U.S. patent application number 11/096779 was filed with the patent office on 2005-08-04 for treatment of crude oil fractions, fossil fuels, and products thereof with sonic energy.
Invention is credited to Cullen, Mark.
Application Number | 20050167336 11/096779 |
Document ID | / |
Family ID | 33449657 |
Filed Date | 2005-08-04 |
United States Patent
Application |
20050167336 |
Kind Code |
A1 |
Cullen, Mark |
August 4, 2005 |
Treatment of crude oil fractions, fossil fuels, and products
thereof with sonic energy
Abstract
In crude oil fractions, fossil fuels, and organic liquids in
general in which it is desirable to reduce the levels of
sulfur-containing and nitrogen-containing components, the process
reduces the level of these compounds via the application of sonic
energy. The process can be performed both with and without the
added presence of an oxidizing agent, and with or without elevated
temperature and/or pressure. The invention is performed either as a
continuous process or a batch process.
Inventors: |
Cullen, Mark; (Reno,
NV) |
Correspondence
Address: |
STETINA BRUNDA GARRED & BRUCKER
75 ENTERPRISE, SUITE 250
ALISO VIEJO
CA
92656
US
|
Family ID: |
33449657 |
Appl. No.: |
11/096779 |
Filed: |
April 1, 2005 |
Related U.S. Patent Documents
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Application
Number |
Filing Date |
Patent Number |
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11096779 |
Apr 1, 2005 |
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10431666 |
May 8, 2003 |
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10431666 |
May 8, 2003 |
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09853127 |
May 10, 2001 |
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Current U.S.
Class: |
208/254R ;
204/157.15; 208/208R |
Current CPC
Class: |
C10G 15/08 20130101;
C10G 31/00 20130101; C10G 2300/1044 20130101; C10G 45/02 20130101;
C10G 32/02 20130101; C10G 32/00 20130101; C10G 2300/202 20130101;
C10G 2300/104 20130101; B01J 19/10 20130101; C10G 45/58 20130101;
C10G 2300/207 20130101; C10G 2300/1059 20130101; C10G 27/12
20130101; Y10S 44/904 20130101; C10G 2300/1051 20130101; C10G
2300/1033 20130101; C10G 2300/1055 20130101 |
Class at
Publication: |
208/254.00R ;
208/208.00R; 204/157.15 |
International
Class: |
C10G 031/00 |
Claims
1. A process for treating a crude oil fraction to reduce levels
therein of nitrogen-bearing compounds, said process comprising: (a)
exposing said crude oil fraction to sonic energy, said sonic energy
possessing sufficient magnitude to oxidize a majority of said
nitrogen-bearing compounds present in said crude oil fraction; and
(b) separating said oxidized nitrogen-bearing compounds produced in
step (a) from said crude oil fraction.
2. The process of claim 1 wherein prior to the application of sonic
energy in step (a), a hydroperoxide is mixed with said crude oil
fraction.
3. The process of claim 1 wherein said crude oil fraction is a
fraction boiling within the diesel range.
4. The process of claim 3 wherein said crude oil fraction is a
member selected from the group consisting of fluid catalytic
cracking (FCC) cycle oil fractions, coker distillate fractions,
straight run diesel fractions, and blends thereof.
5. The process of claim 1 wherein said crude oil fraction is a
fraction boiling within the gas oil range.
6. The process of claim 5 wherein said crude oil fraction is a
member selected from the group consisting of FCC cycle oil, FCC
slurry oil, light gas oil, heavy gas oil, and coker gas oil.
7. The process of claim 1 wherein said crude oil fraction is a
member selected from the group consisting of gasoline, jet fuel,
straight-run diesel, blends of straight-run diesel and FCC light
cycle oil, and petroleum residuum-based fuel oils.
8. (canceled)
9. The process of claim 1 wherein in step (a) said crude oil
fraction is exposed to said sonic energy from about 1 second to
about 1 minute.
10. The process of claim 2 further comprising contacting said crude
oil fraction with a transition metal catalyst during step (a).
11. The process of claim 10 wherein said transition metal catalyst
is a member selected from the group consisting of metals having
atomic numbers of 21 through 29, 39 through 47, 57 through 79.
12. The process of claim 10 wherein said transition metal catalyst
is a member selected from the group consisting of nickel, silver,
tungsten, cobalt, molybdenum, and combinations thereof.
13. The process of claim 10 wherein said transition metal catalyst
is a member selected from the group consisting of nickel, silver,
tungsten, and combinations thereof.
14. The process of claim 2 wherein said hydroperoxide is hydrogen
peroxide.
15. The process of claim 1 further comprising preheating said crude
oil fraction to a temperature of from about 20.degree. C. to about
200.degree. C. prior to step (a).
16. The process of claim 1 further comprising preheating said crude
oil fraction to a temperature of from about 40.degree. C. to about
125.degree. C. prior to step (a).
17. The process of claim 1 wherein step (a) is performed at a
pressure of less than 400 psia.
18. The process of claim 1 wherein step (a) is performed at a
pressure of less than 50 psia.
19. The process of claim 1 wherein step (a) is performed at a
pressure within the range of from about atmospheric pressure to
about 50 psia.
20. The process of claim 1 wherein in step (a), said sonic energy
possesses a frequency ranging from about 2 kHz to about 19 kHz and
further possesses a displacement amplitude ranging from about 10
micrometers to about 300 micrometers.
21. A process for treating an organic liquid to reduce levels
therein of nitrogen-bearing compounds, said process comprising: (a)
combining said organic liquid with an aqueous liquid to form an
emulsion; (b) subjecting said emulsion to sonic energy at a
sufficient intensity and for a sufficient time to facilitate
oxidation of at least a majority of said nitrogen-containing
compounds in said organic liquid and to convert olefinic compounds
in said organic liquid to paraffins; (c) permitting said emulsion
to separate into aqueous and organic phases of which said organic
phase comprises said organic liquid; and (d) isolating said organic
liquid from said aqueous phase.
22. The process of claim 21 wherein in step (a) comprises combining
said organic liquid and said aqueous fluid at an (organic liquid):
(aqueous fluid) volume ratio of from about 8:1 to about 1:5.
23. The process of claim 21 wherein in step (a) comprises combining
said organic liquid and said aqueous fluid at an (organic liquid):
(aqueous fluid) volume ratio of from about 5:1 to about 1:1.
24. The process of claim 21 wherein in step (a) comprises combining
said organic liquid and said aqueous fluid at an (organic liquid):
(aqueous fluid) volume ratio of from about 4:1 to about 2:1.
25. The process of claim 21 further comprising contacting said
emulsion with a transition metal catalyst while subjecting said
emulsion to said sonic energy in step (b).
26. The process of claim 25 in which said transition metal catalyst
is a member selected from the group consisting of nickel, silver,
tungsten, and combinations thereof.
27. The process of claim 1 wherein step (a) is performed in
batchwise manner.
28. The process of claim 1 wherein step (a) is performed in
continuous-flow manner.
29. The process of claim 1 wherein in step (a), said sonic energy
possesses a frequency ranging from about 2 kHz to about 19 kHz.
30. The process of claim 29 wherein said sonic energy possesses a
frequency ranging from about 10 kHz to about 19 kHz.
31. The process of claim 30 wherein said sonic energy possesses a
frequency ranging from about 17 kHz to about 19 kHz.
32. The process of claim 30 wherein said sonic energy possesses a
displacement amplitude ranging from about 10 microns to about 300
microns.
33. The process of claim 32 wherein said sonic energy possesses a
displacement amplitude ranging from about 30 microns to about 120
microns.
34. The process of claim 1 wherein in step (a), said sonic energy
is applied at a power density ranging from about 0.01 watt/cubic cm
to about 100.00 watts/cubic cm.
35-48. (canceled)
Description
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS
[0001] The present application is a continuation-in-part of pending
U.S. application Ser. No. 09/853,127, filed by Gunnerman et al.,
entitled A TREATMENT OF CRUDE OIL FRACTIONS, FOSSIL FUELS, AND
PRODUCTS THEREOF WITH ULTRASOUND, the teachings of which are
expressly incorporated herein by reference.
STATEMENT RE: FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH/DEVELOPMENT
[0002] Not Applicable
BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION
[0003] 1. Field of the Invention
[0004] This invention resides in the field of chemical processes
for the treatment of crude oil fractions and the various types of
products derived and obtained from these sources. In particular,
this invention addresses reformation processes as ring-opening
reactions and the saturation of double bonds, to upgrade fossil
fuels and convert organic products to forms that will improve their
performance and expand their utility. This invention also resides
in the removal of sulfur-containing compounds, nitrogen-containing
compounds, and other undesirable components from petroleum and
petroleum-based fuels.
[0005] 2. Description of the Prior Art
[0006] Fossil fuels are the largest and most widely used source of
power in the world, offering high efficiency, proven performance,
and relatively low prices. There are many different types of fossil
fuels, ranging from petroleum fractions to coal, tar sands, and
shale oil, with uses ranging from consumer uses such as automotive
engines and home heating to commercial uses such as boilers,
furnaces, smelting units, and power plants.
[0007] Fossil fuels and other crude oil fractions and products
derived from natural sources contain a vast array of hydrocarbons
differing widely in molecular weight, boiling and melting points,
reactivity, and ease of processing. Many industrial processes have
been developed to upgrade these materials by removing, diluting, or
converting the heavier components or those that tend to polymerize
or otherwise solidify, notably the olefins, aromatics, and
fused-ring compounds such as naphthalenes, indanes and indenes,
anthracenes, and phenanthracenes. A common means of effecting the
conversion of these compounds is saturation by hydrogenation across
double bonds.
[0008] For fossil fuels in particular, a growing concern is the
need to remove sulfur compounds. Sulfur from sulfur compounds
causes corrosion in pipeline, pumping, and refining equipment, the
poisoning of catalysts used in the refining and combustion of
fossil fuels, and the premature failure of combustion engines.
Sulfur poisons the catalytic converters used in diesel-powered
trucks and buses to control the emissions of oxides of nitrogen
(NO.sub.x). Sulfur also causes an increase in particulate (soot)
emissions from trucks and buses by degrading the soot traps used on
these vehicles. The burning of sulfur-containing fuel produces
sulfur dioxide which enters the atmosphere as acid rain, inflicting
harm on agriculture and wildlife, and causing hazards to human
health.
[0009] The Clean Air Act of 1964 and its various amendments have
imposed sulfur emission standards that are difficult and expensive
to meet. Pursuant to the Act, the United States Environmental
Protection Agency has set an upper limit of 15 parts per million by
weight (ppmw) on the sulfur content of diesel fuel, effective in
mid-2006. This is a severe reduction from the standard of 500 ppmw
in effect in the year 2000. For reformulated gasoline, the standard
of 300 ppmw in the year 2000 has been lowered to 30 ppmw, effective
Jan. 1, 2004. Similar changes have been enacted in the European
Union, which will enforce a limit of 50 ppmw sulfur for both
gasoline and diesel fuel in the year 2005. The treatment of fuels
to achieve sulfur emissions low enough to meet these requirements
is difficult and expensive, and the increase in fuel prices that
this causes will have a major influence on the world economy.
[0010] The principal method of fossil fuel desulfurization in the
prior art is hydrodesulfurization, i.e., the reaction between the
fossil fuel and hydrogen gas at elevated temperature and pressure
in the presence of a catalyst. This causes the reduction of organic
sulfur to gaseous H.sub.2S, which is then oxidized to elemental
sulfur by the Claus process. A considerable amount of unreacted
H.sub.2S remains however, with its attendant health hazards. A
further limitation of hydrodesulfurization is that it is not
equally effective in removing all sulfur-bearing compounds.
Mercaptans, thioethers, and disulfides, for example, are easily
broken down and removed by the process, while aromatic sulfur
compounds, cyclic sulfur compounds, and condensed multicyclic
sulfur compounds are less responsive to the process. Thiophene,
benzothiophene, dibenzothiophene, other condensed-ring thiophenes,
and substituted versions of these compounds, which account for as
much as 40% of the total sulfur content of crude oils from the
Middle East and 70% of the sulfur content of West Texas crude oil,
are particularly refractory to hydrodesulfurization.
[0011] In light of the deficiencies associated with
hydrodesulfurization, new processes have emerged, the most notable
being oxidative desulfurization, that seek to effectuate sulfur
removal with greater efficiency. Essentially, such process involves
oxidizing sulfur species that may be present, typically through the
use of an oxidizing agent, such as a hydroperoxide or peracid, to
thus convert the sulfur compounds to sulfones. To facilitate such
oxidative reaction, ultrasound may be applied as per the teachings
of U.S. Pat. No. 6,402,939 issued to Yen et al., entitled OXIDATIVE
DESULFURIZATION OF FOSSIL FUELS WITH ULTRASOUND; and U.S. Pat. No.
6,500,219 issued to Gunnerman, entitled CONTINUOUS PROCESS FOR
OXIDATIVE DESULFURIZATION OF FOSSIL FUELS WITH ULTRASOUND AND
PRODUCTS THEREOF, the teachings of each are expressly incorporated
herein by reference.
[0012] Advantageously, oxidative desulfurization can be performed
under mild temperatures and pressures, and further typically does
not require hydrogen. Additionally advantageous is the fact that
oxidative desulfurization requires much less in terms of capital
expenditures to implement. In this respect, oxidative
desulfurization can be selectively deployed to treat only a single
fraction of refined petroleum, such as diesel, and can be readily
integrated as a finishing process into existing refinery
facilities. Perhaps most advantageous is the fact that oxidative
desulfurization can substantially eliminate all sulfur species
present in a given amount of crude oil such that ultra-low sulfur
levels can be attained, and in particular the lower standards being
set forth in various legislative requirements regarding sulfur
content levels.
[0013] Despite such advantages, however, oxidative desulfurization
is presently ineffectual for use in large scale refining operations
insofar as currently deployed oxidative desulfurization techniques
only partially oxidize the sulfur species present to sulfoxides, as
opposed to sulfones. In this regard, present oxidative
desulfurization techniques are too ineffectual and cannot achieve
sufficient oxidation necessary to implement on a large scale basis.
Moreover, to the extent the sulfur species is only partially
oxidized (i.e., to sulfoxide), eventual removal of the sulfur
species, which is typically accomplished either through solvent
extraction or absorption based upon the differential polarity of
the sulfones assumed to be present through such process, fails to
facilitate the removal of the sulfoxide components based upon its
lesser degree of polarity (i.e., as compared to sulfones).
Accordingly, substantial refinements to oxidative desulfurization
must be made before such technology can be practically
implemented.
[0014] In addition to sulfur-bearing compounds, nitrogen-bearing
compounds are also sought to be removed from fossil fuels, since
these compounds tend to poison the acidic components of the
hydrocracking catalysts used in the refinery. The removal of
nitrogen-bearing compounds is achieved by hydrodenitrogenation,
which is a hydrogen treatment performed in the presence of metal
sulfide catalysts. Both hydrodesulfurization and
hydrodenitrogenation require expensive catalysts as well as high
temperatures (typically 400.degree. F. to 850.degree. F., which is
equivalent to 204.degree. C. to 254.degree. C.) and pressures
(typically 50 psi to 3,500 psi). These processes require a source
of hydrogen or an on-site hydrogen production unit, which entails
high capital expenditures and operating costs. In both of these
processes, there is also a risk of hydrogen leaking from the
reactor.
[0015] As such, there exists a substantial need in the art for
systems and methods that are operative to effectuate the removal of
sulfur from refined fossil fuels that is substantially effective in
removing virtually all of the sulfur species present in the fossil
fuel that is further extremely cost effective and can be readily
integrated into conventional oil refining processes. There is
likewise a need in the art for such a method that is effective in
removing nitrogen-containing compounds that is further
cost-effective and substantially effective in removing virtually
all of the nitrogen species present in such fossil fuel. Still
further, there is a need for such a process that is capable of
enhancing the quality of the refined fossil fuel treated thereby
and that can be readily utilized in either large scale or small
scale refinery operations.
BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION
[0016] It has now been discovered that fossil fuels, crude oil
fractions, and may of the components that are derived from these
sources can undergo a variety of beneficial conversions and be
upgraded in a variety of ways by a process that applies sonic
energy to these materials in a reaction medium. The organic
material is combined with an aqueous phase to form an emulsion,
placing the phases in intimate contact during the exposure to sonic
energy. Hydrogen gas is not required, nor are the high temperature
and pressure that are commonly needed for hydrogenations of the
prior art. In certain embodiments of the invention, the treatment
with sonic energy is performed in the presence of a hydroperoxide,
and in certain embodiments as well, a transition metal catalyst is
used. One of the surprising discoveries associated with certain
embodiments of this invention, however, is that the conversions
achieved by this invention can be achieved without the inclusion of
a hydroperoxide in the reaction mixture.
[0017] Included among the conversions achieved by the present
invention are the removal of organic sulfur compounds, the removal
of organic nitrogen compounds, the saturation of double bonds and
aromatic rings, and the opening of rings in fused-ring structures.
The invention thus resides in part in the process of using sonic
energy to achieve these conversions. The invention further resided
in processes for converting aromatics to cycloparaffins, and
opening one or more rings in a fused-ring structure, thereby for
example converting naphthalenes to monocyclic aromatics,
anthracenes to naphthalenes, fused heterocyclic rings such as
benzothiophenes, dibenzothiophenes, benzofurans, quinolines,
indoles, and the like to substituted benzenes, acenaphthalenes and
acenaphthenes to indanes and indenes, and monocyclic aromatics to
noncyclic structures. Further still, the invention resides in
processes for converting olefins to paraffins, and in processes for
breaking carbon-carbon bonds, carbon-sulfur bonds, carbon-metal
bonds, and carbon-nitrogen bonds.
[0018] In addition to the foregoing, API gravities of fossil fuels
and crude oil fractions are raised (i.e., the densities lowered) as
a result of treatments in accordance with the invention. Moreover,
the invention raises the cetane index of petroleum fractions and
cracking products whose boiling points or ranges are in the diesel
range. The term "diesel range" is used herein in the industry sense
to denote the portion of crude oil that distills out after naphtha,
and generally within the temperature range of approximately
200.degree. C. (392.degree. F.) to 370.degree. C. (698.degree. F.).
Fractions and cracking products whose boiling ranges are contained
in this range, as well as those that overlap with this range to a
majority extent, are included. Examples of refinery fractions and
streams within the diesel range are fluid catalytic cracking (FCC)
cycle oil fractions, coker distillate fractions, straight run
diesel fractions, and blends. The invention also imparts other
beneficial changes such as a lowering of boiling pints and a
removal of components that are detrimental to the performance of
the fuel and those that affect refinery processes and increase the
cost of production of the fuel. Thus, for example, FCC cycle oils
can be treated in accordance with the invention to sharply reduce
their aromatics content.
[0019] A further group of crude oil fractions for which the
invention is particularly useful are gas oils, which term is used
herein as it is in the petroleum industry, to denote liquid
petroleum distillates that have higher boiling points than naphtha.
The initial boiling point may be as low as 400.degree. F.
(200.degree. C.), but the preferred boiling range is about
500.degree. F. to about 1100.degree. F. (Approximately equal to
260.degree. C. to 595.degree. C.). Examples of fractions boiling
within this range are FCC slurry oil, light and heavy gas oils, so
termed in view of their different boiling points, and coker gas
oils. All terms in this and the preceding paragraph are used herein
as they are in the petroleum art.
[0020] By virtue of the conversions that occur as a result of the
process of this invention, hydrocarbon streams experience changes
in their cold flow properties, including their pour points, cloud
points, and freezing points. Sulfur compounds, nitrogen compounds,
and metal-containing compounds are also reduced, and the use of a
process in accordance with this invention significantly lessens the
burden on conventional processes such as hydrodesulfurization,
hydro-denitrogenation, and hydrodemetallization, which can
therefore be performed with greater effectiveness and
efficiency.
[0021] These and other advantages, features, applications and
embodiments of the invention are made more apparent by the
description that follows.
DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION AND SPECIFIC EMBODIMENTS
[0022] The term "liquid fossil fuel" is used herein to denote any
carbonaceous liquid that is derived from petroleum, coal, or any
other naturally occurring material, as well as processed fuels such
as gas oils and products of fluid catalytic cracking units,
hydrocracking units, thermal cracking units, and cokers, and that
is used to generate energy for any kind of use, including
industrial uses, commercial uses, governmental uses, and consumer
uses. Included among these fuels are automotive fuels such as
gasoline, diesel fuel, jet fuel, and rocket fuel, as well as
petroleum residuum-based fuel oils including bunker fuels and
residual fuels. No. 6 fuel oil, for example, which is also known as
"Bunker C" fuel oil, is used in oil-fired power plants as the major
fuel and is also used as a main propulsion fuel in deep draft
vessels in the shipping industry. No. 4 fuel oil and No. 5 fuel oil
are used to heat large buildings such as schools, apartment
buildings, and office buildings, and large stationary marine
engines. The heaviest fuel oil is the vacuum residuum from the
fractional distillation, commonly referred to as "vacuum resid,"
with a boiling point of 565.degree. C. and above, which is used as
asphalt and coker feed. The present invention is useful in the
treatment of any of these fuels and fuel oils for purposes of
reducing the sulfur content, the nitrogen content, and the
aromatics content, and for general upgrading to improve performance
and enhance utility. Certain embodiments of the invention involve
the treatment of fractions or products in the diesel range which
include, but are not limited to, straight-run diesel fuel,
feed-rack diesel fuel (as commercially available to consumers at
gasoline stations), light cycle oil, and blends of straight-run
diesel and light cycle oil ranging in proportion from 10:90 to
90:10 (straight-run diesel:light cycle oil).
[0023] The term "crude oil fraction" is used herein to denote any
of the various refinery products produced from crude oil, either by
atmospheric distillation or vacuum distillation, including
fractions that have been treated by hydrocracking, catalytic
cracking, thermal cracking, or coking, and those that have been
desulfurized. Examples are light straight-run naphtha, heavy
straight-run naphtha, light steam-cracked naphtha, light thermally
cracked naphtha, light catalytically cracked naphtha, heavy
thermally cracked naphtha, reformed naphtha, aklylate naphtha,
kerosene, hydrotreated kerosene, gasoline and light straight-run
gasoline, straight-run diesel, atmospheric gas oil, light vacuum
gas oil, heavy vacuum gas oil, residuum, vacuum residuum, light
coker gasoline, coker distillate, FCC (fluid catalytic cracker)
cycle oil, and FCC slurry oil.
[0024] The term "fused-ring aromatic compound" is used herein to
denote compounds containing two or more fused rings at least one of
which is a phenyl ring, with or without substituents, and including
compounds in which all fused rings are phenyl or hydrocarbyl rings
as well as compounds in which one of more of the fused rings are
heterocyclic rings. Examples are substituted and unsubstituted
naphthalenes, anthracenes, benzothiophenes, dibenzothiophenes,
benzofurans, quinolines, and indoles.
[0025] The term "olefins" is used herein to denote hydrocarbons,
primarily those containing two or more carbon atoms and one or more
double bonds.
[0026] Fossil fuels and crude oil fractions treated by sonic energy
in accordance with this invention have significantly improved
properties relative to the same materials prior to treatment, these
improvements rendering the products unique and improving their
usefulness as fuels. Specifically, the present invention is
operative to open fused-ring aromatic compounds by converting the
same to saturated compounds. Such process is likewise operative to
convert olefins to saturated compounds such that at least one or
more of the double bonds present are replaced by single bonds.
[0027] Another of these properties improved via the present
invention is the API gravity. The term "API gravity" is used herein
as it is among those skilled in the art of petroleum and
petroleum-derived fuels. In general, the term represents a scale of
measurement adopted by the American Petroleum Institute, the values
on the scale increasing as specific gravity values decrease. Thus,
a relatively high API gravity means a relatively low density. The
API gravity scale extends from -20.0 (equivalent to a specific
gravity of 1.2691) to 100.0 (equivalent to a specific gravity of
0.6112).
[0028] The process of the present invention is applicable to any
liquid fossil fuels, preferably those with API gravities within the
range of -10 to 50, and most preferably within the range of 0 to
45. For materials boiling in the diesel range, the process of the
invention is preferably performed in such a manner that the
starting materials are converted to products with API gravities
within the range of 37.5 to 45. FCC cycle oils are preferably
converted to products with API gravities within the range of 30 to
50. For liquid fossil fuels in general, the process of the
invention is preferably performed to achieve an increase in API
gravity by an amount ranging from 2 to 30 API gravity units, and
more preferably by an amount ranging from 7 to 25 units.
Alternatively stated, the invention preferably increases the API
gravity from below 20 to above 35.
[0029] As stated above, fossil fuels boiling within the diesel
range that are treated in accordance with this invention experience
an improvement in their cetane index (also referred to in the art
as the "cetane number") upon being treated in accordance with this
invention. Diesel fuels to which the invention is of particular
interest in this regard are those having a cetane index greater
than 40, preferably within the range of 45 to 75, and most
preferably within the range of 50 to 65. The improvement in cetane
index can also be expressed in terms of an increase over that of
the material prior to treatment with sonic energy. In certain
preferred embodiments, the increase is by an amount ranging from 1
to 40 cetane index units, and more preferably by an amount ranging
from 4 to 20 units. As a still further means of expression, the
invention preferably increases the cetane index from below 47 to
about 50. This invention can be used to produce diesel fuels having
a cetane index of greater than 50.0, or preferably greater than
60.0. In terms of ranges, the invention is capable of producing
diesel fuels having a cetane index of from about 50.0 to about
80.0, and preferably from about 60.0 to about 70.0. The cetane
index or number has the same meaning in this specification and the
appended claims that it has among those skilled in the art of
automotive fuels.
[0030] As noted above, certain embodiments of the invention involve
the inclusion of hydroperoxide in the reaction mixture. The term
"hydroperoxide" is used herein to denote a compound of the
molecular structure
R--O--O--H
[0031] in which R represents either a hydrogen atom or an organic
or inorganic group. Examples of hydroperoxides in which R is an
organic group are water-soluble hydroperoxides such as methyl
hydroperoxide, ethyl hydroperoxide, isopropyl hydroperoxide,
n-butyl hydroperoxide, sec-butyl hydroperoxide, tert-butyl
hydroperoxide, 2-methoxy-2-propyl hydroperoxide, tert-amyl
hydroperoxide, and cyclohexyl hydroperoxide. Examples of
hydroperoxides in which R is an inorganic group are peroxonitrous
acid, peroxophosphoric acid, and peroxosulfuric acid. Preferred
hydroperoxides are hydrogen peroxide (in which R is a hydrogen
atom) and tertiary-alkyl peroxides, notably tert-butyl
peroxide.
[0032] The aqueous fluid that may optionally be combined with the
fossil fuel or other liquid organic starting material in the
processes of this invention may be water or any aqueous solution.
The relative amounts of organic and aqueous phases may vary, and
although they may affect the efficiency of the process or the ease
of handling the fluids, the relative amounts are not critical to
this invention. In this regard, it is contemplated that the aqueous
fluid may be present anywhere from about 0% to 99% by weight of the
combined organic and aqueous phases. In most cases, however, best
results will be achieved when the volume ratio of organic phase to
aqueous phase is from about 8:1 to about 1:5, preferably from about
5:1 to about 1:1, and most preferably from about 4:1 to about
2:1,
[0033] Although optional, when a hydroperoxide is present, the
amount of hydroperoxide relative to the organic and aqueous phases
can be varied, and although the conversion rate and yield may vary
somewhat with the proportion of hydroperoxide, the actual
proportion is not critical to the invention, and any excess amounts
will be eliminated by the application of sonic energy. For example,
when the H.sub.2O.sub.2 amount is calculated as a component of the
combined organic and aqueous phases, favorable results will
generally be achieved in most systems with H.sub.2O.sub.2 being
present within the range of from about 0.0003% to about 70% by
volume (as H.sub.2O.sub.2), and preferably from about 1.0% to about
20% of the combined phases. For hydroperoxides other than
H.sub.2O.sub.2, the preferred concentrations will be those of
equivalent amounts.
[0034] In certain embodiments of this invention, a surface active
agent or other emulsion stabilizer is included to stabilize the
emulsion as the organic and aqueous phases are being prepared for
the exposure to sonic energy. Certain petroleum fractions contain
surface active agents as naturally-occurring components of the
fractions, and these agents may serve by themselves to stabilize
the emulsion. In other cases, synthetic or non-naturally-occurring
surface active agents can be added. Any of the wide variety of
known materials that are effective as emulsion stabilizers can be
used. Listings of these materials are available in McCutcheon's
Volume 1: Emulsifiers & Detergents--1999 North American
Edition, McCutcheon's Division, MC Publishing Co., Glen Rock, N.J.,
USA, and other published literature. Cationic, anionic and nonionic
surfactants can be used. Preferred cationic species are quaternary
ammonium salts, quaternary phosphonium salts and crown ethers.
Examples of quaternary ammonium salts are tetrabutyl ammonium
bromide, tetrabutyl ammonium hydrogen sulfate, tributylmethyl
ammonium chloride, benzyltrimethyl ammonium chloride,
benzyltriethyl ammonium chloride, methyltricaprylyl ammonium
chloride, dodecyltrimethyl ammonium bromide, tetraoctyl ammonium
bromide, cetyltrimethyl ammonium chloride, and trimethyloctadecyl
ammonium hydroxide. Quaternary ammonium halides are useful in many
systems, and the most preferred are dodecyltrimethyl ammonium
bromide and tetraoctyl ammonium bromide.
[0035] The preferred surface active agents are those that will
promote the formation of an emulsion between the organic and
aqueous phases upon passing the liquids through a common mixing
pump, but that will spontaneously separate the product mixture into
aqueous and organic phases suitable for immediate separation by
decantation or other simple phase separation procedures. One class
of surface active agents that will accomplish this is liquid
aliphatic C.sub.15-C.sub.20 hydrocarbons and mixtures of such
hydrocarbons, preferably those having a specific gravity of at
least about 0.82, and most preferably at least about 0.85. Examples
of hydrocarbon mixtures that meet this description and are
particularly convenient for use and readily available are mineral
oils, preferably heavy or extra heavy mineral oil. The terms
"mineral oil", "heavy mineral oil," and "extra heavy mineral oil"
are well known in the art and are used herein in the same manner as
they are commonly used in the art. Such oils are readily available
from commercial chemicals suppliers throughout the world.
[0036] When added emulsifying agent is used in the practice of this
invention, the appropriate amount of agent to use is any amount
that will perform as described above. The amount is otherwise not
critical and may vary depending on the choice of the agent, and in
the case of mineral oil, the grade of mineral oil. The amount may
also vary with the fuel composition, the relative amounts of
aqueous and organic phases, and the operating conditions.
Appropriate selection will be a matter of routine choice and
adjustment to the skilled engineer. In the case of mineral oil,
best and most efficient results will generally be obtained using a
volume ratio of mineral oil to the organic phase 1 of from about
0.00003 to about 0.003.
[0037] In certain embodiments of the invention, a metallic catalyst
may be included in the reaction system to regulate the activity of
the hydroxyl radical produced by the hydroperoxide. Examples of
such catalysts are transition metal catalysts, and preferably
metals having atomic numbers of 21 through 29, 39 through 47, and
57 through 79. Particularly preferred metals from this group are
nickel, sulfur, tungsten (and tungstates), cobalt, molybdenum, and
combinations thereof. In certain systems within the scope of this
invention, Fenton catalysts (ferrous salts) and metal ion catalysts
in general such as iron (II), iron (III), copper (I), copper (II),
chromium (III), chromium (VI), molybdenum, tungsten, cobalt, and
vanadium ions, are useful. Of these, iron (II), iron (III), copper
(II), and tungsten catalysts are preferred. For some systems, such
as crude oil, Fenton-type catalysts are preferred, while for
others, such as diesel-containing systems, tungsten or tungstates
are preferred. Tungstates include tungstic acid, substituted
tungstic acids such as phosphotungstic acid, and metal tungstates.
In certain embodiments of the invention, nickel, silver, or
tungsten, or combinations of these three metals, are particularly
useful. The metallic catalyst when present will be used in a
catalytically effective amount, which means any amount that will
enhance the progress of the reaction (i.e., increase the reaction
rate) toward the desired goal, particularly the oxidation of the
sulfides to sulfones. The catalyst may be present as metal
particles, pellets, flakes, shavings, or other similar forms,
retained in the sonic energy delivery chamber by physical barriers
such as screens or other restraining means as the reaction medium
is allowed to pass through.
[0038] Of the aforementioned catalysts, among the more preferred
include phosphotungstic acid or a mixture of sodium tungstate and
phenylphosphonic acid may be utilized based upon lower price and
ready availability in bulk form. It should be understood, however,
that use of such catalysts is optional and required for one skilled
in the art to practice the present invention.
[0039] The temperature of the combined aqueous and organic phases
during exposure to the sonic energy, discussed below, may vary
widely, although in most cases it is contemplated that the
temperature will be within the range of from about 0.degree. C. to
about 500.degree. C., preferably from about 20.degree. C. to about
200.degree. C., and most preferably from about 25.degree. C. to
about 125.degree.. In many cases, it will be beneficial to preheat
the two phases, either individually or together, prior to
subjecting the same to sonic energy. The optimal degree of
preheating will vary with the particular organic liquid to be
treated and the ratio of aqueous to organic phases, provided that
the temperature is not high enough to volatilize the organic
liquid. With diesel fuel, for example, best results will most often
be obtained by preheating the fuel to a temperature of at least
about 70.degree. C., and preferably from about 70.degree. C. to
about 100.degree. C. The aqueous phase may be preheated to any
temperature up to its boiling point.
[0040] The sonic energy used in accordance with this invention
consists of soundlike waves whose frequency is within the range of
from about 2 kHz to about 100 kHz, and preferably within the range
of from about 10 kHz to about 19 kHz. In a more highly preferred
embodiment, the sonic energy utilized possesses a frequency within
the range from about 17 kHz to 19 kHz.
[0041] As will be appreciated by those skilled in the art, such
sonic waves can be generated from mechanical, electrical,
electromagnetic, or other known energy sources. In this regard, the
various methods of producing and applying sonic energy, and
commercial suppliers of sonic energy producing equipment, are well
known among those skilled in the art. Exemplary of such systems
capable of being utilized in the practice of the present invention
to impart the necessary degree of sonic energy disclosed herein
include those ultrasonic systems produced by Hielscher Systems of
Teltow, Germany and distributed domestically through Hielscher
U.S.A., Inc. of Ringwood, N.J.
[0042] The intensity of the sonic energy applied will possess a
sufficient magnitude to effectuate the oxidation of the sulfur and
nitrogen-containing species present in the fossil fuel being
treated, as well as open the fused ring compounds and saturate the
olefin compounds that may be present. Presently, it is believed
that the sonic energy applied should have a displacement amplitude
in the range of from about 10 to 300 micrometers, and may be
adjusted according to whether the processes of the present
invention are conducted at either elevated temperatures and/or
pressures. To the extent the processes of the present invention are
conducted at ambient temperature and pressure, a displacement
amplitude ranging from about 30 to 120 micrometers may be
appropriate, with a range of approximately 36 to 60 micrometers
being preferred. The preferred range of power that should be
delivered per unit volume (i.e., power density) should preferably
range from about 0.01 watts per cubic centimeter to about 100.00
watts per cubic centimeter of liquid treated, and preferably from
about 1 watt per cubic centimeter to about 20 watts per cubic
centimeter of liquid treated. It should be understood, however,
that higher power densities could be attained, given the ability of
existing equipment to produce an output of power as high as 16
kilowatts, and that such higher output of power can be utilized to
facilitate the reactions of the present invention.
[0043] The exposure time of the reaction medium to the sonic energy
is not critical to the practice or to the success of the invention,
and the optimal exposure time will vary according to the type of
fuel being treated. An advantage of the invention however is that
effective and useful results can be achieved with a relatively
short exposure time. A preferred range of exposure times is from
about 1 second to about 30 minutes, and a more preferred range is
from about 1 second to 1 minute, with excellent results being
obtained with exposure times of approximately 5 seconds and
possibly less.
[0044] Improvements in the efficiency and effectiveness of the
process can also be achieved by recycling or secondary treatments
with sonic energy. A fresh supply of water may for example be added
to the treated and separated organic phase to form a fresh emulsion
which is then exposed to further sonic energy treatment, either on
a batch or continuous bases. Re-exposure to sonic energy can be
repeated multiple times for even better results, and can be readily
achieved in a continuous process by a recycle stream or by the use
of a second state sonic energy treatment, and possibly a third
stage sonic energy treatment, with a fresh supply of water at each
stage.
[0045] In systems where the reaction induced by the application of
sonic energy produces undesirable byproducts in the organic phase,
these byproducts can be removed by conventional methods of
extraction, absorption, or filtration. When the byproducts are
polar compounds, for example, the extraction process can be any
process that extracts polar compounds from a non-polar liquid
medium. Such processes include solid-liquid extraction, using
absorbents such as silica gel, activated alumina, polymeric resins,
and zeolites. Liquid-liquid extraction can also be used, with polar
solvents such as dimethyl formamide, N-methylpyrrolidone, or
acetonitrile. A variety of organic solvents that are either
immiscible or marginally miscible with the fossil fuel, can be
used. Toluene and similar solvents are examples.
[0046] Alternatively, to the extent any desirable byproducts are
produced in the organic phase which consists of the oxidized
nitrogen and sulfur-cohtaining species, such as sulfoxides and
sulfones, the same may be treated pursuant to conventional
hydrodesulfurization processes. In this regard, the oxidative
processes of the present invention may be incorporated into those
processes disclosed in pending U.S. patent application Ser. No.
______, filed on Apr. 11, 2003, entitled SULFONE REMOVAL PROCESS,
and U.S. patent application Ser. No. ______ filed on May 5, 2003,
entitled PROCESS FOR GENERATING AND REMOVING SULFOXIDES FROM FOSSIL
FUEL, the teachings of each of which are expressly incorporated
herein by reference.
[0047] The sonic energy-assisted reformation reaction may generate
heat, and with certain starting materials it is preferable to
remove some of the generated heat to maintain control over the
reaction. When gasoline is treated in accordance with this
invention, for example, it is preferable to cool the reaction
medium when the same is subjected to sonic energy. Cooling is
readily achievable by conventional means, such as the use of a
liquid coolant jacket or a coolant circulating through a cooling
coil in the interior of the chamber where the sonic energy is
deployed. Water at atmospheric pressure is an effective coolant for
these purposes. Suitable cooling methods or devices will be readily
apparent to those skilled in the art. Cooling is generally
unnecessary with diesel fuel, gas oils, and resids.
[0048] Operating conditions in general for the practice of this
invention an vary widely, depending on the organic material being
treated and the manner of treatment. The pH of the emulsion, for
example, may range from as low as 1 to as high as 10, although best
results are presently believed to be achieved within a pH range of
2 to 7. The pressure of the emulsion as it is subjected to sonic
energy can likewise vary, ranging from subatmospheric (as low as 5
psia or 0.34 atmospheres) to as high as 3,000 psia (214
atmospheres), although preferably less than about 400 psia (27
atmospheres), and more preferably less than about 50 psia (3.4
atmospheres), and most preferably from about atmospheric pressure
to about 50 psia.
[0049] The operating conditions described in the preceding
paragraphs that relate to the application of sonic energy, the
inclusion of emulsion stabilizers and catalysts, and the general
conditions of temperature and pressure apply to the process of the
invention regardless of whether or not hydrogen peroxide or any
other hydroperoxide is present in the reaction mixture. One of the
unique and surprising discoveries of this invention is that the
levels of sulfur-containing compounds and nitrogen-containing
compounds are reduced substantially regardless of whether a
hydroperoxide is present. Moreover, the process as disclosed herein
can be performed either in a batchwise manner or in a
continuous-flow operation.
[0050] Additional modifications and improvements of the present
invention may also be apparent to those of ordinary skill in the
art. Thus, the particular combination of parts and steps described
and illustrated herein is intended to represent only certain
embodiments of the present invention, and is not intended to serve
as limitations of alternative devices and methods within the spirit
and scope of the invention.
* * * * *