U.S. patent application number 10/711278 was filed with the patent office on 2005-01-27 for electrophoretic particles and processes for the production thereof.
This patent application is currently assigned to E INK CORPORATION. Invention is credited to Herb, Craig A., Honeyman, Charles H., Houde, Kimberly L., King, Matthew A., Moran, Elizabeth A., Paolini, Richard J. JR., Pratt, Emily J., Pullen, Anthony Edward, Zhang, Libing.
Application Number | 20050018273 10/711278 |
Document ID | / |
Family ID | 23118733 |
Filed Date | 2005-01-27 |
United States Patent
Application |
20050018273 |
Kind Code |
A1 |
Honeyman, Charles H. ; et
al. |
January 27, 2005 |
ELECTROPHORETIC PARTICLES AND PROCESSES FOR THE PRODUCTION
THEREOF
Abstract
In electrophoretic media, it is advantageous to use pigment
particles having about 1 to 15 per cent by weight of a polymer
chemically bonded to, or cross-linked around, the pigment
particles. The polymer desirably has a branched chain structure
with side chains extending from a main chain. Charged or chargeable
groups can be incorporated into the polymer or can be bonded to the
particles separately from the polymer. The polymer-coated particles
can be prepared by first attaching a polymerizable or
polymerization-initiating group to the particle and then reacting
the particle with one or more polymerizable monomers or
oligomers.
Inventors: |
Honeyman, Charles H.;
(Roslindale, MA) ; Moran, Elizabeth A.;
(Somerville, MA) ; Zhang, Libing; (Sharon, MA)
; Pullen, Anthony Edward; (Belmont, MA) ; Pratt,
Emily J.; (Portsmouth, NH) ; Houde, Kimberly L.;
(Washington, DC) ; King, Matthew A.; (Boston,
MA) ; Herb, Craig A.; (Billerica, MA) ;
Paolini, Richard J. JR.; (Arlington, MA) |
Correspondence
Address: |
DAVID J COLE
E INK CORPORATION
733 CONCORD AVE
CAMBRIDGE
MA
02138-1002
US
|
Assignee: |
E INK CORPORATION
733 Concord Avenue
Cambridge
MA
|
Family ID: |
23118733 |
Appl. No.: |
10/711278 |
Filed: |
September 7, 2004 |
Related U.S. Patent Documents
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Application
Number |
Filing Date |
Patent Number |
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10711278 |
Sep 7, 2004 |
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10063803 |
May 15, 2002 |
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6822782 |
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60291081 |
May 15, 2001 |
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Current U.S.
Class: |
359/296 |
Current CPC
Class: |
B82Y 30/00 20130101;
C09B 68/44 20130101; C01P 2004/64 20130101; C01P 2004/84 20130101;
C01P 2006/40 20130101; C09B 67/0013 20130101; C01P 2002/88
20130101; C09C 1/00 20130101; C09B 68/24 20130101; G02F 2001/1678
20130101; C01P 2004/61 20130101; C01P 2004/82 20130101; C01P
2004/51 20130101; C01P 2006/90 20130101; C09C 3/10 20130101; G02F
1/167 20130101; C09B 68/20 20130101; C01P 2004/62 20130101; C01P
2004/32 20130101; C01P 2006/60 20130101; C01P 2006/80 20130101;
C09C 1/343 20130101; C01P 2006/10 20130101; C09B 68/446 20130101;
C09B 68/4235 20130101; C09C 1/24 20130101 |
Class at
Publication: |
359/296 |
International
Class: |
G02B 026/00 |
Claims
What is claimed is:
1. A process for producing a polymer-coated pigment particle, which
process comprises: (a) reacting the particle with a reagent having
a functional group capable of reacting with, and bonding to, the
particle, and also having a polymerizable or
polymerization-initiating group, thereby causing the functional
group to react with the particle surface and attach the
polymerizable group thereto; and (b) reacting the product of step
(a) with at least one monomer or oligomer under conditions
effective to cause reaction between the polymerizable or
polymerization-initiating group on the particle and the at least
one monomer or oligomer, thereby causing the formation of polymer
bonded to the particle.
2. A process according to claim 1 wherein, in step (a) the
polymerizable group is bonded to the particle surface via an ionic
bond.
3. A process according to claim 2 wherein the bifunctional reagent
used in step (a) comprises a silane coupling group.
4. A process according to claim 2 wherein the bifunctional reagent
used in step (a) comprises a trialkoxysilane coupling group.
5. A process according to claim 2 wherein step (a) comprises: (a1)
reacting the particle with a reagent having a first functional
group capable of reacting with, and bonding to, the particle and a
second functional group capable of reacting to form an ionic bond,
thereby causing the first functional group to react with the
particle surface and attach the second functional group thereto;
and (a2) reacting the product of step (a1) with a second reagent
having a polymerizable group and a third functional group capable
of reacting with the second functional group to form the ionic
bond, thereby causing the second and third functional groups to
react together to form the ionic bond, and thereby attaching the
polymerizable group to the particle surface via this ionic
bond.
6. A process according to claim 5 wherein the second and third
functional groups comprise an acidic and a basic group.
7. A process according to claim 6 wherein the second and third
functional groups comprise an ammonium group and a sulfonic acid
group.
8. A process according to claim 1 wherein, in step (a) the
polymerizable group is bonded to the particle surface via a
covalent bond.
9. A process according to claim 8 wherein the reagent used in step
(a) comprises a silane coupling group and an ethylenically
unsaturated group.
10. A process according to claim 9 wherein the reagent used in step
(a) comprises a trialkoxysilane coupling group.
11. A process according to claim 1 wherein, in step (a) there is
attached to the pigment particle a group which provides an
initiating site for atom transfer radical polymerization, and in
step (b) the product of step (a) is treated with an atom transfer
radical polymerizable monomer to form the polymer.
12. A process according to claim 11 wherein the initiating site
comprises a benzylic halogen atom.
13. A process according to claim 11 wherein step (b) is carried out
by treating the product of step (a) with a first atom transfer
radical polymerizable monomer under conditions effective to cause
polymerization of this monomer on to the particle, stopping this
first polymerization, and thereafter treating the particle with a
second atom transfer radical polymerizable monomer under conditions
effective to cause polymerization of this monomer on to the
particle, thereby forming a block copolymer of the two monomers on
the particle.
14. A process according to claim 1 wherein, in step (a) a
polymerizable group is attached to the particle, and in step (b)
the product of step (a) is contacted with at least one monomer or
oligomer under conditions effective to cause polymerization of the
monomer or oligomer with the polymerizable group on the polymer,
thereby causing formation of the polymer on the particle.
15. A process according to claim 14 wherein the at least one
monomer or oligomer used in step (b) comprises at least one monomer
or oligomer having a chain of at least about four carbon atoms
attached to a polymerizable group, where by the polymer formed on
the particles comprises a main chain and a plurality of side chains
extending from the main chain, each of the side chains comprising
at least about four carbon atoms.
16. A process according to claim 14 wherein the at least one
monomer or oligomer used in step (b) comprises at least one monomer
or oligomer comprising a group capable of initiating polymerization
but which essentially does not initiate such polymerization under
the conditions used in step (b), and following step (b) the
polymer-bearing particle is contacted with at least one monomer or
oligomer under conditions which cause the group capable of
initiating polymerization to initiate polymerization of the at
least one monomer or oligomer, thereby causing the formation of a
branched-chain polymer on the particle.
17. A process according to claim 16 wherein the group capable of
initiating polymerization is a group capable of initiating atom
transfer radical polymerization.
18. A process according to claim 16 wherein the group capable of
initiating polymerization is a group capable of initiating stable
free radical polymerization.
19. A process according to claim 1 further comprising depositing at
least one of silica and alumina on the pigment particle prior to
step (a).
20. A process according to claim 19 wherein silica is deposited on
the particle prior to step (a), the deposition being effected such
that substantially the entire surface of the pigment particle is
covered by the silica.
21. A process according to claim 1 further comprising dispersing
the polymer-coated pigment particle into a suspending fluid to form
an electrophoretic medium.
22. A process for coating a pigment particles with silica, the
process comprising: dispersing the pigment particles in a solution
of a soluble silicate at a pH above about 8 and a temperature above
about 60.degree. C.; adding to the dispersion of the pigment
particles both a solution of an acid and a solution of a soluble
silicate while maintaining the temperature of the dispersion above
about 60.degree. C., thereby causing deposition of silica on to the
particles; and lowering the pH of the dispersion below about 4, and
thereafter separating the silica-coated particles from the
liquid.
23. A process according to claim 22 wherein the dispersion of the
pigment particles is maintained at a temperature in the range of
about 80 to about 100.degree. C. as the solution of the acid and
the solution of the soluble silicate are added thereto.
24. A process according to claim 22 wherein the soluble silicate is
sodium silicate.
25. A process according to claim 22 wherein the acid is sulfuric
acid.
26. A process according to claim 22 wherein the reaction mixture is
maintained substantially free from aluminum.
27. A process according to claim 22 further comprising redispersing
the separated silica-coated particles in an aqueous alcohol.
28. An electrophoretic display comprising: a) an arrangement of
microscopic containers, wherein each container comprises a
dielectric fluid and a suspension of particles having attached at
least one organic group, wherein said organic group includes at
least one ionic group, ionizable group, or both, wherein said fluid
and said particles contrast visually; b) first and second
electrodes wherein said arrangement is located between said
electrodes and wherein at least one of the electrodes is
substantially visually transparent; and c) means for creating a
potential difference between the two electrodes, wherein said
potential difference causes said particles to migrate towards one
of the electrodes.
29. A non-emissive display system comprising: a) at least one
display element located between two electrodes wherein the display
element is visually responsive to a potential difference between
the electrodes; and b) a display piezoelectric element connected to
the electrodes wherein deformation of the piezoelectric element
produces the potential difference; wherein said display element
comprises an arrangement of microscopic containers, wherein each
container comprises a dielectric fluid and a suspension of
particles having attached at least one organic group, wherein said
organic group includes at least one ionic, ionizable group, or
both, wherein said fluid and said particles contrast visually.
Description
CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS
[0001] This application is a divisional of copending application
Ser. No. 10/063,803, filed May 15, 2002, which itself claims
priority from Provisional Application Ser. No. 60/291,081 filed May
15, 2001. The entire disclosure of these two applications are
herein incorporated by reference.
BACKGROUND OF INVENTION
[0002] This invention relates to electrophoretic particles (i.e.,
particles for use in an electrophoretic medium) and processes for
the production of such electrophoretic particles. This invention
also relates to electrophoretic media and displays incorporating
such particles. More specifically, this invention relates to
electrophoretic particles the surfaces of which are modified with
polymers.
[0003] Electrophoretic displays have been the subject of intense
research and development for a number of years. Such displays can
have attributes of good brightness and contrast, wide viewing
angles, state bistability, and low power consumption when compared
with liquid crystal displays. (The terms "bistable" and
"bistability" are used herein in their conventional meaning in the
art to refer to displays comprising display elements having first
and second display states differing in at least one optical
property, and such that after any given element has been driven, by
means of an addressing pulse of finite duration, to assume either
its first or second display state, after the addressing pulse has
terminated, that state will persist for at least several times, for
example at least four times, the minimum duration of the addressing
pulse required to change the state of the display element.)
Nevertheless, problems with the long-term image quality of these
displays have prevented their widespread usage. For example,
particles that make up electrophoretic displays tend to settle,
resulting in inadequate service-life for these displays.
[0004] Numerous patents and applications assigned to or in the
names of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and E Ink
Corporation have recently been published describing encapsulated
electrophoretic media. Such encapsulated media comprise numerous
small capsules, each of which itself comprises an internal phase
containing electrophoretically mobile particles suspended in a
liquid suspension medium, and a capsule wall surrounding the
internal phase. Typically, the capsules are themselves held within
a polymeric binder to form a coherent layer positioned between two
electrodes. Encapsulated media of this type are described, for
example, in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,930,026; 5,961,804; 6,017,584;
6,067,185; 6,118,426; 6,120,588; 6,120,839; 6,124,851; 6,130,773;
6,130,774; 6,172,798; 6,177,921; 6,232,950; 6,241,921; 6,249,271;
6,252,564; 6,262,706; 6,262,833; 6,300,932; 6,312,304; 6,312,971;
6,323,989; 6,327,072; 6,376,828; and 6,377,387; U.S. patent
application Publication Nos. 2001-0045934; 2002-0018042;
2002-0019081; and 2002-0021270; and International Applications
Publication Nos. WO 97/04398; WO 98/03896; WO 98/19208; WO
98/41898; WO 98/41899; WO 99/10767; WO 99/10768; WO 99/10769; WO
99/47970; WO 99/53371; WO 99/53373; WO 99/56171; WO 99/59101; WO
99/67678; WO 00/03349; WO 00/03291; WO 00/05704; WO 00/20921; WO
00/20922; WO 00/20923; WO 00/26761; WO 00/36465; WO 00/36560; WO
00/36666; WO 00/38000; WO 00/38001; WO 00/59625; WO 00/60410; WO
00/67110; WO 00/67327 WO 01/02899; WO 01/07691; WO 01/08241; WO
01/08242; WO 01/17029; WO 01/17040; WO 01/17041; WO 01/80287 and WO
02/07216. The entire disclosures of all these patents and published
applications are herein incorporated by reference.
[0005] Known electrophoretic media, both encapsulated and
unencapsulated, can be divided into two main types, referred to
hereinafter for convenience as "single particle" and "dual
particle" respectively. A single particle medium has only a single
type of electrophoretic particle suspending in a colored suspending
medium, at least one optical characteristic of which differs from
that of the particles. (In referring to a single type of particle,
we do not imply that all particles of the type are absolutely
identical. For example, provided that all particles of the type
possess substantially the same optical characteristic and a charge
of the same polarity, considerable variation in parameters such as
particle size and electrophoretic mobility can be tolerated without
affecting the utility of the medium.) The optical characteristic is
typically color visible to the human eye, but may, alternatively or
in addition, be any one of more of reflectivity, retroreflectivity,
luminescence, fluorescence, phosphorescence, or color in the
broader sense of meaning a difference in absorption or reflectance
at non-visible wavelengths. When such a medium is placed between a
pair of electrodes, at least one of which is transparent, depending
upon the relative potentials of the two electrodes, the medium can
display the optical characteristic of the particles (when the
particles are adjacent the electrode closer to the observer,
hereinafter called the "front" electrode) or the optical
characteristic of the suspending medium (when the particles are
adjacent the electrode remote from the observer, hereinafter called
the "rear" electrode, so that the particles are hidden by the
colored suspending medium).
[0006] A dual particle medium has two different types of particles
differing in at least one optical characteristic and a suspending
fluid which may be uncolored or colored, but which is typically
uncolored. The two types of particles differ in electrophoretic
mobility; this difference in mobility may be in polarity (this type
may hereinafter be referred to as an "opposite charge dual
particle" medium) and/or magnitude. When such a dual particle
medium is placed between the aforementioned pair of electrodes,
depending upon the relative potentials of the two electrodes, the
medium can display the optical characteristic of either set of
particles, although the exact manner in which this is achieved
differs depending upon whether the difference in mobility is in
polarity or only in magnitude. For ease of illustration, consider
an electrophoretic medium in which one type of particles is black
and the other type white. If, as discussed in more detail below
with reference to FIGS. 2A and 2B, the two types of particles
differ in polarity (if, for example, the black particles are
positively charged and the white particles negatively charged), the
particles will be attracted to the two different electrodes, so
that if, for example, the front electrode is negative relative to
the rear electrode, the black particles will be attracted to the
front electrode and the white particles to the rear electrode, so
that the medium will appear black to the observer. Conversely, if
the front electrode is positive relative to the rear electrode, the
white particles will be attracted to the front electrode and the
black particles to the rear electrode, so that the medium will
appear white to the observer.
[0007] If, as discussed below with reference to FIGS. 3A and 3B,
the two types of particles have charges of the same polarity, but
differ in electrophoretic mobility (this type of medium may
hereinafter to referred to as a "same polarity dual particle"
medium), both types of particles will be attracted to the same
electrode, but one type will reach the electrode before the other,
so that the type facing the observer differs depending upon the
electrode to which the particles are attracted. For example suppose
the previous illustration is modified so that both the black and
white particles are positively charged, but the black particles
have the higher electrophoretic mobility. If now the front
electrode is negative relative to the rear electrode, both the
black and white particles will be attracted to the front electrode,
but the black particles, because of their higher mobility will
reach it first, so that a layer of black particles will coat the
front electrode and the medium will appear black to the observer.
Conversely, if the front electrode is positive relative to the rear
electrode, both the black and white particles will be attracted to
the rear electrode, but the black particles, because of their
higher mobility will reach it first, so that a layer of black
particles will coat the rear electrode, leaving a layer of white
particles remote from the rear electrode and facing the observer,
so that the medium will appear white to the observer: note that
this type of dual particle medium requires that the suspending
fluid be sufficiently transparent to allow the layer of white
particles remote from the rear electrode to be readily visible to
the observer. Typically, the suspending fluid in such a display is
not colored at all, but some color may be incorporated for the
purpose of correcting any undesirable tint in the white particles
seen therethrough.
[0008] Both single and dual particle electrophoretic displays may
be capable of intermediate gray states having optical
characteristics intermediate the two extreme optical states already
described.
[0009] Some of the aforementioned patents and published
applications disclose encapsulated electrophoretic media having
three or more different types of particles within each capsule. For
purposes of the present application, such multi-particle media are
regarded as sub-species of dual particle media.
[0010] Also, many of the aforementioned patents and applications
recognize that the walls surrounding the discrete microcapsules in
an encapsulated electrophoretic medium could be replaced by a
continuous phase, thus producing a so-called "polymer-dispersed
electrophoretic display" in which the electrophoretic medium
comprises a plurality of discrete droplets of an electrophoretic
fluid and a continuous phase of a polymeric material, and that the
discrete droplets of electrophoretic fluid within such a
polymer-dispersed electrophoretic display may be regarded as
capsules or microcapsules even though no discrete capsule membrane
is associated with each individual droplet; see for example, WO
01/02899, at page 10, lines 6-19. See also copending application
Ser. No. 09/683,903, filed Feb. 28, 2002 (Publication No.
2002/0131147), the entire disclosure of which is herein
incorporated by reference, and the corresponding International
Application PCT/US02/06393 (Publication No. @O 02/075443).
[0011] An encapsulated electrophoretic display typically does not
suffer from the clustering and settling failure mode of traditional
electrophoretic devices and provides further advantages, such as
the ability to print or coat the display on a wide variety of
flexible and rigid substrates. (Use of the word "printing" is
intended to include all forms of printing and coating, including,
but without limitation: pre-metered coatings such as patch die
coating, slot or extrusion coating, slide or cascade coating,
curtain coating; roll coating such as knife over roll coating,
forward and reverse roll coating; gravure coating; dip coating;
spray coating; meniscus coating; spin coating; brush coating; air
knife coating; silk screen printing processes; electrostatic
printing processes; thermal printing processes; ink jet printing
processes; and other similar techniques.) Thus, the resulting
display can be flexible. Further, because the display medium can be
printed using a variety of methods, the display itself can be made
inexpensively. However, the service life of encapsulated
electrophoretic displays, of both the single and dual particle
types, is still lower than is altogether desirable. It appears
(although this invention is in no way limited by any theory as to
such matters) that this service life is limited by factors such as
sticking of the electrophoretic particles to the capsule wall, and
the tendency of particles to aggregate into clusters which prevent
the particles completing the movements necessary for switching of
the display between its optical states. In this regard, opposite
charge dual particle electrophoretic displays pose a particularly
difficult problem, since inherently oppositely charged particles in
close proximity to one another will be electrostatically attracted
to each other and will display a strong tendency to form stable
aggregates. Experimentally, it has been found that if one attempts
to produce a black/white encapsulated display of this type using
untreated commercially available titania and carbon black pigments,
the display either does not switch at all or has a service life so
short as to be undesirable for commercial purposes.
[0012] It has long been known that the physical properties and
surface characteristics of electrophoretic particles can be
modified by adsorbing various materials on to the surfaces of the
particles, or chemically bonding various materials to these
surfaces. For example, U.S. Pat. No. 4,285,801 (Chiang) describes
an electrophoretic display composition in which the particles are
coated with a highly fluorinated polymer, which acts as a
dispersant, and which is stated to prevent the particles from
flocculating and to increase their electrophoretic sensitivity.
U.S. Pat. No. 4,298,448 (Muller et al.) describes an
electrophoretic medium in which the particles are coated with an
organic material, such as a wax, which is solid at the operating
temperature of the medium but which melts at a higher temperature.
The coating serves to lower the density of the electrophoretic
particles and is also stated to increase the uniformity of the
charges thereon. U.S. Pat. No. 4,891,245 describes a process for
producing particles for use in electrophoretic displays, wherein a
heavy, solid pigment, preferred for its high contrast or refractive
index properties, is coated with a polymeric material. This process
significantly reduces the specific density of the resultant
particle, and is stated to create particles with smooth polymer
surfaces that can be chosen for stability in a given
electrophoretic carrier fluid, and possess acceptable
electrophoretic characteristics. U.S. Pat. No. 4,680,103 (Beilin
Solomon I et al.) describes a single particle electrophoretic
display using inorganic pigment particles coated with an
organosilane derivative containing quaternary ammonium groups; this
coating is stated to provide quick release of the particles from
the electrode adjacent the observer and resistance to
agglomeration.
[0013] Later, it was found that simple coating of the
electrophoretic particles with the modifying material was not
entirely satisfactory since a change in operating conditions might
cause part or all of the modifying material to leave the surface of
the particles, thereby causing undesirable changes in the
electrophoretic properties of the particles; the modifying material
might possibly deposit on other surfaces within the electrophoretic
display, which could give rise to further problems. Accordingly,
techniques have been developed for securing the modifying material
to the surface of the particles.
[0014] For example, U.S. Pat. No. 5,783,614 (Chen et al.) describes
an electrophoretic display using diarylide yellow pigment particles
modified with a polymer of pentafluorostyrene. The modified
particles are produced by forming a mixture of the unmodified
particles, the pentafluorostyrene monomer and a free radical
initiator, and heating and agitating this mixture so that the
monomer polymerizes in situ on the surface of the particles.
[0015] U.S. Pat. No. 5,914,806 (Gordon 11 et al.) describes
electrophoretic particle formed by reacting pigment particles with
a pre-formed polymer so that the polymer becomes covalently bonded
to the surface of the particles. This process is of course
restricted to pigments and polymers having chemical properties
which allow the necessary reaction to form the covalent bond.
Furthermore, a polymer with only a few sites capable of reacting
with the particle material has difficulty in reacting with the
solid interface at the particle surface; this can be due to polymer
chain conformation in solution, steric congestion at the particle
surface, or slow reactions between the polymer and the surface.
Often, these problems restrict such reactions to short polymer
chains, and such short chains typically only have a small effect on
particle stability in electrophoretic media.
[0016] It is also known to use, in electrophoretic displays,
particles consisting essentially of polymer; if dark colored
particles are required, the polymer particles can be stained with a
heavy metal oxide. See, for example, U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,360,689;
5,498,674; and 6,117,368. Although forming the electrophoretic
particles from a polymer allows close control over the chemical
composition of the particles, such polymer particles usually have
much lower opacity than particles formed from inorganic
pigments.
[0017] Despite the considerable amount of work which appears to
have been done regarding attachment of modifying materials to
electrophoretic particles, the prior art contains little discussion
of the effects of varying amounts of modifying material upon the
behavior of the particles, it apparently being assumed that the
ideal is to achieve complete coverage of the electrophoretic
particle with the modifying material. It has now been found that,
at least with many polymeric modifying materials, this is not in
fact the case, and that there is an optimum amount of polymer which
should be deposited; too large a proportion of polymer in the
modified particle causes an undesirable reduction in the
electrophoretic mobility of the particle.
[0018] It has also been found that the structure of the polymer
used to form the coating on the particle is important, and this
invention relates to specific preferred forms of polymer for this
purpose.
[0019] This invention also relates to preferred techniques for the
formation of polymeric coatings on electrophoretic particles. At
least some of the modified particles produced by these techniques
may be useful in applications other than electrophoretic
displays.
[0020] This invention also relates to preferred techniques for
pretreatment of particles before formation of polymer coatings
thereon.
SUMMARY OF INVENTION
[0021] In one aspect, this invention provides an electrophoretic
medium comprising a plurality of pigment particles suspended in a
suspending fluid, the pigment particles having from about 1 to
about 15 per cent by weight of the pigment of a polymer chemically
bonded to, or cross-linked around, the pigment particles. This
aspect of the invention may hereinafter be referred to as a
"controlled polymer electrophoretic medium" of the invention.
[0022] In another aspect, this invention provides an
electrophoretic medium comprising a plurality of carbon black
particles suspended in a suspending fluid, the particles having
from about 1 to about 25 per cent by weight of the carbon black of
a polymer chemically bonded to, or cross-linked around, the carbon
black particles. This aspect of the invention may hereinafter be
referred to as a "controlled polymer carbon black electrophoretic
medium" of the invention.
[0023] In another aspect, this invention provides an
electrophoretic medium comprising a plurality of pigment particles
suspended in a suspending fluid, the pigment particles having a
polymer chemically bonded to, or cross-linked around, the pigment
particles, the polymer comprising a main chain and a plurality of
side chains extending from the main chain, each of the side chains
comprising at least about four carbon atoms. This aspect of the
invention may hereinafter be referred to as a "branched chain
polymer electrophoretic medium" of the invention.
[0024] In another aspect, this invention provides a two-phase
electrophoretic medium comprising a continuous phase and a
discontinuous phase, the discontinuous phase comprising a plurality
of droplets, each of which comprises a suspending fluid and at
least one pigment particle disposed within the suspending fluid and
capable of moving through the fluid upon application of an electric
field to the electrophoretic medium, the continuous phase
surrounding and encapsulating the discontinuous phase, the pigment
particle comprising a polymer chemically bonded to, or cross-linked
around, the pigment particle. This aspect of the invention may
hereinafter be referred to as a "polymer dispersed electrophoretic
medium" of the invention.
[0025] In general, in the electrophoretic media of the present
invention, it is preferred that the polymer be chemically bonded,
especially covalently bonded, to the particle, rather than
cross-linked around the particle.
[0026] In another aspect, this invention provides a pigment
particle for use in an electrophoretic medium, the pigment particle
having a polymer chemically bonded to, or cross-linked around, the
pigment particle, the pigment particle also having a charged or
chargeable group bonded to the pigment particle separately from the
polymer. This aspect of the invention may hereinafter be referred
to as a "separate charged group particle" of the invention.
[0027] In another aspect, this invention provides a process for
producing a polymer-coated pigment particle, which process
comprises:
[0028] (a) reacting the particle with a reagent having a functional
group capable of reacting with, and bonding to, the particle, and
also having a polymerizable or polymerization-initiating group,
thereby causing the functional group to react with the particle
surface and attach the polymerizable group thereto; and
[0029] (b) reacting the product of step (a) with at least one
monomer or oligomer under conditions effective to cause reaction
between the polymerizable or polymerization-initiating group on the
particle and the at least one monomer or oligomer, thereby causing
the formation of polymer bonded to the particle.
[0030] This aspect of the invention may hereinafter be referred to
as a "polymer coating process" of the invention.
[0031] In another aspect, this invention provides a process for
coating a pigment particles with silica, the process
comprising:
[0032] dispersing the pigment particles in a solution of a soluble
silicate at a pH above about 8 and a temperature above about
60.degree. C.;
[0033] adding to the dispersion of the pigment particles both a
solution of an acid and a solution of a soluble silicate while
maintaining the temperature of the dispersion above about
60.degree. C., thereby causing deposition of silica on to the
particles; and
[0034] lowering the pH of the dispersion below about 4, and
thereafter separating the silica-coated particles from the
liquid.
[0035] This aspect of the invention may hereinafter be referred to
as a "silica coating process" of the invention.
[0036] In a further aspect of the present invention, the
electrophoretic medium used may be of the type described in claim 1
of the aforementioned U.S. Pat. No. 5,930,026. Thus, this invention
provides an electrophoretic display comprising:
[0037] a) an arrangement of microscopic containers, wherein each
container comprises a dielectric fluid and a suspension of
particles having attached at least one organic group, wherein said
organic group includes at least one ionic group, ionizable group,
or both, wherein said fluid and said particles contrast
visually;
[0038] b) first and second electrodes wherein said arrangement is
located between said electrodes and wherein at least one of the
electrodes is substantially visually transparent; and
[0039] c) means for creating a potential difference between the two
electrodes, wherein said potential difference causes said particles
to migrate towards one of the electrodes.
[0040] Finally, the electrophoretic medium used may be of the type
described in claim 21 of the aforementioned U.S. Pat. No.
5,930,026. Thus, this invention provides a non-emissive display
system comprising:
[0041] a) at least one display element located between two
electrodes wherein the display element is visually responsive to a
potential difference between the electrodes; and
[0042] b) a display piezoelectric element connected to the
electrodes wherein deformation of the piezoelectric element
produces the potential difference;
[0043] wherein said display element comprises an arrangement of
microscopic containers, wherein each container comprises a
dielectric fluid and a suspension of particles having attached at
least one organic group, wherein said organic group includes at
least one ionic, ionizable group, or both, wherein said fluid and
said particles contrast visually.
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS
[0044] Preferred embodiments of the invention will now be
described, though by way of illustration only, with reference to
the accompanying drawings, in which:
[0045] FIGS. 1A and 1B are schematic cross-sections through a first
electrophoretic display of the present invention in which the
electrophoretic medium comprises a single type of particle in a
colored suspending fluid;
[0046] FIGS. 2A and 2B are schematic cross-sections, generally
similar to those of FIGS. 1A and 1B respectively through a second
electrophoretic display of the present invention in which the
electrophoretic medium comprises two different types of particle,
bearing charges of opposite polarity, in an uncolored suspending
fluid;
[0047] FIGS. 3A and 3B are schematic cross-sections, generally
similar to those of FIGS. 2A and 2B respectively through a third
electrophoretic display of the present invention in which the
electrophoretic medium comprises two different types of particle,
bearing charges of the same polarity but differing in
electrophoretic mobility, in an uncolored suspending fluid;
[0048] FIGS. 4A and 4B illustrate a polymer-dispersed
electrophoretic medium of the present invention and the process
used to produce this medium;
[0049] FIGS. 5A, 5B and 5C are reaction schemes summarizing some of
the processes used in the present invention to apply polymer
coating to pigment particles; and
[0050] FIG. 6 is a schematic illustration of the type of polymer
coating which is believed to be produced by one of the processes of
the present invention.
[0051] The accompanying drawings are not strictly to scale,
emphasis instead generally being placed upon illustrating the
principles of the invention.
DETAILED DESCRIPTION
[0052] Before discussing the electrophoretic media and processes of
the present invention in detail, it is believed desirable to
briefly describe some of the types of electrophoretic displays in
which these media are intended to be used.
[0053] The electrophoretic medium of the present invention may be
of any of the types described in the aforementioned E Ink and MIT
patents and applications, and preferred embodiments of such media
will now be described with reference to FIGS. 1 to 4 of the
accompanying drawings.
[0054] The first electrophoretic display (generally designed 100)
of the invention shown in FIGS. 1A and 1B comprises an encapsulated
electrophoretic medium (generally designated 102) comprising a
plurality of capsules 104 (only one of which is shown in FIGS. 1A
and 1B), each of which contains a suspending liquid 106 and
dispersed therein a plurality of a single type of particle 108,
which for purposes of illustration will be assumed to be black. The
particles 108 are electrophoretically mobile and may be formed of
carbon black. In the following description, it will be assumed that
the particles 108 are positively charged, although of course
negatively charged particles could also be used if desired. (The
triangular shape of the particles 108, and the square and circular
shapes of other particles discussed below, are used purely to way
of illustration to enable the various types of particles to be
distinguished easily in the accompanying drawings, and in no way
correspond to the physical forms of the actual particles, which are
typically substantially spherical. However, we do not exclude the
use of non-spherical particles in the present displays.) The
display 100 further comprises a common, transparent front electrode
110, which forms a viewing surface through which an observer views
the display 100, and a plurality of discrete rear electrodes 112,
each of which defines one pixel of the display 100 (only one rear
electrode 112 is shown in FIGS. 1A and 1B). For ease of
illustration and comprehension, FIGS. 1A and 1B show only a single
microcapsule forming the pixel defined by rear electrode 112,
although in practice a large number (20 or more) microcapsules are
normally used for each pixel. The rear electrodes 112 are mounted
upon a substrate 114.
[0055] The suspending liquid 106 is colored such that the particles
108 lying in the positions shown in FIG. 1A adjacent the rear
electrodes 112 are not visible to an observer viewing the display
100 via the front electrode 110. The necessary color in the
suspending liquid 106 may be provided by dissolving a dye in the
liquid. Since the colored suspending liquid 106 and the particles
108 render the electrophoretic medium 102 opaque, the rear
electrodes 112 and the substrate 114 can be transparent or opaque
since they are not visible through the opaque electrophoretic
medium 102.
[0056] The capsules 104 and the particles 108 can be made in a wide
range of sizes. However, in general it is preferred that the
thickness of the capsules, measured perpendicular to the
electrodes, be in the range of about 15 to 500 .mu.m, while the
particles 108 will typically have diameters in the range of about
0.25 to about 2 .mu.m.
[0057] FIG. 1A shows the display 100 with the rear electrode 112
negatively charged and the front electrode 110 positively charged.
Under this condition, the positively-charged particles 108 are
attracted to the negative rear electrode 112 and thus lie adjacent
the rear electrode 112, where they are hidden from an observer
viewing the display 100 through the front electrode 110 by the
colored liquid 106. Accordingly, the pixel shown in FIG. 1A
displays to the observer the color of the liquid 106, which for
purposes of illustration will be assumed to be white. (Although the
display 100 is illustrated in FIGS. 1A and 1B with the rear
electrodes 112 at the bottom, in practice both the front and rear
electrodes are typically disposed vertically for maximum visibility
of the display 100. In general, the media and displays of the
invention described herein do not rely in any way upon gravity to
control the movement of the particles; such movement under gravity
is in practice far too slow to be useful for controlling particle
movement.)
[0058] FIG. 1B shows the display 100 with the front electrode 110
made negative relative to the rear electrode 112. Since the
particles 108 are positively charged, they will be attracted to the
negatively-charged front electrode 110, and thus the particles 108
move adjacent the front electrode 110, and the pixel displays the
black color of the particles 108.
[0059] In FIGS. 1A and 1B, the capsules 104 are illustrated as
being of substantially prismatic form, having a width (parallel to
the planes of the electrodes) significantly greater than their
height (perpendicular to these planes). This prismatic shape of the
capsules 104 is deliberate. If the capsules 104 were essentially
spherical, in the black state shown in FIG. 1B, the particles 108
would tend to gather in the highest part of the capsule, in a
limited area centered directly above the center of the capsule. The
color seen by the observer would then be essentially the average of
this central black area and a white annulus surrounding this
central area, where the white liquid 106 would be visible. Thus,
even in this supposedly black state, the observer would see a
grayish color rather than a pure black, and the contrast between
the two extreme optical states of the pixel would be
correspondingly limited. In contrast, with the prismatic form of
microcapsule shown in FIGS. 1A and 1B, the particles 108 cover
essentially the entire cross-section of the capsule so that no, or
at least very little white liquid is visible, and the contrast
between the extreme optical states of the capsule is enhanced. For
further discussion on this point, and on the desirability of
achieving close-packing of the capsules within the electrophoretic
layer, the reader is referred to the aforementioned U.S. Pat. No.
6,067,185, and the corresponding published International
Application WO 99/10767. Also, as described in the aforementioned E
Ink and MIT patents and applications, to provide mechanical
integrity to the electrophoretic medium, the microcapsules are
normally embedded within a solid binder, but this binder is omitted
from FIGS. 1 to 3 for ease of illustration.
[0060] The second electrophoretic display (generally designed 200)
of the invention shown in FIGS. 2A and 2B comprises an encapsulated
electrophoretic medium (generally designated 202) comprising a
plurality of capsules 204, each of which contains a suspending
liquid 206 and dispersed therein a plurality of positively charged
black particles 108 identical discussed to those in the first
display 100 discussed above. The display 200 further comprises a
front electrode 110, rear electrodes 112, and a substrate 114, all
of which are identical to the corresponding integers in the first
display 100. However, in addition to the black particles 108, there
are suspended in the liquid 206 a plurality of negatively charged,
particles 218, which for present purposes will be assumed to be
white.
[0061] Typically the liquid 206 is uncolored (i.e., essentially
transparent), although some color may be present therein to adjust
the optical properties of the various states of the display. FIG.
2A shows the display 200 with the front electrode 110 positively
charged relative to the rear electrode 112 of the illustrated
pixel. The positively charged particles 108 are held
electrostatically adjacent the rear electrode 112, while the
negatively charged particles 218 are held electrostatically against
the front electrode 110. Accordingly, an observer viewing the
display 200 through the front electrode 110 sees a white pixel,
since the white particles 218 are visible and hide the black
particles 108.
[0062] FIG. 2B shows the display 200 with the front electrode 110
negatively charged relative to the rear electrode 112 of the
illustrated pixel. As in the corresponding optical state shown in
FIG. 1B, the positively charged particles 108 are now
electrostatically attracted to the negative front electrode 110,
while the negatively charged particles 218 are electrostatically
attracted to the positive rear electrode 112. Accordingly, the
particles 108 move adjacent the front electrode 110, and the pixel
displays the black color of the particles 108, which hide the white
particles 218.
[0063] The third electrophoretic display (generally designated 300)
of the invention shown in FIGS. 3A and 3B comprises an encapsulated
electrophoretic medium (generally designated 302) comprising a
plurality of capsules 304. The display 300 further comprises a
front electrode 110, rear electrodes 112, and a substrate 114, all
of which are identical to the corresponding integers in the
displays 100 and 200 previously described. The display 300
resembles the display 200 described above in that the liquid 306 is
uncolored and that white negatively charged particles 218 are
suspended therein. However, that the display 300 differs from the
display 200 by the presence of red negatively charged particles
320, which have a substantially lower electrophoretic mobility than
the white particles 218.
[0064] FIG. 3A shows the display 300 with the front electrode 110
positively charged relative to the rear electrode 112 of the
illustrated pixel. Both the negatively charged white particles 218
and the negatively charged red particles 320 are attracted to the
front electrode 110, but since the white particles 218 have
substantially higher electrophoretic mobility, that they reach the
front electrode 110 first (note that the optical state shown in
FIG. 3A is normally generated by abruptly reversing the polarity
off the electrodes in the optical state shown in FIG. 3B, thus
forcing both the white particles 218 and the red particles 320 to
traverse the thickness of the capsule 304, and thus allowing the
greater mobility of the white particles 218 to cause them to reach
their positions adjacent the front electrode 110 before the red
particles 320). Thus, the white particles 218 form a continuous
layer immediately adjacent the front electrode 110, thereby hiding
the red particles 320. Accordingly, an observer viewing the display
300 through the front electrode 110 sees a white pixel, since the
white particles 218 are visible and hide the red particles 320.
[0065] FIG. 3B shows the display 300 with the front electrode 110
negatively charged relative to the rear electrode 112 of the
illustrated pixel. Both the negatively charged white particles 218
and the negatively charged red particles 320 are attracted to the
rear electrode 112, but since the white particles have higher
electrophoretic mobility, when the optical state shown in FIG. 3B
is produced by reversing the polarity on the electrodes in the
optical state shown in FIG. 3A, the white particles 218 reach the
rear electrode 112 more quickly than do the red particles 320, so
that the white particles 218 form a continuous layer adjacent the
electrode 112, leaving a continuous layer of the red particles 320
facing the front electrode 110. Accordingly, an observer viewing
the display 300 through the front electrode 110 sees a red pixel,
since the red particles 320 are visible and hide the white
particles 218.
[0066] FIGS. 4A and 4B illustrate a polymer-dispersed
electrophoretic medium of the present invention and the process
used to produce this medium. This polymer-dispersed medium contains
non-spherical droplets and is prepared by using a film-forming
material which produces a film capable of being shrunk
substantially after its formation. The preferred discontinuous
phase for this purpose is gelatin, although other proteinaceous
materials, and possibly cross-linkable polymers may alternatively
be employed. A mixture of the liquid material (which will
eventually form the continuous phase) and the droplets is formed
and coated on to a substrate to form a structure as illustrated in
FIG. 4A. FIG. 4A shows a layer 410 comprising droplets 412
dispersed in a liquid medium 414 which is in the process of forming
a film, this layer 410 having been coated on a substrate 416
(preferably a flexible polymeric film, such as a polyester film)
previously provided with a layer 418 of a transparent electrically
conductive material, such as indium-tin oxide. The liquid material
forms a relatively thick layer 410 containing essentially spherical
droplets 412; as shown in FIG. 4A. After the layer 410 has formed a
solid continuous phase, the layer is then allowed to dry,
preferably at about room temperature (although the layer may be
heated if desired) for a period sufficient to dehydrate the
gelatin, thus causing substantial reduction in the thickness of the
layer and producing the type of structure illustrated in FIG. 4B,
the dried and shrunken layer being designated 410' in FIG. 4B. The
vertical shrinkage of the layer (i.e., the shrinkage perpendicular
to the surface of the substrate 416) in effect compresses the
original spherical droplets into oblate ellipsoids whose thickness
perpendicular to the surface is substantially smaller than their
lateral dimensions parallel to the surface. In practice, the
droplets are normally sufficiently closely packed that the lateral
edges of adjacent droplets contact each other, so that the final
forms of the droplets more closely resemble irregular prisms than
oblate ellipsoids. Also as shown in FIG. 4B, more than one layer of
droplets may be present in the final medium. When the medium is of
the type shown in FIG. 4B in which the droplets are polydisperse
(i.e., a wide range of droplet sizes are present), the presence of
such multiple layers is advantageous in that it reduces the chance
that small areas of the substrate will not be covered by any
droplet; hence, the multiple layers help to ensure that the
electrophoretic medium is completely opaque and that no part of the
substrate is visible in a display formed from the medium. However,
in a medium using essentially monodisperse droplets (i.e., droplets
all of substantially the same size), it will generally be advisable
to coat the medium in a layer which, after shrinkage, will produce
a close-packed monolayer of droplets, cf. copending Application
Ser. No. 09/413,444, filed Oct. 6, 1999 (Publication No.
2003/0137717), and the corresponding International Application No.
PCT/US99/23313, Publication No. WO 00/20922. Because they lack the
relatively rigid microcapsule walls found in microencapsulated
electrophoretic media, the droplets in polymer-dispersed media of
the present invention may tend to pack more tightly into a
close-packed monolayer than do microcapsules.
[0067] Contrary to what might be expected, experimentally it has
been found that the droplets do not coalesce during the drying of
the medium. However, we do not exclude the possibility that, in
certain embodiments of the invention some rupturing of the walls
between adjacent capsules might occur, thus providing a partial
connection between droplets.
[0068] The degree of deformation of the droplets which occurs
during the drying step, and hence the final forms of the droplets,
may be varied by controlling the proportion of water in the gelatin
solution and the ratio of this solution to the droplets. For
example, experiments were conducted using gelatin solutions of from
2 to 15 percent by weight, and using 200 grams of each gelatin
solution and 50 grams of the internal non-aqueous phase which forms
the droplets. To produce a final layer of electrophoretic medium 30
.mu.m in thickness, it was necessary to coat a layer of the 2 per
cent gelatin solution/internal phase mixture 139 .mu.m in
thickness; upon drying, this layer produced an electrophoretic
medium 30 .mu.m in thickness containing 92.6 percent by volume of
droplets. On the other hand, to produce the same final thickness of
electrophoretic medium, the 15 percent gelatin solution/internal
phase mixture was coated at a thickness of 93 .mu.m, and upon
drying produced an electrophoretic medium containing 62.5 percent
by volume of droplets. The medium produced from the 2 percent
gelatin solution was weaker than is desirable to withstand robust
handling; media produced from gelatin solutions containing from 5
to 15 percent by weight of gelatin had satisfactory mechanical
properties.
[0069] The degree of deformation of the droplets in the final
electrophoretic medium is also affected by the initial size of the
droplets, and the relationship between this initial size and the
thickness of the final layer of electrophoretic medium. Experiments
indicate that the larger the average initial size of the droplets
and/or the larger the ratio of this average initial size to the
thickness of the final layer, the greater is the deformation of the
droplets from a spherical shape in the final layer. In general, it
is preferred that the average initial size of the droplets be from
about 25 percent to about 400 percent of the thickness of the final
layer. For example, in the experiments previously described, in
which the thickness of the final layer was 30 .mu.m, good results
were obtained with an initial average droplet size of 10 to 100
.mu.m.
[0070] Gelatin forms a film by a sol/gel transformation, but the
present invention is not restricted to film-forming materials which
form their films by such sol/gel transformation. For example, the
formation of the film may be accomplished by the polymerization of
a monomer or oligomer, by the cross-linking of a polymer or
oligomer, by radiation-curing of a polymer or by any other known
film-forming process. Similarly, in the preferred variant of the
invention in which the film is first formed and then caused to
shrink in thickness, this shrinkage need not accomplished by the
same type of dehydration mechanism by which a gelatin film shrinks,
but may be accomplished by removal of a solvent, aqueous or
non-aqueous, from the film, cross-linking of a polymeric film or
any other conventional procedure.
[0071] In a polymer-dispersed electrophoretic medium of the present
invention, the droplets desirably comprise at least about 40 per
cent, and preferably about 50 to about 80 per cent, by volume of
the electrophoretic medium; see the aforementioned copending
application Ser. No. 09/683,903. It should be stressed that the
droplets used in the polymer-dispersed media of the present
invention may have any of the combinations of particles and
suspending fluids illustrated in FIGS. 1 to 3.
[0072] The present invention may be applied to any of the forms of
encapsulated electrophoretic media shown in FIGS. 1 to 4. However,
the present invention is not restricted to encapsulated and
polymer-dispersed electrophoretic media, and may also be applied to
unencapsulated media.
[0073] The various aspects of the present invention will now be
described in more detail.
[0074] Types of Particles and Pre-Treatment Thereof
[0075] The present invention may be applied to any type of particle
useable in electrophoretic media, and there is much flexibility in
the choice of such particles. For purposes of this invention, a
particle is any component that is charged or capable of acquiring a
charge (i.e., has or is capable of acquiring electrophoretic
mobility), and, in some cases, this mobility may be zero or close
to zero (i.e., the particles will not move). The particles may be,
for example, neat pigments or dyed (laked) pigments, or any other
component that is charged or capable of acquiring a charge. Typical
considerations for the electrophoretic particle are its optical
properties, electrical properties, and surface chemistry. The
particles may be organic or inorganic compounds, and they may
either absorb light or scatter light. The particles for use in the
invention may further include scattering pigments, absorbing
pigments and luminescent particles. The particles may be
retroreflective, such as corner cubes, or they may be
electroluminescent, such as zinc sulfide particles, which emit
light when excited by an AC field, or they may be photoluminescent.
Zinc sulfide electroluminescent particles may be encapsulated with
an insulative coating to reduce electrical conduction.
[0076] The electrophoretic particle is usually a pigment, a laked
pigment, or some combination of the above. A neat pigment can be
any pigment, and, usually for a light colored particle, pigments
such as rutile (titania), anatase (titania), barium sulfate,
kaolin, or zinc oxide are useful. Some typical particles have high
refractive indices, high scattering coefficients, and low
absorption coefficients. Other particles are absorptive, such as
carbon black or colored pigments used in paints and inks. The
pigment should also be insoluble in the suspending fluid. Yellow
pigments such as diarylide yellow, Hansa yellow, and benzidin
yellow have also found use in similar displays. Any other
reflective material can be employed for a light colored particle,
including non-pigment materials, such as metallic particles.
[0077] Useful neat pigments include, but are not limited to,
PbCrO.sub.4, Cyan blue GT 55-3295 (American Cyanamid Company,
Wayne, N.J.), Cibacron Black BG (Ciba Company, Inc., Newport,
Del.), Cibacron Turquoise Blue G (Ciba), Cibalon Black BGL (Ciba),
Orasol Black BRG (Ciba), Orasol Black RBL (Ciba), Acetamine Black,
CBS (E. I. du Pont de Nemours and Company, Inc., Wilmington, Del.,
hereinafter abbreviated "du Pont"), Crocein Scarlet N Ex (du Pont)
(27290), Fiber Black VF (du Pont) (30235), Luxol Fast Black L (du
Pont) (Solv. Black 17), Nirosine Base No. 424 (du Pont) (50415 B),
Oil Black BG (du Pont) (Solv. Black 16), Rotalin Black RM (du
Pont), Sevron Brilliant Red 3 B (du Pont); Basic Black DSC (Dye
Specialties, Inc.), Hectolene Black (Dye Specialties, Inc.), Azosol
Brilliant Blue B (GAF, Dyestuff and Chemical Division, Wayne, N.J.)
(Solv. Blue 9), Azosol Brilliant Green BA (GAF) (Solv. Green 2),
Azosol Fast Brilliant Red B (GAF), Azosol Fast Orange RA Conc.
(GAF) (Solv. Orange 20), Azosol Fast Yellow GRA Conc. (GAF) (13900
A), Basic Black KMPA (GAF), Benzofix Black CW-CF (GAF) (35435),
Cellitazol BNFV Ex Soluble CF (GAF) (Disp. Black 9), Celliton Fast
Blue AF Ex Conc (GAF) (Disp. Blue 9), Cyper Black IA (GAF) (Basic
Black 3), Diamine Black CAP Ex Conc (GAF) (30235), Diamond Black
EAN Hi Con. CF (GAF) (15710), Diamond Black PBBA Ex (GAF) (16505);
Direct Deep Black EA Ex CF (GAF) (30235), Hansa Yellow G (GAF)
(11680); Indanthrene Black BBK Powd. (GAF) (59850), Indocarbon CLGS
Conc. CF (GAF) (53295), Katigen Deep Black NND Hi Conc. CF (GAF)
(15711), Rapidogen Black 3 G (GAF) (Azoic Black 4); Sulphone
Cyanine Black BA-CF (GAF) (26370), Zambezi Black VD Ex Conc. (GAF)
(30015); Rubanox Red CP-1495 (The Sherwin-Williams Company,
Cleveland, Ohio) (15630); Raven 11 (Columbian Carbon Company,
Atlanta, Ga.), (carbon black aggregates with a particle size of
about 25 .mu.m), Statex B-12 (Columbian Carbon Co.) (a furnace
black of 33 .mu.m average particle size), Greens 223 and 425 (The
Shepherd Color Company, Cincinnati, Ohio 45246); Blacks 1,1 G and
430 (Shepherd); Yellow 14 (Shepherd); Krolor Yellow KO-788-D
(Dominion Colour Corporation, North York, Ontario; "KROLOR" is a
Registered Trade Mark); Red Synthetic 930 and 944 (Alabama Pigments
Co., Green Pond, Ala. 35074), Krolor Oranges KO-786-D and KO-906-D
(Dominion Colour Corporation); Green GX (Bayer); Green 56 (Bayer);
Light Blue ZR (Bayer); Fast Black 100 (Bayer); Bayferrox 130M
(Bayer "BAYFERROX" is a Registered Trade Mark); Black 444
(Shepherd); Light Blue 100 (Bayer); Light Blue 46 (Bayer); Yellow
6000 (First Color Co., Ltd., 1236-1, Jwungwang-dong, Shihung,
Kyounggi-do, Korea), Blues 214 and 385 (Shepherd); Violet 92
(Shepherd); and chrome green.
[0078] Particles may also include laked, or dyed, pigments. Laked
pigments are particles that have a dye precipitated on them or
which are stained. Lakes are metal salts of readily soluble anionic
dyes. These are dyes of azo, triphenylmethane or anthraquinone
structure containing one or more sulphonic or carboxylic acid
groupings. They are usually precipitated by a calcium, barium or
aluminum salt onto a substrate. Typical examples are peacock blue
lake (Cl Pigment Blue 24) and Persian orange (lake of Cl Acid
Orange 7), Black M Toner (GAF) (a mixture of carbon black and black
dye precipitated on a lake).
[0079] A dark particle of the dyed type may be constructed from any
light absorbing material, such as carbon black, or inorganic black
materials. The dark material may also be selectively absorbing. For
example, a dark green pigment may be used.
[0080] The optical purpose of the particle may be to scatter light,
absorb light, or both. Useful sizes may range from 1 nm up to about
100 .mu.m. The density of the electrophoretic particle may be
substantially matched to that of the suspending (i.e.,
electrophoretic) fluid. As defined herein, a suspending fluid has a
density that is "substantially matched" to the density of the
particle if the difference in their respective densities is between
about zero and about two grams/milliliter ("g/ml"). This difference
is preferably between about zero and about 0.5 g/ml.
[0081] New and useful electrophoretic particles may still be
discovered, but a number of particles already known to those
skilled in the art of electrophoretic displays and liquid toners
can also prove useful.
[0082] The presently preferred materials for forming light-colored
electroparticles are metal oxides (and/or hydroxides), especially
titania. The titania particles may be coated with an oxide, such as
alumina or silica, for example; the presence of such coatings
appears to improve the stability of the titania in electrophoretic
media, presumably by suppressing reactions, such as photochemical
reactions, which may occur at the interface between a bare titania
surface and the suspending fluid. The titania particles may have
one, two, or more layers of metal-oxide coating. For example, a
titania particle for use in electrophoretic displays of the
invention may have a coating of alumina and a coating of silica.
The coatings may be added to the particle in any order. At present
we prefer to use a titania having a silica/alumina coating, which
appears to contain discrete areas of silica and alumina. Such a
coated titania is commercially available from E.du Pont de Nemours
and Company, Wilmington, Del., under the trade name R960. It will
be appreciated that since, in such coated particles, the coating
completely covers the titania, any reagent used to attach an
initiator or polymerizable group to the surface of the particle
must react with the coating, and need not be capable of reacting
with titania. Furthermore, since the preferred silane coupling
agents discussed below react with silica but less readily or not at
all with alumina, if these preferred agents are to be used, the
particle surface should have at least some areas of exposed silica.
Indeed, it is one important advantage of the present invention
that, since techniques for forming silica coatings on pigments are
described in the literature (see, for example, U.S. Pat. No.
3,639,133), and, as illustrated below, such techniques may readily
be adapted to produce silica coatings on a wide variety of
materials, the present processes can readily be adapted to utilize
any of these materials by first providing a silica coating thereon.
Once the silica coating has been applied, the remaining steps in
forming the polymer-coated particles are essentially similar, since
the reagents used "see" only the silica coating, so that the
chemical process steps are essentially independent of the chemical
nature of the pigment underlying the silica coating.
[0083] As already indicated, the present invention provides a
preferred technique, designated the silica coating process of the
present invention, for forming silica coatings on particles which
do not already possess such coatings. Typically, in prior art
processes such as those described in the aforementioned U.S. Pat.
No. 3,639,133, the silica coated pigment is separated from the
reaction mixture in which it is produced (this reaction mixture
having a pH of about 9.5 to 10), then washed and dried, for example
at 80.degree. C. This tends to result is pigment particles which
are fused together by their silica coatings. This fusion or
aggregation makes it extremely difficult to redisperse the pigment
into its primary particulate form without using a harsh treatment
such as attrition, ball milling or homogenization, and such harsh
treatment may fracture the silica coating, thus lowering the number
of reactive sites on the pigment particle at which polymer chains
can be formed.
[0084] It has now been discovered that if, after the deposition of
the silica coating is completed, the pH of the reaction mixture is
reduced below about 4, and preferably to about 3, before the
silica-coated particles are separated from the reaction mixture,
the tendency for the particles to fuse together is essentially
eliminated. The necessary reduction in pH is conveniently effected
using sulfuric acid, although other acids, for example, nitric,
hydrochloric and perchloric acids, may be used. The particles are
conveniently separated from the reaction mixture by centrifugation.
Following this separation, it is not necessary to dry the
particles. Instead, the silica-coated particles can be readily
re-dispersed in the medium, typically an aqueous alcoholic medium,
to be used for the next step of the process for the formation of
polymer on the particles. This enables the silica-coated pigment
particles to be maintained in a non-agglomerated and non-fused form
as they are subjected to the processes for attachment of
polymerizable or polymerization-initiating groups, thus allowing
for thorough coverage of the pigment particle with such groups, and
preventing the formation of large aggregates of pigment particles
in the microcapsules which will typically eventually be formed from
the silica-coated pigment. Preventing the formation of such
aggregates is especially important when the silica-coated pigment
is to be used in small microcapsules (less than about 100 .mu.m in
diameter), and such small microcapsules are desirable since they
reduce the operating voltage and/or switching time of the
electrophoretic medium. Also, eliminating the drying procedures
previously used in forming silica-coated pigments substantially
reduces the processing time required.
[0085] The presently preferred material for forming dark-colored
electroparticles is carbon black, for example the material sold
commercially by Degussa A G, Dusseldorf, Germany under the trade
name Printex A.
[0086] Processes of the Present Invention
[0087] Before explaining in detail the various steps of the present
processes, a summary of the numerous possible variations in such
processes will be given.
[0088] In a first process of the invention (hereinafter called the
"random graft polymerization" or "RGP" process of the invention),
as illustrated in FIG. 5A, a particle 500 is reacted with a reagent
502 having a functional group 504 capable of reacting with, and
bonding to, the particle and with a polymerizable group, for
example a pendant vinyl or other ethylenically unsaturated group
506. (The shapes used to indicate the functional group 504 and
other functional groups discussed below are used only to make it
easier to illustrate the reactions involved and, of course, bear no
relationship to the actual physical shapes of the functional
groups.) The functional group reacts 504 with the particle surface,
leaving a residue indicated at 504' attached to the particle and
also leaving the polymerizable group 506 covalently bonded to the
particle surface and free to participate in a subsequent
polymerization reaction; in effect, the entire treated particle 508
becomes a polymerizable "monomer". The particle 508 carrying the
polymerizable group is then treated with one or more polymerizable
monomers or oligomers under conditions effective to cause reaction
between the polymerizable group 506 on the particles and the
monomer(s) or oligomer(s); such conditions will, of course,
typically include the presence of a polymerization initiator,
although in some cases the polymerization may be initiated
thermally, with no initiator present. As indicated at 510 in FIG.
5A, the resultant polymerization reaction produces polymer chains
which include at least one residue from a polymerizable group
previously attached to the particle; if, as is usually the case,
multiple polymerizable groups are attached to the particle in the
first stage of the process, the residues of two or more of these
polymerizable groups may be incorporated into the same polymer
chain, which will thus be attached to the particle surface at two
or more points.
[0089] This is illustrated in FIG. 6, which shows in a highly
schematic manner (in practice, the titania particle will be much
larger relative to the polymer chains, and far more polymer chains
than shown would normally be attached to a single particle), a
structure which is believed to be typical of polymer-coated
particles produced by the present invention. FIG. 6 shows a pigment
particle 600 bearing multiple polymer chains, including chains 602
which are attached via only one of their ends to the particle 600,
a chain 604 which is attached via both its ends to the particle 600
and a chain 606 which has both ends free but which is attached to
the particle 600 at multiple points intermediate its ends. It will
be apparent to those skilled in polymer synthesis that other types
of polymer chains could be present; for example, a chain could be
attached to the particle 600 at both ends and at one or more
intermediate points, or a chain could be attached to the particle
600 at one end and one or more intermediate points, but have its
opposed end free from the particle 600. It is believed (although
the invention is in no way limited by this belief) that the
presence of multiply-attached polymer chains is especially
advantageous for stabilizing particles used in electrophoretic
media. Note also that, as illustrated in FIG. 6, and as may be
confirmed experimentally by measuring the absorption of gases on
the polymer-coated pigment particles, the polymer does not
completely cover the surface of the particle 600. It is believed
(although the invention is in no way limited by this belief) that
this incomplete coverage of the surfaces of the pigment particles
by the polymer is important is providing particles with good
electrophoretic properties.
[0090] Although, in the first stage of the RGP process, the
polymerizable group may be attached to the particle by a covalent
bond, in a further variant of the RGP process (which may
hereinafter be called "ionic random graft polymerization" or
"ionic-RGP"), the polymerizable group is attached to the particle
via an ionic bond. Depending upon the chemical nature of the
particle, in some cases it may be possible to simply react a
monomer with the particle to form the required ionic bond. However,
in most cases, it will be necessary to pretreat the particle with a
bifunctional reagent (512 in FIG. 5B) having one functional group
504 capable of reacting with, and bonding to, the particle 500 and
a second functional group 514 which can form the necessary ionic
bond. Thereafter, the resultant particle 516 is reacted with a
monomer 518 having a polymerizable group 506 and a third functional
group 520 capable of reacting with the second functional group 514
to form the desired ionic bond, as indicated at 522 in FIG. 5B. The
final polymerization step of the RGP process (the ethylene needed
for the specific reaction shown is omitted from FIG. 5B for ease of
illustration) is then carried out as previously described to
produce the product indicated at 524 in FIG. 5B. The ionic bond
forming reaction is typically an acid-base reaction; for example,
the second functional group 514 may be an ammonium group, such as
an alkyl-substituted ammonium group, and the third functional group
520 be a sulfonic acid, or vice versa.
[0091] The ionic-RGP process has the advantage that some of the
ionically-bonded polymer chains in the final particle 524 can
detach and become dispersed in the suspending fluid of the
electrophoretic medium, thus providing stabilized counterions to
the charged electrophoretic particles. In effect, the
ionically-bonded polymer functions as both stabilizing polymer and
charge control agent for the electrophoretic particles. If, in an
opposite charge dual particle display, both types of particles are
provided with polymer coatings formed by ionic-RGP processes, the
oppositely charged polymer chains which would detach from the
surfaces of the two types of particles should associate with, and
electrically neutralize, each other in the suspending fluid, thus
providing a desirable reduction in the number of ionic species
present in, and the background conductivity of, the electrophoretic
medium.
[0092] Alternatively, an group capable of initiating polymerization
may first be attached to the pigment particle, and a polymer formed
from this initiating group. The initiating group may be attached to
the polymer surface by a covalent or an ionic bond in any of the
ways previously described. For example, a further process of the
present invention (which may hereinafter be called the "atom
transfer radical polymerization" or "ATRP" process) makes use of
atom transfer radical polymerization. In the first stage of this
process, as illustrated in FIG. 5C, the surface of a particle 500
is treated with a bifunctional reagent 530 having one group 504
capable of reacting with the particle surface and a second group
which provides an initiating site for atom transfer radical
polymerization (ATRP). The ATRP initiator site may be, for example,
a benzylic chlorine (as indicated in FIG. 5C) or other halogen
atom. The resultant particle is then treated with an atom transfer
radical polymerizable monomer 532 (methyl methacrylate is shown in
FIG. 5C) to form a polymer on the particle surface, as indicated at
534. ATRP has the advantage that the polymerization reaction with a
first monomer can be stopped by cooling the reaction mixture, the
first monomer replaced by a second monomer, and the reaction
thereafter restarted by increasing the temperature of the reaction
mixture to cause polymerization of the second monomer on to the
ends of the previously-formed polymer of the first monomer. These
steps may of course be repeated with a introduction of a third
monomer. This process forms on the particle a block copolymer of
the two (or more) monomers.
[0093] The processes of the present invention are not restricted to
the use of ATRP initiating sites on the particle, but include the
use of other types of initiating sites, for example ionic or free
radical initiating sites. Also, the bifunctional reagents mentioned
above need not be single monomeric reagents but can themselves be
polymeric. For example, in one process of the invention, a
silica/alumina coated titania particle was coated with a terpolymer
of styrene, chloromethylstyrene and 3-(trimethoxysilyl)propyl
methacrylate by suspending the titania particles in a solution of
the terpolymer in tetrahydrofuran (THF) and adding hexane to reduce
the solubility of the polymer. After precipitation of the
terpolymer, the particles are subjected to conditions effective to
cause condensation between the trihydroxysilyl groups on the
polymer (the trimethoxysilyl groups having previously been
hydrolyzed to this form) and the silanol groups which are always
present on silica-coated titania particles, thus covalently binding
the polymer to the particle surface. As illustrated in the Examples
below, this condensation can be effected under conditions as mild
as drying at room temperature for about 24 hours, or heating to
60.degree. C. for 1 to 2 hours. The chloromethylstyrene residues in
the bound polymer can then serve as ATRP initiating sites for
formation of additional polymer on to the particles.
[0094] The processes of the present invention may include more than
one stage and/or more than one type of polymerization. For example,
in one variant of the process of the present invention (which may
hereinafter be called the "RGP-ATRP" process), the particle is
first subjected to the RGP process described above, except that a
mixture of monomers is used including at least one monomer (for
example, a chloromethylstyrene) which contains a group which
provides an initiating site for ATRP. Thus, there is formed on the
particle a polymer chain which contains ATRP initiating sites.
After the RGP polymerization is concluded, the particle is then
subjected to ATRP, so that polymer side chains form from the ATRP
initiating sites, thus producing a "hyperbranched" polymer having
main chains formed by the RGP process and side chains formed by
ATRP. It has been found that this type of polymer structure is
highly advantageous in stabilizing a suspension of electrophoretic
particles in the non-ionic media typically used as suspending
fluids in electrophoretic displays. A similar type of hyperbranched
polymer could be produced by including in the mixture of monomers
used in the RGP step a monomer which contains an initiating group
for stable free radical polymerization (SFRP), this SFRP initiating
group being chosen so that it essentially does not initiate
polymerization under the conditions used in the RGP step. After the
RGP step is concluded, the particles is then subjected to SFRP to
produce the hyperbranched polymer.
[0095] Attachment of Polymerizable Groups and Initiators
[0096] In the processes of the present invention, polymerizable
groups and initiators may be attached to the surface of the
particles using any bifunctional reagents having one group capable
of bonding, covalently or ionically, to the surface, and a second
group providing the required polymerizable or initiating
functionality. The independent functioning of the two groups has
the advantage of providing great flexibility in adapting the
present invention to any desired type of particle, since it will
normally readily be apparent to skilled chemists how to vary (say)
the group which bonds to the particle surface in order to adapt the
processes to a different type of particle, while keeping the same
polymerizable or initiating functionality, so that the later stages
of the processes will need few if any changes as a result of
changing the type of particle being coated.
[0097] In describing the reagents used to provide the desired
polymerizable or initiating functionality as "bifunctional", we do
not exclude the possibility that the reagents may contain more than
one group of each type, and indeed in some cases it may be
desirable to provide more than one group of one or both types. For
example, polymerization initiators are known (such as
4,4'-azobis(4-cyanovaleric acid)) having more than one ionic site,
and such initiators may be used in the present process. Also, as
previously noted, the bifunctional reagent may have the form of a
polymer containing repeating units having the capacity to bond to
the particle surface and other repeated units having the desired
polymerizable or initiating functionality, and such polymeric
bifunctional reagents will normally contain multiple repeating
units of both these types.
[0098] The preferred class of functional groups for bonding to
titania and similar silica-coated pigments are silane coupling
groups, especially trialkoxy silane coupling groups. One especially
preferred reagent for attaching a polymerizable group to titania
and similar pigments is the aforementioned
3-(trimethoxysilyl)propyl methacrylate, which is available
commercially from Dow Chemical Company, Wilmington, Del. under the
trade name Z6030. The corresponding acrylate may also be used.
[0099] When a titania (or similar silica-coated) particle is to be
used in an ionic RGP process, it is preferred that the particle
first be treated with a silane coupling agent containing a basic
group, preferably a substituted ammonium group, thereby providing
amino groups on the particle surface. The resultant
amino-functionalized particle is then preferably treated with an
acid containing the desired polymerizable group, which thus becomes
ionically bound to the particle surface. For example, the
aforementioned silica/alumina coated titania R960 may be reacted
with the silane coupling agent, N-trimethoxysilylpropyl-N,N,N-tri-
methylammonium chloride, to obtain a pigment with quaternary
ammonium groups covalently attached to its surface. This
amino-functionalized pigment may then be dispersed in water with
4-styrene sulfonic acid chloride dihydrate and precipitated to
obtain a pigment with styrene functionality ionically associated
with the quaternary ammonium groups.
[0100] Similarly, when it is desired to attach an initiating group
to a coated titania surface, the surface may first be provided with
amino functionality in the manner already described, and then a
reagent, for example, 4,4'-azobis(4-cyanovaleric acid), containing
both an acidic group and an initiating group may be used to
ionically bond the initiating group to the particle surface.
[0101] The preferred group for bonding to carbon black is a
diazonium group; as is well-known to organic chemists, such a group
is normally formed in situ by reaction of an aromatic amine with a
nitrite. A series of patents and published applications of Cabot
Corporation, Boston, Mass. describes the use of diazonium chemistry
to attach a wide variety of functional groups to carbon black; see,
for example, U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,554,739; 5,672,198; 5,698,016;
5,707,432; 5,713,988; 5,851,280; 5,885,335; 5,895,522; 5,968,243;
6,068,688; and 6,103,380, and International Applications Nos. WO
96/18695; WO 99/51690; WO 00/05312; and WO 00/22051. The chemistry
has also been extended to other pigments; see, for example, U.S.
Pat. Nos. 5,837,045; 5,922,118; and 5,958,999, and International
Applications Nos. WO 00/52102 and WO 00/53681. Preferred amines for
use with carbon black in the present processes are aniline
derivatives, especially para-derivatives of aniline. For example, a
preferred reagent for attaching vinyl groups to carbon black is
4-vinylaniline.
[0102] Although the reasons for the phenomenon are not entirely
understood, it has been observed that the conditions under which
the bifunctional reagent is attached to the particle surface may
affect the characteristics of the final electrophoretic particles.
For example, coated titania particles can be reacted with silane
coupling agents under both acidic and basic conditions. However,
acidic conditions are preferred, since it has been found that with
such conditions for the initial silane coupling reaction, the final
polymer-coated titania particles consistently charge negatively
with many charge control agents. If, however, basic conditions are
used for the initial silane coupling reaction, the final
polymer-coated titania particles may charge with both polarities,
which is highly undesirable when the particles are to be used in an
electrophoretic display.
[0103] The polymerizable and initiating groups used in the present
processes may be any of those known in the art, provided of course
that the relevant groups are compatible with the reactions used to
attach them to the particle surface. The present invention extends
to processes in which the polymerizable or initiating group is
subject to chemical modification, for example by removal of a
protecting group, after it has been attached to the particle
surface. If, for example, a particular polymerization required the
presence of a carboxylic acid group on the particle surface, the
bifunctional reagent used might contain this group in esterified
form, with the group being de-esterified after it has been attached
to the particle surface. (A similar procedure may be employed when
preparing a surface for ionic bonding to a polymerizable group in
the ionic RGP process of the present invention. For example, a
silica/alumina coated titania particle may be treated with a
copolymer of 3-(trimethoxysilyl)propyl methacrylate and t-butyl
acrylate, thus causing the silyl groups to bond to the particle
surface, and leaving the esterified acrylate groups exposed. The
particle is then treated with acetic acid to convert the esterified
acrylate groups to free acrylic acid groups. Subsequent reaction of
the particle with dimethylaminoethyl methacrylate causes an
acid/base reaction and ionically bonds the methacrylate groups to
the particle, where they serve as polymerizable groups for use in
an RGP process.) Similarly, when it is desired to attached a
chloroalkyl group to the particle surface to serve as an initiator
for ATRP, the bifunctional reagent used might contain the
corresponding hydroxyalkyl group, which could be converted to the
desired chloroalkyl group by reaction with a chlorinating agent,
for example thionyl chloride.
[0104] The preferred polymerizable groups for use in the present
processes are ethylenically unsaturated groups, especially vinyl,
acrylate and methacrylate groups. The preferred initiating groups
for ATRP are haloalkyl groups, desirably chloroalkyl groups and
most desirably chloromethyl groups. Free radical polymerization
initiating groups which may be used include those derived from
[10-(t-butyidioxy)decyl]bromide, 2-(carbamoylazo)isobutyronitrile,
and 4,4'-azobis(4-cyanovaleric acid).
[0105] When choosing the bifunctional reagent to provide
polymerizable or initiating functionality on the particle,
attention should be paid to the relative positions of the two
groups within the reagent. As should be apparent to those skilled
in polymer manufacture, the rate of reaction of a polymerizable or
initiating group bonded to a particle may vary greatly depending
upon whether the group is held rigidly close to the particle
surface, or whether the group is spaced (on an atomic scale) from
that surface and can thus extend into a reaction medium surrounding
the particle, this being a much more favorable environment for
chemical reaction of the group. In general, it is preferred that
there be at least three atoms in the direct chain between the two
functional groups; for example, the aforementioned
3-(trimethoxysilyl)propyl methacrylate provides a chain of four
carbon and one oxygen atoms between the silyl and ethylenically
unsaturated groups, while the aforementioned 4-vinylaniline
separates the amino group (or the diazonium group, in the actual
reactive form) from the vinyl group by the full width of a benzene
ring, equivalent to about the length of a three-carbon chain.
[0106] Polymer Structure and Polymer-Forming Processes
[0107] Before discussing in detail the preferred processes of the
present invention for forming polymers on the electrophoretic
particles, it is first appropriate to rehearse the basic reasons
why such polymers are advantageous. The fundamental reasons for
providing polymer on electrophoretic particles are to increase the
stability of the suspension of particles in the suspending fluid,
and to stabilize the electrophoretic properties of the particles.
For these purposes, it is desirable that the polymer be highly
compatible with the suspending medium, and that it assist in
stabilizing the charge on the particles as environmental conditions
vary.
[0108] In practice, the suspending fluid in an electrophoretic
medium is normally hydrocarbon-based, although the fluid can
include a proportion of halocarbon, which is used to increase of
the density of the fluid and thus to decrease the difference
between the density of the fluid and that of the particles.
Accordingly, it is important that the polymer formed in the present
processes be highly compatible with the hydrocarbon suspending
fluid, and thus that the polymer itself comprise a major proportion
of hydrocarbon chains; except for groups provided for charging
purposes, as discussed below, large numbers of strongly ionic
groups are undesirable since they render the polymer less soluble
in the hydrocarbon suspending fluid and thus adversely affect the
stability of the particle dispersion. Also, as already discussed,
at least when the medium in which the particles are to be used
comprises an aliphatic hydrocarbon suspending fluid (as is commonly
the case), it is advantageous for the polymer to have a branched or
"brush" structure, with a main chain and a plurality of side chains
extending away from the main chain. Each of these side chains
should have at least about four, and preferably at least about six,
carbon atoms. Substantially longer side chains may be advantageous;
for example, some of the preferred polymers illustrated in the
Examples below have lauryl (C.sub.12) side chains. The side chains
may themselves be branched; for example, each side chain could be a
branched alkyl group, such as a 2-ethylhexyl group. It is believed
(although the invention is in no way limited by this belief) that,
because of the high affinity of hydrocarbon chains for the
hydrocarbon-based suspending fluid, the branches of the polymer
spread out from one another in a brush or tree-like structure
through a large volume of liquid, thus increasing the affinity of
the particle for the suspending fluid and the stability of the
particle dispersion.
[0109] There are two basic approaches to forming such a brush
polymer. The first approach uses monomers which inherently provide
the necessary side chains. Typically, such a monomer has a single
polymerizable group at one end of a long chain (at least four, and
preferably at least six, carbon atoms). Monomers of this type which
have been found to give good results in the present processes
include hexyl acrylate, 2-ethylhexyl acrylate and lauryl
methacrylate. Isobutyl methacrylate and 2,2,3,4,4,4-hexafluorobutyl
acrylate have also been used successfully. In some cases, it may be
desirable to limit the number of side chains formed in such
processes, and this can be achieved by using a mixture of monomers
(for example, a mixture of lauryl methacrylate and methyl
methacrylate) to form a random copolymer in which only some of the
repeating units bear long side chains. In the second approach,
typified by the RGP-ATRP process of the invention already
described, a first polymerization reaction is carried out using a
mixture of monomers, at least one of these monomers bearing an
initiating group, thus producing a first polymer containing such
initiating groups. The product of this first polymerization
reaction is then subjected to a second polymerization, typically
under different conditions from the first polymerization, so as to
cause the initiating groups within the polymer to cause
polymerization of additional monomer on to the original polymer,
thereby forming the desired side chains. As with the bifunctional
reagents discussed above, we do not exclude the possibility that
some chemical modification of the initiating groups may be effected
between the two polymerizations. In such a process, the side chains
themselves do not need to be heavily branched and can be formed
from a small monomer, for example methyl methacrylate.
[0110] Despite the unusual nature of the polymerizations used in
the present processes, in which one reactant is a "macroscopic"
particle (typically of the order of 1 .mu.m or more in diameter)
bearing multiple polymerizable or initiating groups rather than a
single molecule, the polymerization processes can be carried out
using conventional techniques. For example, free radical
polymerization of ethylenic or similar radical polymerizable groups
attached to particles may be effected using conventional free
radical initiators, such as 2,2'-azobis(isobutyryinitrile) (AIBN),
while ATRP polymerization can be effected using the conventional
metal complexes, as described in Wang, J. S., et al.,
Macromolecules 1995, 23, 7901, and J.Am. Chem. Soc. 1995, 117,
5614, and in Beers, K. et al., Macromolecules 1999, 32, 5772-5776.
See also U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,763,548; 5,789,487; 5,807,937; 5,945,491;
5,986,015; 6,069,205; 6,071,980; 6,111,022; 6,121,371; 6,124,411;
6,137,012; 6,153,705; 6,162,882; 6,191,225; and 6,197,883. The
entire disclosures of these papers and patents are herein
incorporated by reference. The presently preferred catalyst for
carrying out ATRP is cuprous chloride in the presence of bipyridyl
(Bpy).
[0111] RGP processes of the invention in which particles bearing
polymerizable groups are reacted with a monomer in the presence of
an initiator will inevitably cause some formation of "free" polymer
not attached to a particle, as the monomer in the reaction mixture
is polymerized. The unattached polymer may be removed by repeated
washings of the particles with a solvent (typically a hydrocarbon)
in which the unattached polymer is soluble, or (at least in the
case of metal oxide or other dense particles) by centrifuging off
the treated particles from the reaction mixture (with or without
the previous addition of a solvent or diluent), redispersing the
particles in fresh solvent, and repeating these steps until the
proportion of unattached polymer has been reduced to an acceptable
level. (The decline in the proportion of unattached polymer can be
followed by thermogravimetric analysis of samples of the polymer.)
Empirically, it does not appear that the presence of a small
proportion of unattached polymer, of the order of 1 per cent by
weight, has any serious deleterious effect on the electrophoretic
properties of the treated particles; indeed, in some cases,
depending upon the chemical natures of the unattached polymer and
the suspending fluid, it may not be necessary to separate the
polymer-coated particles from the unattached polymer before using
the particles in an electrophoretic display.
[0112] As already indicated, it has been found that there is a
optimum range for the amount of polymer which should be formed on
electrophoretic particles, and that forming an excessive amount of
polymer on the particles can degrade their electrophoretic
characteristics. The optimum range will vary with a number of
factors, including the density and size of the particles being
coated, the nature of the suspending medium in which the particles
are intended to be used, and the nature of polymer formed on the
particles, and for any specific particle, polymer and suspending
medium, the optimum range is best determined empirically. However,
by way of general guidance, it should be noted that the denser the
particle, the lower the optimum proportion of polymer by weight of
the particle, and the more finely divided the particle, the higher
the optimum proportion of polymer. In general, the particles should
be coated with at least about 2, and desirably at least about 4,
per cent by weight of polymer. In most cases, the optimum
proportion of polymer will range from about 4 to about 15 per cent
by weight of the particle, and typically is about 6 to about 15 per
cent by weight, and most desirably about 8 to about 12 per cent by
weight. More specifically, in the case of titania particles, the
presently preferred range of polymer is about 8 to about 12 per
cent by weight of the titania.
[0113] As regards the optimum proportion of polymer, carbon black
tends to be a special case. Carbon black is of low density and (at
least in its commercial forms) extremely finely divided, so much so
that it is customary to characterize the state of division of the
material not by an average particle size but by its capacity to
adsorb various gases or liquids under standardized conditions.
Thus, the optimum amount of polymer on carbon black may be
substantially higher than on most other pigments. Although we
generally prefer to provide about 6 to about 14, and desirably
about 8 to about 12 weight per cent of polymer on carbon black,
under certain circumstances carbon black may be provided with up to
about 20, or even about 25 weight per cent of polymer.
[0114] It is preferred that the polymers formed on particles by the
present processes include charged or chargeable groups, since such
groups are useful in controlling the charge on the electrophoretic
particles. Hitherto, the charge on electrophoretic particles has
normally been controlled by adding to the electrophoretic medium a
charge control agent, which is typically a surfactant which absorbs
on to the particles and varies the charge thereon. Charge control
agents often charge the particles by poorly understood and
uncontrolled processes, and can lead to undesirably high
conductivity of the electrophoretic medium. Also, since the charge
control agent is only physically adsorbed on to the particles and
is not bound thereto, changes in conditions may cause partial or
complete desorption of the charge control agent from the particles,
with consequent undesirable changes in the electrophoretic
characteristics of the particles. The desorbed charge control agent
might resorb on to other surfaces within the electrophoretic
medium, and such resorption has the potential for causing
additional problems. The use of charge control agents is especially
difficult in dual particle electrophoretic media, where a charge
control agent may adsorb on to the surface of one or both types of
electrophoretic particles. Indeed, the present inventors have
observed cases where the addition of a charge control agent to a
dual particle electrophoretic medium, which was intended to be of
the type in which the two types of particles bear charges of
opposite polarity, resulted in some particles of one type becoming
positively charged, and other particles of the same type becoming
negatively charged, thus rendering the medium essentially useless
for its intended purpose. In the case of an encapsulated dual
particle electrophoretic medium, it is also possible for the charge
control agent to adsorb on to the capsule wall. Providing charged
groups within the bound polymer ensures that these charged groups
remain fixed on to the particle, with essentially no tendency to
desorb (unless the polymer chains themselves are rendered capable
of desorption, as already discussed).
[0115] Instead of incorporating charged or chargeable groups within
the polymer attached to the pigment particle, or in addition
thereto, charged or chargeable groups may be directly attached to
the pigment particle without being incorporated into a polymer,
although in most cases it will be desirable to provide polymer on
the particle's surface in addition to the charged or chargeable
groups.
[0116] Charged or chargeable groups may be incorporated into the
polymer via either the bifunctional agent used to provide
polymerizable or initiating functionality to the pigment, or via
one or more monomers used to form the polymer chain. For example,
if it is desired to provide titania with basic groups which can be
protonated to provide positively charged groups on the particle,
the aforementioned 3-(trimethoxysilyl)propyl methacrylate
bifunctional reagent may be replaced by
N-[3-(trimethoxysilyl)propyl]-N'-(4-vinylbenzyl)ethylene diamine,
which provides not only a silyl group capable of reacting a
silica/alumina coated titania particle and a polymerizable
ethylenic group, but also two secondary amino groups which can be
protonated to yield a positively charged particle. On the other
hand, if the charged or chargeable groups are to provided via
monomers, a variety of acrylates and methacrylates are available
containing acidic or basic groups, as are a variety of other
monomers (for example, 4-vinylpyridine) containing a polymerizable
group and a basic or acidic group. As previously mentioned in other
contexts, it may be desirable to provide the acidic or basic group
in a "blocked" form in the monomer used, and to de-block the group
after formation of the polymer. For example, since ATRP cannot be
initiated in the presence of acid, if it is desired to provide
acidic groups within the polymer, esters such as t-butyl acrylate
or isobornyl methacrylate may be used, and the residues of these
monomers within the final polymer hydrolyzed to provide acrylic or
methacrylic acid residues.
[0117] When it is desired to produce charged or chargeable groups
on the pigment particles and also polymer separately attached to
the particles, it may be very convenient to treat the particles
(after any preliminary treatment such as silica coating) with a
mixture of two reagents, one of which carries the charged or
chargeable group (or a group which will eventually be treated to
produce the desired charged or chargeable group), and the other of
which carries the polymerizable or polymerization-initiating group.
Desirably, the two reagents have the same, or essentially the same,
functional group which reacts with the particle surface so that, if
minor variations in reaction conditions occur, the relative rates
at which the reagents react with the particles will change in a
similar manner, and the ratio between the number of charged or
chargeable groups and the number of polymerizable or
polymerization-initiating groups will remain substantially
constant. It will be appreciated that this ratio can be varied and
controlled by varying the relative molar amounts of the two (or
more) reagents used in the mixture. Examples of reagents which
provide chargeable sites but not polymerizable or
polymerization-initiating groups include
3-(trimethoxysilyl)propylamine,
N-[3-(trimethoxysilyl)propyl]diethylenetr- iamine,
N-[3-(trimethoxysilyl)propyl]ethylene and 1-[3-(trimethoxysilyl)pr-
opyl]urea; all these silane reagents may be purchased from United
Chemical Technologies, Inc., Bristol, Pa., 19007. As already
mentioned, an example of a reagent which provides polymerizable
groups but not charged or chargeable groups is
3-(trimethoxysilyl)propyl methacrylate.
[0118] In one preferred embodiment of the present ATRP process, a
first ATRP step is conducted using a monomer which ultimately
provides acidic, basic or other ionic groups within the final
polymer; this monomer may be used alone or in admixture with a
monomer which provides neutral residues within the polymer. For
example, this first ATRP step might be carried out with
4-vinylpyridine, 2-(dimethylamino)methacrylate or t-butyl
methacrylate. Thereafter, a second ATRP step is conducted using a
neutral monomer to produce hydrophobic, neutral polymer block which
has a high affinity for hydrocarbon suspending fluids and which
thus sterically stabilizes the inner charged particle/polymer
block. Obviously, similarly double-coated particles can be produced
using polymerization techniques other than ATRP.
[0119] The polymer-coated particles provided by the present
invention may be used with advantage in all of the types of
electrophoretic display (namely single particle, opposite charge
dual particle, same polarity dual particle and polymer dispersed)
previously described. However, the particles of the present
invention are especially useful in opposite charge dual particle
electrophoretic displays, which are especially difficult to
stabilize, since as already mentioned the two types of particles of
opposite polarity are inherently attracted towards one another and
hence have a strong tendency to form aggregates which may interfere
with the electrophoretic operation of the display.
[0120] The polymer-coated pigment particles provided by the present
invention may also be used in applications other than
electrophoretic displays. For example, the increased affinity for
hydrocarbon materials provided by the polymer coating on the
present pigments should render the pigments advantageous for use in
polymeric and rubber matrices, in which the pigments should be more
readily dispersible than similar but uncoated pigments. The
flexibility in the chemical nature of the polymer coating provided
by the processes of the present invention allows the coating to be
"tuned" for maximum dispersability in any specific matrix. Thus,
the present pigments may be used as easily dispersible pigments or
reactive extrusion compounds. Furthermore, the polymer coating on
the particles of the present invention should improve the
mechanical properties of such pigment/polymer or rubber blends by
reducing the tendency for such blends to shear or fracture at the
interface between the particles and the matrix material. If the
polymer-coated particles are produced by a process which produces
the polymer-coated particles in admixture with "free" polymer not
attached to the particles (as discussed above), it will, in many
cases, not be necessary to separate the coated particles from the
free polymer before dispersing the particles in the polymeric or
rubber matrix, since the free polymer will disperse harmlessly in
the matrix.
[0121] Apart from the provision of the polymer on the pigment
particles, the electrophoretic media of the present invention may
employ the same components and manufacturing techniques as in the
aforementioned Massachusetts Institute of Technology and E Ink
Corporation patents and applications. The following Sections A-D
describe useful materials for use in the various components of the
encapsulated electrophoretic displays of the present invention.
[0122] A. Suspending Fluid
[0123] As already indicated, the suspending fluid containing the
particles should be chosen based on properties such as density,
refractive index, and solubility. A preferred suspending fluid has
a low dielectric constant (about 2), high volume resistivity (about
10.sup.15 ohm-cm), low viscosity (less than 5 centistokes ("cst")),
low toxicity and environmental impact, low water solubility (less
than 10 parts per million ("ppm")), high specific gravity (greater
than 1.5), a high boiling point (greater than 90.degree. C.), and a
low refractive index (less than 1.2).
[0124] The choice of suspending fluid may be based on concerns of
chemical inertness, density matching to the electrophoretic
particle, or chemical compatibility with both the electrophoretic
particle and bounding capsule (in the case of encapsulated
electrophoretic displays). The viscosity of the fluid should be low
when movement of the particles is desired. The refractive index of
the suspending fluid may also be substantially matched to that of
the particles. As used herein, the refractive index of a suspending
fluid "is substantially matched" to that of a particle if the
difference between their respective refractive indices is between
about zero and about 0.3, and is preferably between about 0.05 and
about 0.2.
[0125] Organic solvents, such as halogenated organic solvents,
saturated linear or branched hydrocarbons, silicone oils, and low
molecular weight halogen-containing polymers are some useful
suspending fluids. The suspending fluid may comprise a single
fluid. The fluid will, however, often be a blend of more than one
fluid in order to tune its chemical and physical properties.
Furthermore, the fluid may contain surface modifiers to modify the
surface energy or charge of the electrophoretic particle or
bounding capsule. Reactants or solvents for the microencapsulation
process (oil soluble monomers, for example) can also be contained
in the suspending fluid. Charge control agents can also be added to
the suspending fluid.
[0126] Useful organic solvents include, but are not limited to,
epoxides, such as decane epoxide and dodecane epoxide; vinyl
ethers, such as cyclohexyl vinyl ether and Decave (Registered Trade
Mark of International Flavors & Fragrances, Inc., New York,
N.Y.); and aromatic hydrocarbons, such as toluene and naphthalene.
Useful halogenated organic solvents include, but are not limited
to, tetrafluorodibromoethylene, tetrachloroethylene,
trifluorochloroethylene, 1,2,4-trichlorobenzene and carbon
tetrachloride. These materials have high densities. Useful
hydrocarbons include, but are not limited to, dodecane,
tetradecane, the aliphatic hydrocarbons in the Isopar (Registered
Trade Mark) series (Exxon, Houston, Tex.), Norpar (Registered Trade
Mark) (a series of normal paraffinic liquids), Shell-Sol
(Registered Trade Mark) (Shell, Houston, Tex.), and Sol-Trol
(Registered Trade Mark) (Shell), naphtha, and other petroleum
solvents. These materials usually have low densities. Useful
examples of silicone oils include, but are not limited to,
octamethyl cyclosiloxane and higher molecular weight cyclic
siloxanes, poly(methyl phenyl siloxane), hexamethyidisiloxane, and
polydimethylsiloxane. These materials usually have low densities.
Useful low molecular weight halogen-containing polymers include,
but are not limited to, poly(chlorotrifluoroethylene) polymer
(Halogenated Hydrocarbon Inc., River Edge, N.J.), Galden
(Registered Trade Mark) (a perfluorinated ether from Ausimont,
Morristown, N.J.), or Krytox (Registered Trade Mark) from du Pont
(Wilmington, Del.). In a preferred embodiment, the suspending fluid
is a poly(chlorotrifluoroethylene)polyme- r. In a particularly
preferred embodiment, this polymer has a degree of polymerization
from about 2 to about 10. Many of the above materials are available
in a range of viscosities, densities, and boiling points.
[0127] The fluid must be capable of being formed into small
droplets prior to a capsule being formed. Processes for forming
small droplets include flow-through jets, membranes, nozzles, or
orifices, as well as shear-based emulsifying schemes. The formation
of small drops may be assisted by electrical or sonic fields.
Surfactants and polymers can be used to aid in the stabilization
and emulsification of the droplets in the case of an emulsion type
encapsulation. One surfactant for use in displays of the invention
is sodium dodecylsulfate.
[0128] It can be advantageous in some displays for the suspending
fluid to contain an optically absorbing dye. This dye must be
soluble in the fluid, but will generally be insoluble in the other
components of the capsule. There is much flexibility in the choice
of dye material. The dye can be a pure compound, or blends of dyes
to achieve a particular color, including black. The dyes can be
fluorescent, which would produce a display in which the
fluorescence properties depend on the position of the particles.
The dyes can be photoactive, changing to another color or becoming
colorless upon irradiation with either visible or ultraviolet
light, providing another means for obtaining an optical response.
Dyes could also be polymerizable by, for example, thermal,
photochemical or chemical diffusion processes, forming a solid
absorbing polymer inside the bounding shell.
[0129] There are many dyes that can be used in encapsulated
electrophoretic displays. Properties important here include light
fastness, solubility in the suspending liquid, color, and cost.
These dyes are generally chosen from the classes of azo,
anthraquinone, and triphenylmethane type dyes and may be chemically
modified so as to increase their solubility in the oil phase and
reduce their adsorption by the particle surface.
[0130] A number of dyes already known to those skilled in the art
of electrophoretic displays will prove useful. Useful azo dyes
include, but are not limited to: the Oil Red dyes, and the Sudan
Red and Sudan Black series of dyes. Useful anthraquinone dyes
include, but are not limited to: the Oil Blue dyes, and the
Macrolex Blue series of dyes. Useful triphenylmethane dyes include,
but are not limited to, Michler's hydrol, Malachite Green, Crystal
Violet, and Auramine O.
[0131] B. Charge Control Agents and Particle Stabilizers
[0132] Charge control agents may be used, with or without charged
groups in polymer coatings, to provide good electrophoretic
mobility to the electrophoretic particles. Stabilizers may be used
to prevent agglomeration of the electrophoretic particles, as well
as prevent the electrophoretic particles from irreversibly
depositing onto the capsule wall. Either component can be
constructed from materials across a wide range of molecular weights
(low molecular weight, oligomeric, or polymeric), and may be a
single pure compound or a mixture. The charge control agent used to
modify and/or stabilize the particle surface charge is applied as
generally known in the arts of liquid toners, electrophoretic
displays, non-aqueous paint dispersions, and engine-oil additives.
In all of these arts, charging species may be added to non-aqueous
media in order to increase electrophoretic mobility or increase
electrostatic stabilization. The materials can improve steric
stabilization as well. Different theories of charging are
postulated, including selective ion adsorption, proton transfer,
and contact electrification.
[0133] An optional charge control agent or charge director may be
used. These constituents typically consist of low molecular weight
surfactants, polymeric agents, or blends of one or more components
and serve to stabilize or otherwise modify the sign and/or
magnitude of the charge on the electrophoretic particles.
Additional pigment properties which may be relevant are the
particle size distribution, the chemical composition, and the
lightfastness.
[0134] Charge adjuvants may also be added. These materials increase
the effectiveness of the charge control agents or charge directors.
The charge adjuvant may be a polyhydroxy compound or an
aminoalcohol compound, and is preferably soluble in the suspending
fluid in an amount of at least 2% by weight. Examples of
polyhydroxy compounds which contain at least two hydroxyl groups
include, but are not limited to, ethylene glycol,
2,4,7,9-tetramethyidecyne-4,7-diol, poly(propylene glycol),
pentaethylene glycol, tripropylene glycol, triethylene glycol,
glycerol, pentaerythritol, glycerol tris(i 2-hydroxystearate),
propylene glycerol monohydroxystearate, and ethylene glycol
monohydroxystearate. Examples of aminoalcohol compounds which
contain at least one alcohol function and one amine function in the
same molecule include, but are not limited to, triisopropanolamine,
triethanolamine, ethanolamine, 3-amino-1-propanol, o-aminophenol,
5-amino-1-pentanol, and tetrakis(2-hydroxyethyl)ethylenedi- amine.
The charge adjuvant is preferably present in the suspending fluid
in an amount of about 1 to about 100 milligrams per gram ("mg/g")
of the particle mass, and more preferably about 50 to about 200
mg/g.
[0135] In general, it is believed that charging results as an
acid-base reaction between some moiety present in the continuous
phase and the particle surface. Thus useful materials are those
which are capable of participating in such a reaction, or any other
charging reaction as known in the art.
[0136] Different non-limiting classes of charge control agents
which are useful include organic sulfates or sulfonates, metal
soaps, block or comb copolymers, organic amides, organic
zwitterions, and organic phosphates and phosphonates. Useful
organic sulfates and sulfonates include, but are not limited to,
sodium bis(2-ethylhexyl)sulfosuccinate, calcium
dodecylbenzenesulfonate, calcium petroleum sulfonate, neutral or
basic barium dinonyinaphthalene sulfonate, neutral or basic calcium
dinonyinaphthalene sulfonate, dodecylbenzenesulfonic acid sodium
salt, and ammonium lauryl sulfate. Useful metal soaps include, but
are not limited to, basic or neutral barium petronate, calcium
petronate, Co--, Ca--, Cu--, Mn--, Ni--, Zn--, and Fe-- salts of
naphthenic acid, Ba--, Al--, Zn--, Cu--, Pb--, and Fe-- salts of
stearic acid, divalent and trivalent metal carboxylates, such as
aluminum tristearate, aluminum octanoate, lithium heptanoate, iron
stearate, iron distearate, barium stearate, chromium stearate,
magnesium octanoate, calcium stearate, iron naphthenate, zinc
naphthenate, Mn-- and Zn-- heptanoate, and Ba--, Al--, Co--, Mn--,
and Zn-- octanoate. Useful block or comb copolymers include, but
are not limited to, AB diblock copolymers of (A) polymers of
2-(N,N-dimethylamino)ethyl methacrylate quaternized with methyl
p-toluenesulfonate and (B) poly(2-ethylhexyl methacrylate), and
comb graft copolymers with oil soluble tails of
poly(12-hydroxystearic acid) and having a molecular weight of about
1800, pendant on an oil-soluble anchor group of poly(methyl
methacrylate-methacrylic acid). Useful organic amides include, but
are not limited to, polyisobutylene succinimides such as OLOA 371
or 1200 (available from Chevron Oronite Company LLC, Houston,
Tex.), or Solsperse 17000 (available from Avecia Ltd., Blackley,
Manchester, United Kingdom; "Solsperse" is a Registered Trade
Mark), and N-vinylpyrrolidone polymers. Useful organic zwitterions
include, but are not limited to, lecithin. Useful organic
phosphates and phosphonates include, but are not limited to, the
sodium salts of phosphated mono- and di-glycerides with saturated
and unsaturated acid substituents.
[0137] Particle dispersion stabilizers may be added to prevent
particle flocculation or attachment to the capsule walls. For the
typical high resistivity liquids used as suspending fluids in
electrophoretic displays, non-aqueous surfactants may be used.
These include, but are not limited to, glycol ethers, acetylenic
glycols, alkanolamides, sorbitol derivatives, alkyl amines,
quaternary amines, imidazolines, dialkyl oxides, and
sulfosuccinates.
[0138] If a bistable electrophoretic medium is desired, it may be
desirable to include in the suspending fluid a polymer having a
number average molecular weight in excess of about 20,000, this
polymer being essentially non-absorbing on the electrophoretic
particles; poly(isobutylene) is a preferred polymer for this
purpose. See application Ser. No.10/063,236 filed Apr. 2, 2002
(Publication No. 2002/0180687; the entire disclosure of this
copending application is herein incorporated by reference) and the
corresponding International Application No. PCT/US02/10267
(Publication No. WO 02/079869).
[0139] C. Encapsulation
[0140] Encapsulation of the internal phase may be accomplished in a
number of different ways. Numerous suitable procedures for
microencapsulation are detailed in both Microencapsulation,
Processes and Applications, (I. E. Vandegaer, ed.), Plenum Press,
New York, N.Y. (1974) and Gutcho, Microcapsules and
Microencapsulation Techniques, Noyes Data Corp., Park Ridge, N.J.
(1976). The processes fall into several general categories, all of
which can be applied to the present invention: interfacial
polymerization, in situ polymerization, physical processes, such as
coextrusion and other phase separation processes, in-liquid curing,
and simple/complex coacervation.
[0141] Numerous materials and processes should prove useful in
formulating displays of the present invention. Useful materials for
simple coacervation processes to form the capsule include, but are
not limited to, gelatin, poly(vinyl alcohol), poly(vinyl acetate),
and cellulosic derivatives, such as, for example,
carboxymethylcellulose. Useful materials for complex coacervation
processes include, but are not limited to, gelatin, acacia,
carageenan, carboxymethylcellulose, hydrolyzed styrene anhydride
copolymers, agar, alginate, casein, albumin, methyl vinyl ether
co-maleic anhydride, and cellulose phthalate. Useful materials for
phase separation processes include, but are not limited to,
polystyrene, poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA), poly(ethyl
methacrylate), poly(butyl methacrylate), ethyl cellulose,
poly(vinylpyridine), and polyacrylonitrile. Useful materials for in
situ polymerization processes include, but are not limited to,
polyhydroxyamides, with aldehydes, melamine, or urea and
formaldehyde; water-soluble oligomers of the condensate of
melamine, or urea and formaldehyde; and vinyl monomers, such as,
for example, styrene, methyl methacrylate (MMA) and acrylonitrile.
Finally, useful materials for interfacial polymerization processes
include, but are not limited to, diacyl chlorides, such as, for
example, sebacoyl, adipoyl, and di- or poly-amines or alcohols, and
isocyanates. Useful emulsion polymerization materials may include,
but are not limited to, styrene, vinyl acetate, acrylic acid, butyl
acrylate, t-butyl acrylate, methyl methacrylate, and butyl
methacrylate.
[0142] Capsules produced may be dispersed into a curable carrier,
resulting in an ink which may be printed or coated on large and
arbitrarily shaped or curved surfaces using conventional printing
and coating techniques.
[0143] In the context of the present invention, one skilled in the
art will select an encapsulation procedure and wall material based
on the desired capsule properties. These properties include the
distribution of capsule radii; electrical, mechanical, diffusion,
and optical properties of the capsule wall; and chemical
compatibility with the internal phase of the capsule.
[0144] The capsule wall generally has a high electrical
resistivity. Although it is possible to use walls with relatively
low resistivities, this may limit performance in requiring
relatively higher addressing voltages. The capsule wall should also
be mechanically strong (although if the finished capsule powder is
to be dispersed in a curable polymeric binder for coating,
mechanical strength is not as critical). The capsule wall should
generally not be porous. If, however, it is desired to use an
encapsulation procedure that produces porous capsules, these can be
overcoated in a post-processing step (i.e., a second
encapsulation). Moreover, if the capsules are to be dispersed in a
curable binder, the binder will serve to close the pores. The
capsule walls should be optically clear. The wall material may,
however, be chosen to match the refractive index of the internal
phase of the capsule (i.e., the suspending fluid) or a binder in
which the capsules are to be dispersed. For some applications
(e.g., interposition between two fixed electrodes), monodispersed
capsule radii are desirable.
[0145] An encapsulation technique that is suited to the present
invention involves a polymerization between urea and formaldehyde
in an aqueous phase of an oil/water emulsion in the presence of a
negatively charged, carboxyl-substituted, linear hydrocarbon
polyelectrolyte material. The resulting capsule wall is a
urea/formaldehyde copolymer, which discretely encloses the internal
phase. The capsule is clear, mechanically strong, and has good
resistivity properties.
[0146] The related technique of in situ polymerization utilizes an
oil/water emulsion, which is formed by dispersing the
electrophoretic fluid (i.e., the dielectric liquid containing a
suspension of the pigment particles) in an aqueous environment. The
monomers polymerize to form a polymer with higher affinity for the
internal phase than for the aqueous phase, thus condensing around
the emulsified oily droplets. In one in situ polymerization
process, urea and formaldehyde condense in the presence of
poly(acrylic acid) (see, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 4,001,140). In other
processes, described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,273,672, any of a variety
of cross-linking agents borne in aqueous solution is deposited
around microscopic oil droplets. Such cross-linking agents include
aldehydes, especially formaldehyde, glyoxal, or glutaraldehyde;
alum; zirconium salts; and polyisocyanates.
[0147] The coacervation approach also utilizes an oil/water
emulsion. One or more colloids are coacervated (i.e., agglomerated)
out of the aqueous phase and deposited as shells around the oily
droplets through control of temperature, pH and/or relative
concentrations, thereby creating the microcapsule. Materials
suitable for coacervation include gelatins and gum arabic. See,
e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 2,800,457.
[0148] The interfacial polymerization approach relies on the
presence of an oil-soluble monomer in the electrophoretic
composition, which once again is present as an emulsion in an
aqueous phase. The monomers in the minute hydrophobic droplets
react with a monomer introduced into the aqueous phase,
polymerizing at the interface between the droplets and the
surrounding aqueous medium and forming shells around the droplets.
Although the resulting walls are relatively thin and may be
permeable, this process does not require the elevated temperatures
characteristic of some other processes, and therefore affords
greater flexibility in terms of choosing the dielectric liquid.
[0149] Coating aids can be used to improve the uniformity and
quality of the coated or printed electrophoretic ink material.
Wetting agents are typically added to adjust the interfacial
tension at the coating/substrate interface and to adjust the
liquid/air surface tension. Wetting agents include, but are not
limited to, anionic and cationic surfactants, and nonionic species,
such as silicone or fluoropolymer-based materials. Dispersing
agents may be used to modify the interfacial tension between the
capsules and binder, providing control over flocculation and
particle settling.
[0150] Surface tension modifiers can be added to adjust the air/ink
interfacial tension. Polysiloxanes are typically used in such an
application to improve surface leveling while minimizing other
defects within the coating. Surface tension modifiers include, but
are not limited to, fluorinated surfactants, such as, for example,
the Zonyl (Registered Trade Mark) series from du Pont, the Fluorad
(Registered Trade Mark) series from 3M (St. Paul, Minn.), and the
fluoroalkyl series from Autochem (Glen Rock, N.J.); siloxanes, such
as, for example, Silwet (Registered Trade Mark) from Union Carbide
(Danbury, Conn.); and polyethoxy and polypropoxy alcohols.
Antifoams, such as silicone and silicone-free polymeric materials,
may be added to enhance the movement of air from within the ink to
the surface and to facilitate the rupture of bubbles at the coating
surface. Other useful antifoams include, but are not limited to,
glyceryl esters, polyhydric alcohols, compounded antifoams, such as
oil solutions of alkylbenzenes, natural fats, fatty acids, and
metallic soaps, and silicone antifoaming agents made from the
combination of dimethyl siloxane polymers and silica. Stabilizers
such as UV-absorbers and antioxidants may also be added to improve
the lifetime of the ink.
[0151] D. Binder Material
[0152] The binder typically is used as an adhesive medium that
supports and protects the capsules, as well as binds the electrode
materials to the capsule dispersion. A binder can be
non-conducting, semiconductive, or conductive. Binders are
available in many forms and chemical types. Among these are
water-soluble polymers, water-borne polymers, oil-soluble polymers,
thermoset and thermoplastic polymers, and radiation-cured
polymers.
[0153] Among the water-soluble polymers are the various
polysaccharides, the polyvinyl alcohols, N-methylpyrrolidone,
N-vinylpyrrolidone, the various Carbowax (Registered Trade Mark)
species (Union Carbide, Danbury, Conn.), and poly(2-hydroxyethyl
acrylate).
[0154] The water-dispersed or water-borne systems are generally
latex compositions, typified by the Neorez (Registered Trade Mark)
and Neocryl (Registered Trade Mark) resins (Zeneca Resins,
Wilmington, Mass.), Acrysol (Registered Trade Mark) (Rohm and Haas,
Philadelphia, Pa.), Bayhydrol (Registered Trade Mark) (Bayer,
Pittsburgh, Pa.), and the Cytec Industries (West Paterson, N.J.) HP
line. These are generally latices of polyurethanes, occasionally
compounded with one or more of the acrylics, polyesters,
polycarbonates or silicones, each lending the final cured resin in
a specific set of properties defined by glass transition
temperature, degree of "tack," softness, clarity, flexibility,
water permeability and solvent resistance, elongation modulus and
tensile strength, thermoplastic flow, and solids level. Some
water-borne systems can be mixed with reactive monomers and
catalyzed to form more complex resins. Some can be further
cross-linked by the use of a cross-linking reagent, such as an
aziridine, for example, which reacts with carboxyl groups.
[0155] A typical application of a water-borne resin and aqueous
capsules follows. A volume of particles is centrifuged at low speed
to separate excess water. After a given centrifugation process, for
example 10 minutes at 60.times. gravity ("g"), the capsules are
found at the bottom of the centrifuge tube, while the water is at
the top. The water is carefully removed (by decanting or
pipetting). The mass of the remaining capsules is measured, and a
mass of resin is added such that the mass of resin is, for example,
between one eighth and one tenth of the weight of the capsules.
This mixture is gently mixed on an oscillating mixer for
approximately one half hour. After about one half hour, the mixture
is ready to be coated onto the appropriate substrate.
[0156] The thermoset systems are exemplified by the family of
epoxies. These binary systems can vary greatly in viscosity, and
the reactivity of the pair determines the "pot life" of the
mixture. If the pot life is long enough to allow a coating
operation, capsules may be coated in an ordered arrangement in a
coating process prior to the resin curing and hardening.
[0157] Thermoplastic polymers, which are often polyesters, are
molten at high temperatures. A typical application of this type of
product is hot-melt glue. A dispersion of heat-resistant capsules
could be coated in such a medium. The solidification process begins
during cooling, and the final hardness, clarity and flexibility are
affected by the branching and molecular weight of the polymer.
[0158] Oil or solvent-soluble polymers are often similar in
composition to the water-borne system, with the obvious exception
of the water itself. The latitude in formulation for solvent
systems is enormous, limited only by solvent choices and polymer
solubility. Of considerable concern in solvent-based systems is the
viability of the capsule itself; the integrity of the capsule wall
cannot be compromised in any way by the solvent.
[0159] Radiation cure resins are generally found among the
solvent-based systems. Capsules may be dispersed in such a medium
and coated, and the resin may then be cured by a timed exposure to
a threshold level of ultraviolet radiation, either long or short
wavelength. As in all cases of curing polymer resins, final
properties are determined by the branching and molecular weights of
the monomers, oligomers and cross-linkers.
[0160] A number of "water-reducible" monomers and oligomers are,
however, marketed. In the strictest sense, they are not water
soluble, but water is an acceptable diluent at low concentrations
and can be dispersed relatively easily in the mixture. Under these
circumstances, water is used to reduce the viscosity (initially
from thousands to hundreds of thousands centipoise). Water-based
capsules, such as those made from a protein or polysaccharide
material, for example, could be dispersed in such a medium and
coated, provided the viscosity could be sufficiently lowered.
Curing in such systems is generally by ultraviolet radiation.
[0161] Like other encapsulated electrophoretic displays, the
encapsulated electrophoretic displays of the present invention
provide flexible, reflective displays that can be manufactured
easily and consume little power (or no power in the case of
bistable displays in certain states). Such displays, therefore, can
be incorporated into a variety of applications and can take on many
forms. Once the electric field is removed, the electrophoretic
particles can be generally stable. Additionally, providing a
subsequent electric charge can alter a prior configuration of
particles. Such displays may include, for example, a plurality of
anisotropic particles and a plurality of second particles in a
suspending fluid. Application of a first electric field may cause
the anisotropic particles to assume a specific orientation and
present an optical property. Application of a second electric field
may then cause the plurality of second particles to translate,
thereby disorienting the anisotropic particles and disturbing the
optical property. Alternatively, the orientation of the anisotropic
particles may allow easier translation of the plurality of second
particles. Alternatively or in addition, the particles may have a
refractive index that substantially matches the refractive index of
the suspending fluid.
[0162] An encapsulated electrophoretic display may take many forms.
The capsules of such a display may be of any size or shape. The
capsules may, for example, be spherical and may have diameters in
the millimeter range or the micron range, but are preferably from
about ten to about a few hundred microns. The particles within the
capsules of such a display may be colored, luminescent,
light-absorbing or transparent, for example.
[0163] The following Examples are now given, though by way of
illustration only, to show details of particularly preferred
reagents, conditions and techniques used in the electrophoretic
media and displays of the present invention. All centrifuging
mentioned was carried out on a Beckman GS-6 or Allegra 6 centrifuge
(available from Beckman Coulter, Inc., Fullerton, Calif.
92834).
EXAMPLE 1
[0164] This Example illustrates the provision of a silica coating
on various types of pigment particles. The procedure used is
adapted from U.S. Pat. No. 3,639,133.
[0165] Ferric oxide (Fe2O.sub.3, 50 g) was placed in a sodium
silicate solution (430 ml of a 0.073M solution with 1.9% sodium
hydroxide), and the resultant mixture was rapidly stirred and then
sonicated at 30-35.degree. C. The suspension was then heated to
90-95.degree. C. over a period of 1 hour and sulfuric acid (150 ml
of a 0.22 M solution) and additional sodium silicate (75 ml of a
0.83 M solution with 0.2% sodium hydroxide) were added
simultaneously over a period of 2.5 to 3 hours, with stirring.
After these additions had been completed, the reaction mixture was
stirred for an additional 15 minutes, then cooled to room
temperature, added to plastic bottles and centrifuged at 3500 rpm
for 15 minutes. The supernatant liquor was decanted, and the
silica-coated pigment re-dispersed in deionized water and
centrifuged at 3500 rpm for 15 minutes. The washing was repeated
twice more, and the pigment finally dried in an oven at 85.degree.
C. for 2 hours.
EXAMPLE 2
[0166] This Example illustrates reaction of the silica-coated
pigment prepared in Example 1 with a bifunctional reagent in the
first stage of an RGP process of the present invention.
[0167] To a mixture of ethanol (500 ml) and water (50 mL),
concentrated ammonium hydroxide was added until the pH reached
9.0-9.5, N-[3-(trimethoxysilyl)proplyl]-N'-(4-vinylbenzyl)ethylene
diamine hydrochloride (40 g of a 40 weight per cent solution in
methanol) was added, and the resultant solution was stirred rapidly
for 4 minutes. The silica-coated ferric oxide (25 g) prepared in
Example 1 was then added, and the mixture stirred rapidly for 7
minutes. The resultant suspension was poured into plastic bottles
and centrifuged at 3500 rpm for 30 minutes. The supernatant liquor
was decanted, and the silanized pigment re-dispersed in ethanol and
centrifuged at 3500 rpm for 30 minutes, and the liquid decanted.
The washing was repeated, and the pigment finally dried in air for
18 hours, then under vacuum at 70.degree. C. for 2 hours.
[0168] The procedures described in Examples 1 and 2 have been
repeated successfully with chromic oxide (Cr.sub.2O.sub.3), cobalt
aluminate (CoAl.sub.2O.sub.4), cobalt chromate (CoCr.sub.2O.sub.4),
copper chromate (CuCr.sub.2O.sub.4), zinc ferrate
(ZnFe.sub.2O.sub.4), nickel aluminate (NiAl.sub.2O.sub.4), zinc
aluminate (ZnAl.sub.2O.sub.4), lead chromate (PbCr.sub.2O.sub.4),
cobalt titanate Co.sub.2TiO.sub.4), antimony dioxide (SbO.sub.2),
nickel dioxide (NiO.sub.2) and molybdenum (II) oxide (MoO).
EXAMPLE 3
[0169] This Example illustrates conversion of the silanized pigment
produced in Example 2 to a polymer-coated pigment useful in an
electrophoretic display.
[0170] The silanized pigment produced in Example 2 (50 g) was
placed in a round-bottomed flask with toluene (50 g) and
2-ethylhexyl methacrylate monomer (50 g). The resultant mixture was
stirred rapidly under a nitrogen atmosphere (argon may
alternatively be used) for 20 minutes, then slowly heated to
50.degree. C. and AIBN (0.5 g in 10 ml of toluene) added quickly.
The suspension was then heated to 65.degree. C. and stirred at this
temperature under nitrogen for a further 18 hours. The resultant
viscous suspension was poured into plastic bottles, the flask being
washed out with ethyl acetate to remove residual product and the
ethyl acetate solution added to the bottles. The bottles were
centrifuged at 3500 rpm for 30 minutes. The supernatant liquor was
decanted, and the polymer-coated pigment re-dispersed in ethyl
acetate and centrifuged at 3500 rpm for 30 minutes, and the liquid
decanted. The washing was repeated, and the pigment dried in air
until a workable powder was obtained, and then under vacuum at
65.degree. C. for 6 to 18 hours.
EXAMPLE 4
[0171] This Example illustrates an ATRP process of the present
invention in which an ATRP initiating group is bonded to a pigment
using a polymeric bifunctional reagent.
[0172] A terpolymer was prepared by adding styrene (80 g),
p-chloromethylstyrene (15 g), trimethoxysilyl methacrylate (23 g),
AIBN (6.3 g) and toluene (94 g) to a round-bottomed flask, which
was then purged with nitrogen for approximately 45 minutes. The
flask was heated to 60.degree. C. and maintained at this
temperature for about 18 hours. Thermogravimetric analysis
indicated that the resultant solution contained about 40 per cent
by weight polymer.
[0173] An aliquot (12 g, equal to approximately 4.8 g of
terpolymer) as added to THF (100 ml), and then silica-coated
titania (20 g of du Pont R960) was added to the solution, and the
mixture was sonicated for 5 minutes, and then stirred vigorously.
Hexane (500 ml) was added, and the stirring was stopped, whereupon
the titania immediately settled out. The mixture was then
centrifuged at 5000 rpm for 5 minutes, the liquid decanted and the
treated pigment left to stand overnight at room temperature to dry
and cure (i.e., for the reaction between the silyl groups of the
polymer and the silica surface of the pigment to be completed).
Thermogravimetric analysis indicated that about 3 weight per cent
of polymer had become attached to the pigment.
[0174] The polymer-treated pigment thus produced was subjected to
ATRP in the following manner. An aliquot (5.0 g, equivalent to 0.09
mmole of chloromethylstyrene, the ATRP initiator) of the pigment,
cuprous chloride (111 mg, 111 mmole), bipyridyl (45 mg, 0.29
mmole), and methyl methacrylate (10 ml, 94 mmole) were placed in a
flask and purged with nitrogen for 30 minutes. The flask was then
placed on a bath at 120-130.degree. C. for approximately 4 hours.
Additional methyl methacrylate (5 ml) was added, the flask purged
with nitrogen for 15 minutes, and the flask was returned to the
bath for an additional 2 hours at 120-130.degree. C., and finally
allowed to cool. Methanol (400 ml) was added to precipitate the
polymer-coated pigment, the liquid was decanted and the pigment
washed once with methanol (200 ml) and twice with dichloromethane
(200 ml each time) and dried at room temperature overnight.
Thermogravimetric analysis indicated that the final polymer
contained approximately 13.1 per cent by weight of polymer, so that
the ATRP added approximately 10.1 per cent by weight of polymer to
the terpolymer-treated pigment.
EXAMPLE 5
[0175] This Example illustrates an RGP process of the present
invention starting from carbon black.
[0176] Part A: Preparation of Black Pigment having Radical Grafting
Groups Attached to the Particle Surface.
[0177] Carbon black (Printex A, 140 g) was dispersed in water (3 L)
with magnetic stirring, then hydrochloric acid (6 mL of 37% by
weight) and 4-vinylaniline (3.0 g, 25 mmole) were added, and the
resultant mixture was heated to 40.degree. C. Separately, sodium
nitrite (1.74 g, 25 mmole) was dissolved in water (10 ml). This
nitrite solution was then added slowly to the carbon
black-containing reaction mixture over a 10 minute period, and the
reaction mixture was stirred for a further 16 hours. The resultant
product was centrifuged and the solids produced rinsed with acetone
(200 ml). This rinsing was repeated and the solids dried under
vacuum for 12 hours to produce 141 g of the desired product.
Thermogravimetric analysis of this product showed a 1.4 per cent
weight loss.
[0178] Part B: Preparation of the Polymer-Coated Black Pigment.
[0179] To a reaction flask fitted with a nitrogen purge apparatus,
magnetic stir bar and reflux column were added the product of Part
A above (20 g), toluene (40 ml), 2-ethylhexyl acrylate (40 ml) and
AIBN (0.26 g). The flask was purged with nitrogen for 20 minutes
with stirring, then immersed into a room temperature oil bath,
gradually heated to 70.degree. C., with continuous stirring, and
maintained at this temperature for 20 hours. The reaction mixture
was then allowed to cool, diluted with an equal volume of acetone,
and centrifuged. The supernatant liquor was decanted, and the
solids redispersed in THF (ethyl acetate may alternatively be used)
and rinsed; this process was repeated until thermogravimetric
analysis consistently indicated a weight less of 8.9 per cent.
Approximately 20 g of the final product was isolated.
EXAMPLE 6
[0180] This Example illustrates an RGP process of the present
invention starting from titania.
[0181] Part A: Preparation of White Pigment having Radical Grafting
Groups Attached to the Particle Surface.
[0182] To a 95:5 v/v ethanol water mixture (2 L) was added
3-(trimethoxysilyl)methacrylate (Dow Z6030, 20 ml), and the pH of
the solution was immediately adjusted to 4.5 by addition of acetic
acid. The resultant solution was stirred for 5 minutes, then
silica-coated titania (100 g of du Pont R960) was added and the
mixture stirred for a further 10-20 minutes, the solids were
allowed to settle, and the supernatant liquor was decanted. The
resultant solids were washed twice with acetone (2.times.200 ml
aliquots) and dried overnight at room temperature.
[0183] Part B: Preparation of the Polymer-Coated White Pigment.
[0184] To a reaction flask fitted with a nitrogen purge apparatus,
magnetic stir bar and reflux column were added the product of Part
A above (40 g), toluene (50 ml), 2-ethylhexyl acrylate (45 ml) and
AIBN (0.3 g). The flask was purged with nitrogen for 20 minutes,
with stirring, then immersed into a room temperature oil bath,
gradually heated to 70.degree. C., with continuous stirring, and
maintained at this temperature for 20 hours. The reaction mixture
was then allowed to cool, diluted with an equal volume of acetone,
and centrifuged. The supernatant liquor was decanted, and the
solids redispersed in acetone or THF and rinsed; this process was
repeated until thermogravimetric analysis indicated a consistent
weight loss in the range of 4.5 to 10 per cent. Approximately 40 g
of the final product was isolated.
[0185] A similar polymer-coated titania was prepared substituting
an equimolar amount of 2-ethylhexyl methacrylate in place of the
corresponding acrylate monomer.
EXAMPLE 7
[0186] This Example illustrates the construction of an encapsulated
dual-particle electrophoretic display using the polymer-coated
pigments prepared in Examples 5 and 6 above. The suspending fluid
used is a mixture of a 1:1 w/w mixture of a hydrocarbon (Isopar-G,
available commercially from Exxon Corporation, Houston, Tex.;
"Isopar" is a Registered Trade Mark) and a halogenated hydrocarbon
oil (Halogenated hydrocarbon oil 1.8, available commercially from
Halogenated Hydrocarbon Products Corporation, River Edge, N.J.
referred to hereinafter for simplicity as "Halocarbon"); this
mixture is hereinafter referred to as "1:1 Isopar/Halocarbon
mixture". This suspending fluid also contains, as a charge control
agent, Emphos (Registered Trade Mark) D-70-30C (a phosphated
mono/diglyceride surface active agent sold by Witco Chemical
Company, Greenwich, Conn.).
[0187] Part A: Preparation of Internal Phase
[0188] Into a 125 ml polypropylene bottle were placed 4.0 g of the
2-ethylmethacrylate coated titania prepared in Example 6 above,
0.24 g of a 10 per cent by weight solution of Emphos D-70-30C in
Isopar, and 47.80 g of 1:1 Isopar/Halocarbon mixture. The resultant
mixture was sonicated for 30 minutes to obtain a uniform
dispersion.
[0189] Into another 125 ml polypropylene bottle were placed 0.16 g
of the polymer-coated carbon black prepared in Example 5 above,
0.16 g of the 10 per cent by weight solution of Emphos D-70-30C,
and 47.80 g of 1:1 Isopar/Halocarbon mixture. The resultant mixture
was sonicated for 30 minutes to obtain a uniform dispersion.
[0190] Following the separate sonication of these two dispersions,
they were mixed and allowed to stand, with gentle agitation, for 24
hours before being encapsulated as described in Part B below.
[0191] Part B: Encapsulation
[0192] A 4 L reactor fitted with a water jacket, an overhead
stirrer, a 1 L dropping funnel and a pH meter, was heated to
40.degree. C. and charged with cold deionized water (2622.4 g).
Over a period of approximately 30 seconds, gelatin (33.3 g) was
added to the cold water, without stirring, and the resultant
mixture was left to stand without stirring for 1 hour to allow the
gelatin to swell. After this period, the mixture was agitated
gently (at 50 rpm) to 30 minutes to dissolve the gelatin without
producing foam, thus producing gelatin solution at 40.degree. C.
Separately, acacia (33.3 g, available from Sigma-Aldrich, Inc.,
P.O. Box 2060, Milwaukee Wis. 53201) was dissolved in cold
deionized water (655.6 g) with rapid stirring, and the resultant
solution heated to 40.degree. C. over a period of 1 hour. Internal
phase prepared as in Part A above (approximately 1 L) was heated to
40.degree. C. and sonicated for 10 minutes.
[0193] The warm gelatin solution was stirred at 130 rpm, and the
internal phase was added via the dropping funnel over a period of
approximately 15 minutes; the addition was conducted by placing the
outlet of the dropping funnel below the surface of the gelatin
solution. After the addition of the internal phase was complete,
the rate of stirring was increased to 175 rpm and the stirring
continued for 30 minutes at 40.degree. C. in order to emulsify the
internal phase into droplets having an average diameter of about
300 .mu.m.
[0194] The acacia solution was then added over a period of about 1
minute, care being taken to avoid foaming. The pH of the mixture
was lowered to approximately 4.7 using 10 per cent aqueous acetic
acid (approximately 3-4 g), and the vigorous stirring was continued
to a further 40 minutes at the same temperature. The temperature of
the mixture was lowered to 10.degree. C. over a period of at least
two hours, with continued vigorous stirring, and glutaraldehyde
(16.7 g) was added. After this addition, the mixture was warmed to
25.degree. C. over a period of 30 minutes and stirred vigorously
for a further 12 hours. Finally, stirring was discontinued, and the
mixture was discharged from the reactor and the capsules which had
formed were isolated and washed three times by sedimentation and
redispersion in deionized water until the pH of the wash water was
5.0.
[0195] Part C : Production of Electrophoretic Display
[0196] The capsules prepared in Part B above were mixed with an
aqueous urethane binder (NeoRez R-9320, available from NeoResins,
730 Main Street, Wilmington Mass. 01887) at a ratio of 1 part by
weight binder to 9 parts by weight of capsules, and 0.3 weight per
cent of hydroxypropylmethylcellulose was added as a slot-coating
additive. The resultant mixture was slot coated on to a 125 .mu.m
thick indium-tin oxide coated polyester film moving at 1 m/sec
relative to the slot coating head. The coated film was allowed to
air dry for 10 minutes, then oven dried at 50.degree. C. for 15
minutes to produce an electrophoretic medium approximately 50 .mu.m
thick containing essentially a single layer of capsules (see the
aforementioned published International Patent Application WO
00/20922).
[0197] The capsule-coated surface of the coated film was then
overcoated with the aforementioned NeoRez R-9320 binder using a
doctor blade with a 13 mil (330 .mu.m) gap setting (this binder
serves both to planarize the capsule-coated surface and as a
lamination adhesive) and the overcoated film dried at 50.degree. C.
for 20 minutes. The dried film was then hot laminated to a
backplane comprising a 3 mm thick sheet of polyester screen printed
with thick film silver and dielectric inks with a pressure of 15
psig. The conductive areas of the backplane form addressable areas
of the resulting display.
EXAMPLES 8-12
[0198] These Examples illustrates variations in the construction of
encapsulated dual-particle electrophoretic displays similar to that
produced in Example 7 above. In all these Examples, the lamination
adhesive used was an 80 .mu.m layer of the aforementioned NeoRez
R-9320. The binder used was either the same material or Airflex
(Registered Trade Mark) 430, a vinyl chloride/vinyl
acetate/ethylene terpolymer adhesive sold by Air Products and
Chemicals, Inc., Allentown, Pa. The charge control agent used was
the aforementioned Emphos D-70-30C, Solsperse 17000 (available
commercially from Avecia Ltd.) or Span 85 sold by ICI Americas,
Inc., Wilmington, Del.; "Span" is a Registered Trade Mark). In
Examples 8,10, 11 and 12, the capsules were fractionated by size to
a range of 200-400 .mu.m; in Example 9, no such fractionation was
effected.
[0199] Full details of the materials used in the electrophoretic
displays are given in Table 1 below; in this Table, "EHA" denotes
2-ethylhexyl acrylate and "EHMA" denotes 2-ethylhexyl methacrylate;
all the black pigments used 2-ethylhexyl acrylate as the monomer.
The row denoted "Conductivity" indicates the conductivity of the
electrophoretic medium as prepared with the binder, while "CCA"
indicates the charge control agent used. "Weight % White (Black)
Pigment" denotes the weight percentage relative to the weight of
the internal phase, while "Weight % Polymer on White (Black)
Pigment" denotes weight percentage relative to the starting weight
of the relevant pigment.
1TABLE 1 Example No. 8 9 10 11 12 Binder Airflex NeoRez NeoRez
Airflex NeoRez Conductivity 3.2 94.8 -- -- 3.2 pS/cm Weight % 46.9
45.9 47.8 47.8 46.9 Halocarbon Weight % 46.9 45.9 47.8 47.8 46.9
Isopar G CCA Span 85 Solsperse Emphos Emphos Span 85 Weight % 2.00
0.40 0.04 0.04 2.00 CCA Weight % 3.99 3.99 3.83 3.83 3.99 White
Pigment White EHA EHA EHMA EHMA EHA Pigment Monomer Weight % 6 6 10
10 6 Polymer on White Pigment Weight % 0.16 0.16 0.15 0.15 0.15
Black Pigment Weight % 15 15 15 15 15 Polymer on Black Pigment
EXAMPLE 13
[0200] This Example illustrates an ionic RGP process of the present
invention in which titania is first treated with a silylating agent
which places substituted ammonium groups on the surface of the
titania to allow for the formation of the desired ionic bond with a
polymerizable monomer.
[0201] A 2 per cent by weight solution of
N-trimethoxysilyl-N,N,N-trimethy- lammonium chloride in
ethanol/water/methanol was prepared by first preparing a 50 weight
per cent solution of the silyl compound in methanol, and then
adding this solution (22.3 g) to a 95:5 v/v ethanol/water mixture
(547 g). The pH of the resultant solution was lowered from 8 to 5.5
by addition of 10 per cent aqueous acetic acid, and then titania
(25.0 g of du Pont R960) was added, with vigorous stirring. The
resultant mixture was centrifuged, the supernatant liquor decanted
and the solids washed with ethanol (approximately 500 ml) and
allowed to stand at room temperature for 24 hours to allow
completion of the reaction. Thermogravimetric analysis indicated
that 0.56 g of the silyl compound had become attached to each 100 g
of titania.
[0202] To effect salt formation between the substituted ammonium
groups on this product and an acid containing a polymerizable
group, the product (21.5 g) was dispersed in water (265 ml) and
4-styrenesulfonic acid chloride dihydrate (0.2 g, 0.9 mmole) was
added, and the resultant mixture was stirred for 1 hour, then 1 L
of acetone was added and the mixture was centrifuged, the
supernatant liquor decanted and the solids dried in air. The dried
solids were dispersed in water (50 ml) and 4-styrenesulfonic acid
(0.2 g, 0.9 mmole) was added. Isopropanol (250 ml) was added, the
mixture was divided into two portions, and each portion was diluted
to 250 ml with isopropanol and centrifuged, and the resultant
solids re-dispersed in water (250 ml) and allowed to stand
overnight, with gentle agitation. Finally, each portion was
centrifuged, the resultant solids re-dispersed in acetone (250 ml)
and again centrifuged, the mother liquor decanted and the solids
allowed to dry overnight, then oven dried under vacuum for 2 hours
at 70.degree. C.
[0203] To effect the formation of polymer on the vinyl groups thus
introduced into this product, the product (15 g), toluene (15 ml),
2-ethylhexyl acrylate (15 ml) and AIBN (150 mg in 10 ml of toluene)
were placed in a 100 ml round-bottomed flask, which was purged with
nitrogen for 30 minutes and heated to 66.degree. C. for
approximately 20 hours. The reaction mixture was then allowed to
cool, centrifuged and the separated solids washed twice with THF,
air dried and then dried under vacuum for 2 hours at 70.degree. C.
to yield a product which showed a weight loss of approximately 4
per cent on thermogravimetric analysis.
EXAMPLE 14
[0204] This Example illustrates an RGP-ATRP process of the present
invention applied to carbon black.
[0205] Carbon black (19.4 g, bearing styrene groups, prepared as in
Example 5, Part A above), toluene (150 ml), 2-ethylhexyl
methacrylate (150 ml), p-chloromethylstyrene (2.2 mL), and AIBN
(0.6 g) were placed in a round-bottomed flask, which was purged
with nitrogen for 30 minutes, and then heated to 70.degree. C. for
16 hours. The reaction mixture was then allowed to cool, and
centrifuged. The supernatant liquor was decanted, and the solids
redispersed in THF and again centrifuged; this process was repeated
twice. The yield of product was 13.4 g, and thermogravimetric
analysis indicated a polymer content of 10.0 per cent by
weight.
[0206] To carry out the ATRP step of the process, this product (10
g) was mixed in a flask with 2-ethylhexyl methacrylate (220 ml),
cuprous chloride (80 mg) and hexamethyltriethylenetetramine (156
mg). The flask was purged with nitrogen for 30 minutes, and then
heated to 120.degree. C. for 1.5 hours. The reaction mixture was
then allowed to cool, and centrifuged. The supernatant liquor was
decanted, and the solids redispersed in THF and again centrifuged;
this process was repeated once more. Thermogravimetric analysis
indicated a polymer content of 24 per cent by weight.
EXAMPLE 15
[0207] This Example illustrates the reaction of titania pigment
with a silylating agent in the first step of an RGP process of the
present invention.
[0208] To a 4 L Erlenmeyer flask equipped with a magnetic stir bar
were added ethanol (2.5 L) and water (200 ml), and the pH of the
solution was adjusted to 4.5 by addition of 33 per cent aqueous
acetic acid. 3-(Trimethoxysilyl)propyl methacrylate (Dow Z6030, 124
ml, 130 g, 0.52 mole) was added, and the resultant mixture was
stirred for 4 minutes to allow hydrolysis and condensation of the
silyl compound to occur. After this stirring, silica-coated titania
(300 g of du Pont R960) was added, and the reaction mixture was
stirred for a further 7 minutes to allow the silyl compound to
hydrogen bond to the titania. The reaction mixture was then poured
into four 1 L centrifuge bottles and centrifuged for 15 minutes at
3500 rpm. The supernatant liquor was decanted and the solid pigment
allowed to dry in air for 8 hours. The dried pigments from the four
bottles were then combined into a single bottle, which was heated
in an oven under vacuum to 70.degree. C. for 2 hours to allow the
silyl compound to react with and bond to the titania. The bottle
was then removed from the oven and the pigment washed with ethanol
to remove any non-bonded silyl compound by filling the bottle with
ethanol, centrifuging for 15 minutes at 3000 rpm, decanting the
liquid, and finally drying the pigment in air for 8 hours and then
under vacuum at 70.degree. C. for 2 hours. The silanized pigment
thus produced showed a weight loss of 1.88 per cent under
thermogravimetric analysis.
EXAMPLE 16
[0209] This Example illustrates the reaction of the silanized
titania pigment produced in Example 15 with 2-ethylhexyl acrylate
in the second step of an RGP process of the present invention.
[0210] To a 250 ml flask equipped with a condenser, a nitrogen
blanket, a stir bar, and stirring beads was added the silanized
pigment produced in Example 15 (50 g). A solution of 2-ethylhexyl
acrylate (50 g, 0.27 mole) in toluene (53 ml, 50 g, 0.49 mole) was
added to the flask in a disposable container, and the resultant
mixture was stirred for 20 minutes while nitrogen was bubbled
therethrough. The needles used to introduce the nitrogen were then
removed, and the mixture was slowly heated to 60-65.degree. C.,
with AIBN (0.5 g, 3 mmole, equal to 1 mole per cent of the monomer
in the reaction mixture) dissolved in toluene (10 ml) being added
when the temperature reached 50.degree. C. The resultant reaction
mixture was maintained at 60-65.degree. C. under nitrogen for 18
hours, then allowed to cool to room temperature. Acetone (50 ml)
was added to lessen the viscosity of the reaction mixture, which
was poured into two 250 ml centrifuge bottles, with additional
acetone being added to fill the bottles. The bottles were then
centrifuged at 3000 rpm for 15 minutes and the supernatant liquor
was decanted. The bottles were filled with THF and shaken
vigorously until no pigment remained on the bottom of the bottles,
then centrifuged at 3000 rpm for 15 minutes and the supernatant
liquor was decanted. The polymer-coated pigment thus produced was
allowed to air dry in the bottles for 4 hours until the pigment
could readily be broken up. The two lots of pigment from the
bottles were combined and dried under vacuum at 65.degree. C. for
18 hours. The polymer-coated pigment thus produced showed a weight
loss of 5.7 per cent under thermogravimetric analysis.
EXAMPLE 17
[0211] This Example illustrates the reaction of the silanized
titania pigment produced in Example 15 with 2-ethylhexyl
methacrylate in the second step of an RGP process of the present
invention.
[0212] To a 250 ml flask equipped with a condenser, a nitrogen
blanket, a stir bar, and stirring beads was added the silanized
pigment produced in Example 15 (50 g). A solution of 2-ethylhexyl
methacrylate (50 g, 0.25 mole) in toluene (53 ml, 50 g, 0.49 mole)
was added to the flask in a disposable container, and the resultant
mixture was stirred for 20 minutes while nitrogen was bubbled
therethrough. The needles used to introduce the nitrogen were then
removed, and the mixture was slowly heated to 60-65.degree. C.,
with AIBN (0.5 g, 3 mmole, equal to 1 mole per cent of the monomer
in the reaction mixture) dissolved in toluene (10 ml) being added
when the temperature reached 50.degree. C. The resultant reaction
mixture was maintained at 60-65.degree. C. under nitrogen for 18
hours, then allowed to cool to room temperature. Acetone (50 ml)
was added to lessen the viscosity of the reaction mixture, which
was poured into two 250 ml centrifuge bottles, with additional
acetone being added to fill the bottles. The bottles were then
centrifuged at 3000 rpm for 15 minutes and the supernatant liquor
was decanted. The bottles were filled with THF and shaken
vigorously until no pigment remained on the bottom of the bottles,
then centrifuged at 3000 rpm for 20 minutes and the supernatant
liquor was decanted. The polymer-coated pigment thus produced was
allowed to air dry in the bottles for 4 hours until the pigment
could readily be broken up. The two lots of pigment from the
bottles were combined and dried under vacuum at 65.degree. C. for
18 hours. The polymer-coated pigment thus produced showed a weight
loss of 6.4 per cent under thermogravimetric analysis.
EXAMPLE 18
[0213] This Example illustrates an RGP process of the present
invention which produces a polymer-coated titania pigment particle
in which the polymer coating contains cationic groups. The process
uses an amino-containing silylating agent in the first step.
[0214] To a 1 L Erlenmeyer flask equipped with a magnetic stir bar
were added ethanol (500 ml) and water (50 ml), and the pH of the
solution was raised to 9.9 by dropwise addition of 33 per cent
ammonium hydroxide.
N-[3-(trimethoxysilyl)propyl]-N'-(4-vinylbenzyl)ethylenediamine
hydrochloride (40 g of a 40 weight per cent solution in methanol,
equivalent to 16.125 g, 43 mmole of the pure compound) was added,
and the resultant mixture was stirred for 4 minutes to allow
hydrolysis and condensation of the silyl compound to occur. After
this stirring, silica-coated titania (25 g of du Pont R960) was
added, and the reaction mixture was stirred for a further 7 minutes
to allow the silyl compound to hydrogen bond to the titania. The
reaction mixture was then poured into centrifuge bottles and
centrifuged for 15 minutes at 3000 rpm. The supernatant liquor was
decanted and the solid pigment allowed to dry in air for 8 hours.
The pigment was then heated in an oven under vacuum to 70.degree.
C. for 2 hours to allow the silyl compound to bond to the titania.
The silanized pigment thus produced showed a weight loss of 2.47
per cent under thermogravimetric analysis.
[0215] The silanized pigment thus produced was then polymerized
with 2-ethylhexyl acrylate in exactly the same manner as in Example
17 above, but on a smaller scale; the reaction mixture comprised 15
g of the silanized pigment, 15 g of the monomer, 15 g of toluene
and 0.15 g of AIBN. The final polymer-coated titania showed a
polymer content of 6.7 per cent by weight by thermogravimetric
analysis.
EXAMPLE 19
[0216] This Example illustrates an RGP process of the present
invention using t-butyl acrylate.
[0217] To a round-bottomed flask equipped with a condenser, a
nitrogen blanket, a stir bar, and stirring beads was added the
silanized pigment produced in Example 15 (25 g). A solution of
t-butyl acrylate (20 g) in toluene (25 g) was added to the flask in
a disposable container, and the resultant mixture was stirred for
20 minutes while nitrogen was bubbled therethrough. The needles
used to introduce the nitrogen were then removed, and the mixture
was slowly heated to 58.degree. C., with AIBN (0.25 g) dissolved in
toluene (5 ml) being added when the temperature reached 50.degree.
C. The resultant reaction mixture was maintained at 58.degree. C.
under nitrogen for 2 hours, then allowed to cool to room
temperature, whereupon the reaction mixture solidified. Acetone was
added to liquefy the reaction mixture, which was then was poured
into a centrifuge bottle, with additional acetone being added to
fill the bottle. The bottle was then centrifuged at 3000 rpm for 15
minutes and the supernatant liquor was decanted. The bottle was
filled with THF and shaken vigorously until no pigment remained on
the bottom of the bottle, then centrifuged at 3000 rpm for 20
minutes and the supernatant liquor was decanted. The polymer-coated
pigment thus produced was allowed to air dry in the bottle until
the pigment could readily be broken up, and then dried under vacuum
at 60.degree. C. for 18 hours. The polymer-coated pigment thus
produced showed a weight loss of 6 per cent by weight under
thermogravimetric analysis.
EXAMPLE 20
[0218] This Example illustrates an RGP process of the present
invention in which the monomers used includes a fluorinated
acrylate, namely 2,2,3,4,4,4-hexafluorobutyl acrylate.
[0219] To a round-bottomed flask equipped with a condenser, a
nitrogen blanket, a stir bar, and stirring beads was added the
silanized pigment produced in Example 15 (15 g). A solution of
2-ethylhexyl acrylate (13.5 g) and 2,2,3,4,4,4-hexafluorobutyl
acrylate (1.92 g) in toluene (15 g) was added to the flask in a
disposable container, and the resultant mixture was stirred for 20
minutes while nitrogen was bubbled therethrough. The needles used
to introduce the nitrogen were then removed, and the mixture was
slowly heated to 60-65.degree. C., with AIBN (0.15 g) dissolved in
toluene (approximately 5 ml) being added when the temperature
reached 50.degree. C. The resultant reaction mixture was maintained
at 60-65.degree. C. under nitrogen for 18 hours, then allowed to
cool to room temperature. Acetone was added, and the reaction
mixture was poured into a centrifuge bottle, with additional
acetone being added to fill the bottle. The bottle was then
centrifuged at 3000 rpm for 15 minutes and the supernatant liquor
was decanted. The bottle was filled with THF and shaken vigorously
until no pigment remained on the bottom of the bottle, then
centrifuged at 3000 rpm for 20 minutes and the supernatant liquor
was decanted. The polymer-coated pigment thus produced was allowed
to air dry in the bottle until the pigment could readily be broken
up, and then dried under vacuum at 50.degree. C. for 18 hours.
EXAMPLE 21
[0220] This Example illustrates an RGP process of the present
invention in which the monomer used is isobutyl methacrylate.
[0221] To a round-bottomed flask equipped with a condenser, a
nitrogen blanket, a stir bar, and stirring beads was added the
silanized pigment produced in Example 15 (15 g). A solution of
isobutyl methacrylate (15 g) in isopropanol (15 g) was added to the
flask in a disposable container, and the resultant mixture was
stirred for 15 minutes while nitrogen was bubbled therethrough. The
needles used to introduce the nitrogen were then removed, and the
mixture was slowly heated to 60-65.degree. C., with AIBN (0.15 g)
dissolved in toluene (approximately 5 ml) being added when the
temperature reached 50.degree. C. The resultant reaction mixture
was maintained at 60-65.degree. C. under nitrogen for 18 hours,
then allowed to cool to room temperature. Acetone was added, and
the reaction mixture was poured into a centrifuge bottle, with
additional acetone being added to fill the bottle. The bottle was
then centrifuged at 3000 rpm for 15 minutes and the supernatant
liquor was decanted. The bottle was refilled with acetone and
shaken vigorously until no pigment remained on the bottom of the
bottle, then centrifuged at 3000 rpm for 20 minutes and the
supernatant liquor was decanted. The polymer-coated pigment thus
produced was allowed to air dry in the bottle until the pigment
could readily be broken up, and then dried under vacuum at
50.degree. C. for 18 hours. The polymer-coated pigment thus
produced showed a weight loss of 4.5 per cent under
thermogravimetric analysis.
EXAMPLE 22
[0222] This Example illustrates an RGP process of the present
invention in which the monomer used is lauryl methacrylate.
[0223] To a round-bottomed flask equipped with a condenser, a
nitrogen blanket, a stir bar, and stirring beads was added
silanized pigment produced as in Example 15 (50 g). A solution of
lauryl methacrylate (70 g, 0.272 mole) in toluene (60 g) was added
to the flask in a disposable container, and the resultant mixture
was stirred for 20 minutes while nitrogen was bubbled therethrough.
The needles used to introduce the nitrogen were then removed, and
the mixture was slowly heated to 60-65.degree. C., with AIBN (0.5
g, 3 mmole, equal to 1 mole per cent of the monomer in the reaction
mixture) dissolved in toluene (10 ml) being added when the
temperature reached 50.degree. C. The resultant reaction mixture
was maintained at 60-65.degree. C. under nitrogen for 16 hours,
then allowed to cool to room temperature. Acetone (50 ml) was added
to lessen the viscosity of the reaction mixture, which was poured
into two 250 ml centrifuge bottles, with additional acetone being
added to fill the bottles. The bottles were then centrifuged at
3000 rpm for 15 minutes and the supernatant liquor was decanted.
The bottles were filled with toluene (washing with THF being
unsatisfactory for this polymer-coated pigment) and shaken
vigorously until no pigment remained on the bottom of the bottles,
then centrifuged at 3000 rpm for 15 minutes and the supernatant
liquor was decanted. The toluene dispersion and centrifuging was
repeated, then the polymer-coated pigment produced was allowed to
air dry in the bottles for 4 hours until the pigment could readily
be broken up. The two lots of pigment from the bottles were
combined and dried under vacuum at 70.degree. C. overnight. The
polymer-coated pigment thus produced showed a weight loss of 10.3
per cent under thermogravimetric analysis.
EXAMPLE 23
[0224] This Example illustrates an RGP process of the present
invention in which the monomer used is isobornyl methacrylate.
[0225] The process was conducted using a silanized titania prepared
as in Example 15, and a polymerization process as described in
Example 16 above, except that the reaction mixture was maintained
at 60-65.degree. C. for only 16 hours, that the acetone/THF washing
procedure used in Example 16 was replaced by two THF washes, and
that the drying under vacuum was conducted at 70.degree. C. The
reaction mixture used comprised the silanized pigment (50 g),
isobornyl methacrylate (60 g, 0.27 mole). toluene (60 g) and AIBN
(0.5 g dissolved in 10 ml of toluene). The polymer-coated pigment
thus produced showed a weight loss of 6.4 per cent under
thermogravimetric analysis.
EXAMPLE 24
[0226] This Example illustrates an RGP process of the present
invention in which the monomer used is t-butyl methacrylate.
[0227] The process was conducted using a silanized titania prepared
as in Example 15, and a polymerization process as described in
Example 16 above, except that the reaction mixture was maintained
at 60-65.degree. C. for only 16 hours, and that the drying under
vacuum was conducted at 70.degree. C. The reaction mixture used
comprised the silanized pigment (50 g), t-butyl methacrylate (40 g,
0.27 mole). toluene (60 g) and AIBN (0.5 g dissolved in 10 ml of
toluene). The polymer-coated pigment thus produced showed a weight
loss of 5.8 per cent under thermogravimetric analysis.
EXAMPLE 25
[0228] This Example illustrates an RGP process of the present
invention starting from molybdate orange, a coprecipitate of lead
chromate, lead molybdate and lead sulfate. The commercial starting
material used is silica encapsulated by the manufacturer.
[0229] To a mixture of ethanol (1000 ml) and water (150 ml),
concentrated ammonium hydroxide was added until the pH reached
9.95. N-[3-(trimethoxysilyl)propyl-N'-(4-vinylbenzyl)ethylene
diamine hydrochloride (121 g) was added, and the resultant solution
was stirred rapidly for 4 minutes. Molybdate orange (75 g, KROLOR
KO-906-D, sold by Dominion Colour Corporation) was then added, and
the mixture stirred rapidly for 7 minutes. The resultant suspension
was poured into plastic bottles and centrifuged at 3000 rpm for 30
minutes. The supernatant liquor was decanted, and the silanized
pigment re-dispersed in ethanol and centrifuged at 3500 rpm for 30
minutes, and the liquid decanted. The pigment was dried in air for
18 hours, then under vacuum at 70.degree. C. for 1 hour.
[0230] The silanized pigment thus produced was then polymerized
with 2-ethylmethacrylate using a polymerization process as
described in Example 17 above, except that the reaction mixture was
maintained at 68.degree. C. for 18 hours, and that the drying under
vacuum was conducted at 70.degree. C. for 12 hours. The reaction
mixture used comprised the silanized pigment (50 g), 2-ethylhexyl
methacrylate (50 g). toluene (60 g) and AIBN (0.5 g dissolved in 10
ml of toluene).
EXAMPLE 26
[0231] This Example illustrates an RGP process of the present
invention starting from chrome yellow. The commercial starting
material used is lead chromate, which is silica encapsulated by the
manufacturer.
[0232] To a mixture of ethanol (1000 ml) and water (150 mL), acetic
acid was added until the pH reached 9.95. 3-(Trimethoxysilyl)propyl
methacrylate (35 ml) was added, and the resultant solution was
stirred rapidly for 4 minutes. Chrome yellow (75 g, KROLOR
KY-788-D, sold by Dominion Colour Corporation) was then added, and
the mixture stirred rapidly for 7 minutes. The resultant suspension
was poured into plastic bottles and centrifuged at 3000 rpm for 30
minutes. The supernatant liquor was decanted, and the resultant
pigment was dried in air, then under vacuum at 70.degree. C. for 2
hours. The pigment was then redispersed in ethanol, centrifuged in
the same manner as before, and dried in air, then under vacuum at
70.degree. C. for 1 hour.
[0233] To form polymer on the silanized pigment thus produced, to a
round-bottomed flask equipped with a condenser, a nitrogen blanket,
a stir bar, and stirring beads was added the silanized pigment (50
g). A solution of 2-ethylhexyl methacrylate (56 ml) in toluene (58
ml) was added to the flask in a disposable container, and the
resultant mixture was stirred for 25 minutes while nitrogen was
bubbled therethrough. The needles used to introduce the nitrogen
were then removed, and the mixture was slowly heated to 60.degree.
C., with AIBN (0.5 g in 10 ml of toluene) being added when the
temperature reached 50.degree. C. The resultant reaction mixture
was maintained at 60.degree. C. under nitrogen for 17 hours, then
allowed to cool to room temperature. The reaction mixture was
poured into two 250 ml centrifuge bottles, with additional acetone
being added to fill the bottles. The bottles were then centrifuged
at 3000 rpm for 15 minutes and the supernatant liquor was decanted.
The bottles were filled with toluene and shaken vigorously until no
pigment remained on the bottom of the bottles, then centrifuged at
3000 rpm for 15 minutes and the supernatant liquor was decanted,
then the polymer-coated pigment produced was allowed to dry under
vacuum overnight. The polymer-coated pigment thus produced showed a
weight loss of 10.83 per cent under thermogravimetric analysis.
EXAMPLE 27
[0234] This Example illustrates an RGP process of the present
invention which produces carbon black carrying a polymer of
2-ethylhexyl methacrylate.
[0235] Carbon black (115 g) was dispersed in water (3 L) with
magnetic stirring, then hydrochloric acid (3 mL of 37% by weight)
and 4-vinylaniline (2.5 g,) were added. Separately, sodium nitrite
(1.43 g) was dissolved in water (10 ml). This nitrite solution was
then added slowly to the carbon black-containing reaction mixture,
and the resultant reaction mixture was heated to 65.degree. C. and
stirred for 3 hours. The reaction mixture was then allowed to cool
and stirred overnight at room temperature. The resultant product
was centrifuged and the solids produced rinsed with water and dried
overnight.
[0236] To a reaction flask fitted with a nitrogen purge apparatus,
magnetic stir bar and reflux column were added this product (50 g),
toluene (100 ml), 2-ethylhexyl methacrylate (100 ml) and AIBN (0.65
g). The flask was purged with nitrogen for 20 minutes, with
stirring, then immersed in an oil bath, gradually heated to
70.degree. C., with continuous stirring, and maintained at this
temperature for 7 hours. The reaction mixture was then allowed to
cool, diluted to a volume of 500 ml with THF, and poured into
methanol (3 L). The solids which precipitated were collected,
re-dispersed in THF (1.5-2 L), cooled to 10.degree. C. and
centrifuged for 1 hour at 3500 rpm. The liquid was decanted, and
the THF washing step repeated, and the product was dried under
vacuum at 70.degree. C. to yield 53 g of a polymer-coated carbon
black which showed a weight loss of 12.3 per cent on
thermogravimetric analysis.
[0237] The pigments produced in Examples 26 and 27 were
encapsulated together substantially as described in Example 7 above
to produce a yellow/black encapsulated dual particle
electrophoretic display.
EXAMPLE 28
[0238] This Example illustrates an RGP process of the present
invention which produces titania pigment coated with a lauryl
methacrylate polymer.
[0239] Part A: Preparation of Silanized Titania
[0240] To a 4 L glass reactor equipped with a stirrer and a pH
meter were added ethanol (930.7 g) and deionized water (69.3 g),
and the resultant solution was stirred at 150 rpm. The probe of the
pH meter was inserted into the reactor and the pH of the mixture
was lowered to 4.5 by adding glacial acetic acid from a pipette.
The pH probe was then removed, 3-(trimethoxysilyl)propyl
methacrylate (160.0 g) was added to the reactor, and the reaction
mixture was stirred for a further 5 minutes. The mixing speed was
then increased to 250 rpm, titania (1000 g of du Pont R960) was
added to the reactor, and the reaction mixture was stirred for a
further 10 minutes. The mixing speed was then decreased to 200 rpm,
ethanol (1826.6 g) was added to the reactor, and stirring was
continued for 1 minute. The reaction mixture was then drained into
six 750 ml centrifuge bottles and centrifuged at 3000 rpm for 20
minutes. The supernatant liquor was discarded and the solids dried
in air overnight and then under vacuum for 4 hours at 70.degree.
C.
[0241] Part B: Preparation of Polymer-Coated Pigment
[0242] To a 4 L glass reactor equipped with a water bath, a
nitrogen source, a condenser, a stirrer and a septum was added
lauryl methacrylate (960 g) and toluene (1386 g). The mixture was
stirred at 200 rpm and the water bath was set to 50.degree. C. to
preheat the reactor. The silanized titania (750 g, prepared in Part
A above) was weighed out and any large chunks crushed manually. The
mixer speed was then increased to 300 rpm and the silanized titania
was added to the reactor, which was then purged with nitrogen.
Separately AIBN (5.64 g) was dissolved in toluene (150 g) and the
resultant solution loaded into a syringe pump, the output needle of
which was pushed through the septum into the reactor. Once the
reactor temperature had stabilized at 50.degree. C., the AIBN
solution was pumped into the reaction mixture at a uniform rate
over a period of 1 hour. The reaction mixture was then held at
70.degree. C. with stirring overnight, then drained into six 750 ml
centrifuge bottles, which were filled with toluene and shaken until
a substantially uniform dispersion was obtained. The bottles were
then centrifuged at 3000 rpm for 30 minutes, the supernatant liquor
was discarded, and the toluene dispersion, centrifugation and
decantation steps repeated. Finally, the bottles were allowed to
dry in air overnight, and then in vacuum at 70.degree. C. for 4
hours.
EXAMPLE 29
[0243] This Example illustrates the construction of an encapsulated
dual particle display using the polymer-coated pigments prepared in
Examples 27 and 28.
[0244] Part A: Preparation of Internal Phase
[0245] To make 1000 g of internal phase ready for encapsulation,
120 g of titania and 9 g of carbon black were separately polymer
coated substantially as described in Examples 28 and 27
respectively. (To be more accurate, batches of the two
polymer-coated pigments were prepared and the proportion of pure
pigment present in the polymer-coated pigment was determined by
thermogravimetric analysis. The weights of the polymer-coated
pigment containing the required 120 or 9 g of pure pigment were
determined, and these weights were used in the following
procedures.) The polymer-coated titania was mixed with 3.0 per cent
of its own weight of Solsperse 17000 dispersant (added in the form
of a 10 w/w % solution in Isopar G) and made up into a 30 per cent
w/w stock solution in a 1:1 w/w Isopar/Halocarbon mixture. The
polymer-coated carbon black was similarly made up into an
approximately 5 per cent w/w stock solution using a microfluidizer.
The two resultant stock solutions were combined with sufficient
additional 1:1 w/w Isopar/Halocarbon mixture to make 1000 g of the
mixture, which was well shaken and stored on a roll mill for at
least 24 hours before being used in the encapsulation process. (If
the final electrophoretic medium is to contain polyisobutylene,
this polymer is added at this mixing stage. It is presently
preferred that there be added 1.4-1.5 per cent by weight of the
Isopar/Halocarbon mixture of the polyisobutylene Aldrich catalogue
number 18145-5, weight average molecular weight approximately
500,000, number average molecular weight approximately 200,000, Tg
-76.degree. C., Tm 1.5.degree. C., stabilized with 500 ppm
2,6-di-t-butyl-4-methylphenol.)
[0246] Part B: Encapsulation
[0247] The internal phase thus prepared was then encapsulated using
a 4 L reactor equipped with a water jacket, an overhead stirrer, a
1 L dropping funnel and a pH meter. Gelatin (22.5 g) was dissolved
in deionized water (1311.2 g) at 40.degree. C. with stirring, care
being taken to ensure that no foam was produced on the surface of
the solution. Separately, acacia (16.7 g) was dissolved in
deionized water (327.8 g) and the resultant solution heated to
40.degree. C. Also separately, the internal phase described above
(580 g) was heated to 40.degree. C. and then added, over a period
of approximately 15 minutes to the gelatin solution; the gelatin
solution was stirred during the addition, which was conducted by
introducing the internal phase through the dropping funnel, the
outlet of which was placed below the surface of the gelatin
solution. After the addition of the internal phase was complete,
the rate of stirring was increased and the stirring continued for
30 minutes at 40.degree. C. in order to emulsify the internal phase
into droplets having an average diameter of about 80 .mu.m.
[0248] The acacia solution was then added over a period of about 1
minute, care being taken to avoid foaming. The pH of the mixture
was lowered to approximately 4.9 using 10 per cent aqueous acetic
acid, and the vigorous stirring was continued to a further 40
minutes at the same temperature. The temperature of the mixture was
lowered to 10.degree. C. over a period of two hours, with continued
vigorous stirring, and glutaraldehyde (8.35 g) was added. After
this addition, the mixture was gradually warmed to 25.degree. C.
and stirred vigorously for a further 12 hours. Finally, stirring
was discontinued, and the mixture was allowed to settle for 10-15
minutes, during which time approximately 25-50 mm of a foamy
mixture separated on top of the liquid.
[0249] The liquid phase was then removed, leaving the foamy mixture
in the reactor, and the capsules in this liquid phase washed three
times by sedimentation and redispersion in deionized water. The
capsules were separated by size to yield a distribution between 50
and 120 .mu.m diameter, with a mean diameter of 70-80 .mu.m; such a
distribution can be effected by sieving the capsules for 90 seconds
on a 63 .mu.m sieve and then for 30 seconds on a 38 .mu.m sieve to
produce the final capsule slurry.
[0250] Part C : Production of Electrophoretic Display
[0251] The resulting capsule slurry was centrifuged and then mixed
with an aqueous urethane binder (NeoRez R-9320) at a ratio of 1
part by weight binder to 9 parts by weight of capsules, and 0.3
weight per cent of hydroxypropylmethylcellulose was added as a
slot-coating additive. The resultant mixture was slot coated on to
a 125 .mu.m thick indium-tin oxide coated polyester film moving at
1 m/sec relative to the slot coating head. The coated film was
allowed to air dry for 10 minutes, then oven dried at 50.degree. C.
for 15 minutes to produce an electrophoretic medium approximately
50 .mu.m thick containing essentially a single layer of capsules
(see the aforementioned published International Patent Application
WO 00/20922).
[0252] To provide an electrophoretic display which could be used to
investigate the properties of the electrophoretic medium thus
prepared, the capsule-coated surface of the coated film was then
overcoated with the aforementioned NeoRez R-9320 binder using a
doctor blade with a 13 mil (330 .mu.m) gap setting (this binder
serves both to planarize the capsule-coated surface and as a
lamination adhesive) and the overcoated film dried at 50.degree. C.
for 20 minutes. The dried film was then hot laminated to a
backplane comprising a 3 mm thick sheet of polyester screen printed
with thick film silver and dielectric inks with a pressure of 15
psig. (The backplane was prepared by printing on the polyester
sheet a first layer of silver ink which defined leads connecting to
external control circuitry. A layer of dielectric ink was then
printed over the first layer of silver ink, this layer of
dielectric ink being continuous except for small apertures which
would eventually form vias. A second layer of silver ink was then
printed over the dielectric ink; this second layer of silver ink
formed the electrodes, and also flowed into the apertures in the
layer of dielectric ink, thus forming vias which connected the
electrodes to the leads. See U.S. Pat. No. 6,232,950, issued May
15, 2001 (the entire disclosure of which is herein incorporated by
reference), and the aforementioned published International
Applications WO 99/10768 and WO 00/20922.)
[0253] The electrophoretic displays thus prepared exhibited
outstanding properties. In particular, the titania and carbon black
pigment particles do not form strong aggregates even after
prolonged standing, and the operating life of the display is
markedly superior to that of single particle displays using titania
pigments.
EXAMPLE 30
[0254] This Example illustrates the construction of an encapsulated
dual particle display generally similar to that produced in Example
29 above and using the same polymer-coated pigments, but using a
pure hydrocarbon suspending fluid.
[0255] Part A: Preparation of Internal Phase
[0256] To make 1064 g of internal phase ready for encapsulation,
678 grams of a first precursor was prepared by combining 406.8 g of
polymer-coated titania prepared substantially as described in
Example 28 above with 271.2 g of Isopar solvent. This dispersion
was mixed overnight and then sonicated for approximately 1 to 2
hours. In a separate jar, 16.7 grams of polymer-coated carbon black
prepared substantially as in Example 27 above were combined with
67.0 grams of Isopar solvent; this dispersion was then high shear
dispersed. The titania and carbon black dispersions were then
combined and diluted with 194.9 g of Isopar solvent, 48.8 g of a 10
weight percent solution of charging agent (Solsperse 17000) in
Isopar solvent, 5.2 g of surfactant (Span85), and the necessary
quantity of polymer in Isopar solvent. The resultant internal phase
was mixed overnight prior to encapsulation.
[0257] Part B : Encapsulation of Internal Phase, and Preparation of
Displays
[0258] To encapsulate the internal phase thus prepared, in a 4 L
reactor, gelatin (66.7 g) was dissolved in deionized water (2622.2
g) at 40.degree. C. with stirring, care being taken to ensure that
no foam was produced on the surface of the solution. Separately,
acacia (66.7 g--available from Sigma-Aldrich) was dissolved in
deionized water (655.6 g) and the resultant solution heated to
40.degree. C. Also separately, the internal phase described above
(1060 g) was heated to 40.degree. C. and then added, over a period
of approximately 15 minutes to the gelatin solution; the gelatin
solution was stirred during the addition, which was conducted by
introducing the internal phase through a dropping funnel the outlet
of which was placed below the surface of the gelatin solution.
After the addition of the internal phase was complete, the rate of
stirring was increased and the stirring continued for 60 minutes at
40.degree. C. in order to emulsify the internal phase into droplets
having an average diameter of about 40 .mu.m.
[0259] The acacia solution was then added over a period of about 1
minute, care being taken to avoid foaming. The pH of the mixture
was lowered to approximately 4.9 using 10 per cent aqueous acetic
acid, and the vigorous stirring was continued to a further 40
minutes at the same temperature. The temperature of the mixture was
lowered to 10.degree. C. over a period of two hours, with continued
vigorous stirring, and 16.7 g of a 50 weight percent solution of
glutaraldehyde was added. After this addition, the mixture was
gradually warmed to 25.degree. C. and stirred vigorously for a
further 12 hours.
[0260] The liquid phase was then removed and the capsules in this
liquid phase washed one time by sedimentation and redispersion in
deionized water. The capsules were separated by size to yield a
distribution between 20 and 60 .mu.m diameter, with a mean diameter
of about 40 .mu.m. Such a distribution can be effected by sieving
the capsules for 90 seconds on a 38 .mu.m sieve and then for 90
seconds on a 25 .mu.m sieve to produce the final capsule
slurry.
[0261] The resulting capsule slurry was adjusted to pH 8 with 1
weight percent ammonium hydroxide solution. Capsules were
concentrated by centrifugation and then mixed with an aqueous
urethane binder at a ratio of 1 part by weight binder to 8 parts by
weight of capsules. The resultant mixture was bar coated on to a
125 .mu.m thick indium-tin oxide coated polyester film so that
after the coated film was allowed to air dry for 1 hour, an
electrophoretic medium approximately 20 .mu.m thick containing
essentially a single layer of capsules was produced.
[0262] A polyurethane adhesive was coated on to a polyethylene
terephthalate release sheet using a slot-die coater. The coated
release sheet was transferred to an oven at 65.degree. C. and dried
for 10 minutes. During coating, the flow rate through the slot, and
the coating-head speed, were adjusted to provide a film of adhesive
that measured 15 .mu.m thick when dry. The coated release sheet was
then laminated to the microcapsule-coated polyester film using a
Western Magnum roll laminator; the dried release sheet was laid on
top of the microcapsule layer and laminated in the nip of the
laminator at 50 PSI (0.46 mPa), with the upper roll at 300.degree.
F. (149.degree. C.) and the lower roll at 275.degree. F.
(135.degree. C.), at a linear speed of 0.7 ft/min (3.5 mm/sec). The
resulting laminate was then cooled, and a single-pixel display
produced by cutting a piece of appropriate size from the cooled
laminate, removing the release sheet, and laying the film, adhesive
side down, on a rear electrode and passing through the laminator
using the same conditions as before.
EXAMPLE 31
[0263] This Example illustrates a preferred technique for
silica-coating of a pigment particle.
[0264] Copper chromite (Shepherd Black 1 G, 50 g) was treated with
sodium silicate and sulfuric acid solutions in the same way as
described in Example 1 above, up to the point at which the reaction
mixture was cooled to room temperature. Additional sulfuric acid
(18 mL of 1 M acid) was then added to the reaction mixture to lower
its pH from about 9.5-10 to about 3. The reaction mixture was then
placed in plastic bottles and centrifuged at 3700 rpm for 15
minutes, and the supernatant liquid decanted. Immediately after
this decantation, deionized water (5 mL) and ethanol (50 mL) were
added to each bottle, which was then shaken vigorously. The bottles
were then sonicated for 1 hour. Microscopic investigation of the
resultant dispersion revealed well-dispersed primary pigment
particles.
[0265] The dispersion of silica-coated pigment thus produced was
used without any further treatment in a silanization process
similar to that of FIG. 2. For this purpose, a mixture of 300 ml of
ethanol, 30 ml of water and 40 g of a 40 weight percent solution of
N-[3-(trimethoxysilyl)p- ropyl]-N'-(4-vinylbenzyl)ethylene diamine
hydrochloride in methanol was stirred rapidly for 7 minutes, the
pigment dispersion was added thereto, and the resultant mixture was
stirred for a further 5 minutes. Isolation of the product and its
conversion to a polymer-coated pigment were effected in the same
manner as described in Examples 2 and 3 above, with very
satisfactory results.
[0266] Shepherd 444 pigment (a copper/manganese chromate) was
polymer-coated in the same manner and also found to yield
satisfactory results.
[0267] Numerous changes and modifications can be made in the
preferred embodiments of the present invention already described
without departing from the spirit of the invention. For example,
the electrophoretic media and displays of the present invention may
contain magnetic particles, as described in application Ser. No.
10/063,655 filed May 7, 2002 (Publication No. 2002/0171901; the
entire disclosure of this application is herein incorporated by
reference). Accordingly, the foregoing description is to be
construed in an illustrative and not in a limitative sense.
* * * * *