespread use today has a p/n
junction formed near the front surface (that surface which receives
the light) which creates an electron flow as light energy is
absorbed in the cell. The conventional cell design has one set of
electrical contacts on the front side of the cell, and a second set
of electrical contacts on the back side of the solar cell. In a
typical photovoltaic module these individual solar cells are
interconnected electrically in series to increase the voltage. This
interconnection is typically accomplished by soldering a conductive
ribbon from the front side of one solar cell to the back side of an
adjacent solar cell.
[0007] Back-contact silicon solar cells have several advantages
compared to conventional silicon solar cells. The first advantage
is that back-contact cells have a higher conversion efficiency due
to reduced or eliminated contact obscuration losses (sunlight
reflected from contact grid is unavailable to be converted into
electricity). The second advantage is that assembly of back-contact
cells into electrical circuits is easier, and therefore cheaper,
because both conductivity type contacts are on the same surface. As
an example, significant cost savings compared to present
photovoltaic module assembly can be achieved with back-contact
cells by encapsulating the photovoltaic module and the solar cell
electrical circuit in a single step. The last advantage of a
back-contact cell is better aesthetics through a more uniform
appearance. Aesthetics is important for some applications, such as
building-integrated photovoltaic systems and photovoltaic sunroofs
for automobiles.
[0008] FIG. 1 illustrates a generic back-contact cell structure.
The silicon substrate may be n-type or p-type. One of the heavily
doped emitters (n.sup.++ or p.sup.++) may be omitted in some
designs. Alternatively, the heavily doped emitters could directly
contact each other on the rear surface in other designs.
Rear-surface passivation helps reduce loss of photogenerated
carriers at the rear surface, and helps reduce electrical losses
due to shunt currents at undoped surfaces between the contacts.
[0009] There are several approaches for making a back-contact
silicon solar cell. These approaches include metallization wrap
around (MWA), metallization wrap through (MWT), emitter wrap
through (EWT), and back-junction structures. MWA and MWT have metal
current collection grids on the front surface. These grids are,
respectively, wrapped around the edge or through holes to the back
surface in order to make a back-contact cell. The unique feature of
EWT cells, in comparison to MWT and MWA cells, is that there is no
metal coverage on the front side of the cell, which means that none
of the light impinging on the cell is blocked, resulting in higher
efficiencies. The EWT cell wraps the current-collection junction
("emitter") from the front surface to the rear surface through
doped conductive channels in the silicon wafer. "Emitter" refers to
a heavily doped region in a semiconductor device. Such conductive
channels can be produced by, for example, drilling holes in the
silicon substrate with a laser and subsequently forming the emitter
inside the holes at the same time as forming the emitter on front
and rear surfaces. Back-junction cells have both the negative and
positive polarity collection junctions on the rear surface of the
solar cell. Because most of the light is absorbed--and therefore
also most of the carriers are photogenerated--near the front
surface, back-junction cells require very high material quality so
that carriers have sufficient time to diffuse from the front to the
rear surface with the collection junctions on the rear surface. In
comparison, the EWT cell maintains a current collection junction on
the front surface, which is advantageous for high current
collection efficiency. The EWT cell is disclosed in U.S. Pat. No.
5,468,652, Method Of Making A Back Contacted Solar Cell, to James
M. Gee, incorporated here in full. The various other back contact
cell designs have also been discussed in numerous technical
publications.
[0010] In addition to U.S. Pat. No. 5,468,652, two other U.S.
patents on which Gee is a co-inventor disclose methods of module
assembly and lamination using back-contact solar cells, U.S. Pat.
No. 5,951,786, Laminated Photvoltaic Modules Using Back-Contact
Solar Cells, and U.S. Pat. No. 5,972,732, Method of Monolithic
Module Assembly. Both patents disclose methods and aspects that may
be employed with the invention disclosed herein, and are
incorporated by reference as if set forth in full. U.S. Pat. No.
6,384,316, Solar Cell and Process of Manufacturing the Same,
discloses an alternative back-contact cell design, but employing
MWT, wherein the holes or vias are spaced comparatively far apart,
with metal contacts on the front surface to help conduct current to
the rear surface, and further in which the holes are lined with
metal.
[0011] A critical issue for any back-contact silicon solar cell is
developing a low-cost process sequence that also electrically
isolates the negative and positive polarity grids and junctions.
The technical issue includes patterning of the doped layers (if
present), passivation of the surface between the negative and
positive contact regions, and application of the negative and
positive polarity contacts.
BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION
[0012] The present invention is a method for making a back-contact
solar cell, the method comprising the steps of forming a plurality
of holes extending from a front surface of a semiconductor
substrate to a rear surface of the substrate, the substrate
comprising a first conductivity type; providing a diffusion
comprising an opposite conductivity type on the front surface, the
rear surface, and on surfaces enclosing the holes; depositing a
patterned dielectric layer on the rear surface; alloying a
plurality of contacts comprising the first conductivity type with
the substrate; disposing a first conductive grid on the dielectric
layer in electrical contact with the contacts; and disposing a
second conductive grid on the rear surface in electrical contact
with the diffusion. The alloying step may be performed through
existing regions of the dielectric layer or after removing regions
of the dielectric layer to expose regions of the rear surface. The
diffusion is preferably lightly doped.
[0013] In this method the contacts preferably occupy less than 30%,
more preferably less than 20%, and most preferably less than 10% of
the area of the rear surface. Substantially all portions of the
rear surface not occupied by the contacts preferably comprise the
diffusion. The contacts preferably comprise aluminum. Material
comprising the second conductive grid preferably at least partially
fills the holes. A width of a grid line of the first conductive
grid is preferably wider than a width of the contact. The first
conductive grid is preferably interdigitated with the second
conductive grid. At least one of the conductive grids preferably
comprises grid lines having a tapered width.
[0014] The present invention is also a method of making a
back-contact solar cell, the method comprising the steps of:
forming a plurality of holes extending from a front surface of a
semiconductor substrate to a rear surface of the substrate, the
substrate comprising a first conductivity type; depositing a
patterned diffusion barrier on the rear surface; providing a
diffusion comprising an opposite conductivity type on the front
surface, regions of the rear surface not covered by the diffusion
barrier, and on surfaces enclosing the holes; disposing a first
conductive grid on the diffusion barrier in electrical contact with
the substrate in a subset of the regions; and disposing a second
conductive grid on the rear surface in electrical contact with the
diffusion. The method preferably further comprises the step of
changing the conductivity type of the subset of the regions
substantially to the first conductivity type. The depositing step
preferably comprises using screen printing. Material comprising the
second conductive grid preferably at least partially fills the
holes. The width of a grid line of the first conductive grid is
preferably wider than a width of on of the regions. The second
conductive grid preferably partially overlaps the diffusion barrier
and is preferably interdigitated with the first conductive grid. At
least one of the conductive grids preferably comprises grid lines
having a tapered width.
[0015] The invention is further a method of making a back-contact
solar cell, the method comprising the steps of: forming a plurality
of holes extending from a front surface of a semiconductor
substrate to a rear surface of the substrate, the substrate
comprising a first conductivity type; depositing a patterned
diffusion barrier on the rear surface; providing a diffusion
comprising an opposite conductivity type on the front surface,
first regions of the rear surface not covered by the diffusion
barrier, and on surfaces enclosing the holes; removing the
diffusion barrier; depositing a metallization barrier on the rear
surface, the metallization barrier comprising: first openings
smaller than the first regions and aligned with the holes; and
second openings aligned with and smaller than second regions of the
rear surface that had been covered by the diffusion barrier;
disposing a first conductive grid partially on the metallization
barrier and in electrical contact with the diffusion through the
first openings; and disposing a second conductive grid partially on
the metallization barrier and in electrical contact with the
substrate through the second openings.
[0016] In this method the metallization barrier preferably provides
passivation to the rear surface and preferably comprises a
transition metal oxide. The depositing steps preferably comprise
using screen printing. The second conductive grid preferably
comprises aluminum. Material comprising the first conductive grid
preferably at least partially fills the holes. The width of a grid
line of the first conductive grid is preferably wider than the
width of a first opening. The width of a grid line of the second
conductive grid is preferably wider than the width of a second
opening. The second openings preferably occupy less than 30%, more
preferably less than 20%, and most preferably less than 10% of the
area of the rear surface. A majority of the rear surface not
occupied by the second openings preferably comprises the diffusion.
The first conductive grid is preferably interdigitated with the
second conductive grid. At least one of the conductive grids
preferably comprises grid lines having a tapered width.
[0017] The invention is also a back-contact solar cell made
according to the foregoing methods.
[0018] The invention is further a back-contact solar cell
comprising a substrate comprising a first conductivity type; a
diffusion comprising an opposite conductivity type on portions of a
rear surface of the substrate; a screen printed dielectric layer on
the rear surface; a plurality of openings in the dielectric layer,
wherein regions of the rear surface exposed through the openings
comprise the first conductivity type; a plurality of conductive
contacts disposed in the openings; and a plurality of gridlines
electrically connected to the contacts, the gridlines comprising a
width greater than a width of the openings. The dielectric layer is
preferably selected from the group consisting of passivation layer,
nitride layer, diffusion barrier, and metallization barrier. The
contacts preferably comprise aluminum. The openings preferably
comprise less than 30%, more preferably less than 20%, and most
preferably less than 10% of the surface area of the rear surface.
The majority of the rear surface not exposed through the openings
preferably comprises the diffusion. The substrate preferably
comprises holes extending from a front surface of the substrate to
the rear surface, which holes are preferably at least partially
filled with material comprising a metallization in contact with the
diffusion.
[0019] An object of the present invention is to provide a rear
surface contact structure for back-contact solar cells comprising
wide grid lines for increased conduction combined with a minimum of
p-type contact areas and a maximum of n-type diffusion for
increased efficiency.
[0020] An advantage of the present invention is that it provides
for manufacturing processes with fewer, more economical process
steps that produce high efficiency solar cells.
[0021] Other objects, advantages and novel features, and further
scope of applicability of the present invention will be set forth
in part in the detailed description to follow, taken in conjunction
with the accompanying drawings, and in part will become apparent to
those skilled in the art upon examination of the following, or may
be learned by practice of the invention. The objects and advantages
of the invention may be realized and attained by means of the
instrumentalities and combinations particularly pointed out in the
appended claims.
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE SEVERAL VIEWS OF THE DRAWINGS
[0022] The accompanying drawings, which are incorporated into and
form a part of the specification, illustrate one or more
embodiments of the present invention and, together with the
description, serve to explain the principles of the invention. The
drawings are only for the purpose of illustrating one or more
preferred embodiments of the invention and are not to be construed
as limiting the invention. In the drawings:
[0023] FIG. 1 is an illustration of a generic back-contact solar
cell, highlighting only features on the back surface.
[0024] FIG. 2 is a cross-section illustration of a standard EWT
cell, with a side view through a hole ("via") and perpendicular to
the grid lines.
[0025] FIG. 3 is a cross-section illustration of an EWT cell of the
invention with aluminum-alloyed contacts to the p-type substrate.
It is a side view through a hole ("via") and perpendicular to the
grid lines.
[0026] FIG. 4A is a cross-section illustrating an intermediate
process step in the manufacture of one embodiment of a silicon
solar cell of the invention.
[0027] FIG. 4 is a cross-section of a silicon solar cell of the
invention with Al-based metallization of p-type vias and Ag
metallization of n-type vias, such as n-type vias made with EWT
laser holes.
[0028] FIG. 5A is a cross-section illustrating an intermediate
process step in the manufacture of another embodiment of a silicon
solar cell of the invention.
[0029] FIG. 5B is a cross-section of a silicon solar cell of the
invention utilizing increased emitter coverage area on the backside
by use of a dedicated metallization barrier.
[0030] FIG. 6A is a plan view of a back-contact solar cell with
interdigitated grid pattern. Grids with different shadings
correspond to negative and positive conductivity type grids. Bond
pads are provided on edge of cell for interconnection of solar
cells into an electrical circuit. Illustration is not to scale;
typically there is a much higher density of grid lines than is
illustrated.
[0031] FIG. 6B is a cross sectional view of the interdigitated
grids in an IBC cell of FIG. 12A.
[0032] FIG. 7 is a plan view of a back-contact solar cell IBC grid
pattern with busbars at the edge and in the center of the cell.
[0033] FIG. 8 is cross sectional view of multilevel metallization
for a back-contact solar cell.
[0034] FIG. 9 is a plan view of a back-contact solar cell IBC grid
pattern of this invention.
[0035] FIG. 10 is a cross-sectional view of back-contact solar cell
IBC grid with plated metallization.
DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION
[0036] The invention disclosed herein provides for improved methods
and processes for fabrication of back-contact solar cells,
particularly methods and processes providing for more economical
fabrication and more efficient configurations of rear surface
contacts and grids. It is to be understood that while a number of
different discrete methods are disclosed, one of skill in the art
could combine or vary two or more methods, thereby providing an
alternative additional method of fabrication. It is also to be
understood that while the figures and example process sequences
describe fabrication of back-contact emitter-wrap-through cells,
these process sequences can be used for fabrication of other
back-contact cell structures such as MWT, MWA, or back-junction
solar cells.
[0037] Process Using Aluminum-Alloyed Junctions for Making Contact
to a P-Type Base in a Back-Contact Solar Cell
[0038] The process described in this section may be employed to
eliminate the need for patterning of the n.sup.+ diffusion on the
rear surface of the cell, thus providing a higher conversion
efficiency. Typically, the region with the exposed p-type surface
on the rear (n.sup.+p structure) has a lower energy conversion
efficiency than the region with the n.sup.+ diffusion on the rear
surface (n.sup.+pn.sup.+ structure). The region with the
n.sup.+pn.sup.+ structure has a higher conversion efficiency
because photogenerated carriers can be collected at the n.sup.+
junction on either surface. Thus it is advantageous to minimize the
p-type surface area on the rear of the cell. In addition, because
the p-type surface must be well passivated in order to achieve
maximum efficiency, the passivation layers on the p-type surface
must be of high quality and relatively free of defects, which is
difficult and expensive to achieve. By minimizing this area, the
need for any passivation at all is greatly reduced, or even
eliminated. This results in cost savings due to a reduction in
process steps. Note that the choice of a p-type base is arbitrary;
the present method is applicable if a wafer of either conductivity
type is used.
[0039] Screen printing to pattern the n.sup.+ diffusion can be
used. FIG. 2 shows a typical EWT cell with screen printed
diffusions on the rear side. P-type silicon wafer 10 preferably
comprises n.sup.+ diffusion 20 on substantially the entire front
cell surface 15 and the walls of hole 30. Dielectric layer 18,
preferably comprising a nitride including but not limited to
silicon nitride, is preferably disposed on front cell surface 15 in
order to passivate the surface and provide an anti-reflection
coating. The n.sup.+ diffusion surrounding the via on the rear
surface forms high efficiency n.sup.+pn.sup.+ region 40, adjacent
to which n-type contact and grid 50 is disposed. The remainder of
the rear surface forms n.sup.+p region (p-type surface) 60. P-type
contact and grid 70 is disposed adjacent to p-type surface 60. Thin
dielectric layer 65 is optionally disposed on the rear surface
between n-type grid 50 and p-type grid 70. As shown schematically
in FIG. 2, the problem with using screen printing is that only
relatively coarse geometries are possible due to alignment
tolerances, so that roughly 30 to 50% of the back surface ends up
as p-type surface.
[0040] As shown in FIG. 3, an EWT cell with an Al-alloyed contact
manufactured according to the present invention has a higher
conversion efficiency than the cell shown in FIG. 2 because most of
the rear surface is covered with high-efficiency n.sup.+ diffusion
20. The aluminum alloy forms heavily doped p-type contact 90 that
compensates the n.sup.+ diffusion to allow contact with the p-type
silicon base. The aluminum or aluminum alloy preferably reacts with
silicon above the eutectic temperature. Printed p-type contact and
grid 70, preferably comprising silver, covers the Al-alloyed
contact to carry current to the cell edges. Grid 70 must in this
case be electrically isolated from the n.sup.+ diffusion. This is
preferably accomplished by the use of dielectric passivation layer
80, preferably comprising a nitride, including but not limited to
SiN. P-type contacts 90 can be made small enough so that most of
the cell now had the high-efficiency n.sup.+pn.sup.+ structure. The
percentage of the total rear surface area occupied by p-type
contacts 90 is preferably less than 30%, more preferably less than
20%, and most preferably less than 10%.
[0041] Although use of pure aluminum or an alloy comprising
aluminum is preferred, various other alloys or pure metals,
including but not limited to any self-doping p-type metallizations,
may alternatively be used. The aluminum is optionally doped with
one or more other p-type dopants, including but not limited to
boron, providing a more heavily doped junction. The contact
material is preferably able to compensate the n.sup.+ diffusion in
order to make electrical contact to the p-type base. This
preferably requires a relatively light n.sup.+ diffusion (>80
ohms/sq) on the rear surface to prevent shunt currents at the
n.sup.+ to p.sup.+ (Al-alloyed Si) junction. However, light n.sup.+
diffusions are more difficult to contact. A self-doping Ag-paste
contact--which contains phosphorus dopant and is designed to be
fired at temperatures above the silver-silicon eutectic
temperature--may optionally be used to contact the lightly doped
n.sup.+ diffusion. Self-doping contacts are described more fully in
U.S. Utility Patent Application Attorney Docket No. 31474-1004-UT,
entitled "Buried-Contact Solar Cells With Self-Doping Contacts", by
James M. Gee and Peter Hacke. The self-doping contact produces a
doped junction beneath the contact, which helps lower contact
resistance and reduces recombination losses. A more lightly doped
n.sup.+ diffusion on the front surface also has the advantage of
reduced carrier losses. In the specific case of the EWT cell, the
n-type species additionally functions to facilitate conduction of
electronic carriers in the holes or vias. Alternatively, some of
the process sequences described in U.S. Utility Patent Application
Attorney Docket-No.-31474-1006-UT "entitled "Back-Contact Solar
Cells and Methods for Fabrication", by James M. Gee and Peter
Hacke, can be employed to form regions of highly and lightly
phosphorus doped silicon on the rear surface, with the heavily
doped n++ regions occurring where the n-type contacts will be
placed and lightly doped n.sup.+ regions occurring where the
Al-alloyed contact will be placed.
[0042] The aluminum alloy is preferably able to alloy through the
dielectric layer on the rear surface. Aluminum is known to be able
to alloy through various oxides. Frit can be added to the Al paste
to facilitate punching through the dielectric layer. Alternatively,
the dielectric can be removed in areas for the aluminum-alloyed
contact if the Al has difficulty alloying through the dielectric
layer. For example, a laser can be used to punch small holes
(preferably <50 .mu.m diameter) in the dielectric to expose the
silicon surface. Other methods for removing the dielectric layers,
such as mechanical scribing or an etch process (typically
comprising screen printing a resist pattern, wet or dry etching the
dielectric, and removing the resist), may alternatively be
used.
[0043] The interface between the p-type grid and Al-alloyed contact
preferably has low resistance, and does not degrade with
environmental exposure. The interface between elemental aluminum
and silver can electrochemically corrode in the presence of
moisture, so other metals for the alloyed contact (e.g., tin doped
with a p-type dopant) that are more stable than Al is with Ag may
alternatively be used. Alternatively, a metal other than silver may
be used for the grid.
[0044] As discussed above, the p-type grid that contacts the
Al-alloyed contacts must be electrically isolated from the silicon
surface. Most Ag pastes contain oxide frit to facilitate alloying
through any surface oxides or (in some process sequences) through
an antireflection coating (generally around 70 nm thick). For the
purposes of this invention, this frit is preferably either very
non-aggressive or eliminated entirely in order to avoid punching
the p-type grid through the dielectric isolation.
[0045] A representative process for producing a back-contact cell
with Al-alloyed contacts according to the present invention
follows. The simplest sequence uses a single phosphorus diffusion
(step 3), and produces a solar cell with a homogeneous emitter.
Holes connect the front surface of the wafer to the rear surface,
and are preferably formed by laser drilling, but may be formed by
other processes, such as dry etching, wet etching, mechanical
drilling, or water jet machining. For laser drilling, preferably a
laser of sufficient power or intensity at the operating wavelength
is employed such that holes can be introduced at the shortest time,
such as from about 0.5 ms to about 5 ms per hole. One laser that
may be employed is a Q-switched Nd:YAG laser. By the use of thinner
wafers the time per hole is proportionally reduced. The diameter of
the via hole may be from about 25 to 125 .mu.m diameter, preferably
from about 30 to 60 .mu.m diameter. In one embodiment employing
thin wafers, such as wafers with a thickness of 100 .mu.m or less,
the via hole diameter is approximately greater than or equal to the
wafer thickness. The via hole density per surface area is
dependent, in part, on the acceptable total series resistance loss
due to current transport in the emitter through the holes to the
rear surface. This may be determined either empirically or by
theoretical calculations; by the methods of this invention the via
hole density may be decreased due to decreased resistance, such as
determined by .OMEGA./sq. Typically the via hole density is one
hole per 1 mm.sup.2 to 2 mm.sup.2 surface area, but may be a lower
density, such as one hole per 2 to about 4 mm.sup.2.
[0046] The step of laser drilling holes in this embodiment, or in
any other of the methods disclosed herein, may optionally be
replaced by another method of forming vias, including but not
limited to a gradient driven process such as thermomigration. Such
processes are more fully disclosed in commonly owned International
Application No. PCT/US2004/020370, filed Jun. 24, 2004, entitled
"Back-Contacted Solar Cells with Integral Conductive Vias and
Method of Making", incorporated herein by reference.
[0047] 1. Laser drill holes in silicon wafer
[0048] 2. Alkaline etch
[0049] 3. POCl.sub.3 diffusion to produce n.sup.+ diffusion on all
free surfaces
[0050] 4. HF etch
[0051] 5. PECVD nitride on front surface
[0052] 6. PECVD nitride on rear surface
[0053] 7. Laser drill (ablate) (or scribe) and etch pits for the
p-type contacts (optional)
[0054] 8. Print Al for p-type contacts
[0055] 9. Alloy Al (optionally through PECVD nitride layer)
[0056] 10. Print Ag for negative conductivity type grid
[0057] 11. Print Ag for positive conductivity type grid
[0058] 12. Fire contacts
[0059] It is not necessary to perform step 7 if the Al is
adequately able to alloy through the dielectric layer in step 9.
Conversely, if step 7 is performed, in step 9 the aluminum would
alloy to the silicon wafer directly without having to go through
the PECVD nitride layer.
[0060] The nitride deposited on the front surface in step 5,
preferably silicon nitride, preferably provides passivation to the
front surface and acts as an anti-reflection coating. It also
preferably acts as a diffusion barrier to any subsequent diffusion,
such as a heavy POCl.sub.3 diffusion.
[0061] Optionally the Ag comprising the negative conductivity type
grid extends into the holes as shown, thereby increasing the
contact area and thus the conduction.
[0062] If a selective emitter structure is desired, the above
process may be modified as follows. Step 1 is preferably deleted
and the holes in the silicon wafer are laser drilled in step 7.
After step 7, a heavy POCl.sub.3 diffusion is performed to dope the
holes, which is preferably followed by a phosphorus glass etch.
[0063] Back-Contact Solar Cell Fabrication With Al-Based
Metallization of P-Type Vias and Ag Metalization of N-Type Vias
[0064] The preferred metallizations (printed and fired Ag:Al or Al
pastes) for the positive conductivity type (p-type) contact and
grid may not easily fire through some rear passivation dielectric
layers such as SiN. It is also desirable to have larger p-metal
finger coverage of the rear (for high conductance) than p-metal in
contact with the p-semiconductor base because of high surface
recombination velocity (SRV) at metal interfaces. As shown in FIG.
4, the present method provides vias in the diffusion-barrier layer
so that the area of p-metal contact 100 is less than the area of
the p-metal grid coverage 110, while avoiding the need to fire the
p-metal through the rear-surface passivation layer. Instead of a
rear passivation layer, p-metal grid 110 is insulated from p-type
substrate 120 by patterned diffusion barrier 130, which also
provides surface passivation on the base. Diffusion barrier 130
preferably comprises compounds comprising one or more oxides and/or
nitrides, and may optionally comprise a p-type dopant in order to
provide a back surface field in the p-type areas of the rear
surface. As shown in FIG. 4A, n.sup.+ diffusion 140 preferably
covers the entire front surface of the cell and the inside walls of
holes 150, but covers only the regions of the back surface which
are exposed via patterning of diffusion barrier 130.
Passivation/anti-reflection layer 145 is preferably disposed on the
front side of the cell. As shown in FIG. 4B, metal for n-type
contact 160 on the rear surface is disposed adjacent to the n.sup.+
diffusion on the rear surface in the exposed areas comprising the
holes. Preferably the n-metal extends into the holes as pictured,
increasing the contact area and thus the conduction. Metal for
p-type contact 110 is deposited adjacent to the n.sup.+ diffusion
on the rear surface in remaining exposed areas 128. The present
method optionally uses Al rather than Ag/Al for the p-type contact,
since aluminum is desirable to form a good back surface field in
the p-type region for higher efficiency and to provide higher
voltages. The Al overdopes the n-type diffusion in areas 128,
making it p.sup.+ doped silicon 132. Unlike the prior art, cells
made according to the present method have large area metallized
grids 110, 160 which preferably overlap diffusion barrier 130 while
contacting only small areas of the wafer (e.g. area of p-metal
contact 100). The large metallization results in improved line
conductivity. A non-limiting example of steps employed in the
present method is set forth as follows:
[0065] 1. Laser drill EWT hole pattern in Si wafer.
[0066] 2. Etch to remove saw damage and laser damage.
[0067] 3. Apply diffusion barrier (DB) material over rear surface
areas where metallization is not desired (leaving n- and p-
metallization areas open), preferably using screen printing.
[0068] 4. Densify DB material (high temperature process), possibly
developing thermal oxide under the DB material.
[0069] 5. Diffuse phosphorous into wafer (POCl.sub.3, sprayed,
screen printed, or solid source diffusion).
[0070] 6. Etch phosphorus glass (leaving diffusion barrier).
[0071] 7. Apply SiN or other antireflection coating (AR) or
passivation coating to cell front.
[0072] 8. Apply Al-based metallization to p-type contact areas;
i.e., those without EWT laser holes, thereby forming a p.sup.+
layer in place of the existing n.sup.+ diffusion. Frit content
should be chosen as to not dissolve DB material so that
metallization may extend beyond the contact areas.
[0073] 9. Apply Ag-based metallization to n-type areas; i.e., those
with EWT laser holes. Preferably the metallization does not overlap
the DB, as shown in FIG. 4; however, the n-type metallization may
optionally extend beyond the contact area and overlap the DB,
similar to the p-type metallization. In that case, frit content
should preferably be chosen as to not dissolve DB material.
[0074] 10. Cofire contacts.
[0075] For cells made according to this method, the benefit of the
surface passivation achieved on the rear side at the p-type wafer/
DB material interface and the trend towards higher lifetime in
commercial solar Si wafers must outweigh the loss of n.sup.+
emitter coverage on the rear of the cell.
[0076] Optionally a passivation layer, comprising for example an
oxide or nitride such as SiO.sub.2 or SiN, may be disposed on the
rear surface, preferably under the DB.
[0077] In certain variants of the foregoing method, rather than
comprising solely a p-type dopant, the p-metal may optionally
comprise Ag with added Al or another p-type dopant. In one such
variant the n.sup.+ region underneath the p-type contact is
successfully over-doped; that is, a spiking contact through the
n.sup.+ region is made with the p-type substrate. In another
variant, the Ag-dopant metal is fired at a temperature above the
Ag-Si eutectic temperature so that the contact is alloyed with the
silicon.
[0078] Back-Contact Solar Cell Fabrication With Al-Based
Metallization of P-Type Vias and Ag Metallization of N-Type Vias
With Increased Emitter Coverage Area
[0079] This method is similar to the previous method, but has the
advantage of greater n.sup.+ emitter coverage on the rear of cell.
In this method the emitter coverage area on the backside is
increased by use of a dedicated diffusion barrier (DB) 136, as
shown in FIG. 5A, which is deposited on the rear surface where the
p-type contact will touch the wafer surface in order to block the
n.sup.+ diffusion, thereby obtaining a narrow p-type channel on the
surface. Diffusion barrier 136 is subsequently removed. As shown in
FIG. 5B, this design also benefits from metallization barrier (MB)
180 which is preferably optimized for surface passivation and for
achieving narrow vias to the semiconductor. The MB preferably
comprises a transition metal oxide or other dielectric material and
is preferably applied with a low-cost method such as screen
printing. The MB permits the use of larger p-type and n-type grids
for improved conductivity, while reducing the n-type and p-type
metallization areas contacting wafer 120, which significantly
improves efficiency by reducing net surface recombination velocity
of the surfaces.
[0080] A non-limiting example of steps employed in the present
method is set forth as follows:
[0081] 1. Laser drill EWT hole pattern in Si wafer.
[0082] 2. Saw damage and laser damage etch.
[0083] 3. Apply DB material in narrow channels or areas to prevent
n-type diffusion to the p-base, preferably using screen
printing.
[0084] 4. Densify DB material, possibly developing a thermal oxide
under the DB material.
[0085] 5. Diffuse phosphorous into wafer (POCl.sub.3, sprayed,
screen printed, or solid source diffusion).
[0086] 6. Etch phosphorus glass and diffusion barrier.
[0087] 7. Apply MB.
[0088] 8. Densify and oxidize MB, possibly developing a thermal
oxide under the MB material.
[0089] 9. Apply SiN or other AR or passivation coating to cell
front surface (and optionally to the rear surface--not shown in
figure).
[0090] 10. Apply p-metallization to p-type contact areas; i.e.,
those areas of exposed wafer without EWT laser holes. Frit content
should be chosen as to not dissolve MB material so that
metallization may extend beyond vias.
[0091] 11. Apply n- metallization to n-type contact areas; i.e.,
those areas of exposed wafer which comprise EWT laser holes. Frit
content should be chosen as to not dissolve MB material so that
metallization may extend beyond vias.
[0092] 12. Co-fire contacts.
[0093] While this method adds another screen printing and firing
step for the MB, in general such steps are comparatively
inexpensive.
[0094] As with all of the methods of the present invention, a
passivating layer (preferably comprising an oxide or nitride) may
be grown or deposited on the back surface for improved back surface
passivation, or for easier DB material etching or lift off.
[0095] Minimizing the Series Resistance in an Interdiaitated Back
Contact Grid Pattern
[0096] Because back-contact silicon solar cells have both the
negative-polarity and positive-polarity contacts and
current-collection grids on the back surface, the negative-polarity
and positive-polarity grids must be electrically isolated from one
another. The grids must also collect the current to bonding pads or
busbars. Metallic ribbons are typically attached to the bonding
pads or busbars in order to connect the solar cells into an
electrical circuit.
[0097] There are two geometries for the grids in a back-contact
cell. In an "interdigitated back contact" (IBC) geometry, the
negative- and positive-conductivity type grids form interdigitated
comb-like structures (FIGS. 6A and 6B). This structure is simple to
implement in production, but suffers from high series resistance
due to the long grid lines with limited cross sectional area. The
length of the grid lines, and therefore the series resistance, can
be reduced by including one or more busbars (FIG. 7). However, the
busbars reduce the effective active area because photocurrent
collection is reduced in region above the busbar. Also, the
geometry for interconnecting adjacent back-contact solar cells
becomes more complex for cells with busbars in the center of the
cell rather than bonding pads at the edge of the cell. IBC patterns
can be easily produced using low-cost production techniques like
screen printing.
[0098] The second geometry for the grids in a back-contact cell
uses a multilevel metallization (FIG. 8) (Richard M. Swanson,
"Thermophotovoltaic converter and cell for use therein," U.S. Pat.
No. 4,234,352, issued Nov. 18, 1980). The metal levels are stacked
vertically with deposited dielectric layers providing electrical
isolation. Multilevel metallization geometry can achieve a lower
series resistance than the IBC geometry because metal covers the
entire rear surface. However, this structure requires two
dielectric depositions ("first" and "second" level) and patterning
steps in addition to the metallization steps. In addition,
multilevel metallizations require very costly thin-film processing
techniques in order to avoid pinhole defects in the dielectric
isolation layer that could lead to electrical shunts.
[0099] The present invention provides two embodiments for
minimizing the series resistance of the preferred IBC grid pattern
(with the bonding pads at the edge of the cell) in an
interdigitated back contact grid pattern of a back-contact silicon
solar cell.
[0100] In a first embodiment, the grid lines are made with a
tapered width--such that the width is increased along the direction
of current flow until it reaches the edge of the cell. This reduces
the series resistance at a constant grid coverage fraction because
the cross-sectional area of the grid increases at the same rate
that the current carried by the grid increases. A preferred
embodiment of the tapered width pattern in both positive-polarity
current-collection grid 510 and negative-polarity
current-collection grid 520 is shown in FIG. 9 (not to scale). FIG.
10 shows a cross-sectional view of the IBC grids of FIG. 15 on the
back surface of solar cell 505 with plated metallization; that is,
metal 530 plated over the contact metallizations.
[0101] In general, the degree of tapering may be determined either
empirically or by calculation, to determine an optimal tapering.
Additionally, the metal coverage fraction and the spacing between
same-polarity grids may similarly be varied. In a simulation of an
IBC cell with typical properties, the series resistance of an IBC
grid was calculated for a 125-mm by 125-mm cell. The spacing
between same-polarity grids was selected to be 2 mm, and the metal
coverage fraction was selected to be 40%. The grid lines had a
width of 400 .mu.m for the constant-width IBC geometry, while the
grid lines increased from 200 to 600 .mu.m for the tapered
geometry. The series resistance was 36% less for the tapered versus
the constant-width IBC geometry. Note that other tapers may be used
as required; for example, the grid line might taper from 250 to 550
.mu.m width.
[0102] In a second embodiment, the grid resistance can be reduced
by making the grid lines thicker. The thickness of screen-printed
Ag paste grids is limited by the physical properties of the paste
and screen. The preferred geometry for the IBC grid permitting edge
collection (FIG. 6A) typically requires relatively thick grid lines
(>50 .mu.m) in order to be able to conduct current over the
large dimensions with acceptable resistance losses. This is thicker
than can be easily screen printed. Two preferred methods of
increasing the grid line thickness of the printed Ag IBC grid are:
by dipping the IBC cell into molten solder ("tin dipping") or by
plating (electro- or electroless) of metal onto the grid lines. Tin
dipping is a well known process that is used by some silicon solar
cell manufacturers for fabrication of conventional silicon solar
cells. The temperature of the molten solder depends upon the
composition of the solder, but is generally less than 250.degree.
C. In one embodiment a Sn:Ag solder is employed in order to
minimize dissolution of the printed Ag grid line.
[0103] Alternatively, many metals can be plated via electro- or
electroless plating. Cu and Ag are particularly advantageous in
that both metals can be readily soldered to and have excellent
electrical conductivity. Another advantage of plated grid lines is
reduced stress in the completed cell. A thin printed Ag line may
preferably be used since the final conductivity will be determined
by the subsequent metal buildup step. Ag is fired at a high
temperature (generally above 700.degree. C.), so keeping this layer
thin reduces stress from the high firing temperature. In addition,
plating is generally performed at low temperatures (<100.degree.
C.). The grid thickness thus can be increased at a lower
temperature, thereby introducing less stress to the completed
cell.
[0104] Although the invention has been described in detail with
particular reference to these preferred embodiments, other
embodiments can achieve the same results. Variations and
modifications of the present invention will be obvious to those
skilled in the art and it is intended to cover all such
modifications and equivalents. The entire disclosures of all
references, applications, patents, and publications cited above,
and of the corresponding applications, are hereby incorporated by
reference.
* * * * *