U.S. patent application number 10/175161 was filed with the patent office on 2003-08-21 for isoform-selective inhibitors and activators of pde3 cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterases.
Invention is credited to Movsesian, Matthew A..
Application Number | 20030158133 10/175161 |
Document ID | / |
Family ID | 23197473 |
Filed Date | 2003-08-21 |
United States Patent
Application |
20030158133 |
Kind Code |
A1 |
Movsesian, Matthew A. |
August 21, 2003 |
Isoform-selective inhibitors and activators of PDE3 cyclic
nucleotide phosphodiesterases
Abstract
The present invention concerns methods and compositions related
to type 3 phosphodiesterases (PDE3). Certain embodiments concern
isolated peptides corresponding to various PDE3A isoforms and/or
site-specific mutants of PDE3A isoforms, along with expression
vectors encoding such isoforms or mutants. In specific embodiments,
methods for identifying isoform selective inhibitors or activators
of PDE3 are provided, along with methods of use of such inhibitors
or activators in the treatment of dilated cardiomyopathy, pulmonary
hypertension and/or other medical conditions related to PDE3
effects on cAMP levels in different intracellular compartments.
Inventors: |
Movsesian, Matthew A.; (Salt
Lake City, UT) |
Correspondence
Address: |
Richard A. Nakashima
BLAKELY, SOKOLOFF, TAYLOR & ZAFMAN LLP
Seventh Floor
12400 Wilshire Boulevard
Los Angeles
CA
90025-1030
US
|
Family ID: |
23197473 |
Appl. No.: |
10/175161 |
Filed: |
June 19, 2002 |
Related U.S. Patent Documents
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Application
Number |
Filing Date |
Patent Number |
|
|
60309271 |
Aug 1, 2001 |
|
|
|
Current U.S.
Class: |
514/44A ;
435/196; 435/320.1; 435/325; 435/6.16; 435/69.1; 536/23.2 |
Current CPC
Class: |
G01N 2500/04 20130101;
G01N 33/573 20130101; A61K 38/00 20130101; A61P 9/04 20180101; A61P
7/02 20180101; G01N 2333/916 20130101; A61P 9/12 20180101; A61K
31/4709 20130101; A61K 31/444 20130101; G01N 2500/02 20130101; A61P
9/06 20180101; C12N 9/18 20130101 |
Class at
Publication: |
514/44 ; 435/6;
435/69.1; 435/196; 435/320.1; 435/325; 536/23.2 |
International
Class: |
A61K 048/00; C12Q
001/68; C07H 021/04; C12N 009/16; C12P 021/02; C12N 005/06 |
Goverment Interests
[0001] The invention described herein was made with Government
support under Merit Review and Career Development Enhancement
Awards from the Department of Veterans Affairs. The Federal
Government has certain rights in the invention. This application
claims the benefit under 35 U.S.C. .sctn.119(e) of provisional U.S.
patent application No. 60/309,271, filed Aug. 1, 2001.
Claims
What is claimed is:
1. An isolated polypeptide consisting of an amino acid sequence
that is at least 95% homologous to SEQ ID NO:1, SEQ ID NO:2 or SEQ
ID NO:3.
2. The isolated polypeptide of claim 1, wherein the isolated
polypeptide is identical in sequence to SEQ ID NO:1.
3. The isolated polypeptide of claim 1, wherein the isolated
polypeptide is identical in sequence to SEQ ID NO:2.
4. The isolated polypeptide of claim 1, wherein the isolated
polypeptide is identical in sequence to SEQ ID NO:3.
5. The isolated polypeptide of claim 1, wherein the isolated
polypeptide has the sequence of SEQ ID NO:1, with at least one
substitution mutation at serine residues 292, 293, 312 or 438.
6. The isolated polypeptide of claim 5, wherein the substitution
mutation substitutes an alanine or an aspartate residue for the
serine residue.
7. The isolated polypeptide of claim 1, wherein the isolated
polypeptide has the sequence of SEQ ID NO:2, with at least one
substitution mutation at serine residues 312 or 438.
8. The isolated polypeptide of claim 5, wherein the substitution
mutation substitutes an alanine or an aspartate residue for the
serine residue.
9. The expression vector comprising a nucleic acid encoding an
isoform of type 3 phosphodiesterase.
10. The expression vector of claim 9, wherein the isoform is the
isolated polypeptide of claim 1.
11. The expression vector of claim 9, wherein the isoform is the
isolated polypeptide of claim 2.
12. The expression vector of claim 9, wherein the isoform is the
isolated polypeptide of claim 3.
13. The expression vector of claim 9, wherein the isoform is the
isolated polypeptide of claim 4.
14. The expression vector of claim 9, wherein the isoform is the
isolated polypeptide of claim 5.
15. The expression vector of claim 9, wherein the isoform is the
isolated polypeptide of claim 7.
16. A method of identifying an isoform selective inhibitor or
activator of type 3 phosphodiesterase (PDE3) comprising: (a)
obtaining an isolated polypeptide according to any of claims 1 to
8; (b) identifying at least one test compound that binds to the
isolated polypeptide; and (c) assaying the at least one test
compound for inhibition or activation of PDE3 catalytic
activity.
17. The method of claim 16, wherein the at least one test compound
is part of a phage display library.
18. The method of claim 17, wherein identifying at least one test
compound comprises biopanning.
19. The method of claim 18, wherein the phage display library
comprises random peptide sequences.
20. The method of claim 19, wherein the random peptide sequences
are 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14 or 15 amino acids in
length.
21. A method of identifying an isoform selective regulator of PDE3
comprising: (a) obtaining an isolated polypeptide according to any
of claims 1 to 8; (b) identifying at least one test compound that
binds to the isolated polypeptide; and (c) assaying the at least
one test compound for its ability to interfere with binding of a
second polypeptide to PDE3.
22. The method of claim 21, wherein the second polypeptide is a
protein kinase, a phosphatase or a phosphorylase.
23. A method of modulating cardiac contractility comprising
administering to an individual a pharmacologically effective amount
of an isoform selective inhibitor, activator or regulator of
PDE3.
24. A method of treating an individual with dilated cardiomyopathy
and/or pulmonary hypertension comprising administering to the
individual a pharmacologically effective amount of an isoform
selective inhibitor, activator or regulator of PDE3.
25. The method of claims 23 or 24, wherein the inhibitor is an
antisense inhibitor.
26. The method of claim 25, wherein the antisense inhibitor is
transcribed from a vector.
Description
BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION
[0002] 1. Field of the Invention
[0003] The present invention relates to the field of cardiovascular
and other diseases. More particularly, the present invention
concerns compositions and methods of identification and use of
isoform selective activators or inhibitors of type 3
phosphodiesterase (PDE3). Other embodiments of the invention
concern high-throughput screening for novel pharmaceuticals
directed against PDE3 isoforms. In certain embodiments, the
compositions and methods disclosed herein are of use for treatment
of cardiomyopathy, pulmonary hypertension and related
conditions.
[0004] 2. Description of Related Art
[0005] PDE3 cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterases hydrolyze cAMP and
cGMP and thereby modulate cAMP- and cGMP-mediated signal
transduction (Shakur et al., 2000a). These enzymes have a major
role in the regulation of contraction and relaxation in cardiac and
vascular myocytes. PDE3 inhibitors, which raise intracellular cAMP
and cGMP content, have inotropic effects attributable to the
activation of cAMP-dependent protein kinase (PK-A) in cardiac
myocytes and vasodilatory effects attributable to the activation of
cGMP-dependent protein kinase (PK-G) in vascular myocytes (Shakur
et al., 2000a). When used in the treatment of dilated
cardiomyopathy, PDE3 inhibitors such as milrinone, enoximone and
amrinone initially elicit favorable haemodynamic responses, but
long-term administration increases mortality by up to 40% (Nony et
al., 1994). This linkage of short-term benefits of PDE3 inhibition
to deleterious effects on long-term survival in dilated
cardiomyopathy is one of the most perplexing problems in
cardiovascular therapeutics. However, it is thought that these
biphasic effects reflect the compartmentally-nonselect- ive
increases in intracellular cAMP content in cardiac myocytes current
inhibitors display.
[0006] Clinical trials of the use of .beta.-adrenergic receptor
agonists--which, like PDE3 inhibitors, increase intracellular cAMP
content in cardiac myocytes--were terminated prior to completion
because of increased mortality in treated patients, while
.beta.-adrenergic receptor antagonists, which reduce intracellular
cAMP content, have been shown to improve long-term survival despite
initially adverse haemodynamic effects. These findings suggest that
both the short-term benefits and long-term adverse effects of PDE3
inhibition are attributable to increases in intracellular cAMP
content in cardiac myocytes (Movsesian, 1999).
[0007] The contradictory effects of nonspecific PDE3 antagonists
may relate to the diverse intracellular processes regulated by cAMP
in cardiac and vascular cells. Upon activation by cAMP, PK-A
phosphorylates dozens of proteins in separate intracellular
compartments that are involved in contraction and relaxation,
glycogen metabolism, gene transcription, intracellular Ca.sup.2+
cycling and signal autoregulation. Phosphorylation of cAMP-response
element-binding protein (CREB), for example, activates the
transcription of genes containing cAMP response elements (Shaywitz
and Greenberg, 1999). Transgenic mice expressing a dominant
non-phosphorylatable CREB in cardiac myocytes develop a dilated
cardiomyopathy that very closely resembles the human disease
(Fentzke et al., 1998), suggesting that CREB phosphorylation may be
desirable in dilated cardiomyopathy.
[0008] Another example of cAMP effects is the phosphorylation of
phospholamban, which relieves its inhibition of SERCA2, the
Ca2+-transporting ATPase of the sarcoplasmic reticulum (Simmerman
and Jones, 1998). Ablation of phospholamban in muscle LIM protein
(MLP).sup.-/-mice with dilated cardiomyopathy results in the
restoration of normal chamber size and contractility (Minamisawa et
al., 1999), suggesting that phospholamban phosphorylation may also
be beneficial in cardiomyopathy.
[0009] Other substrates phosphorylated by PK-A may contribute to
adverse effects on long-term survival. Phosphorylation of L-type
Ca.sup.2+ channels increases their open probability and may be
arrhythmogenic (Fischmeister and Hartzell, 1990), while
phosphorylation of proteins in the mitogen-activated protein kinase
(MAP kinase) cascade may alter myocardial gene transcription so as
to speed the progression of the disease (Cook and McCormick, 1993;
Lazou et al., 1994).
[0010] Raising cAMP content in cardiac myocytes via mechanisms such
as activation of .beta..sub.1-adrenergic, .beta..sub.2-adrenergic
or prostaglandin receptors or non-selective phosphodiesterase
inhibition by isobutylmethylxanthine, affects cAMP content
differentially in intracellular compartments represented in
cytosolic and microsomal fractions of cardiac muscle, resulting in
different patterns of protein phosphorylation and different
physiologic responses (Hayes et al., 1980; Xiao and Lakatta, 1993;
Xiao et al., 1994; Rapundalo et al., 1989; Jurevicius and
Fischmeister, 1996). These considerations are particularly relevant
to the pathophysiology of dilated cardiomyopathy, in which
receptor-mediated and receptor-independent reductions in cAMP
generation are prominent features (Movsesian, 1999; Lutz, et al.,
2001). Comparison of cytosolic cAMP content in cytosolic and
microsomal fractions between failing and non-failing hearts shows
greater reduction in cAMP content in microsomal fractions of
failing myocardium than in cytosolic fractions (Bohm, 1994).
[0011] The phosphorylation of individual substrates of PK-A may be
differentially regulated in response to extracellular signals.
Evidence for differential regulation comes from experiments
examining the effects of stimulating adenylate cyclase activity and
cAMP formation via .beta..sub.1-adrenergic, .beta..sub.2-adrenergic
or PGE1 receptors. Activation of .beta.-adrenergic receptors
increases cAMP content in both cytosolic and microsomal fractions
of cardiac myocytes and elicits contractile responses, while
activation of PGE1 receptors increases cytosolic but not microsomal
cAMP content and evokes no contractile response (Hayes et al.,
1980; Buxton and Brunton, 1983). Increases in the amplitude of
intracellular Ca.sup.2+ transients in response to
.beta..sub.1-adrenergic receptor activation correlate with changes
in microsomal cAMP content and are accompanied by increases in
phospholamban phosphorylation. Conversely, activation of
.beta..sub.2-adrenergic receptors results in an increase in the
amplitude of intracellular Ca.sup.2+ transients that does not
correlate with changes in microsomal cAMP content and occurs
without increases in phospholamban phosphorylation (Hohl and Li,
1991; Xiao et al., 1993, 1994). Thus, activation of different
receptors linked to cAMP metabolism can elicit different responses
in cardiac tissues.
[0012] .beta.-adrenergic receptor stimulation and nonselective
phosphodiesterase inhibition have different effects on
cAMP-activated protein phosphorylation in cardiac myocytes
(Rapundalo et al., 1989; Jurvicius and Fischmeister, 1996) that are
relevant to the pathophysiology of dilated cardiomyopathy. In that
condition, a downregulation of .beta..sub.1-adrenergic receptors
and an uncoupling of .beta.-adrenergic receptor occupancy and
adenylate cyclase stimulation (attributable to increases in
.beta.-adrenergic receptor kinase, G.alpha.i and nucleoside
diphosphate kinase) contribute to an impairment in cAMP generation
(Movsesian, 1999; Lutz et al., 2001). Studies of cAMP content in
cytosolic and microsomal fractions of failing and nonfailing hearts
demonstrate a far greater reduction in cAMP content in microsomal
fractions than in cytosolic fractions of failing myocardium (Bohm
et al., 1994). Taken together, these results indicate that cAMP
content in different intracellular compartments can be selectively
regulated to invoke different responses reflecting the
phosphorylation of different substrates of PK-A. Further, this
regulation is altered in dilated cardiomyopathy.
[0013] Different isoforms of PDE3 are expressed in cardiac and
vascular myocytes and are localized to different intracellular
compartments. The different PDE3 isoforms may differ in their
regulation by PK-A and PK-B (protein kinase B, also known as Akt).
PK-B, a downstream effector of insulin-like growth factors, is an
anti-apoptotic mediator in cardiac myocytes (Fujio et al., 2000;
Matsui et al., 1999; Wu et al., 2000). PK-B may also be involved in
proliferative responses in vascular myocytes (Rocic and Lucchesi,
2001; Duan et al., 2000; Sandirasegarane et al., 2000). These
findings suggest that different PDE3 isoforms may be involved in
cell- and compartment-selective responses to different signals that
have been implicated in the pathophysiology of dilated
cardiomyopathy and/or pulmonary hypertension. Different PDE3
isoforms in cardiac and vascular myocytes may regulate functionally
distinct pools of cAMP and cGMP involved in the phosphorylation of
different substrates of PK-A and PK-G, and these isoforms may be
regulated in response to different extracellular signals.
[0014] Until the present invention, it was not possible to develop
isoform selective inhibitors or activators of PDE3 to use in the
treatment of cardiomyopathy and/or pulmonary hypertension. Isoform
selective PDE3 inhibitors may provide a beneficial effect on
cardiac output without the long term mortality associated with
non-specific PDE3 inhibitors. Isoform-selective PDE3 activators may
have beneficial anti-apoptotic effects in patients with dilated
cardiomyopathy and/or pulmonary hypertension whose hemodynamic
status is not too compromised to tolerate a reduction in cardiac
contractility, without concomitant arrhythmogenic effects
attributable to increases in cytosolic cAMP content. A paradigm for
the latter is the use of beta-adrenergic receptor antagonists in
the treatment of dilated cardiomyopathy.
SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION
[0015] Agents capable of selectively activating or inhibiting
individual PDE3 isoforms or of disrupting their intracellular
localization may selectively affect the phosphorylation of smaller
subsets of PK-A and PK-G substrates to therapeutic advantage.
Without wishing to be limited to any one specific embodiment, an
agent that selectively inhibits sarcoplasmic reticulum-associated
PDE3A-136 may help to preserve intracellular Ca.sup.2+ cycling and
contractility in patients with dilated cardiomyopathy taking
.beta.-adrenergic receptor agonists, which may reduce
arrhythmogenic effects attributable to increases in cytosolic cAMP
content. Alternatively, if the activation of PDE3A-136 by PK-B is
anti-apoptotic in cardiac myocytes, its inhibition may be
pro-apoptotic (possibly explaining the increased long-term
mortality seen with PDE3 inhibition in dilated cardiomyopathy), and
the selective activation of this isoform may be desirable. In
addition, currently available competitive PDE3 inhibitors inhibit
cAMP activity more potently than they inhibit cGMP hydrolytic
activity, owing to the higher Km's of the hydrolytic enzymes for
cAMP than for cGMP. Agents that inhibit PDE3 activity through other
mechanisms, identified by the methods described herein, may affect
hydrolysis of the two substrates differentially, resulting in
different cellular actions of therapeutic benefit.
[0016] As disclosed herein, N-terminal differences exist between
the different isoforms of PDE3. Without wishing to be limited to
any one specific embodiment, these N-terminal differences may offer
opportunities for targeting individual isoforms of PDE3.
Differences with respect to phosphorylation sites that stimulate
catalytic activity suggest that agents that bind to domains
containing these sites so as to either block phosphorylation or
mimic its effects may be useful as isoform-selective PDE3
inhibitors or activators. As an example, an agent that binds to the
P1 phosphorylation site could selectively inhibit or activate
PDE3A-136 or PDE3B-137. A similar rationale would apply to agents
that bind to N-terminal protein-interacting domains so as to either
block or mimic the effects of these interactions, with the paradigm
of peptides that modulate cAMP-mediated signaling by blocking
PK-A/AKAP interactions (Rosenmund, et al., 1994). Without wishing
to be limited to any one specific embodiment, the typical
accessibility of phosphorylation sites and protein interacting
domains makes them propitious drug targets. Differences between
PDE3A and PDE3B in the N-terminal regions are sufficient to permit
selective targeting of PDE3A-136 v. PDE3B-137, which may allow
selective modulation of PDE3 activity in cardiac and vascular
myocytes.
[0017] As shown herein, the different isoforms of PDE3 are
translated from different mRNAs. In some cases these mRNAs are
generated from different genes (PDE3A and PDE3B). In the case of
PDE3A, different isoforms are generated from different mRNAs
transcribed from the same gene (e.g., PDE3A1 and PDE3A2 mRNAs). The
open reading frame (ORF) of PDE3A1 is indicated in SEQ ID NO:14.
The 5' untranslated region (5'-UTR) of PDE3A1, starting with the
first ATG codon, is listed in SEQ ID NO:18. The approximate ORF of
PDE3A2 is indicated in SEQ ID NO:15. A nucleotide sequence unique
to PDE3A1 mRNA has been identified, and cDNA probes have been
designed that react with PDE3A1 mRNA but not PDE3A2 mRNA. Without
wishing to be limited to any one specific embodiment, these
differences make PDE3 mRNAs propititious targets for decreasing the
activity of individual protein isoforms by inhibiting the
translation of their mRNAs via antisense constructs, ribozymes or
small interfering RNA's ("siRNAs").
[0018] The present invention fulfills an unresolved need in the art
by identifying differences between PDE3 isoforms that may be used
to develop isoform selective inhibitors or activators of PDE3
activity. Such inhibitors or activators are proposed to allow the
differential regulation of cAMP and cGMP levels in different
subcellular compartments, cell types and tissues. In certain
embodiments, the present invention concerns methods for identifying
isoform selective PDE3 inhibitors or activators. Certain
embodiments concern compounds identified by such methods that are
of use for the therapeutic treatment of cardiomyopathy and/or
pulmonary hypertension. In preferred embodiments, such compounds
result in improved cardiac output while exhibiting little or no
long-term toxicity. In other embodiments, the isoform selective
inhibitors or activators of PDE3 find utility for therapeutic
treatment of a number of disease states related to defects in the
regulation of cAMP concentration, such as diabetes mellitus,
peripheral vascular disease and coronary artery stenosis
(especially--but not limited to--stenoses occurring after coronary
angioplasty).
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS
[0019] The following drawings form part of the present
specification and are included to further demonstrate certain
aspects of the present invention. The invention may be better
understood by reference to one or more of these drawings in
combination with the detailed description of specific embodiments
presented herein.
[0020] FIG. 1 Role of PDE3 in cAMP- and cGMP-mediated signal
transduction. PK-A: cAMP-dependent protein kinase; PK-G:
cGMP-dependent protein kinase.
[0021] FIG. 2 PK-A substrates in cardiac myocytes. AKAP: PK-A (`A
kinase`) anchoring protein; CREB: cAMP response element-binding
protein; Gly Syn: glycogen synthase; Ph K: phosphorylase kinase;
PI3-K: phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase; PL: phospholamban; Ry:
ryanodine; SERCA: Sarcoplasmic/endoplasmic reticulum calcium
ATPase; Tn: troponin; TM: tropomyosin.
[0022] FIG. 3 Generation of PDE3A mRNA's by alternative
transcription. Shaded boxes represent exons of PDE3A.
[0023] FIG. 4 Functional topography of PDE3A and PDE3B open reading
frames showing NHR1 and 2, CCR with INS and PK-B and PK-A sites
(`B`, `A.sub.up` and `A.sub.d:`). Numbers between dotted lines
denote % amino acid sequence identities of homologous regions.
[0024] FIG. 5A Western blotting of rtPDE3A1 (containing the full
ORF product of PDE3A1) and microsomal and cytosolic fractions of
human myocardium. A lysate of Sf21 cells expressing a full-length
open reading frame ORF of rePDE3A1 (1.0 .mu.g/lane) and microsomal
and cytosolic fractions of human myocardium (50 and 20 .mu.g/lane,
respectively) were subjected to SDS-PAGE followed by
electrophoretic transfer to nitrocellulose membranes and Western
blotting, using anti-NT, anti-MID and anti-CT antibodies.
[0025] FIG. 5B Location of anti-NT, anti-MD and Anti-CT binding
sites on the full-length ORF of PDE3A1.
[0026] FIG. 6 Comparison of molecular weights of [.sup.35S]-labeled
rtPDE3A proteins, showing SDS-PAGE autoradiograms, and native
cardiac and aortic isoforms of PDE3A, identified by Western
blotting of membranes prepared from the same gels with antibodies
as indicated. The numbers below the autoradiograms indicate the
initial start codon of the PDE3A derived construct.
[0027] FIG. 7 Generation of cardiac and aortic isoforms of PDE3A.
PDE3A1 and PDE3A2 mRNA's were generated by alternative
transcription. PDE3A1 is expressed only in cardiac myocytes. PDE3A2
is expressed in both cardiac and aortic myocytes. PDE3A-136 is
translated from PDE3A1. PDE3A-118 and PDE3A-94 are translated from
alternative sites in PDE3A2. Numbers in "mRNA" refer to start
codons. P1, P2 and P3 designate phosphorylation sites.
[0028] FIG. 8 Inhibition of cAMP hydrolytic activity of rtPDE3A1
(in Sf9 lysates) and cytosolic and microsomal fractions of human
myocardium by milrinone.
[0029] FIG. 9 Stimulation of cGMP hydrolytic activity by PK-A.
Detergent solubilized lysates of Sf21 cells expressing rtPDE3B
isoforms (full-length ORF's, including wild-type, Ser.fwdarw.Ala
and Ser.fwdarw.Asp; mutations) were prepared, and cGMP hydrolytic
activity was determined at 0.03 .mu.M cGMP after incubation in the
presence or absence of PK-A and ATP. Values represent mean .+-.
standard deviation (each pair of values represents data from a
single preparation).
[0030] FIG. 10 Co-immunoprecipitation of rtPK-B and rtPDE-B. Amino
acid sequences of rtPDE3B are shown at top. Detergent-solubilized
lysates of Sf9 cells infected with rtPDE3B were mixed with lysates
from Sf9 cells infected with rtPK-B. Proteins were
immunoprecipitated with anti-PDE3B antibodies and subjected to
Western blotting with anti-PDE3B and anti-PK-B antibodies. PK-B
coprecipitates with the full-length but not the truncated rtPDE3B.
The identity of the 92 kDa band is unknown.
[0031] FIG. 11 Open reading frame of PDE3A (see SEQ ID NO:14). The
apparent N-terminal methionine residues of the three isoforms are
indicated in bold for PDE3A-136 (amino acid 146), PDE3A-118 (amino
acid 300) and PDE3A-94 (amino acids 484 or 485). The
phosphorylation sites on the PDE3A isoforms are indicated by
underlining for P1 (amino acids 288-294), P2 (amino acids 309-312)
and P3 (amino acids 435-438).
[0032] FIG. 12. Comparison of apparent molecular weights of
[.sup.35S]rtPDE3A proteins and native cardiac and aortic isoforms
of PDE3A. rtPDE3A isoforms were generated by in vitro
transcription/translation from constructs with 5' deletions
designed to result in tranlation from different in-fram AUG codons
in the PDE3A1 ORF.
DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF ILLUSTRATIVE EMBODIMENTS
[0033] The following abbreviations are used herein. Other
abbreviations not listed below have their plain and ordinary
meaning.
[0034] AKAP: PK-A (`A kinase`) anchoring protein
[0035] Akt: protein kinase B
[0036] anti-CT: a polyclonal antibody raised against the C-terminus
of PDE3A
[0037] anti-MID: a polyclonal antibody raised against a mid-protein
amino acid sequence in PDE3A
[0038] anti-NT: a polyclonal antibody raised against the N-terminus
of PDE3A
[0039] CaM: calmodulin
[0040] CCR: conserved catalytic region
[0041] CK2: casein kinase 2
[0042] CREB: cAMP response element-binding protein
[0043] G: G protein (G.alpha., G.beta., G.gamma.)
[0044] Gly Syn: glycogen synthase
[0045] IB: immunoblotting
[0046] IP: immunoprecipitation
[0047] IGF: insulin-like growth factor
[0048] INS: 44-amino acid insert in CCR
[0049] MAP kinase: mitogen-activated protein kinase
[0050] MLP: muscle LIM protein
[0051] NHR: N-terminal hydrophobic region
[0052] p34.sup.cdc2: cyclin-dependent proteinkinase
[0053] P1, P2, P3: phosphorylation sites in PDE3
[0054] PDE: phosphodiesterase
[0055] PDE3: type 3 phosphodiesterase
[0056] PDE3-BP: PDE3-binding protein
[0057] PGE1: prostaglandin E1
[0058] Ph K: phosphorylase kinase
[0059] PI3-K: phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase
[0060] PK-A: cAMP-dependent protein kinase
[0061] PK-B: protein kinase B, also known as Akt
[0062] PK-C: protein kinase C
[0063] PK-G: cGMP-dependent protein kinase
[0064] PKI: a protein kinase inhibitor specific for PK-A
[0065] PL: phospholamban
[0066] RACK: receptor for activated PK-C
[0067] rtX: recombinant form of protein `X`
[0068] Ry: ryanodine
[0069] SERCA: Sarcoplasmic/endoplasmic reticulum calcium ATPase
[0070] Tn: troponin
[0071] TM: tropomyosin
[0072] V8: endopeptidase Glu-C
[0073] As used herein, "a" or "an" may mean one or more than one of
an item.
[0074] This application concerns, at least in part, isolated
proteins and nucleic acids encoded by type 3 phosphodiesterase
(PDE3, GenBank Accession No. NM000921), as well as methods of
identification of isoform selective inhibitors or activators and
methods of therapeutic treatment of cardiomyopathy and/or pulmonary
hypertension directed towards such proteins. In the present
disclosure, reference to "PDE3" or "type 3 phosphodiesterase"
without further qualification or limitation means any or all of the
isoforms of PDE3, either identified herein or as discovered or
characterized by the methods disclosed herein. Where the sequences
of the disclosed PDE3A isoforms proteins (SEQ ID NO:1, SEQ ID NO:2,
SEQ ID NO:3) differ from the GenBank sequence, the sequences
disclosed herein are believed to be more accurate and are
preferred.
[0075] A "PDE3 isoform" is a variant of type 3 phosphodiesterase
that differs in its primary structure (i.e., amino acid sequence)
from other isoforms of PDE3. The term encompasses, but is not
limited to, isoforms that are produced by truncation, amino acid
substitution (mutation) or by alternative mRNA splicing, so long as
some difference in amino acid sequence results. For the purposes of
the present invention, other types of covalent modification would
be considered to fall within the scope of a single isoform. For
example, both phosphorylated and unphosphorylated forms of
PDE3A-136 would be considered to represent the same isoform. The
amino acid sequences of the three isoforms of PDE3A are as
disclosed in SEQ ID NO:1, SEQ ID NO:2 and SEQ ID NO:3.
[0076] As used herein, an "inhibitor" of PDE3 means any compound or
combination of compounds that acts to decrease the activity of
PDE3, either directly or indirectly, with respect to catalyzing the
breakdown of cAMP and/or cGMP. An inhibitor can be a molecule, an
atom, or a combination of molecules or atoms without limitation.
The term "antagonist" of PDE3 is generally synonymous with an
"inhibitor" of PDE3. Inhibitors may act directly on PDE3 by, for
example, binding to and blocking the catalytic site or some other
functional domain of PDE3 that is required for activity. An
inhibitor may also act indirectly, for example, by blocking the
phosphorylation (or its effect on activity) or facilitating the
dephosphorylation of PDE3 or by facilitating or interfering with
the binding of PDE3 to another protein or peptide. The skilled
artisan will realize that inhibitors and/or activators may affect
PDE3 isoform protein activity and/or may affect the transcription,
processing, post-transcriptional modification, stability and/or
translation of one or more mRNA species encoding PDE3 isoform
proteins (see, e.g., GenBank Accession No. NM000921, SEQ ID NO:14,
SEQ ID NO:15, SEQ ID NO:18).
[0077] As used herein, an "activator" of PDE3 means any compound or
combination of compounds that acts to increase the activity of
PDE3, either directly or indirectly, with respect to catalyzing the
breakdown of cAMP and/or cGMP. An activator can be a molecule, an
atom, or a combination of molecules or atoms without limitation.
The term "agonist" of PDE3 is generally synonymous with an
"activator" of PDE3. Activators may act directly on PDE3 by, for
example, binding some functional domain of PDE3 that is required
for activity or by altering the secondary, tertiary or quaternary
structure of PDE3 in a way that increases activity. An activator
may also act indirectly, for example, by facilitating the
phosphorylation or mimicking its effect, by blocking the
dephosphorylation of PDE3 or by facilitating or interfering with
the binding of PDE3 to another protein or peptide. As discussed
above, activators may affect PDE3 isoforms at the level of mRNA
and/or protein.
[0078] An "isoform selective" inhibitor or activator of PDE3 is one
that has a greater effect on one isoform of PDE3 than on any other
isoform of PDE3. In preferred embodiments, an "isoform selective"
inhibitor or activator has at least a two-fold greater, more
preferably three-fold greater, more preferably four-fold greater,
more preferably five-fold, more preferably ten-fold or more greater
effect on one isoform of PDE3 than on any other isoform of PDE3.
For purposes of the present invention, the precise degree of
selectivity of an inhibitor or activator for one isoform of PDE3
compared to other isoforms is not significant, so long as a desired
therapeutic effect is achieved. For example, a desired therapeutic
effect might be an improvement in cardiac output, with a decrease
in long-term mortality, resulting from administration of an isoform
selective PDE3 inhibitor or activator compared with nonspecific
PDE3 inhibitors. An "isoform selective" inhibitor or activator of
PDE3 encompasses, but is not limited to, an isoform specific
inhibitor or activator of PDE3. An isoform specific inhibitor or
activator of PDE3 is one that acts almost exclusively upon a single
isoform of PDE3, so that the effect of the inhibitor or activator
on one isoform of PDE3 compared to any other PDE3 isoform is at
least an order of magnitude greater, more preferably two orders of
magnitude greater, more preferably three orders of magnitude or
more greater.
Type 3 Phosphodiesterase
[0079] Cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterases have a ubiquitous role
in regulating cAMP- and cGMP-mediated intracellular signaling.
Eleven families of these enzymes have been identified. Those in the
PDE3 family are dual-specificity phosphodiesterases that bind both
cAMP and cGMP with high affinity and hydrolyze them in a mutually
competitive manner (FIG. 1). PDE3 inhibitors, which raise
intracellular cAMP and cGMP content, have inotropic effects
attributable to the activation of cAMP-dependent protein kinase
(PK-A) in cardiac myocytes and vasodilatory effects attributable to
the activation of cGMP-dependent protein kinase (PK-G) in vascular
myocytes.
[0080] In addition to regulating contraction and relaxation in
cardiac and vascular myocytes, PDE3 cyclic nucleotide
phosphodiesterases are involved in platelet aggregation,
anti-lipolytic responses to insulin in adipocytes, insulin
secretion by pancreatic .beta. cells and maturation of oocytes
(Shakur et al., 2000a; Zhao et al., 1998; Andersen et al., 1998).
FIG. 2 illustrates the numerous targets and the intracellular
compartmentation of PK-A activity.
[0081] Two subfamilies of PDE3, products of genes designated PDE3A
and PDE3B, have been identified. PDE3A is expressed primarily in
cardiac and vascular myocytes and platelets, while PDE3B is
expressed primarily in adipocytes, hepatocytes and pancreatic cells
(but also in vascular myocytes) (Reinhardt et al., 1995). To date,
one PDE3B (Taira et al., 1993) and three PDE3A cDNAs have been
cloned. The latter are generated by transcription from alternative
start sites in PDE3A. PDE3A1 (SEQ ID NO:14, SEQ ID NO:18), which
was cloned from human myocardium, incorporates all sixteen exons of
PDE3A (Meacci et al., 1992; Kasuya et al., 2000). PDE3A2 (SEQ ID
NO:15), which was cloned from aortic myocytes, is transcribed from
a start site in exon 1 (Choi et al., 2001). PDE3A3, cloned from
placenta, is transcribed from a start site between exons 3 and 4
(Kasuya et al., 1995). The alternative start sites used for
transcription of the three PDE3A mRNAs are illustrated in FIG. 3.
The encoded amino acid sequences of the PDE3A isoforms are
disclosed herein as SEQ ID NO:1 (PDE3A-136), SEQ ID NO:2
(PDE3A-118) and SEQ ID NO:3 (PDE3A-94). The skilled artisan will
realize that the protein isoforms of PDE3 do not precisely
correspond to the mRNA species transcribed from the PDE3A gene. For
example, both PDE3A-118 and PDE3A-94 are translated from the PDE3A2
mRNA (SEQ ID NO: 15).
[0082] The functional topographies of the proteins corresponding to
the longest open reading frames (ORF's) of PDE3A and PDE3B are
similar (FIG. 4). The C-terminus includes a sequence of about 280
amino acids, designated as "CCR" (FIG. 4), which is highly
conserved among cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterase families and in
which catalytic activity resides. Within CCR lies a 44-amino acid
insert, designated "INS", that is unique to the PDE3 family of
cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterases. The N-terminus contains two
hydrophobic sequences, designated "NHR1" (about 200 amino acids)
and "NHR2" (about 50 amino acids). NHR1 and NHR2 appear to be
implicated in intracellular targeting. Between NHR1 and NHR2 are
sites phosphorylated by PK-A and PK-B that, despite their distance
from CCR, modulate catalytic activity. A second PK-A site whose
function is unclear is located between NHR2 and CCR.
[0083] Despite the structural similarities, there are considerable
differences between PDE3A and PDE3B with respect to their amino
acid sequences. PDE3A and PDE3B are 84-86% identical within the CCR
region, exclusive of INS. However, INS and the extreme C-terminus
are only 35-39% identical, and the remaining upstream regions are
less than 30% identical. Thus, while the catalytic sequences of the
isoforms are similar, the regulatory portions of the isoforms
appear to be very different and are likely to be differentially
affected by the various inhibitors and activators of the present
invention.
Structure/Function Relations
[0084] Catalytic activity. The catalytic activity of PDE3 enzymes
requires almost the entire C-terminal sequence downstream of about
amino acid 650, including the CCR domain that is largely conserved
among all PDE families, as well as the INS and the CCR-flanking
regions that are unique to the PDE3 family (FIG. 4). (Cheung et
al., 1996; He et al., 1998.) The recent determination of the
crystal structure of the related enzyme PDE4B2B has led to the
identification of its catalytic site (Xu et al., 2000). The
catalytic domain consists of three subdomains comprising
17.alpha.-helices.
[0085] The active site, preserved in all PDE families, is at the
junction of these three subdomains and is formed by the apposition
of discontinuous amino acids. Differences in substrate affinity and
selectivity among isoform families may be influenced in large part
by differences in amino acid sequences that allosterically affect
Glu1001 of PDE3A, which "reads" the 1- and 6-positions of the
cyclic nucleotide purine ring and determines affinity (and hence
selectivity) for cAMP and cGMP. Experiments involving PDE3/PDE4
chimeras indicate that the regions adjacent to this site contain
the determinants of sensitivity to phosphodiesterase inhibitors
(Atienza et al., 1999). This model, in which the active site is
formed by discontinuous domains with allosteric determination of
substrate affinity, may explain why so much sequence is required
for catalytic activity. It may also explain why mutations of some
amino acids preferentially affect binding of either cAMP or cGMP,
while others affect the binding of both nucleotides (Zhang and
Colman, 2000). While the N-terminus is not required for catalytic
activity, N-terminal deletions increase the ratio of Vmax cGMP/Vmax
cAMP, suggesting that the N-terminal region is involved in
regulating catalytic activity (Tang et al, 1997).
[0086] The structural model described above has important
implications regarding the feasibility of selective PDE3 inhibition
or activation. The sequences of regions required for catalytic
activity--INS and the regions flanking CCR--differ sufficiently
between PDE3A and PDE3B to be reasonable targets for
isoform-selective inhibitors or activators. As described in the
Examples below, the development of anti-peptide antibodies
selective for the C-terminus of either PDE3A or PDE3B is further
evidence that selective inhibition or activation may occur. The
existence of allosteric sites that differentially affect cAMP and
cGMP hydrolysis allows for the identification of small molecules
that selectively bind to these sites and affect either cAMP or cGMP
hydrolysis.
[0087] Intracellular localization. Intracellular targeting of PDE3
appears to be determined principally by the N-terminal domains NHR1
and NHR2. NHR1 contains six transmembrane helices, the last two of
which are sufficient to localize recombinant proteins containing
these domains exclusively to intracellular membranes (Kenan et al,
2000; Shakur et al., 2000b). Such recombinants can be solubilized
only by a combination of high salt and detergent, suggesting that
they are intrinsic membrane proteins. Recombinants lacking NHR1 but
retaining NHR2 are found in both microsomal and cytosolic fractions
of transfected cells. High salt alone is sufficient to solubilize
these proteins, suggesting that interactions with other proteins
are involved in their intracellular localization. Recombinants
lacking both NHR1 and NHR2 are predominantly cytosolic.
[0088] Regulation by protein phosphorylation. Phosphorylation of
PDE3 plays a major role in the regulation of its function. In
adipocytes, phosphorylation of PDE3 by PK-A and perhaps PI3-K are
involved in the anti-lipolytic response to insulin (Smith et al.,
1991). In oocytes, phosphorylation by PK-B results in the
resumption of meiosis (Zhao et al., 1998). In promyeloid cells,
phosphorylation by PK-B regulates cAMP pools that modulate DNA
synthesis (Ahmad et al., 2000). In platelets, phosphorylation of
PDE3A by PK-A and an insulin-activated protein kinase is associated
with inhibition of aggregation (Grant et al, 1988; Lopez-Aparicio
et al., 1993).
[0089] As described in more detail in the Examples below, three
phosphorylation sites have been identified for the PDE3 isoforms
(FIG. 4). PDE3B is phosphorylated in vivo by PK-A and possibly by
PI3-K at Ser318 (site P2) (Rahn et al., 1996; Rondinone et al.,
2000). The P2 site is dephosphorylated by a PP2A serine/threonine
phosphatase (Resjo et al., 1999). PDE3B is also phosphorylated in
vivo by PK-B at Ser296 (site P1) (Kitamura et al., 1999).
Phosphorylation at either site increases catalytic activity. The
fact that P1 and P2 lie between NHR1 and NHR2 raises the
possibility that phosphorylation at these sites also affects
intracellular targeting.
[0090] A third site--Ser421 in PDE3B (site P3)--is phosphorylated
by PK-A in vitro (Rascn et al., 1994). In adipocytes it is unclear
whether PDE3B is phosphorylated at P3 in response to isoproterenol
or insulin in vivo. It is unknown whether this site is
phosphorylated in PDE3B in other cell types and, if so, how
phosphorylation at this site affects activity. It is also unknown
whether phosphorylation at any of these sites affects inhibitor
sensitivity, but a relevant paradigm is the reduction in the
sensitivity of another phosphodiesterase, PDE4D3, to the inhibitor
rolipram that results from phosphorylation of PDE4D3 by PK-A
(Hoffmann et al., 1998). Prior to the present invention, the
phosphorylation sites on the PDE3A isoforms were unknown. Numerous
consensus phosphorylation sites are present in the PDE3A amino acid
sequence and it was unknown which of these sites was phosphorylated
in vivo.
[0091] The identification of protein kinases that phosphorylate
PDE3 isoforms and alter their function may elucidate their role in
dilated cardiomyopathy. Phosphorylation and activation of PDE3 by
PK-B, for example, may be an anti-apoptotic mechanism related to
the deleterious long-term effects of PDE3 inhibition in dilated
cardiomyopathy. The sequences of PDE3A and PDE3B contain multiple
consensus sites for CK2, PK-C and other protein kinases. It may be
especially important to consider cross-regulation by these kinases
in the pathophysiology of cardiomyopathy and/or pulmonary
hypertension. By analogy, PDE4D3 phosphorylation by ERK2 profoundly
reduces its activity, and this reduction is reversed by
phosphorylation by PK-A (Hoffmann et al. 1999).
Protein-Protein Interactions
[0092] Interactions with other proteins are involved in the
regulation of activity and intracellular localization of other
families of PDE. Binding of Ca.sup.2+/CaM stimulates catalytic
activity of PDE1 via multiple CaM-binding domains (Sonnenburg et
al., 1995). The activities of PDE6.alpha..beta. and
.alpha.'.alpha.' dimers are inhibited by their interaction with
PDE.gamma.. Phototransduction occurs when this inhibition is
relieved by interaction with the rhodopsin-coupled G protein
transducin (Granovsky et al., 2000). PDE6 dissociates from
intracellular membranes upon binding to PDE8 (Florio et al., 1996).
Interactions with RACK1 and AKAP's are involved in the subcellular
targeting of PDE4 isoforms to multienzyme complexes (Yarwood et al.
1999; Dodge et al., 2001). The interactions of PDE4 with SH3
domains of SRC family tyrosine kinases affect intracellular
localization and inhibitor sensitivity (McPhee et al., 1999).
[0093] Prior to the present invention, it was unknown whether PDE3
is catalytically regulated or intracellularly targeted via
interactions with other proteins. PDE3B, insulin receptor, the p85
and p110subunits of PI3-K and an unidentified 97-kDa protein are
co-immunoprecipitated from human adipocytes with anti-insulin
receptor antibodies (Rondinone et al., 2000). Preliminary data on
the interaction of PDE3B with 14-3-3 proteins has been reported
(Palmer et al., 2000). 14-3-3 proteins bind to phosphorylated
serine residues in consensus motifs and affect intracellular
localization of proteins in diverse ways (Fu et al., 2000). As
discussed in the Examples below, site P1 in PDE3A and PDE3B
approximates this consensus motif, raising the possibility that
phosphorylation affects intracellular localization through
interaction with 14-3-3 proteins. The Examples further show the
existence of stable complexes of PDE3B with PK-B and AKAP220. Taken
together, these observations indicate that interactions of other
proteins with the N-terminus are involved in PDE3 function, and
that phosphorylation of PDE3 may affect these interactions.
Proteins
[0094] In referring to the function of PDE3 or "wild-type"
activity, it is meant that the molecule in question has the ability
to catalyze the breakdown of cAMP and cGMP. Molecules possessing
this activity may be identified using assays familiar to those of
skill in the art. For example, in vitro assay of homogenates
containing PDE3 activity, or variants thereof, will identify those
molecules having PDE3 activity by virtue of their ability to
degrade cAMP or cGMP. The skilled artisan will realize that a
variety of phosphodiesterases are endemic to various cell lines and
tissues and will select an appropriate system lacking endogenous
phosphodiesterase to perform such assays.
[0095] The term "PDE3 gene" refers to any DNA sequence that is
substantially identical to a DNA sequence encoding a PDE3 protein
as defined above. Allowing for the degeneracy of the genetic code,
sequences that have at least about 50%, usually at least about 60%,
more usually about 70%, most usually about 80%, preferably at least
about 90%, preferably at least about 95%, most preferably 98% or
more of nucleotides that are identical to the cDNA sequences of
PDE3 are "as set forth in" those sequences. Sequences that are
substantially identical or "essentially the same" as the cDNA
sequences of PDE3 also may be functionally defined as sequences
that are capable of hybridizing to a nucleic acid segment
containing the complement of the cDNA sequences of PDE3 under
conditions of relatively high stringency. Such conditions are
typically relatively low salt and/or high temperature conditions,
such as provided by about 0.02 M to about 0.15 M NaCl at
temperatures of about 50.degree. C. to about 70.degree. C. Such
selective conditions tolerate little, if any, mismatch between the
complementary stands and the template or target strand. Any such
gene sequences may also comprise associated control sequences.
[0096] In certain embodiments, the present invention relates to
fragments of PDE3 polypeptides that may or may not retain the
phosphodiesterase activity of PDE3, although in preferred
embodiments the fragments exhibit phosphodiesterase activity.
Fragments including the N-terminus of the molecule may be generated
by genetic engineering of translation stop sites within the coding
region (discussed below). Alternatively, treatment of the protein
molecule with proteolytic enzymes can produce a variety of
N-terminal, C-terminal and internal fragments. Examples of
fragments may include contiguous residues of the PDE3 amino acid
sequences of 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19,
20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 75, 80, 85,
90, 95, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500 or more amino acids in length.
These fragments may be purified according to known methods, such as
precipitation (e.g., ammonium sulfate), HPLC, ion exchange
chromatography, affinity chromatography (including immunoaffinity
chromatography), or various size separations (e.g., sedimentation,
gel electrophoresis, gel filtration).
[0097] Substantially identical analog proteins will be greater than
about 80% identical, more preferably 90% identical, more preferably
95% identical, more preferably 98% identical, more preferably 99%
identical, more preferably 99.5% identical, more preferably 99.9%
identical to the corresponding sequence of the native protein.
Sequences having lesser degrees of similarity but comparable
biological activity are considered to be equivalents. In
determining nucleic acid sequences, all subject nucleic acid
sequences capable of encoding substantially similar amino acid
sequences are considered to be substantially similar to a reference
nucleic acid sequence, regardless of differences in codon
sequence.
Protein Purification
[0098] Certain embodiments may involve purification of one or more
individual PDE3 isoforms or variants thereof. Protein purification
techniques are well known to those of skill in the art. These
techniques involve, at one level, the crude fractionation of the
cellular milieu to polypeptide and non-polypeptide fractions.
Having separated the polypeptide from other proteins, the
polypeptide of interest may be further purified using
chromatographic and electrophoretic techniques to achieve partial
or complete purification (or purification to homogeneity).
Analytical methods particularly suited to the preparation of a pure
peptide are ion-exchange chromatography, gel exclusion
chromatography, polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, affinity
chromatography, immunoaffinity chromatography and isoelectric
focusing. A particularly efficient method of purifying peptides is
fast protein liquid chromatography (FPLC) or even HPLC.
[0099] Certain aspects of the present invention concern the
purification, and in particular embodiments, the substantial
purification, of an encoded protein or peptide. The terms
"isolated" or "purified" as applied to a protein or peptide, are
intended to refer to a composition, isolatable from other
components, wherein the protein or peptide is purified to any
degree relative to its naturally-obtainable state. A purified
protein or peptide, therefore, also refers to a protein or peptide
free from the environment in which it may naturally occur.
[0100] Generally, "purified" will refer to a protein or peptide
composition that has been subjected to fractionation to remove
various other components, and which composition substantially
retains its expressed biological activity. Where the term
"substantially purified" is used, this designation will refer to a
composition in which the protein or peptide forms the major
component of the composition, such as constituting about 50%, about
60%, about 70%, about 80%, about 90%, about 95%, about 98%, about
99% or more of the proteins in the composition.
[0101] Various methods for quantifying the degree of purification
of a protein or peptide will be known to those of skill in the art.
These include, for example, determining the specific activity of an
active fraction, or assessing the amount of polypeptides within a
fraction by SDS/PAGE analysis. A preferred method for assessing the
purity of a fraction is to calculate the specific activity of the
fraction, to compare it to the specific activity of the initial
extract, and to thus calculate the degree of purity therein,
assessed by a "-fold purification number." The actual units used to
represent the amount of activity will, of course, be dependent upon
the particular assay technique chosen to follow the purification,
and whether or not the protein or peptide exhibits a detectable
activity.
[0102] Various techniques suitable for use in protein purification
will be well known to those of skill in the art. These include, for
example, precipitation with ammonium sulphate, PEG, antibodies and
the like, or by heat denaturation, followed by: centrifugation;
chromatography steps such as ion exchange, gel filtration, reverse
phase, hydroxylapatite and affinity chromatography; isoelectric
focusing; gel electrophoresis; and combinations of these and other
techniques. As is generally known in the art, it is believed that
the order of conducting the various purification steps may be
changed, or that certain steps may be omitted, and still result in
a suitable method for the preparation of a substantially purified
protein or peptide.
[0103] There is no general requirement that the protein or peptide
always be provided in their most purified state. Indeed, it is
contemplated that less substantially purified products will have
utility in certain embodiments. Partial purification may be
accomplished by using fewer purification steps in combination, or
by utilizing different forms of the same general purification
scheme. For example, it is appreciated that a cation-exchange
column chromatography performed utilizing an HPLC apparatus will
generally result in a greater "-fold" purification than the same
technique utilizing a low pressure chromatography system. Methods
exhibiting a lower degree of relative purification may have
advantages in total recovery of protein product, or in maintaining
the activity of an expressed protein.
[0104] It is known that the migration of a polypeptide can vary,
sometimes significantly, with different conditions of SDS/PAGE
(Capaldi et al., 1977). It will, therefore, be appreciated that
under differing electrophoresis conditions, the apparent molecular
weights of purified or partially purified expression products may
vary.
[0105] High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) is
characterized by a very rapid separation with high resolution of
peaks. Moreover, only a very small volume of the sample is needed
because the particles are so small and close-packed that the void
volume is a very small fraction of the bed volume. Also, the
concentration of the sample need not be very great because the
bands are so narrow that there is very little dilution of the
sample.
[0106] Gel chromatography, or molecular sieve chromatography, is a
type of partition chromatography that is based on molecular size.
As long as the material of which the particles are made does not
adsorb the molecules, the sole factor determining rate of flow is
the size of the pores. Hence, molecules are eluted from the column
in decreasing size, so long as the shape is relatively constant. In
gel chromatography, separation is independent of all other factors
such as pH, ionic strength, temperature, etc.
[0107] Affinity chromatography relies on the specific affinity
between a substance to be isolated and a molecule to which it can
specifically bind. The column material is synthesized by covalently
coupling one of the binding partners, such as an antibody or an
antibody-binding protein to an insoluble matrix. The column
material is then able to specifically adsorb the target substance
from the solution. Elution occurs by changing the conditions to
those in which binding will not occur (e.g., altered pH, ionic
strength, temperature, etc.). One of the most common forms of
affinity chromatography is immunoaffinity chromatography. The
generation of antibodies that would be suitable for use in accord
with the present invention is discussed below.
Synthetic Peptides
[0108] In some embodiments, the present invention concerns smaller
peptides for various uses, such as antibody generation or screening
for potential inhibitors or activators that can bind to various
epitopes of PDE3. Smaller peptides of about 100 amino acids or less
can be synthesized in solution or on a solid support in accordance
with conventional techniques. Various automated peptide
synthesizers are commercially available and can be used in
accordance with known protocols. See, for example, Stewart and
Young, (1984); Tam et al., (1983); Merrifield, (1986); and Barany
and Merrifield (1979), each incorporated herein by reference. Short
peptide sequences, or libraries of overlapping peptides, usually
from about 6 up to about 35 to 50 amino acids, which correspond to
selected regions of the PDE3 protein, can be readily synthesized
and then screened in screening assays designed to identify reactive
peptides or other small molecules. Alternatively, recombinant DNA
technology may be employed wherein a nucleotide sequence which
encodes a peptide of the invention is inserted into an expression
vector, transformed or transfected into an appropriate host cell,
and cultivated under conditions suitable for expression. Expression
of cloned PDE3 sequences is preferred in embodiments where PDE3
peptides of greater than about 50 amino acids in length are
desired. The skilled artisan will realize that it is also possible
to synthesize short peptide fragments and covalently link them
together, for example using carbodiimides as cross-linking groups.
In this manner, a peptide of any desired length can be produced by
synthesizing shorter fragments and joining them in the appropriate
order.
Two-dimensional Mapping
[0109] Two dimensional mapping, also known as proteome analysis, is
a useful tool for characterization of cellular protein expression.
Specifically contemplated are the methods described in Gibson,
1974; Beemon and Hunter, 1978; and Luo, et al., 1990, each of which
is incorporated herein by reference, in their entirety.
Two-dimensional mapping is based on two-dimensional electrophoretic
separation of proteins in a cellular lysate or homogenate so that
each protein can be identified using specific coordinates in a
two-dimensional protein map from which it can be extracted and
further identified (by, e.g., micro sequencing or mass
spectrometry).
[0110] For mapping, the proteins in a cellular homogenate or lysate
are immunoprecipitated, using an antibody or series of antibodies
specific for the proteins of interest, and run on a preparative
electrophoretic protein gel. The proteins from this gel are then
transferred to an immobilizing matrix. Various immobilizing
matrices are available and may be used. Preferred matrices for
purposes of the present invention are nitrocellulose or a nylon
matrix such as Immobilon (Millipore, Bedford, Mass.). The resulting
protein-matrix hybrid, called a blot, is then washed with water in
order to remove any non-bound cellular debris from the initial
homogenate or lysate, which may cause interference in subsequent
steps. The blot is then contacted with an antibody, or series of
antibodies, specific to the protein or proteins of interest in the
cellular homogenate or lysate. The skilled artisan will realize
that these antibodies may be monoclonal, polyclonal, or both and
use of any will not substantially change the outcome of this
procedure. Once the protein or proteins of interest from the
cellular homogenate or lysate ore identified by the antibodies, by
the antibodies binding to the proteins and forming an
antibody-protein complex, they are physically excised from the rest
of the blot matrix. One of reasonable skill in the art will
recognize that any common method of antibody detection may be used
to identify the aforementioned antibody-protein complex. These may
include, but are not limited to, ELISA, alkaline-phosphatase
conjugated secondary antibody, enzyme-conjugated antibodies,
radiolabeled antibodies, or any other common method of detection.
For purposes of the present invention, radiolabeled antibodies are
the preferred method of detection.
[0111] The protein or proteins, still in the form of bands from the
immobilizing matrix, are digested by one of several common
peptidase enzymes. These are enzymes that cleave proteins at
specific locations only and include, but are not limited to,
trypsin, chymotrypsin, CNBr and V8. Digestion may be allowed to run
to completion, i.e. where every possible site that the chosen
peptidase could recognize in the sample is cleaved, or it may be a
partial digestion, merely run for a shorter period of time and not
to completion. Once the desired level of digestion is completed,
the peptidase chosen is removed from the sample, typically by
centrifugation and transfer of the supernatant to a new container
or vessel.
[0112] These digested samples are then loaded onto a cellulose thin
layer plate for pH-driven electrophoresis, the first "dimension" in
the mapping process. The digested proteins will behave on this thin
layer plate much as they would when subjected to standard SDS-PAGE,
except that the digested protein fragments will separate by charge
according to the pH of the electrophoresis buffer. By way of
example only, if the electrophoresis buffer chosen has a pH ranging
from 1.9 to 4.72, then the majority of the digested peptide
fragments in the sample will be positively charged. The thin layer
plate should thus be loaded appropriately for optimal separation o
the digested peptide fragments. In this example, the plate should
be loaded at a distance closer to the positive electrode and
farther from the negative electrode. The skilled artisan will
recognize that the pH used in any individual electrophoresis should
be that which will give an optimal distribution o the peptides.
Preferred pH values include 8.9, more preferably 4.72, even more
preferably 1.9. After electrophoresis is complete, the thin layer
plate is typically dried in an oven. It is thought that this step
irreversibly binds the digested peptide fragments to the cellulose
on the thin layer plate.
[0113] Chromatography, the second "dimension" in the mapping, is
next performed. The thin layer plate is placed in a chamber with a
chromatography liquid, but only one side of the thin layer plate is
immersed in this liquid. The thin layer plate should be placed in
the liquid in such a manner that the liquid used, as it travels up
through the thin layer plate via capillarity, does so at a ninety
(90) degree angle from the direction electrophoresis was performed
on the plate. When chromatography is performed in this way, it will
separate the digested peptide fragments in some manner apart from
overall charge. Thus, when chromatography has completed, the
digested peptides will have been separated first by overall charge,
then by a property driven by the chromatography liquid, hence the
"two-dimensional" separation.
[0114] The skilled artisan will recognize that the chromatography
buffer will differ based upon the desired property for separation
and will use that buffer that will give optimal separation of A the
peptides in question. By way of example only, chromatography
buffers may be selected that separate according to hydrophobicity,
alkalinity, water solubility, or any other common means of
separation apart from overall charge.
[0115] Once chromatography is complete, the thin layer plate is
dried and the digested peptide fragments thus separated are
detected using common means (such as detection of a
radioactively-labeled antibody).
Protein Chips
[0116] Protein chip technology provides a means of rapidly
screening sample compounds for their ability to hybridize to PDE3
isoform proteins, peptides or subunits immobilized on a solid
substrate. Specifically contemplated are protein array-based
technologies such as those disclosed by Cheng et al. (U.S. Pat. No.
6,071,394), Zanzucchi et al. (U.S. Pat. No. 5,858,804) and Lee et
al. (U.S. Pat. No. 5,948,627), each of which is incorporated herein
by reference in their entirety. These techniques involve methods
for analyzing large numbers of samples rapidly and accurately. The
technology capitalizes on the binding properties of proteins or
peptides to screen samples.
[0117] A protein chip or array consists of a solid substrate upon
which an array of proteins or peptides have been attached. For
screening, the chip or array is contacted with a sample containing
one or more test compounds that may function as PDE3 inhibitors or
activators. The degree of stringency of binding of test compound to
peptides may be manipulated as desired by varying, for example,
salt concentration, temperature, pH and detergent content of the
medium. The chip or array is then scanned to determine which
proteins or peptides have bound to a test compound.
[0118] The structure of a protein chip or array comprises: (1) an
excitation source; (2) an array of probes; (3) a sampling element;
(4) a detector; and (5) a signal amplification/treatment system. A
chip may also include a support for immobilizing the probe.
[0119] In particular embodiments, a protein or peptide may be
tagged or labeled with a substance that emits a detectable signal.
The tagged or labeled species may be fluorescent, phosphorescent,
or luminescent, or it may emit Raman energy or it may absorb
energy. When the protein or peptide binds to a test compound, a
signal is generated that is detected by the chip. The signal may
then be processed in several ways, depending on the nature of the
signal. In alternative embodiments, the test compounds may be
labeled.
[0120] The proteins or peptides may be immobilized onto an
integrated microchip that also supports a phototransducer and
related detection circuitry. Alternatively, PDE3 proteins or
peptides may be immobilized onto a membrane or filter that is then
attached to the microchip or to the detector surface itself. The
proteins or peptides may be directly or indirectly immobilized onto
a transducer detection surface to ensure optimal contact and
maximum detection. A variety of methods have been utilized to
either permanently or removably attach proteins to a substrate.
When immobilized onto a substrate, the proteins are stabilized and
may be used repeatedly.
[0121] Exemplary substrates include nitrocellulose, nylon membrane
or glass. Numerous other matrix materials may be used, including
reinforced nitrocellulose membrane, activated quartz, activated
glass, polyvinylidene difluoride (PVDF) membrane, polystyrene
substrates, polyacrylamide-based substrate, other polymers such as
poly(vinyl chloride), poly(methyl methacrylate), poly(dimethyl
siloxane) and photopolymers which contain photoreactive species
such as nitrenes, carbenes and ketyl radicals capable of forming
covalent links with target molecules (U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,405,766 and
5,986,076, each incorporated herein by reference).
[0122] Binding of proteins or peptides to a selected support may be
accomplished by any of several means. For example, proteins may be
bound to glass by first silanizing the glass surface, then
activating with carbodiimide or glutaraldehyde. Alternative
procedures may use reagents such as
3-glycidoxypropyltrimethoxysilane (GOP) or
aminopropyltrimethoxysilane (APTS) linked via amino groups. With
nitrocellulose membranes, the protein probes may be spotted onto
the membranes.
[0123] Specific proteins or peptides may first be immobilized onto
a membrane and then attached to a membrane in contact with a
transducer detection surface. This method avoids binding the
protein onto the transducer and may be desirable for large-scale
production. Membranes particularly suitable for this application
include nitrocellulose membrane (e.g., from BioRad, Hercules,
Calif.) or polyvinylidene difluoride (PVDF) (BioRad, Hercules,
Calif.) or nylon membrane (Zeta-Probe, BioRad) or polystyrene base
substrates (DNA.BIND.TM. Costar, Cambridge, Mass.).
Antibodies
Antibody Production
[0124] Certain embodiments of the present invention involve
antibody production against one or more PDE3 isoforms. Means for
preparing and characterizing antibodies are well known in the art
(See, e.g., Harlow and Lane, Antibodies: A Laboratory Manual, Cold
Spring Harbor Laboratory, 1988, incorporated herein by
reference).
[0125] Methods for generating polyclonal antibodies are well known
in the art. Briefly, a polyclonal antibody is prepared by
immunizing an animal with an immunogenic composition and collecting
antisera from that immunized animal. A wide range of animal species
may be used for the production of antisera. Typically the animal
used for production of anti-antisera is a rabbit, a mouse, a rat, a
hamster, a guinea pig or a goat. Because of the relatively large
blood volume of rabbits, a rabbit is a preferred choice for
production of polyclonal antibodies.
[0126] As is well known in the art, a given composition may vary in
its immunogenicity. It is often necessary therefore to boost the
host immune system, as may be achieved by coupling a peptide or
polypeptide immunogen to a carrier. Exemplary and preferred
carriers are keyhole limpet hemocyanin (KLH) and bovine serum
albumin (BSA). Other albumins such as ovalbumin, mouse serum
albumin or rabbit serum albumin may also be used as carriers. Means
for conjugating a polypeptide to a carrier protein are well known
in the art and include glutaraldehyde, m-maleimidobenzoyl-N-hy-
droxysuccinimide ester, carbodiimide and bis-biazotized
benzidine.
[0127] As is also well known in the art, the immunogenicity of a
particular immunogen composition may be enhanced by the use of
non-specific stimulators of the immune response, known as
adjuvants. Exemplary and preferred adjuvants include complete
Freund's adjuvant (a non-specific stimulator of the immune response
containing killed Mycobacterium tuberculosis), incomplete Freund's
adjuvants and aluminum hydroxide adjuvant.
[0128] The amount of immunogen composition used in the production
of polyclonal antibodies varies upon the nature of the immunogen as
well as the animal used for immunization. A variety of routes may
be used to administer the immunogen (subcutaneous, intramuscular,
intradermal, intravenous and intraperitoneal). The production of
polyclonal antibodies may be monitored by sampling blood of the
immunized animal at various points following immunization. Later
booster injections may also be given. The process of boosting and
titering is repeated until a suitable titer is achieved. When a
desired level of immunogenicity is obtained, the immunized animal
may be bled and the serum isolated and stored, and/or the animal
may be used to generate MAbs. For production of rabbit polyclonal
antibodies, the animal may be bled through an ear vein or
alternatively by cardiac puncture. The removed blood is allowed to
coagulate and then centrifuged to separate serum components from
whole cells and blood clots. The serum may be used as is for
various applications or else the desired antibody fraction may be
purified by well-known methods, such as affinity chromatography
using another antibody or a peptide bound to a solid matrix.
[0129] Monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) may be readily prepared through
use of well-known techniques, such as those exemplified in U.S.
Pat. No. 4,196,265, incorporated herein by reference. Typically,
this technique involves immunizing a suitable animal with a
selected immunogen composition, e.g., a purified or partially
purified expressed protein, polypeptide or peptide. The immunizing
composition is administered in a manner effective to stimulate
antibody producing cells.
[0130] The methods for generating monoclonal antibodies (NAbs)
generally begin along the same lines as those for preparing
polyclonal antibodies. Rodents such as mice and rats are preferred
animals, however, the use of rabbit, sheep or frog cells is also
possible. Following immunization, somatic cells with the potential
for producing antibodies, specifically B lymphocytes (B cells), are
selected for use in the MAb generating protocol. These cells may be
obtained from biopsied spleens, tonsils or lymph nodes, or from a
peripheral blood sample. Often, a panel of animals will have been
immunized and the spleen of the animal with the highest antibody
titer will be removed and the spleen lymphocytes obtained by
homogenizing the spleen with a syringe.
[0131] The antibody-producing B lymphocytes from the immunized
animal are then fused with cells of an immortal myeloma cell,
generally one of the same species as the animal that was immunized.
Myeloma cell lines suited for use in hybridoma-producing fusion
procedures preferably are non-antibody-producing, have high fusion
efficiency, and enzyme deficiencies that render then incapable of
growing in certain selective media which support the growth of only
the desired fused cells (hybridomas). Any one of a number of
myeloma cells may be used, as are known to those of skill in the
art (e.g., Goding, pp. 65-66, 1986). For example, where the
immunized animal is a mouse, one may use P3-NS-1-Ag4-1, Sp2/0,
P3-X63/Ag8, X63-Ag8.653, NS1/1.Ag 4 1, Sp210-Ag14, FO, NSO/U,
MPC-11, MPCL11-X45-GTG 1.7 and S194/5XX0 Bul; for rats, one may use
R210.RCY3, Y3-Ag 1.2.3, IR983F and 4B210; and U-266, GM1500-GRG2,
LICR-LON-HMy2 and UC729-6 are all useful in connection with human
cell fusions.
[0132] Methods for generating hybrids of antibody-producing spleen
or lymph node cells and myeloma cells usually comprise mixing
somatic cells with myeloma cells in a 2:1 proportion, though the
proportion may vary from about 20:1 to about 1: 1, respectively, in
the presence of an agent or agents (chemical or electrical) that
promote the fusion of cell membranes. Fusion methods using Sendai
virus have been described by Kohler and Milstein (1975; 1976), and
those using polyethylene glycol (PEG), such as 37% (v/v) PEG, by
Gefter et al. (1977). The use of electrically induced fusion
methods is also appropriate (Goding pp. 71-74, 1986).
[0133] Viable, fused hybrids are differentiated from the parental,
unfused cells by culturing in a selective medium. The selective
medium generally contains an agent that blocks the de novo
synthesis of nucleotides in the tissue culture media. Exemplary and
preferred agents are aminopterin, methotrexate, and azaserine.
Where aminopterin or methotrexate is used, the media is
supplemented with hypoxanthine and thymidine as a source of
nucleotides (HAT medium). Where azaserine is used, the media is
supplemented with hypoxanthine. A preferred selection medium is
HAT. The only cells that can survive in the selective media are
those hybrids formed from myeloma and B cells.
[0134] This culturing provides a population of hybridomas from
which specific hybridomas are selected. Typically, selection of
hybridomas is performed by culturing the cells by single-clone
dilution in microtiter plates, followed by testing the individual
clonal supernatants for the desired reactivity. The assay should be
sensitive, simple and rapid, such as radioimmunoassays, enzyme
immunoassays, cytotoxicity assays, plaque assays, dot immunobinding
assays, and the like. The selected hybridomas would then be
serially diluted and cloned into individual antibody-producing cell
lines, which clones may then be propagated indefinitely to provide
MAbs.
[0135] In accordance with the present invention, fragments of the
monoclonal antibody of the invention may be obtained from the
monoclonal antibody produced as described above, by methods which
include digestion with enzymes such as pepsin or papain and/or
cleavage of disulfide bonds by chemical reduction. Alternatively,
monoclonal antibody fragments encompassed by the present invention
may be synthesized using an automated peptide synthesizer.
Immunoassay Methods
[0136] Immunocomplex formation. In still further embodiments, the
present invention concerns immunodetection methods for binding,
purifying, removing, quantifying or otherwise generally detecting
peptides of interest. The PDE3 proteins or peptides of the present
invention may be employed to detect antibodies having reactivity
therewith, or, alternatively, antibodies prepared in accordance
with the present invention may be employed to detect or purify the
PDE3 proteins or peptides. The steps of various useful
immunodetection methods have been described in the scientific
literature, such as, e.g., Nakamura et al. (1987).
[0137] In general, the immunobinding methods include obtaining a
sample suspected of containing a protein, peptide or antibody, and
contacting the sample with an antibody or protein or peptide in
accordance with the present invention, as the case may be, under
conditions effective to allow the formation of immunocomplexes.
[0138] The detection of immunocomplex formation is well known in
the art and may be achieved through the application of numerous
approaches. These methods are generally based upon the detection of
a label or marker, such as any radioactive, fluorescent, biological
or enzymatic tags or labels of standard use in the art. U.S.
Patents concerning the use of such labels include U.S. Pat. Nos.
3,817,837; 3,850,752; 3,939,350; 3,996,345; 4,277,437; 4,275,149
and 4,366,241, each incorporated herein by reference. One may find
additional advantages through the use of a secondary binding ligand
such as a second antibody or a biotin/avidin ligand binding
arrangement, as is known in the art.
[0139] Further methods include the detection of primary immune
complexes by a two step approach. A second binding ligand, such as
an antibody, that has binding affinity for the target protein,
peptide or corresponding antibody is used to form secondary immune
complexes, as described above. After washing, the secondary immune
complexes are contacted with a third binding ligand or antibody
that has binding affinity for the second antibody, again under
conditions effective and for a period of time sufficient to allow
the formation of immune complexes (tertiary immune complexes). The
third ligand or antibody is linked to a detectable label, allowing
detection of the tertiary immune complexes thus formed. This system
may provide for signal amplification if this is desired.
[0140] The immunodetection methods of the present invention may be
of utility in the diagnosis of various disease states. A biological
or clinical sample suspected of containing either the target
protein or peptide or corresponding antibody is used. In certain
embodiments, samples from patients with cardiomyopathy and/or
pulmonary hypertension may be immunoassayed to determine the type
and abundance of different PDE3 isoforms present in one or more
tissues. Targeted therapy directed towards PDE3 may utilize
inhibitors and/or activators known to be selective or specific for
one or more PDE3 isoforms that are detected in the patient's
affected tissues.
[0141] Immunohistochemistry. The antibodies of the present
invention may be used in conjunction with fresh-frozen or
formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded tissue blocks prepared by
immunohistochemistry (IHC). Any IHC method well known in the art
may be used, such as those described in Diagnostic Immunopathology,
2nd edition. edited by, Robert B. Colvin, Atul K. Bhan and Robert
T. McCluskey. Raven Press, New York., 1995, (incorporated herein by
reference).
[0142] ELISA. Certain immunoassays are the various types of enzyme
linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) and radioimmunoassays (RIA)
known in the art. Immunohistochemical detection using tissue
sections is also particularly useful. However, it will be readily
appreciated that detection is not limited to such techniques, and
Western blotting, dot blotting, FACS analyses, and the like may
also be used.
[0143] In one exemplary ELISA, antibodies binding to the PDE3
proteins of the invention are immobilized onto a selected surface
exhibiting protein affinity, such as a well in a polystyrene
microtiter plate. Then, a test composition suspected of containing
the PDE3 isoforms, such as a clinical sample, is added to the
wells. After binding and washing to remove non-specifically bound
immunocomplexes, the bound antigen may be detected. Detection is
generally achieved by the addition of a second antibody specific
for the target protein, linked to a detectable label. This type of
ELISA is a simple "sandwich ELISA". Detection may also be achieved
by the addition of a second antibody, followed by the addition of a
third antibody that has binding affinity for the second antibody,
with the third antibody being linked to a detectable label. The
skilled artisan will realize that a variety of ELISA and other
immunoassay techniques are known in the art, any of which may be
performed within the scope of the present invention.
Methods of Immobilization
[0144] In various embodiments, the PDE3 proteins or peptides or
anti-PDE3 antibodies of the present invention may be attached to a
solid surface ("immobilized"). In a preferred embodiment,
immobilization may occur by attachment to a solid surface, such as
a magnetic, glass or plastic bead, a plastic microtiter plate or a
glass slide.
[0145] Immobilization of proteins or peptides may be achieved by a
variety of methods involving either non-covalent or covalent
interactions between the immobilized protein or peptide and an
anchor. In an exemplary embodiment, immobilization may be achieved
by coating a solid surface with a cross-linkable group, such as an
amino, carboxyl, sulfhydryl, alcohol or other group and attaching a
protein or peptide using a cross-linking reagent.
[0146] Homobifunctional reagents that carry two identical
functional groups are highly efficient in inducing cross-linking.
Heterobifunctional reagents contain two different functional
groups. By taking advantage of the differential reactivities of the
two different functional groups, cross-linking can be controlled
both selectively and sequentially. The bifunctional cross-linking
reagents can be divided according to the specificity of their
functional groups, e.g., amino, sulfhydryl, guanidino or carboxyl
specific groups. Of these, reagents directed to free amino groups
have become especially popular because of their commercial
availability, ease of synthesis and the mild reaction conditions
under which they can be applied. Exemplary methods for
cross-linking molecules are disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,603,872
and U.S. Pat. No. 5,401,511. Amine residues may be introduced onto
a surface through the use of aminosilane. Cross-linking reagents
include bisimidates, dinitrobenzene, N-hydroxysuccinimide ester of
suberic acid, disuccinimidyl tartarate,
dimethyl-3,3'-dithiobispropionimidate,
N-succinimidyl-3-(2-pyridyldithio)-propionate,
4-(bromoaminoethyl)-2-nitr- ophenylazide, 4-azidogyloxal and a
water soluble carbodiimide, preferably
1-ethyl-3-(3-dimethylaminopropyl) carbodiimide (EDC). The present
invention is not limiting as to the cross-linking agents that may
be used.
Nucleic Acids
[0147] The present invention also provides, in another embodiment,
genes encoding PDE3. As discussed below, a "PDE3 gene" may contain
a variety of different bases and yet still produce a corresponding
polypeptide that is indistinguishable functionally, and in some
cases structurally, from the genes disclosed herein. Other
embodiments of the invention may concern nucleic acids (antisense
RNAs, ribozymes) that can bind to and inhibit transcription and/or
translation of one or more RNA species encoding a PDE3A isoform
protein. The design and production of antisense RNAs, or cDNAs
encoding antisense RNAs, are well known in the art and any such
known method may be used in the practice of the present invention
(e.g., U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,210,892; 6,248,724; 6,277,981; 6,300,492;
6,303,374; 6,310,047; 6,365,345). In certain embodiments, an
antisense RNA may be targeted against a particular PDE3A isoform,
for example by selecting a target sequence that is present in one
PDE3A isoform mRNA but not in another. The term "nucleic acid"
encompasses single-stranded, double-stranded, triple-stranded DNA
and/or RNA of any type, as well as analogs of and chemically
modified forms of DNA and/or RNA.
[0148] Any reference to a nucleic acid should be read as
encompassing a host cell containing that nucleic acid and, in some
cases, capable of expressing the product of that nucleic acid.
Cells expressing nucleic acids of the present invention may prove
useful in the context of screening for agents that induce, repress,
inhibit, augment, interfere with, block, abrogate, stimulate, or
enhance the catalytic activity, regulatory properties or
subcellular localization of PDE3 isoforms.
Nucleic Acids Encoding PDE3
[0149] Nucleic acids may contain an entire gene, a cDNA, or a
domain of a PDE3 isoform that expresses catalytic activity, or any
other fragment of the sequences set forth herein. The nucleic acid
may be derived from genomic DNA, i.e., cloned directly from the
genome of a particular organism. In preferred embodiments, however,
the nucleic acid would comprise complementary DNA (cDNA).
[0150] The DNA segments of the present invention include those
encoding biologically functional equivalent PDE3 proteins and
peptides. Such sequences may arise as a consequence of codon
redundancy and amino acid functional equivalency that are known to
occur naturally within nucleic acid sequences and the proteins thus
encoded. Alternatively, functionally equivalent proteins or
peptides may be created via the application of recombinant DNA
technology, in which changes in the protein structure may be
engineered, based on considerations of the properties of the amino
acids being exchanged. Changes designed by man may be introduced
through the application of site-directed mutagenesis techniques or
may be introduced randomly and screened later for the desired
function, as described below.
Assay of PDE3A Isoform mRAA Levels
[0151] Some embodiments of the invention concern methods for
determining the levels of mRNA species encoding the three PDE3A
isoforms in various cells, tissues, organs or other samples. A
variety of assays for mRNA levels are known in the art and any such
known assay may be used. The three PDE3A isoform mRNAs differ in
length, not in sequence. Therefore, any assay for mRNA levels must
either separate the mRNAs by size or must be performed by a
subtraction process. The skilled artisan is aware that RNA species
are particularly sensitive to endogenous and/or exogenous RNAse
degradation and that great care must be taken to inhibit or
inactivate RNAse before RNA levels can be determined. Typical
procedures involve treatment of solutions with diethylpyrocarbonate
(DEPC) and autoclaving as well as addition of commercial RNAse
inhibitors.
[0152] Northern blotting is a well-known method for assaying mRNA
species that differ by size. Either total cell RNA or
polyadenylated mRNA may be purified from a sample by known
techniques (e.g., Sambrook et al., 1989). The purified RNA is
separated by size using gel electrophoresis. After transfer to a
nylon, nitrocellulose or other membrane, the size separated RNAs
are probed with a labeled oligonucleotide that hybridizes
specifically with one or more target RNAs. The presence of an RNA
species that hybridizes with the oligonucleotide probe is detected
by autoradiography, fluorography or other known techniques. Further
examples of the use of Northern blotting to detect PDE3A mRNAs are
disclosed below in the Examples section. It appears that in most
cell types, a given PDE3A isoform mRNA will either be present or
absent. Thus, generally it will be sufficient to detect the
presence or absence of a PDE3A isoform mRNA. However, the amounts
of each isoform mRNA present in a sample may also be determined by
standard techniques, such as using autoradiography or fluorography
to expose a film (e.g. Kodak X-Omat, Eastman Kodak, Rochester,
N.Y.), and scanning the band intensity on the developed film.
[0153] Other well known methods for detecting and/or quantifying
mRNA species may be used. For example, the target nucleic acids of
interest may be amplified as disclosed below. Amplification
products may be attached to a membrane, 96-well plate, nucleic acid
chip or other substrate and detected. Because the PDE3A isoforms do
not differ in sequence, determination of the amounts of each mRNA
species would require three separate probes. One probe would be
designed to be complementary to the PDE3A3 mRNA sequence and would
detect PDE3A1, PDE3A2 and PDE3A3. A second probe would be designed
to be complementary to the 5' portion of the PDE3A2 mRNA sequence
(see SEQ ID NO: 15), for example to the 3' end of exon 1 or to
exons 2 or 3. That probe would hybridize with mRNAs for PDE3Al and
PDE3A2. A third probe would be designed to be complementary with
the 5' end of exon 1. That probe would only hybridize with the mRNA
encoding PDE3A1 (SEQ ID NO:14, SEQ ID NO:18). By assaying the
levels of PDE3A mRNAs using the three different probes, it would be
possible to determine the amount of each isoform mRNA species by
subtraction.
[0154] As discussed in further detail in the Examples section, the
PDE3A isoforms are encoded by at least two, and possibly by three
different mRNAs. PDE3A1 mRNA is translated to a 136 kDa protein
isoform, while a PDE3A2 mRNA may be translated to give both 94 kDA
and 118 kDA protein isoforms. Alternatively, each of the different
sized protein isoforms may be encoded by a separate mRNA
species.
[0155] Apparatus and kits for assay of mRNA expression levels are
commercially available, such as the Nanochip.TM. Workstation
(Nanogen, Inc., San Diego, Calif.), Affymetrix Genechip.RTM.
(Affymetrix, Inc., Santa Clara, Calif.), etc.
High Through-Put Screening
[0156] In certain embodiments of the invention, high throughput
screening (HTS) methods directed towards mRNA may be used to assay
for inhibitors and/or activators that affect expression of specific
PDE3 isoforms. Such methods are known in the art and in some
embodiments may be performed using kits and/or apparatus obtained
from commercial vendors (e.g. Xpress-Screen mRNA Detection Assay
Service, Applied Biosystems, Foster City, Calif.). The object of
high throughput screening is to survey thousands of compounds, for
example in the form of small molecule libraries, phage display
libraries, native plant or animal extracts, combinatorial chemistry
libraries, etc. for a pharmaceutically significant effect on a
target protein, cell, tissue, organ or organism. Effective
compounds may be further modified by chemical substitution and/or
modification to provide increased efficacy, safety, duration of
effect, etc.
[0157] HTS assays may be directed against one or more proteins or
peptides of interest, such as PDE3A-136, PDE3A-118, PDE3A-94 or
PDE3B-137 using known techniques. Preferably, libraries of
potential inhibitors and/or activators are exposed to PDE3 proteins
and/or peptides and enzyme catalytic activity and/or regulatory
properties are assayed. Such assays may be performed, for example,
in 96-well microtiter plates using known colorimetric, luminescent
and/or radioactive assays for enzyme activity. In other alternative
embodiments, the test peptides and/or proteins may be attached to a
surface, such as a protein chip, microtiter wells, membrane or
other surface known in the art and libraries of compounds may be
screened for their ability to bind to the various PDE3
isoforms.
[0158] Protein based HTS assays can be laborious and
time-consuming. An alternative method for performing HTS analysis
is to screen targets, such as cells, tissues, organs or organisms
for an effect of a test compound on mRNA levels. With respect to
PDE3 isoforms, such assays may potentially be directed towards
identifying compounds that directly or indirectly affect PDE3A1 or
PDE3A2 mRNA levels. The cell or tissue of interest, for example a
tissue sample from an individual with dilated cardiomyopathy or an
Sfo cell transfected with a PDE3A-encoding gene may be exposed to a
series of test compounds in 96- or 384-well microplates. After
incubation and cell lysis, a biotinylated probe specific for the
mRNA of interest is used to hybridize to total cell RNA or to
purified polyadenylated mRNA. The DNA-RNA hybrid may be transferred
to a streptavidin coated plate, which binds to the biotinylated
probe. A labeled antibody, such as an alkaline phosphatase
conjugated antibody, that binds specifically to RNA-DNA hybrids is
incubated with the plate, unbound antibody is removed by washing
and the presence of RNA-DNA hybrids is detected by developing the
labeled antibody, for example using a chemiluminescent substrate
(Xpress-Screen, Applied Biosystems). In this way, hundreds of test
compounds may be screened simultaneously for an effect on PDE3
isoform expression.
[0159] In alternative embodiments, test compounds may be screened
by looking for secondary effects of PDE3A isoform proteins.
Inhibition or activation of PDE3 activity and/or expression may be
determined indirectly. By affecting the cellular levels of cAMP
and/or cGMP, PDE3 isoforms may affect the expression of known
cyclic nucleotide regulated genes. Cells or tissues that have been
exposed to test compounds may be screened, as described above, for
mRNAs encoded by genes that are known to be dependent on cyclic
nucleotide levels. Effects of inhibitors and/or activators of PDE3
isoforms may be monitored by screening normal, diseased and/or
transformed cells for changes in expression levels of cAMP or cGMP
regulated genes.
Nucleic Acid Amplification
[0160] Nucleic acids of use as a template for amplification may be
isolated from cells contained in a biological sample, according to
standard methodologies. (Sambrook et al., 1989) The nucleic acid
may be genomic DNA or fractionated or whole cell RNA. Where RNA is
used, it may be desired to convert the RNA to a complementary cDNA.
In one embodiment, the RNA is whole cell RNA and is used directly
as the template for amplification. In other embodiments, the RNA
may be polyadenylated mRNA. Purification of mRNA, for example by
affinity chromatography to oligo-dT columns, is well known in the
art.
[0161] Pairs of primers that selectively hybridize to nucleic acids
corresponding to specific markers are contacted with the isolated
nucleic acid under conditions that permit selective hybridization.
Once hybridized, the nucleic acid:primer complex is contacted with
one or more enzymes that facilitate template-dependent nucleic acid
synthesis. Multiple rounds of amplification, also referred to as
"cycles," are conducted until a sufficient amount of amplification
product is produced.
[0162] Next, the amplification product is detected. In certain
applications, the detection may be performed by visual means.
Alternatively, the detection may involve indirect identification of
the product via chemiluminescence, radioactive scintigraphy of
incorporated radiolabel or fluorescent label or even via a system
using electrical or thermal impulse signals (Affymax technology,
Bellus, 1994).
[0163] Following detection, one may compare the results seen in a
given patient with a statistically significant reference group of
normal patients and patients exhibiting a disease state. In this
way, it is possible to correlate the amount of marker detected with
various clinical states.
Primers
[0164] The term primer, as defined herein, is meant to encompass
any nucleic acid that is capable of priming the synthesis of a
nascent nucleic acid in a template-dependent process. Typically,
primers are oligonucleotides from ten to twenty base pairs in
length, but longer sequences may be employed. Primers may be
provided in double-stranded or single-stranded form, although the
single-stranded form is preferred.
Template Dependent Amplification Methods
[0165] A number of template dependent processes are available to
amplify the marker sequences present in a given template sample.
One of the best known amplification methods is the polymerase chain
reaction (referred to as PCR) which is described in detail in U.S.
Pat. Nos. 4,683,195, 4,683,202 and 4,800,159, and in Innis et al.,
1990, each of which is incorporated herein by reference in its
entirety.
[0166] A reverse transcriptase PCR amplification procedure may be
performed in order to quantify the amount of mRNA amplified.
Methods of reverse transcribing RNA into cDNA are well known and
described in Sambrook et al., 1989. Alternative methods for reverse
transcription utilize thermostable DNA polymerases. These methods
are described in WO 90/07641 filed Dec. 21, 1990. Polymerase chain
reaction methodologies are well known in the art.
[0167] Another method for amplification is the ligase chain
reaction ("LCR"), disclosed in European Application No. 320 308,
incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. In LCR, two
complementary probe pairs are prepared, and in the presence of the
target sequence, each pair will bind to opposite complementary
strands of the target such that they abut. In the presence of a
ligase, the two probe pairs will link to form a single unit. By
temperature cycling, as in PCR, bound ligated units dissociate from
the target and then serve as "target sequences" for ligation of
excess probe pairs. U.S. Pat. No.4,883,750 describes a method
similar to LCR for binding probe pairs to a target sequence.
[0168] Qbeta Replicase, described in PCT Application No.
PCT/US87/00880, may also be used as still another amplification
method in the present invention. In this method, a replicative
sequence of RNA which has a region complementary to that of a
target is added to a sample in the presence of an RNA polymerase.
The polymerase will copy the replicative sequence which may then be
detected.
[0169] An isothermal amplification method, in which restriction
endonucleases and ligases are used to achieve the amplification of
target molecules that contain nucleotide
5'-[alpha-thio]-triphosphates in one strand of a restriction site
may also be useful in the amplification of nucleic acids in the
present invention. Walker et al., Proc. Nat'l Acad. Sci. USA
89:392-396 (1992), incorporated herein by reference in its
entirety.
[0170] Strand Displacement Amplification (SDA) is another method of
carrying out isothermal amplification of nucleic acids which
involves multiple rounds of strand displacement and synthesis,
i.e., nick translation. A similar method, called Repair Chain
Reaction (RCR), involves annealing several probes throughout a
region targeted for amplification, followed by a repair reaction in
which only two of the four bases are present. The other two bases
may be added as biotinylated derivatives for easy detection. A
similar approach is used in SDA. Target specific sequences may also
be detected using a cyclic probe reaction (CPR). In CPR, a probe
having 3' and 5' sequences of non-specific DNA and a middle
sequence of specific RNA is hybridized to DNA which is present in a
sample. Upon hybridization, the reaction is treated with RNase H,
and the products of the probe identified as distinctive products
which are released after digestion. The original template is
annealed to another cycling probe and the reaction is repeated.
[0171] Still other amplification methods described in GB
Application No. 2 202 328, and in PCT Application No.
PCT/US89/01025, each of which is incorporated herein by reference
in its entirety, may be used in accordance with the present
invention. In the former application, "modified" primers are used
in a PCR like, template and enzyme dependent synthesis. The primers
may be modified by labeling with a capture moiety (e.g., biotin)
and/or a detector moiety (e.g., enzyme). In the latter application,
an excess of labeled probes are added to a sample. In the presence
of the target sequence, the probe binds and is cleaved
catalytically. After cleavage, the target sequence is released
intact to be bound by excess probe. Cleavage of the labeled probe
signals the presence of the target sequence.
[0172] Other nucleic acid amplification procedures include
transcription-based amplification systems (TAS), including nucleic
acid sequence based amplification (NASBA) and 3SR. Kwoh et al.,
Proc. Nat'l Acad. Sci. USA 86:1173 (1989); Gingeras et al., PCT
Application WO 88/10315, incorporated herein by reference in their
entirety. In NASBA, the nucleic acids may be prepared for
amplification by standard phenol/chloroform extraction, heat
denaturation of a clinical sample, treatment with lysis buffer and
minispin columns for isolation of DNA and RNA or guanidinium
chloride extraction of RNA. These amplification techniques involve
annealing a primer which has target specific sequences. Following
polymerization, DNA/RNA hybrids are digested with RNase H while
double stranded DNA molecules are heat denatured again. In either
case the single stranded DNA is made fully double stranded by
addition of second target specific primer, followed by
polymerization. The double-stranded DNA molecules are then multiply
transcribed by a polymerase such as T7 or SP6. In an isothermal
cyclic reaction, the RNA's are reverse transcribed into double
stranded DNA, and transcribed once against with a polymerase such
as T7 or SP6. The resulting products, whether truncated or
complete, indicate target specific sequences.
[0173] Davey et al., European Application No. 329 822 (incorporated
herein by reference in its entirely) disclose a nucleic acid
amplification process involving cyclically synthesizing
single-stranded RNA ("ssRNA"), ssDNA, and double-stranded DNA
(dsDNA), which may be used in accordance with the present
invention. The ssRNA is a first template for a first primer
oligonucleotide, which is elongated by reverse transcriptase
(RNA-dependent DNA polymerase). The RNA is then removed from the
resulting DNA:RNA duplex by the action of ribonuclease H (RNase H,
an RNase specific for RNA in duplex with either DNA or RNA). The
resultant ssDNA is a second template for a second primer, which
also includes the sequences of an RNA polymerase promoter
(exemplified by T7 RNA polymerase) 5' to its homology to the
template. This primer is then extended by DNA polymerase
(exemplified by the large "Klenow" fragment of E. coli DNA
polymerase I), resulting in a double-stranded DNA ("dsDNA")
molecule, having a sequence identical to that of the original RNA
between the primers and having additionally, at one end, a promoter
sequence. This promoter sequence may be used by the appropriate RNA
polymerase to make many RNA copies of the DNA. These copies may
then re-enter the cycle leading to very swift amplification. With
proper choice of enzymes, this amplification may be done
isothermally without addition of enzymes at each cycle. Because of
the cyclical nature of this process, the starting sequence may be
chosen to be in the form of either DNA or RNA.
[0174] Miller et al., PCT Application WO 89/06700 (incorporated
herein by reference in its entirety) disclose a nucleic acid
sequence amplification scheme based on the hybridization of a
promoter/primer sequence to a target single-stranded DNA ("ssDNA")
followed by transcription of many RNA copies of the sequence. This
scheme is not cyclic, i.e., new templates are not produced from the
resultant RNA transcripts. Other amplification methods include
"race" and "one-sided PCR." Frohman, M. A., In: PCR PROTOCOLS: A
GUIDE TO METHODS AND APPLICATIONS, Academic Press, N.Y. (1990) and
Ohara et al., Proc. Nat'l Acad. Sci. USA, 86:5673-5677 (1989), each
herein incorporated by reference in their entirety.
[0175] Methods based on ligation of two (or more) oligonucleotides
in the presence of nucleic acid having the sequence of the
resulting "di-oligonucleotide", thereby amplifying the
di-oligonucleotide, may also be used in the amplification step of
the present invention. Wu et al., Genomics 4:560 (1989),
incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.
Separation Methods
[0176] Following amplification, it may be desirable to separate the
amplification product from the template and the excess primer for
the purpose of determining whether specific amplification has
occurred. In one embodiment, amplification products are separated
by agarose, agarose-acrylamide or polyacrylamide gel
electrophoresis using standard methods. See Sambrook et al.,
1989.
[0177] Alternatively, chromatographic techniques may be employed to
effect separation. There are many kinds of chromatography which may
be used in the present invention: adsorption, partition,
ion-exchange and molecular sieve, and many specialized techniques
for using them including column, paper, thin-layer and gas
chromatography (Freifelder, 1982).
Identification Methods
[0178] Amplification products must be visualized in order to
confirm amplification of the marker sequences. One typical
visualization method involves staining of a gel with ethidium
bromide and visualization under UV light. Alternatively, if the
amplification products are integrally labeled with radio- or
fluorometrically-labeled nucleotides, the amplification products
may then be exposed to x-ray film or visualized under the
appropriate stimulating spectra, following separation.
[0179] In one embodiment, visualization is achieved indirectly.
Following separation of amplification products, a labeled, nucleic
acid probe is brought into contact with the amplified marker
sequence. The probe preferably is conjugated to a chromophore but
may be radiolabeled. In another embodiment, the probe is conjugated
to a binding partner, such as an antibody or biotin, where the
other member of the binding pair carries a detectable moiety.
[0180] In one embodiment, detection is by Southern blotting and
hybridization with a labeled probe. The techniques involved in
Southern blotting are well known to those of skill in the art and
may be found in many standard books on molecular protocols. See
Sambrook et al., 1989. Briefly, amplification products are
separated by gel electrophoresis. The gel is then contacted with a
membrane, such as nitrocellulose, permitting transfer of the
nucleic acid and non-covalent binding. Subsequently, the membrane
is incubated with a chromophore-conjugated probe that is capable of
hybridizing with a target amplification product. Detection is by
exposure of the membrane to x-ray film or ion-emitting detection
devices.
[0181] One example of the foregoing is described in U.S. Pat. No.
5,279,721, incorporated by reference herein, which discloses an
apparatus and method for the automated electrophoresis and transfer
of nucleic acids. The apparatus permits electrophoresis and
blotting without external manipulation of the gel and is ideally
suited to carrying out methods according to the present
invention.
Antisense Constructs, Ribozymes and Small Interfering RNAs
Antisense
[0182] The term "antisense" refers to polynucleotide molecules
complementary to a portion of a targeted gene or mRNA species.
Complementary polynucleotides are those that are capable of
base-pairing according to the standard Watson-Crick complementarity
rules. That is, purines will base pair with pyrimidines to form
combinations of guanine paired with cytosine (G:C) and adenine
paired with either thymine (A:T) in the case of DNA, or adenine
paired with uracil (A:U) in the case of RNA. Inclusion of less
common bases such as inosine, 5-methylcytosine, 6-methyladenine,
hypoxanthine and others in hybridizing sequences does not interfere
with pairing.
[0183] Antisense polynucleotides, when introduced into a target
cell, specifically bind to their target polynucleotide and
interfere with transcription, RNA processing, transport,
translation and/or stability. Antisense RNA constructs, or DNA
encoding such antisense RNA's, may be employed to inhibit gene
transcription or translation or both within a host cell, either in
vitro or in vivo, such as within a host animal, including a human
subject.
[0184] The intracellular concentration of monovalent cations is
approximately 160 mM (10 mM Na.sup.+; 150 mM K.sup.+). The
intracellular concentration of divalent cations is approximately 20
mM (18 mM Mg.sup.+; 2 mM Ca.sup.++). The intracellular protein
concentration, which would serve to decrease the volume of
hybridization and, therefore, increase the effective concentration
of nucleic acid species, is 150 mg/ml. Constructs may be tested for
specific hybridization in vitro under conditions that mimic these
in vivo conditions.
[0185] Antisense constructs may be designed to bind to the promoter
and other control regions, exons, introns or even exon-intron
boundaries of a gene. In certain embodiments, it is contemplated
that effective antisense constructs may include regions
complementary to the mRNA start site. In preferred embodiments, the
antisense constructs are targeted to a sequence of an hnRNA and/or
mRNA that is present in one PDE3A isoform and not in another. For
example, one might target the 5' end of the mRNA encoding PDE3A1
(SEQ ID NO:14, SEQ ID NO:18), which is missing the in the PDE3A2
mRNA (SEQ ID NO:15). One of ordinary skill in the art can readily
test such constructs to determine whether levels of the target
protein are affected.
[0186] As used herein, the terms "complementary" or "antisense"
mean polynucleotides that are substantially complementary to the
target sequence over their entire length and have very few base
mismatches. For example, sequences of fifteen bases in length may
be termed complementary when they have a complementary nucleotide
at thirteen or fourteen nucleotides out of fifteen. Naturally,
sequences that are "completely complementary" will be sequences
that are entirely complementary throughout their entire length and
have no base mismatches.
[0187] Other sequences with lower degrees of homology also are
contemplated. For example, an antisense construct that has limited
regions of high homology, but also contains a non-homologous region
(e.g., a ribozyme) could be designed. These molecules, though
having less than 50% homology, would bind to target sequences under
appropriate conditions.
[0188] Although the antisense sequences may be full length cDNA
copies, or large fragments thereof, they also may be shorter
fragments, or "oligonucleotides," defined herein as polynucleotides
of 50 or less bases. Although shorter oligomers (8-20) are easier
to make and increase in vivo accessibility, numerous other factors
are involved in determining the specificity of base-pairing. For
example, both binding affinity and sequence specificity of an
oligonucleotide to its complementary target increase with
increasing length. It is contemplated that oligonucleotides of 8,
9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45,
50 or 100 base pairs will be used. While all or part of the gene
sequence may be employed in the context of antisense construction,
statistically, any sequence of 14 bases long should occur only once
in the human genome and, therefore, suffice to specify a unique
target sequence.
[0189] In certain embodiments, one may wish to employ antisense
constructs which include other elements, for example, those which
include C-5 propyne pyrimidines. Oligonucleotides which contain C-5
propyne analogues of uridine and cytidine have been shown to bind
RNA with high affinity and to be potent antisense inhibitors of
gene expression (Wagner et al., 1993).
[0190] Alternatively, the antisense oligo- and polynucleotides
according to the present invention may be provided as RNA via
transcription from expression constructs that carry nucleic acids
encoding the oligo- or polynucleotides. Throughout this
application, the term "expression construct" is meant to include
any type of genetic construct containing a nucleic acid encoding a
product in which part or all of the nucleic acid sequence is
capable of being transcribed. Typical expression vectors include
bacterial plasmids or phage, such as any of the pUC or
Bluescript.TM. plasmid series or, as discussed further below, viral
vectors adapted for use in eukaryotic cells.
[0191] In preferred embodiments, the nucleic acid encodes an
antisense oligo- or polynucleotide under transcriptional control of
a promoter. A "promoter" refers to a DNA sequence recognized by an
RNA polymerase to initiate the specific transcription of a gene.
The phrase "under transcriptional control" means that the promoter
is in the correct location and orientation in relation to the
nucleic acid to control RNA polymerase initiation.
[0192] The term promoter will be used here to refer to a group of
transcriptional control modules that are clustered around the
initiation site for RNA polymerase II. Promoters are composed of
discrete functional modules, each consisting of approximately 7-20
bp of DNA, and containing one or more recognition sites for
transcriptional activator or repressor proteins. At least one
module in each promoter functions to position the start site for
RNA synthesis. The best known example of this is the TATA box, but
in some promoters lacking a TATA box, such as the promoter for the
mammalian terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase gene and the
promoter for the SV40 late genes, a discrete element overlying the
start site itself helps to fix the place of initiation.
[0193] Additional promoter elements regulate the frequency of
transcriptional initiation. Typically, these are located in the
region 30-110 bp upstream of the start site, although a number of
promoters have recently been shown to contain functional elements
downstream of the start site as well. The spacing between promoter
elements frequently is flexible, so that promoter function is
preserved when elements are inverted or moved relative to one
another. In the tk promoter, the spacing between promoter elements
can be increased to 50 bp apart before activity begins to decline.
Depending on the promoter, it appears that individual elements can
function either co-operatively or independently to activate
transcription.
[0194] The particular promoter that is employed to control the
expression of a nucleic acid encoding the inhibitory polynucleotide
is not believed to be important, so long as it is capable of
expressing the peptide in the targeted cell. Thus, where a human
cell is targeted, it is preferable to position the nucleic acid
coding the inhibitory peptide adjacent to and under the control of
a promoter that is active in the human cell. Generally speaking,
such a promoter might include either a human or viral promoter.
[0195] In various embodiments, the human cytomegalovirus (CMV)
immediate early gene promoter, the SV40 early promoter and the Rous
sarcoma virus long terminal repeat can be used to obtain high-level
transcription. The use of other viral or mammalian cellular or
bacterial phage promoters which are well-known in the art is
contemplated as well, provided that the levels of transcription
and/or translation are sufficient for a given purpose.
[0196] Selection of a promoter that is regulated in response to
specific physiologic signals can permit inducible expression of an
antisense sequence. For example, a nucleic acid under control of
the human PAI-1 promoter results in expression inducible by tumor
necrosis factor. Additionally any promoter/enhancer combination
also could be used to drive expression of a nucleic acid according
to the present invention. Tables 1 and 2 list elements/promoters
that may be employed to regulate transcription and/or translation
of operably coupled genes. This list is exemplary only and any
known promoter and/or regulatory element may be used.
1TABLE 1 ENHANCER/PROMOTER Immunoglobulin Heavy Chain
Immunoglobulin Light Chain T-Cell Receptor HLA DQ .alpha. and DQ
.beta. .beta.-Interferon Interleukin-2 Interleukin-2 Receptor MHC
Class II 5 MHC Class II HLA-DR.alpha. .beta.-Actin Prealbumin
(Transthyretin) Muscle Creatine Kinase Elastase I Metallothionein
Collagenase Albumin Gene .alpha.-Fetoprotein .tau.-Globin
.beta.-Globin e-fos c-HA-ras Insulin Neural Cell Adhesion Molecule
(NCAM) .alpha.1-Antitrypsin H2B (TH2B) Histone Mouse or Type I
Collagen Glucose-Regulated Proteins (GRP94 and GRP78) Rat Growth
Hormone Human Serum Amyloid A (SAA) Troponin I (TN I)
Platelet-Derived Growth Factor Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy SV40
Polyoma Retroviruses Papilloma Virus Hepatitis B Virus Human
Immunodeficiency Virus Cytomegalovirus
[0197]
2TABLE 2 Element Inducer MT II Phorbol Ester (TPA) Heavy metals
MMTV (mouse mammary tumor Glucocorticoids virus) .beta.-Interferon
poly(rI)X, poly(rc) Adenovirus 5 E2 Ela c-jun Phorbol Ester (TPA),
H.sub.2O.sub.2 Collagenase Phorbol Ester (TPA) Stromelysin Phorbol
Ester (TPA), IL-1 SV40 Phorbol Ester (TPA) Murine MX Gene
Interferon, Newcastle Disease Virus GRP78 Gene A23187
.alpha.-2-Macroglobulin IL-6 Vimentin Serum MHC Class I Gene H-2kB
Interferon HSP70 Ela, SV40 Large T Antigen Proliferin Phorbol
Ester-TPA Tumor Necrosis Factor FMA Thyroid Stimulating Hormone
.alpha. Thyroid Hormone Gene Insulin E Box Glucose
[0198] Another method for inhibiting the expression of specific
PDE3A isoforms is via ribozymes. Ribozymes are RNA-protein
complexes that cleave nucleic acids in a site-specific fashion.
Ribozymes have specific catalytic domains that possess endonuclease
activity (Kim and Cech, 1987). For example, a large number of
ribozymes accelerate phosphoester transfer reactions with a high
degree of specificity, often cleaving only one of several
phosphoesters in an oligonucleotide substrate (Cech et al., 1981).
This specificity has been attributed to the requirement that the
substrate bind via specific base-pairing interactions to an
internal guide sequence ("IGS") of the ribozyme prior to chemical
reaction.
[0199] Ribozyme catalysis has primarily been observed as part of
sequence-specific cleavage/ligation reactions involving nucleic
acids (Joyce, 1989; Cech et al., 1981). For example, U.S. Pat. No.
5,354,855 reports that certain ribozymes can act as endonucleases
with a sequence specificity greater than that of known
ribonucleases. Thus, sequence-specific ribozyme-mediated inhibition
of gene expression may be particularly suited to therapeutic
applications (Scanlon et al., 1991; Sarver et al., 1990; Sioud et
al., 1992). It was reported that ribozymes elicited genetic changes
in some cells lines to which they were applied. The altered genes
included the oncogenes H-ras, c-fos and genes of HIV.
[0200] Several different ribozyme motifs have been described with
RNA cleavage activity (Symons, 1992). Examples that are expected to
function equivalently include sequences from the Group I self
splicing introns including Tobacco Ringspot Virus (Prody et al.,
1986), Avocado Sunblotch Viroid (Palukaitis et al., 1979; Symons,
1981), and Lucerne Transient Streak Virus (Forster and Symons,
1987). Sequences from these and related viruses are referred to as
hammerhead ribozymes. Other suitable ribozymes include sequences
from RNase P (Yuan et al., 1992, Yuan and Altman, 1994, U.S. Pat.
Nos. 5,168,053 and 5,624,824), hairpin ribozyme structures
(Berzal-Herranz et al., 1992; Chowrira et al., 1993) and Hepatitis
Delta virus based ribozymes (U.S. Pat. No. 5,625,047). The general
design and optimization of ribozyme directed RNA cleavage activity
has been discussed in detail (Haseloff and Gerlach, 1988, Symons,
1992, Chowrira et al., 1994).
[0201] The other variable in ribozyme design is the selection of a
cleavage site on a given target RNA. Ribozymes are targeted to a
given sequence by virtue of annealing to a site by complimentary
base pair interactions. Two stretches of homology are required for
this targeting. These stretches of homologous sequences flank the
catalytic ribozyme structure defined above. Each stretch of
homologous sequence can vary in length from 7 to 15 nucleotides.
The only requirement for defining the homologous sequences is that,
on the target RNA, they are separated by a specific sequence that
is the cleavage site. For hammerhead ribozymes, the cleavage site
is a dinucleotide sequence on the target RNA--a uracil (U) followed
by either an adenine, cytosine or uracil (A,C or U) (Perriman et
al., 1992).
[0202] The large number of possible cleavage sites in genes of
moderate size, coupled with the growing number of sequences with
demonstrated catalytic RNA cleavage activity indicates that a large
number of ribozymes that have the potential to downregulate gene
expression are available. Additionally, due to the sequence
variation among different genes, ribozymes could be designed to
specifically cleave individual genes or gene products. Designing
and testing ribozymes for efficient cleavage of a target RNA is a
process well known to those skilled in the art. Examples of
scientific methods for designing and testing ribozymes are
described by Chowrira et al., (1994), incorporated by
reference.
Small Interfering mRNAs
[0203] Another possibility is to inhibit the translation of
individual PDE3 mRNAs by RNA interference. This method of
post-transcriptional gene silencing involves the use of a 21- or
22-nucleotide double-stranded synthetic RNA molecule homologous to
a unique nucleotide sequence in the mRNA of interest. Through a
mechanism yet to be determined, such small interfering RNA
molecules (siRNAs) have the ability to reduce expression of the
cognate protein. This approach has been used to reduce the
expression of several cytoskeletal proteins. As noted above, a
unique sequence in PDE3A1 mRNA (SEQ ID NO:14, SEQ ID NO:18) has
been identified that may allow specific interference with the
expression of PDE3A-136.
[0204] Methods for selectively interfering with gene expression
using small interfering RNA species ("siRNA") are known in the art
(e.g., Bass, 2001; Elbashir et al., 2001). Short, double-stranded
RNAs (dsRNA) of about 30 bp or less that are homologous in sequence
to a gene to be silenced (e.g., PDE3A) are introduced into a target
cell (Elbashir et al., 2001). By a poorly understood endogenous
pathway, the dsRNAs are broken into smaller fragments of about
21-22 bp (siRNAs). These fragments trigger the degradation of
homologous mRNA sequences (Elbashir et al., 2001), e.g. PDE3A1 mRNA
(SEQ ID NO:14, SEQ ID NO:18). Use of siRNAs can decrease expression
of a target gene or even eliminate it entirely (Bass, 2001).
Another advantage of siRNAs is that they are effective at lower
concentrations (about 1-25 nM) than antisense constructs (Bass,
2001; Elbashir et al., 2001).
[0205] Transfection of 21 bp dsRNA sequences into NIH/3T3 cells,
COS-7 cells and Hela S3 cells using cationic liposomes resulted in
inhibition of homologous reporter genes (Elbashir et al., 2001).
The effectiveness of inhibition appeared to be inversely related to
the expression levels of the target gene, with highly expressed
genes showing less inhibition by siRNA constructs (Elbashir et al.,
2001). Because the PDE3 genes are expressed at relatively low
levels compared to highly expressed mammalian genes, the use of
siRNA inhibitors should prove effective at inhibiting or
eliminating expression of targeted PDE3 isoforms.
Expression Vectors
[0206] Nucleic acids encoding PDE3 isoform proteins or peptides may
be incorporated into expression vectors for production of the
encoded proteins or peptides. Non-limiting examples of expression
systems known in the art include bacteria such as E. coli, yeast
such as Pichia pastoris, baculovirus, and mammalian expression
systems such as in COS or CHO cells. A complete gene can be
expressed or, alternatively, fragments of the gene encoding
portions of polypeptide can be produced.
[0207] The gene or gene fragment encoding a polypeptide may be
inserted into an expression vector by standard subcloning
techniques. An E. coli expression vector may be used which produces
the recombinant polypeptide as a fusion protein, allowing rapid
affinity purification of the protein. Examples of such fusion
protein expression systems are the glutathione S-transferase system
(Pharmacia, Piscataway, N.J.), the maltose binding protein system
(NEB, Beverley, Mass.), the FLAG system (1131, New Haven, Conn.),
and the 6xHis system (Qiagen, Chatsworth, Calif.).
[0208] Some of these systems produce recombinant polypeptides
bearing only a small number of additional amino acids, which are
unlikely to affect the antigenic ability of the recombinant
polypeptide. For example, both the FLAG system and the 6xHis system
add only short sequences, both of which are known to be poorly
antigenic and which do not adversely affect folding of the
polypeptide to its native conformation. Other fusion systems are
designed to produce fusions wherein the fusion partner is easily
excised from the desired polypeptide. In one embodiment, the fusion
partner is linked to the recombinant polypeptide by a peptide
sequence containing a specific recognition sequence for a protease.
Examples of suitable sequences are those recognized by the Tobacco
Etch Virus protease (Life Technologies, Gaithersburg, Md.) or
Factor Xa (New England Biolabs, Beverley, Mass.).
[0209] The expression system used may also be one driven by the
baculovirus polyhedron promoter. The gene encoding the polypeptide
may be manipulated by standard techniques in order to facilitate
cloning into the baculovirus vector. One baculovirus vector is the
pBlueBac vector (Invitrogen, Sorrento, Calif.). The vector carrying
the gene for the polypeptide is transfected into Spodoptera
frugiperda (Sf9) cells by standard protocols, and the cells are
cultured and processed to produce the recombinant antigen. See U.S.
Pat. No. 4,215,051 (incorporated by reference).
[0210] Amino acid sequence variants of the polypeptide may also be
prepared. These may, for instance, be minor sequence variants of
the polypeptide which arise due to natural variation within the
population or they may be homologues found in other species. They
also may be sequences which do not occur naturally but which are
sufficiently similar that they function similarly and/or elicit an
immune response that cross-reacts with natural forms of the
polypeptide. Sequence variants may be prepared by standard methods
of site-directed mutagenesis such as those described herein.
[0211] Substitutional variants typically contain an alternative
amino acid at one or more sites within the protein, and may be
designed to modulate one or more properties of the polypeptide such
as stability against proteolytic cleavage. Substitutions preferably
are conservative, that is, one amino acid is replaced with one of
similar size and charge. Conservative substitutions are well known
in the art and include, for example, the changes of: arginine to
lysine; asparagine to glutamine or histidine; aspartate to
glutamate; cysteine to serine; glutamine to asparagine; glutamate
to aspartate; histidine to asparagine or glutamine; isoleucine to
leucine or valine; leucine to valine or isoleucine; lysine to
arginine or glutamine; methionine to leucine or isoleucine;
phenylalanine to tyrosine; serine to threonine; tyrosine to
tryptophan or phenylalanine; and valine to isoleucine or
leucine.
[0212] In making such changes, the hydropathic index of amino acids
may be considered. The importance of the hydropathic amino acid
index in conferring interactive biologic function on a protein is
generally understood in the art (Kyte & Doolittle, 1982). It is
accepted that the relative hydropathic character of the amino acid
contributes to the secondary structure of the resultant protein,
which in turn defines the interaction of the protein with other
molecules. Each amino acid has been assigned a hydropathic index on
the basis of its hydrophobicity and charge characteristics (Kyte
& Doolittle, 1982), these are: Isoleucine (+4.5); valine
(+4.2); leucine (+3.8); phenylalanine (+2.8); cysteine/cystine
(+2.5); methionine (+1.9); alanine (+1.8); glycine (-0.4);
threonine (-0.7); serine (-0.8); tryptophan (-0.9); tyrosine
(-1.3); proline (-1.6); histidine (-3.2); glutamate (-3.5);
glutamine (-3.5); aspartate (-3.5); asparagine (-3.5); lysine
(-3.9); and arginine (-4.5).
[0213] It is known in the art that certain amino acids may be
substituted by other amino acids having a similar hydropathic index
or score and still result in a protein with similar biological
activity, i.e., still obtain a biological functionally equivalent
protein. In making such changes, the substitution of amino acids
whose hydropathic indices are within .+-.2 is preferred, those that
are within .+-.1 are particularly preferred, and those within
.+-.0.5 are even more particularly preferred.
[0214] It is also understood in the art that the substitution of
like amino acids can be made effectively on the basis of
hydrophilicity (U.S. Pat. No. 4,554,101, incorporated herein by
reference). The following hydrophilicity values have been assigned
to amino acid residues: arginine (+3.0); lysine (+3.0); aspartate
(+3.0.+-.1); glutamate (+3.0.+-.1); serine (+0.3); asparagine
(+0.2); glutamine (+0.2); glycine (0); threonine (-0.4); proline
(-0.5.+-.1); alanine (-0.5); histidine (-0.5); cysteine (-1.0);
methionine (-1.3); valine (-1.5); leucine (-1.8); isoleucine
(-1.8); tyrosine (-2.3); phenylalanine (-2.5); tryptophan (-3.4).
It is understood that an amino acid can be substituted for another
having a similar hydrophilicity value and still obtain a
biologically equivalent and immunologically equivalent protein. In
such changes, the substitution of amino acids whose hydrophilicity
values are within .+-.2 is preferred, those that are within .+-.1
are particularly preferred, and those within .+-.0.5 are even more
particularly preferred.
[0215] Insertional variants include fusion proteins such as those
used to allow rapid purification of the polypeptide and also may
include hybrid proteins containing sequences from other proteins
and polypeptides which are homologues of the polypeptide. For
example, an insertional variant may include portions of the amino
acid sequence of the polypeptide from one species, together with
portions of the homologous polypeptide from another species. Other
insertional variants may include those in which additional amino
acids are introduced within the coding sequence of the polypeptide.
These typically are smaller insertions than the fusion proteins
described above and are introduced, for example, to disrupt a
protease cleavage site.
[0216] The engineering of DNA segment(s) for expression in a
prokaryotic or eukaryotic system may be performed by techniques
generally known to those of skill in recombinant expression. It is
believed that virtually any expression system may be employed in
the expression of the claimed nucleic acid sequences.
[0217] As used herein, the terms "engineered" and "recombinant"
cells are intended to refer to a cell into which an exogenous DNA
segment or gene, such as a cDNA or gene has been introduced through
the hand of man. Therefore, engineered cells are distinguishable
from naturally occurring cells that do not contain a recombinantly
introduced exogenous DNA segment or gene. Recombinant cells include
those having an introduced cDNA or genomic gene, and also include
genes positioned adjacent to a heterologous promoter not naturally
associated with the particular introduced gene.
[0218] To express a recombinant encoded protein or peptide, whether
mutant or wild-type, in accordance with the present invention one
would prepare an expression vector that comprises one of the
claimed isolated nucleic acids under the control of, or operatively
linked to, one or more promoters. To bring a coding sequence "under
the control of" a promoter, one positions the 5' end of the
transcription initiation site of the transcriptional reading frame
generally between about 1 and about 50 nucleotides "downstream"
(i.e., 3') of the chosen promoter. The Express Mail No.: EV
118157766 US 51 "upstream" promoter stimulates transcription of the
DNA and promotes expression of the encoded recombinant protein.
This is the meaning of "recombinant expression" in this
context.
[0219] Many standard techniques are available to construct
expression vectors containing the appropriate nucleic acids and
transcriptional/translational control sequences in order to achieve
protein or peptide expression in a variety of host-expression
systems. Cell types available for expression include, but are not
limited to, bacteria, such as E. coli and B. subtilis transformed
with recombinant bacteriophage DNA, plasmid DNA or cosmid DNA
expression vectors.
[0220] Promoters that are most commonly used in recombinant DNA
construction include the .beta.-lactamase (penicillinase), lactose
and tryptophan (trp) promoter systems. While these are the most
commonly used, other microbial promoters have been discovered and
utilized, and details concerning their nucleotide sequences have
been published, enabling those of skill in the art to ligate them
functionally with plasmid vectors.
[0221] For expression in Saccharomyces, the plasmid YRp7, for
example, is commonly used (Stinchcomb et al., 1979; Kingsman et
al., 1979; Tschemper et al., 1980). This plasmid already contains
the trp1 gene which provides a selection marker for a mutant strain
of yeast lacking the ability to grow in tryptophan, for example
ATCC No. 44076 or PEP4-1. The presence of the trp1 lesion as a
characteristic of the yeast host cell genome then provides an
effective environment for detecting transformation by growth in the
absence of tryptophan.
[0222] Suitable promoting sequences in yeast vectors include the
promoters for 3-phosphoglycerate kinase (Hitzeman et al., 1980) or
other glycolytic enzymes (Hess et al., 1968; Holland et al., 1978),
such as enolase, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase,
hexokinase, pyruvate decarboxylase, phosphofructokinase,
glucose-6-phosphate isomerase, 3-phosphoglycerate mutase, pyruvate
kinase, triosephosphate isomerase, phosphoglucose isomerase, and
glucokinase. In constructing suitable expression plasmids, the
termination sequences associated with these genes are also ligated
into the expression vector 3' of the sequence desired to be
expressed to provide polyadenylation of the mRNA and
termination.
[0223] Other suitable promoters, which have the additional
advantage of transcription controlled by growth conditions, include
the promoter region for alcohol dehydrogenase 2, isocytochrome C,
acid phosphatase, degradative enzymes associated with nitrogen
metabolism, the aforementioned glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate
dehydrogenase, and enzymes responsible for maltose and galactose
utilization.
[0224] In addition to micro-organisms, cultures of cells derived
from multicellular organisms may also be used as hosts. In
principle, any such cell culture is workable, whether from
vertebrate or invertebrate culture. In addition to mammalian cells,
these include insect cell systems infected with recombinant virus
expression vectors (e.g., baculovirus); and plant cell systems
infected with recombinant virus expression vectors (e.g.,
cauliflower mosaic virus, CaMV; tobacco mosaic virus, TMV) or
transformed with recombinant plasmid expression vectors (e.g., Ti
plasmid) containing one or more coding sequences.
[0225] In a useful insect system, Autographa californica nuclear
polyhidrosis virus (AcNPV) is used as a vector to express foreign
genes. The virus grows in Spodoptera frugiperda cells. The isolated
nucleic acid coding sequences are cloned into non-essential regions
(for example the polyhedrin gene) of the virus and placed under
control of an AcNPV promoter (for example the polyhedrin promoter).
Successful insertion of the coding sequences results in the
inactivation of the polyhedrin gene and production of non-occluded
recombinant virus (i.e., virus lacking the protein coat coded for
by the polyhedrin gene). These recombinant viruses are then used to
infect Spodoptera frugiperda cells in which the inserted gene is
expressed (e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 4,215,051 (Smith)).
[0226] Examples of useful mammalian host cell lines are VERO and
HeLa cells, Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cell lines, W138, BHK,
COS-7, 293, HepG2, 3T3, RIN and MDCK cell lines. In addition, a
host cell strain may be chosen that modulates the expression of the
inserted sequences, or modifies and processes the gene product in
the specific fashion desired. Such modifications (e.g.,
glycosylation) and processing (e.g., cleavage) of protein products
may be important for the function of the encoded protein.
[0227] Different host cells have characteristic and specific
mechanisms for the post-translational processing and modification
of proteins. Appropriate cells lines or host systems may be chosen
to ensure the correct modification and processing of the foreign
protein expressed. Expression vectors for use in mammalian cells
ordinarily include an origin of replication (as necessary), a
promoter located in front of the gene to be expressed, along with
any necessary ribosome binding sites, RNA splice sites,
polyadenylation site, and transcriptional terminator sequences. The
origin of replication may be provided either by construction of the
vector to include an exogenous origin, such as may be derived from
SV40 or other viral (e.g., Polyoma, Adeno, VSV, BPV) source, or may
be provided by the host cell chromosomal replication mechanism. If
the vector is integrated into the host cell chromosome, the latter
is often sufficient.
[0228] The promoters may be derived from the genome of mammalian
cells (e.g., metallothionein promoter) or from mammalian viruses
(e.g., the adenovirus late promoter; the vaccinia virus 7.5K
promoter). Further, it is also possible, and may be desirable, to
utilize promoter or control sequences normally associated with the
desired gene sequence, provided such control sequences are
compatible with the host cell systems.
[0229] A number of viral based expression systems may be utilized,
for example, commonly used promoters are derived from polyoma,
Adenovirus 2, and most frequently Simian Virus 40 (SV40). The early
and late promoters of SV40 virus are particularly useful because
both are obtained easily from the virus as a fragment that also
contains the SV40 viral origin of replication. Smaller or larger
SV40 fragments may also be used, provided there is included the
approximately 250 bp sequence extending from the Hind III site
toward the Bg1 I site located in the viral origin of
replication.
[0230] In cases where an adenovirus is used as an expression
vector, the coding sequences may be ligated to an adenovirus
transcription/translatio- n control complex, e.g., the late
promoter and tripartite leader sequence. This chimeric gene may
then be inserted in the adenovirus genome by in vitro or in vivo
recombination. Insertion in a non-essential region of the viral
genome (e.g., region E1 or E3) will result in a recombinant virus
that is viable and capable of expressing proteins in infected
hosts.
[0231] Specific initiation signals may also be required for
efficient translation of the claimed isolated nucleic acid coding
sequences. These signals include the ATG initiation codon and
adjacent sequences. Exogenous translational control signals,
including the ATG initiation codon, may additionally need to be
provided. One of ordinary skill in the art would readily be capable
of determining this and providing the necessary signals. It is well
known that the initiation codon must be in-frame (or in-phase) with
the reading frame of the desired coding sequence to ensure
translation of the entire insert. These exogenous translational
control signals and initiation codons may be of a variety of
origins, both natural and synthetic. The efficiency of expression
may be enhanced by the inclusion of appropriate transcription
enhancer elements or transcription terminators (Bittner et al.,
1987).
[0232] In eukaryotic expression, one will also typically desire to
incorporate into the transcriptional unit an appropriate
polyadenylation site (e.g., 5'-AATAAA-3') if one was not contained
within the original cloned segment. Typically, the poly A addition
site is placed about 30 to 2000 nucleotides "downstream" of the
termination site of the protein at a position prior to
transcription termination.
[0233] For long-term, high-yield production of recombinant
proteins, stable expression is preferred. For example, cell lines
that stably express constructs encoding proteins may be engineered.
Rather than using expression vectors that contain viral origins of
replication, host cells may be transformed with vectors controlled
by appropriate expression control elements (e.g., promoter,
enhancer, sequences, transcription terminators, polyadenylation
sites, etc.), and a selectable marker. Following the introduction
of foreign DNA, engineered cells may be allowed to grow for 1-2
days in an enriched media, and then are switched to a selective
media. The selectable marker in the recombinant plasmid confers
resistance to the selection and allows cells to stably integrate
the plasmid into their chromosomes and grow to form foci which in
turn may be cloned and expanded into cell lines.
[0234] A number of selection systems may be used, including but not
limited to, the herpes simplex virus thymidine kinase (Wigler et
al., 1977), hypoxanthine-guanine phosphoribosyltransferase
(Szybalska et al., 1962) and adenine phosphoribosyltransferase
genes (Lowy et al., 1980), in tk-, hgprt- or aprt- cells,
respectively. Also, antimetabolite resistance may be used as the
basis of selection for dhfr, that confers resistance to
methotrexate (Wigler et al., 1980; O'Hare et al., 1981); gpt, that
confers resistance to mycophenolic acid (Mulligan et al., 1981);
neo, that confers resistance to the aminoglycoside G-418
(Colberre-Garapin et al., 1981); and hygro, that confers resistance
to hygromycin (Santerre et al., 1984).
Site-Specific Mutagenesis
[0235] Site-specific mutagenesis is a technique useful in the
preparation of individual peptides, or biologically functional
equivalent proteins or peptides, through specific mutagenesis of
the underlying DNA. The technique further provides a ready ability
to prepare and test sequence variants, incorporating one or more of
the foregoing considerations, by introducing one or more nucleotide
sequence changes into the DNA. Site-specific mutagenesis allows the
production of mutants through the use of specific oligonucleotide
sequences which encode the DNA sequence of the desired mutation, as
well as a sufficient number of adjacent nucleotides, to provide a
primer sequence of sufficient size and sequence complexity to form
a stable duplex on both sides of the deletion junction being
traversed. Typically, a primer of about 17 to 25 nucleotides in
length is preferred, with about 5 to 10 residues on both sides of
the junction of the sequence being altered.
[0236] In general, the technique of site-specific mutagenesis is
well known in the art. As will be appreciated, the technique
typically employs a bacteriophage vector that exists in both a
single stranded and double stranded form. Typical vectors useful in
site-directed mutagenesis include vectors such as the M13: phage.
These phage vectors are commercially available and their use is
generally well known to those skilled in the art. Double stranded
plasmids are also routinely employed in site directed mutagenesis,
which eliminates the step of transferring the gene of interest from
a phage to a plasmid.
[0237] In general, site-directed mutagenesis is performed by first
obtaining a single-stranded vector, or melting of two strands of a
double stranded vector that includes within its sequence a DNA
sequence encoding the desired protein. An oligonucleotide primer
bearing the desired mutated sequence is synthetically prepared.
This primer is then annealed with the single-stranded DNA
preparation, and subjected to DNA polymerizing enzymes such as E.
coli polymerase I Klenow fragment, in order to complete the
synthesis of the mutation-bearing strand. Thus, a heteroduplex is
formed wherein one strand encodes the original non-mutated sequence
and the second strand bears the desired mutation. This heteroduplex
vector is then used to transform appropriate cells, such as E. coli
cells, and clones are selected that include recombinant vectors
bearing the mutated sequence arrangement.
Phage Display
[0238] In certain embodiments, it may be desirable to use random
amino acid sequences in the form of a phage display library for use
as potential isoform selective PDE3 inhibitors or activators. The
phage display method has been used for a variety of purposes (see,
for example, Scott and Smith, 1990, 1993; U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,565,332,
5,596,079, 6,031,071 and 6,068,829, each incorporated herein by
reference).
[0239] Generally, a phage display library is prepared by first
constructing a partially randomized library of cDNA sequences,
encoding a large number of amino acid combinations. The cDNA
sequences are inserted in frame into, for example, a viral coat
protein for a phage such as the fuse 5 vector (U.S. Pat. No.
6,068,829). The cDNAs are expressed as random amino acid sequences,
incorporated into a coat protein. The randomized peptides are thus
displayed on the external surface of the phage, where they can bind
to proteins or peptides. Phage binding to PDE3 proteins or peptides
may be separated from unbound phage using standard methods, for
example by affinity chromatography to PDE3 peptides covalently
linked to a solid support such as a membrane or chromatography
beads. If desired, it is possible to collect bound phage, detach
them from the PDE3 peptides by exposure to an appropriate solution
and proceed with another round of binding and separation. This
iterative process results in the selection of phage with an
increased specificity for PDE3.
[0240] Once phage of an appropriate binding stringency have been
obtained, it is possible to determine the amino acid sequence of
the binding peptide by sequencing the portion of the phage genome
containing the cDNA, for example by using PCR primers that flank
the cDNA insertion site. Phage lacking any cDNA insert may be used
as a control to ensure that binding is specific.
[0241] The skilled artisan will realize that phage display may be
used to select for peptides (between 3 and 100, more preferably
between 5 and 50, more preferably between 7 and 25 amino acid
residues long) that can bind to a desired protein or peptide. Such
peptides may be of use, for example, as potential inhibitors or
activators of PDE3 catalytic activity or protein-protein
binding.
Methods for Screening Active Compounds
[0242] The present invention also contemplates the use of PDE3
isoform proteins, peptides and active fragments, and nucleic acids
encoding PDE3, in the screening of potential PDE3 inhibitors or
activators. These assays may make use of a variety of different
formats and may depend on the kind of "activity" for which the
screen is being conducted. Contemplated functional "read-outs"
include binding to a substrate (e.g., cAMP or cGMP), inhibition of
binding to a membrane or another protein, phosphorylation or
dephosphorylation of PDE3, or inhibition or stimulation of a
variety of cAMP dependent processes such as calcium channel
activation or protein kinase activity.
In Vitro Assays
[0243] In one embodiment, the invention is to be applied for the
screening of compounds that bind to the PDE3 isoforms or a fragment
thereof. The polypeptide or fragment may be either free in
solution, fixed to a support, or expressed in or on the surface of
a cell. Either the polypeptide or the compound may be labeled,
thereby permitting the determination of binding.
[0244] In another embodiment, the assay may measure the inhibition
of binding of PDE3 to a natural or artificial substrate or binding
partner. Competitive binding assays can be performed in which one
of the agents is labeled. Usually, the polypeptide will be the
labeled species. One may measure the amount of free label versus
bound label to determine binding, or inhibition of binding.
[0245] Another technique for high throughput screening of compounds
is described in WO 84/03564, the contents of which are incorporated
herein by reference. Large numbers of small peptide test compounds
are synthesized on a solid substrate, such as plastic pins or some
other surface. The peptide test compounds are reacted with PDE3 and
washed. Bound polypeptide is detected by various methods.
[0246] Purified PDE3 can be coated directly onto plates for use in
the aforementioned drug screening techniques. However,
non-neutralizing antibodies to the polypeptide can be used to
immobilize the polypeptide to a solid phase. Also, fusion proteins
containing a reactive region (preferably a terminal region) may be
used to link the PDE3 active region to a solid phase.
[0247] Various cell lines containing wild-type or natural or
engineered mutations in PDE3 can be used to study various
functional attributes of these proteins and how a candidate
compound affects these attributes. Methods for engineering
mutations are described elsewhere in this document. In such assays,
the compound would be formulated appropriately, given its
biochemical nature, and contacted with a target cell. Depending on
the assay, culture may be required. The cell may then be examined
by virtue of a number of different physiologic assays.
Alternatively, molecular analysis may be performed in which the
function of PDE3 or related pathways, may be explored. This may
involve assays such as those for phosphorylation states of various
molecules, cAMP levels, mRNA expression for CREB linked genes, or
any other process regulated in whole or in part by PDE3 activity.
For certain embodiments, it may be desirable to create "knock-out"
cells that are lacking in endogenous phosphodiesterase activity in
order to specifically assay the effects of various compounds on
inserted isoforms of PDE3.
In Vivo Assays
[0248] The present invention also encompasses the use of various
animal models. By developing or isolating mutant cells lines that
show differential expression of one or more PDE3 isoforms, one can
generate animal models that will be predictive of cardiomyopathy
and/or pulmonary hypertension in humans and other mammals. These
models may employ transgenic animals that differentially express
one or more PDE3 isoforms.
[0249] Treatment of animals with test compounds will involve the
administration of the compound, in an appropriate form, to the
animal. Administration will be by any route that could be utilized
for clinical or non-clinical purposes, including but not limited to
oral, nasal, buccal, rectal, vaginal or topical. Alternatively,
administration may be by intratracheal instillation, bronchial
instillation, intradermal, subcutaneous, intramuscular,
intraperitoneal, intravenous or intraarterial injection.
[0250] Determining the effectiveness of a compound in vivo may
involve a variety of different criteria. Such criteria include, but
are not limited to: survival, increased cardiac output; increased
ventricular ejection fraction; reduced pulmonary arterial pressure;
improved exercise tolerance; improved quality-of-life index;
reduced incidence of myocardial ischemia or infarction; reduced
incidence of ventricular ectopic activity or arrhythmia; reduced or
increased blood pressure; decreased myocardial mass (reduced
hypertrophy); reduced vascular hyperplasia; reduced vascular
resistance; reduced platelet aggregation.
Rational Drug Design
[0251] The goal of rational drug design is to produce structural
analogs of biologically active polypeptides or compounds with which
they interact (agonists, antagonists, inhibitors, binding partners,
etc.). By creating such analogs, it is possible to fashion drugs
that are more active or stable than the natural molecules, which
have different susceptibility to alteration or which may affect the
function of various other molecules. In one approach, one would
generate a three-dimensional structure for PDE3 or a fragment
thereof. This could be accomplished by x-ray crystallography,
computer modeling based on the 3-D structures of other
phosphodiesterases or by a combination of both approaches. In
addition, knowledge of the polypeptide sequences permits computer
employed predictions of structure-function relationships. An
alternative approach, an "alanine scan," involves the random
replacement of residues throughout a protein or peptide molecule
with alanine, followed by determining the resulting effect(s) on
protein function.
[0252] It also is possible to isolate a PDE3 specific antibody,
selected by a functional assay, and then solve its crystal
structure. In principle, this approach yields a pharmacore upon
which subsequent drug design can be based. It is possible to bypass
protein crystallography altogether by generating anti-idiotypic
antibodies to a functional, pharmacologically active antibody. As a
mirror image of a mirror image, the binding site of an
anti-idiotype antibody would be expected to be an analog of the
original antigen. The anti-idiotype could then be used to identify
and isolate peptides from banks of chemically- or
biologically-produced peptides. Selected peptides would then serve
as the pharmacore. Anti-idiotypes may be generated using the
methods described herein for producing antibodies, using an
antibody as the antigen.
[0253] Thus, one may design drugs that have improved PDE3 isoform
selective activity or which act as stimulators, inhibitors,
agonists, or antagonists of PDE3.
Knock-Out
[0254] The technique known as homologous recombination allows the
precise modification of existing genes, including the inactivation
of specific genes, as well as the replacement of one gene for
another. Methods for homologous recombination are described in U.
S. Pat. No. 5,614,396, incorporated herein by reference.
[0255] Homologous recombination relies on the tendency of nucleic
acids to base pair with complementary sequences. In this instance,
the base pairing serves to facilitate the interaction of two
separate nucleic acid molecules so that strand breakage and repair
can take place. In other words, the "homologous" aspect of the
method relies on sequence homology to bring two complementary
sequences into close proximity, while the "recombination" aspect
provides for one complementary sequence to replace the other by
virtue of the breaking of certain bonds and the formation of
others.
[0256] First, a site for integration is selected within the host
cell, such as the PDE3A or PDE3B genes. Sequences homologous to the
integration site are included in a genetic construct, flanking the
selected gene to be integrated into the genome. Flanking, in this
context, simply means that target homologous sequences are located
both upstream (5') and downstream (3') of the selected gene. The
construct is then introduced into the cell, permitting
recombination between the cellular sequences and the construct.
[0257] It is common to include within the construct a selectable
marker gene. This gene permits selection of cells that have
integrated the construct into their genomic DNA by conferring
resistance to various biostatic and biocidal drugs. In addition,
this technique may be used to "knock-out" (delete) or interrupt a
particular gene. Thus, another approach for inhibiting gene
expression involves the use of homologous recombination, or
"knock-out technology". This is accomplished by including a mutated
or vastly deleted form of the heterologous gene between the
flanking regions within the construct. The arrangement of a
construct to effect homologous recombination might be as
follows:
vector.cndot.5'-flanking sequence.cndot.selected
gene.cndot.selectable marker gene.cndot.flanking
sequence-3'.cndot.vector
[0258] Using this kind of construct, it is possible, in a single
recombinatorial event, to (i) "knock out" an endogenous gene, (ii)
provide a selectable marker for identifying such an event or (iii)
introduce a transgene for expression.
[0259] Another refinement of the homologous recombination approach
involves the use of a "negative" selectable marker. One example of
the use of the cytosine deaminase gene in a negative selection
method is described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,624,830. The negative
selection marker, unlike the selectable marker, causes death of
cells that express the marker. Thus, it is used to identify
undesirable recombination events. When seeking to select homologous
recombinants using a selectable marker, it is difficult in the
initial screening step to identify proper homologous recombinants
from recombinants generated from random, non-sequence specific
events. These recombinants also may contain the selectable marker
gene and may express the heterologous protein of interest, but
will, in all likelihood, not have the desired phenotype. By
attaching a negative selectable marker to the construct, but
outside of the flanking regions, one can select against many random
recombination events that will incorporate the negative selectable
marker. Homologous recombination should not introduce the negative
selectable marker, as it is outside of the flanking sequences.
Formulations and Routes for Administration to Patients
[0260] In certain embodiments, the isoform-selective inhibitors or
activators of PDE3 may be used for therapeutic treatment of medical
conditions, such as dilated cardiomyopathy and/or pulmonary
hypertension. Where clinical applications are contemplated, it will
be necessary to prepare pharmaceutical compositions in a form
appropriate for the intended application. Generally, this will
entail preparing compositions that are essentially free of
pyrogens, as well as other impurities that could be harmful to
humans or animals.
[0261] Aqueous compositions of the present invention comprise an
effective amount of PDE3 inhibitor or activator, dissolved or
dispersed in a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier or aqueous
medium. Such compositions also are referred to as innocula. The
phrase "pharmaceutically or pharmacologically acceptable" refers to
molecular entities and compositions that do not produce adverse,
allergic, or other untoward reactions when administered to an
animal or a human. As used herein, "pharmaceutically acceptable
carrier" includes any and all solvents, dispersion media, coatings,
antibacterial and antifungal agents, isotonic and absorption
delaying agents and the like. The use of such media and agents for
pharmaceutically active substances is well known in the art. Except
insofar as any conventional media or agent is incompatible with the
PDE3 inhibitors or activators of the present invention, its use in
therapeutic compositions is contemplated. Supplementary active
ingredients also can be incorporated into the compositions.
[0262] The active compositions of the present invention may include
classic pharmaceutical preparations. Administration of these
compositions according to the present invention will be via any
common route so long as the target tissue is available via that
route. This includes oral, nasal, buccal, rectal, vaginal or
topical. Alternatively, administration may be by orthotopic,
intradermal, subcutaneous, intramuscular, intraperitoneal or
intravenous injection. Such compositions normally would be
administered as pharmaceutically acceptable compositions.
[0263] The active compounds also may be administered parenterally
or intraperitoneally. Solutions of the active compounds as free
base or pharmacologically acceptable salts can be prepared in water
suitably mixed with a surfactant, such as hydroxypropylcellulose.
Dispersions also can be prepared in glycerol, liquid polyethylene
glycols, and mixtures thereof and in oils. Under ordinary
conditions of storage and use, these preparations contain a
preservative to prevent the growth of microorganisms.
[0264] The pharmaceutical forms suitable for injectable use include
sterile aqueous solutions or dispersions and sterile powders for
the extemporaneous preparation of sterile injectable solutions or
dispersions. In all cases the form must be sterile and must be
fluid to the extent that easy syringability exists. It must be
stable under the conditions of manufacture and storage and must be
preserved against the contaminating action of microorganisms, such
as bacteria and fungi. The carrier can be a solvent or dispersion
medium containing, for example, water, ethanol, polyol (for
example, glycerol, propylene glycol, and liquid polyethylene
glycol, and the like), suitable mixtures thereof, and vegetable
oils. The proper fluidity can be maintained, for example, by the
use of a coating, such as lecithin, by the maintenance of the
required particle size in the case of dispersion and by the use of
surfactants.
[0265] The prevention of the action of microorganisms can be
brought about by various antibacterial and antifungal agents, for
example, parabens, chlorobutanol, phenol, sorbic acid, thimerosal,
and the like. In many cases, it will be preferable to include
isotonic agents, for example, sugars or sodium chloride. Prolonged
absorption of the injectable compositions can be brought about by
the use in the compositions of agents delaying absorption, for
example, aluminum monostearate and gelatin.
[0266] Sterile injectable solutions are prepared by incorporating
the active compounds in the required amount in the appropriate
solvent with various other ingredients enumerated above, as
required, followed by filtered sterilization. Generally,
dispersions are prepared by incorporating the various sterilized
active ingredients into a sterile vehicle which contains the basic
dispersion medium and the required other ingredients from those
enumerated above. In the case of sterile powders for the
preparation of sterile injectable solutions, the preferred methods
of preparation are vacuum-drying and freeze-drying techniques which
yield a powder of the active ingredient plus any additional desired
ingredient from a previously sterile-filtered solution thereof.
[0267] The compositions of the present invention may be formulated
in a neutral or salt form. Pharmaceutically-acceptable salts
include the acid addition salts which are formed by reaction of
basic groups with inorganic acids such as, for example,
hydrochloric or phosphoric acids, or such organic acids as acetic,
oxalic, tartaric, mandelic, and the like. Salts formed with free
acidic groups can also be derived from inorganic bases such as, for
example, sodium, potassium, ammonium, calcium, or ferric
hydroxides, and such organic bases as isopropylamine,
trimethylamine, histidine, procaine and the like.
[0268] Upon formulation, solutions will be administered in a manner
compatible with the dosage formulation and in such amount as is
therapeutically effective. The formulations are easily administered
in a variety of dosage forms such as injectable solutions, drug
release capsules and the like. For parenteral administration in an
aqueous solution, for example, the solution should be suitably
buffered if necessary and the liquid diluent first rendered
isotonic with sufficient saline or glucose. These particular
aqueous solutions are especially suitable for intravenous,
intramuscular, subcutaneous and intraperitoneal administration.
[0269] In this connection, sterile aqueous media which can be
employed will be known to those of skill in the art in light of the
present disclosure. For example, one dosage could be dissolved in 1
ml of isotonic NaCl solution and either added to 1000 ml of
hypodermoclysis fluid or injected at the proposed site of infusion,
(see for example, "Remington's Pharmaceutical Sciences" 15th
Edition, pages 1035-1038 and 1570-1580). Some variation in dosage
will necessarily occur depending on the condition of the subject
being treated. The person responsible for administration will, in
any event, determine the appropriate dose for the individual
subject. Moreover, for human administration, preparations should
meet sterility, pyrogenicity, general safety and purity standards
as required by FDA Office of Biologics standards.
EXAMPLES
[0270] The following examples are included to demonstrate preferred
embodiments of the invention. It should be appreciated by those of
skill in the art that the techniques disclosed in the examples
which follow represent techniques discovered by the inventors to
function well in the practice of the invention, and thus can be
considered to constitute preferred modes for its practice. However,
those of skill in the art should, in light of the present
disclosure, appreciate that many changes can be made in the
specific embodiments which are disclosed and still obtain a like or
similar result without departing from the spirit and scope of the
invention.
Example 1
Materials and Methods
Preparation of rtPDE3A1
[0271] A human myocardial PDE3A construct was generated by
inserting an eight amino acid Flag epitope
(Asp-Tyr-Lys-Asp-Asp-Asp-Asp-Lys) immediately upstream from the
stop codon of PDE3A1 (SEQ ID NO:14). Using 50 ng PDE3A1 cDNA as
template (GenBank accession number NM.sub.--000921), PCR
amplification was performed in a GeneAmp PCR system (Perkin Elmer,
Wellesley, Mass.) with Pfu polymerase (Stratagene, La Jolla,
Calif.) using 3 pmol each of sense primer corresponding to nt
3009-3027 of the PDE3A1 ORF CTTCATCTCTCACATTGTGGGGCCTCTGTG (SEQ ID
NO:4) and antisense primer corresponding to nt 3423-3403 and the
Flag epitope.
3 (SEQ ID NO:5) TTTGCGGCCGCCTCGAGTTATTTATCATCATCATCTTTATAAT- CCTGGT
CTGGCTTTTGGGTTGG
[0272] The resulting PCR product contained a unique PDE3 DraIII
site at the 5' end and a stop codon at the 3' end. The stop codon
was flanked upstream by a Flag epitope-coding sequence and
downstream by an XhoI site. The PCR products were subcloned into
the pCRII vector (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, Calif.) and isolated from
this vector as DraIII/XhoI fragments. XhoI/DraIII fragments
containing the ORF sequence of PDE3A1 (SEQ ID NO:14) upstream from
the unique DraIII site were restricted from pBluescript. In a
three-way ligation, these 5' XhoI/DraIII fragments were ligated via
the DraIII site to the 3' DraIII/XhoI Flag epitope-containing
fragments and to XhoI-cut pZero vector (Invitrogen), to give PDE3A1
Flag-pZero. PDE3A1-Flag was then excised from pZero with XhoI,
ligated into pAcSG2 vector, subcloned and amplified.
[0273] PDE3A1-Flag-pAcSG2 plasmid (2 .mu.g) was co-transfected with
linearized BaculoGold DNA into Sf21 cells (BaculoGold transfection
kit; Pharmingen, San Diego, Calif.). After five days, fresh Sf21
cells, (10-20).times.10.sup.6 cells per 75 cm.sup.2 flask, grown in
TNM-FH media (BD-Pharmingen, San Diego, Calif.), were infected with
medium containing PDE3A1-Flag baculovirus. For amplification,
100-500 .mu.l of medium was collected after 72-96 h and used to
infect fresh cultures, after which viral titers were determined by
twelve-well end-point dilution assay. Cells from 75cm.sup.2 flasks,
usually 10-20.times.10.sup.6 cells per flask, were sedimented for
10 min at 1000.times.g, washed twice with ice-cold PBS and
resuspended in 10 mM HEPES, 1 mM EDTA, 250 mM sucrose, 10 mM
pyrophosphate, 5 mM NaF, 1 mM PMSF, 1 mM sodium orthovanadate, 1%
NP-40 and 10 .mu.g/ml each of aprotinin, leupeptin and pepstatin.
Lysates were prepared by sonication on ice (two 20-second pulses,
output 2, 40% of cycle) with a Sonifier Cell Disruptor 350 (Branson
Sonic Power, Danbury, Conn.). Lysates were sedimented for 10 min at
12,000.times.g; supernatant fractions were used for Western
blotting. C-terminally Flag-tagged rtPDE3A1 was purified to
apparent homogeneity by immunoprecipitation with anti-Flag
antibodies followed by competitive release with Flag peptide.
Preparation of Subcellular Fractions of Human Myocardium and
Cultured Aortic Myocytes
[0274] Cytosolic and KC1-washed microsomal fractions, from the left
ventricular myocardium of explanted hearts of cardiac transplant
recipients with idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy, were prepared by
homogenization, differential sedimentation and high-salt washing.
Each preparation was made from tissue pooled from at least three
different hearts. Tissue from left ventricular free walls was
trimmed of epicardium and endocardium, cut into roughly 0.5
cm.sup.3 pieces, rapidly frozen in liquid nitrogen, and stored at
-80.degree. C. until use. To prepare subcellular fractions, 0.3 g
of the frozen tissue were added to 5 volumes of buffer (5 mM
KH2PO4/K2HPO4 and 2 mM EDTA (pH 6.8, 4.degree. C.), 1 mM
dithiothreitol, 1 mM benzamidine, 0.8 mM PMSF, and 1 .mu.g/ml each
of pepstatin A, leupeptin, and antipain). The tissue was
homogenized twice for 10 seconds each. The homogenate was
sedimented at 14,000 rpm for 20 minutes using an Eppendorf Model
5415 centrifuge. The supernatant was saved and the pellet
resuspended in 1.5 ml of buffer, then rehomogenized and
resedimented in order to solubilize any trapped cytosolic proteins.
The supernatants containing cytosolic proteins were pooled and
diluted 1:1 with buffer containing 40% v/v glycerol and stored at
-80.degree. C. until use. Comparable fractions of cultured human
aortic myocytes (Clonetics, East Rutherford, N.J.; seventh passage)
were similarly prepared.
Western Blotting
[0275] Lysates of Sf21 cells expressing rtPDE3A1 and subcellular
fractions of human myocardium and aortic myocytes were precipitated
with trichloroacetic acid (final concentration 50%), dissolved in
SDS buffer, subjected to SDS-PAGE (8% acrylamide) and transferred
electrophoretically to nitrocellulose membranes (Schleicher &
Schuell, Kenne, N.H.). After transfer, membranes were blocked,
washed and incubated for at least 2 h at room temperature with
polyclonal antibodies raised against synthetic peptides whose
sequences correspond to selected regions of the open reading frame
of PDE3A1 (SEQ ID NO: 14). The polyclonal antibodies corresponded
to N-terminal amino acids 29-42 (anti-NT), mid-sequence amino acids
424-460 (anti-MID), and C-terminal amino acids 1125-1141 (anti-CT)
of PDE3A1 (see SEQ ID NO:1). Immunoreactive bands were detected
with a horseradish peroxidase-conjugated second antibody (Promega,
Madison, Wis.) and an enhanced chemiluminescence luminescent
reagent (Pierce, Rockford, Ill.) in accordance with the
manufacturer's instructions.
Expression of rtPDE3A1 Isoforms by in vitro
Transcription/translation
[0276] The entire coding region of PDE3A1 cDNA (SEQ ID NO:14) was
inserted into pBluescript. In addition, a plasmid with an ATGATG to
CTGCTG mutation (Met-Met>Leu-Leu) at nt 1450-5 (ATG7/8) was
generated by PCR using a QuikChange Site-Directed Mutagenesis kit
(Stratagene, La Jolla, Calif.). The sense primer
GGAATAATCCAGTGCTGCTGACCCTCACCAAAAGCAGATCC (SEQ ID NO:6) and the
complementary anti-sense primer (corresponding to nt 1435-76 of the
PDE3A1 ORF-SEQ ID NO:14) were used for mutagenesis. After
amplification in E. coli (XL1-Blue), mutated plasmids were purified
using a QIAprep Spin Miniprep kit (Qiagen, Valencia, Calif.) and
sequenced.
[0277] PCR products with different 5 deletions were generated from
the wild-type and mutated pBluescript-PDE3A1 plasmids using five
sense primers containing T7 promoter sites immediately upstream
from gene-specific sequences and an anti-sense primer containing
the stop codon and a poly-A tail. The sense primers used for
amplification in these reactions were as follows.
4 (SEQ ID NO:7) TAATACGACTCACTATAGGGAGTGAAGAGGGCACCCTATACCA- TGGCAG
(SEQ ID NO:8) TAATACGACTCACTATAGGGTTCAGTCT- CCTGTGTGCCTTCTTCTGGATG
(SEQ ID NO:9) TAATACGACTCACTATAGGGGAAGCGCTCGTCCAGATTGGGCTGGGC (SEQ
ID NO:10) TAATACGACTCACTATAGGGTGGAGACCTTACCTGGCGTACCTGGCC (SEQ ID
NO:11) TAATACGACTCACTATAGGGACTGCAGGAAGCACCTTCATCCA- GTCC
[0278] The primers correspond, respectively, to nucleotides (-)22
to (-)7 in the 5-untranslated region, nucleotides 409-438,
nucleotides 511-537, nucleotides 706-732, and nucleotides 1401-1427
of the open reading frame of PDE3A1 (SEQ ID NO:14, GenBank
Accession No. NM000921). In each case, the antisense primer,
corresponding to nucleotides 3400-3426 of PDE3A1 (SEQ ID NO: 14),
was TTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTCACTGGTCTGGCTTTTGGGTTGGTAT (SEQ ID NO:
12)
[0279] In vitro translation products were synthesized from the PCR
fragment templates and labeled with 4 .mu.Ci [.sup.35S]methionine
(1000 Ci/mmol) in reticulocyte lysates using the TnT T7 Quick for
PCR DNA system (Promega, Madison, Wis.). To make a synthetic
protein, a PCR product containing a 5 deletion and a T7 promoter
sequence was added to the TnT T7 PCR Quick Master Mix and incubated
for roughly 60-90 minutes at 30.degree. C. This process was
repeated for each PCR construct containing a 5 deletion. Proteins
thus created were isolated and subsequently analyzed by
autoradiography.
5' RACE
[0280] PCR amplification was performed on Marathon RACE-Ready cDNA
from human myocardium (Clontech, Palo Alto, Calif.) using 1 pmol
gene-specific anti-sense primer and 1 pmol sense primer
corresponding to the 5' end of the manufacturer's 5' tag. A second
round of PCR was performed for 35 cycles using 1 pmol nested
gene-specific primer and 1 pmol nested sense primer corresponding
to a second sequence within the manufacturer's tag. RACE products
were purified on agarose gels and ligated into the pCR2.1 vector
with T4 ligase (14.degree. C., overnight) using a TA cloning kit
(Invitrogen, San Diego, Calif.). Competent cells (INV F') were
transformed using a One Shot Kit (Invitrogen, Austin, Tex.) and
plated on X-ga1 LB-ampicillin plates (100 .mu.g/ml ampicillin).
Positive colonies were grown overnight in LB-ampicillin medium.
Plasmids were purified using Mini- or Midiprep Plasmid purification
systems (Qiagen) and inserts were excised with EcoRI. Insert sizes
were estimated by electrophoresis through agarose gels.
Southern and Northern Blotting
[0281] DNA probes were prepared from PDE3A1 plasmid by PCR using
region-specific primers. PCR products were purified using QIA Quick
Kits (Qiagen). DNA was labeled with [.sup.32P]dCTP (3000 Ci/mmol,
10 mCi/ml) using a random primer labeling kit (Stratagene).
Unincorporated nucleotides were removed using Sepahadex G-50 (fine)
columns (Roche, Indianapolis, Ind.). For Southern blotting, linear
DNA corresponding to nt (-)268 to nt 2610 of the PDE3A1 ORF (SEQ ID
NO:14, SEQ ID NO:18) was prepared from PDE3A1 template by PCR and
purified as described above. The PCR product was quantified by
measurement of the A260/A280 ratio and its purity confirmed by
agarose gel electrophoresis. PCR product samples were subjected to
electrophoresis on 0.7% agarose gels, transferred to Gene Screen
Plus Nylon Membranes (New England Nuclear, Boston, Mass.),
crosslinked and pre-hybridized for 2-3 h in QuikHyb (Stratagene).
Labeled DNA probes were hybridized with DNA blots at 65.degree. C.
for three to four hours using 1.25.times.10.sup.6 cpm/ml of probe
and 0.1 mg/ml salmon sperm DNA. Following hybridization, excess
radiolabeled probe was removed by rinsing in SSC/0.1% SDS and
autoradiography was performed at -80.degree. C. For Northern
blotting, RNA was extracted from human left ventricular myocardium
from the excised hearts of transplant recipients with dilated
cardiomyopathy using TRI reagent (Molecular Research Center,
Cincinnati, Ohio). PolyA RNA was prepared from total RNA using a
Message Maker kit (Life Technologies, Rockville, Md.). RNA was
quantified and its purity confirmed as described above. PolyA RNA
samples were subjected to electrophoresis on 1% agarose 0.5 M
formaldehyde gels, transferred to Gene Screen Plus Nylon Membranes,
crosslinked and pre-hybridized in for 2-3 h in QuikHyb. Labeled DNA
probes were hybridized with RNA blots, excess radiolabeled probe
was removed
Example 2
PDE3 Isoforms in Cardiac and Vascular Myocytes
[0282] It has been shown that proteins of three different apparent
molecular weights can be immunoprecipitated from mammalian
myocardium with anti-PDE3 antibodies (Smith et al., 1993). These
proteins are identified herein as PDE3 isoforms by Western blotting
of cytosolic and microsomal fractions of human myocardium, using
antibodies raised against peptides derived from the PDE3A ORF.
[0283] An antibody against the C-terminus of PDE3 ("anti-CT")
reacted with three proteins in these fractions (FIG. 5). The
largest, with an apparent MW of 136,000 on SDS-PAGE ("PDE3A-136"),
was present exclusively in microsomal fractions (FIG. 5). Another
PDE3 isoform, with an apparent MW of 118,000 ("PDE3A-118"), was
present in both microsomal and cytosolic fractions, as was a third
isoform with an apparent MW of 94,000 ("PDE3A-94") (FIG. 5).
[0284] An antibody against an amino acid sequence between NHR2 and
CCR ("anti-MID") reacted with PDE3A-136 and PDE3A-118 but not
PDE3A-94 (FIG. 5). An antibody against amino acids 25-49
("anti-NT") did not react with any protein in microsomal or
cytosolic fractions, indicating the absence of this region from
cardiac and vascular PDE3 isoforms (FIG. 5). However, anti-NT did
react with an rtPDE3A1 containing the full-length ORF (FIG. 5).
[0285] The antibodies were used to identify PDE3 isoforms in
subcellular fractions of aortic myocytes (Choi et al., 2001).
Anti-CT reacted with 94-kDA and 118-kDa proteins in microsomal and
cytosolic fractions of aortic myocytes (not shown). Anti-MID
reacted only with the 118-kDa proteins (not shown). No proteins
were visualized with anti-NT, and the 136-kDa protein band was
absent in all cases (not shown).
[0286] Western blotting was used to show that PDE3B is present in
vascular myocytes, where it appears as a 137-kDa band in the
microsomal fraction (PDE3B-137) (Liu and Maurice, 1998). Western
blots (not shown) indicate PDE3B-137 is absent from myocardium (not
shown). These results are summarized in Table 3.
5TABLE 3 Distribution of PDE3 isoforms in cardiac and vascular
myocytes Isoform PDE3A- PDE3A- PDE3A- PDE3B- Cell/tissue Fraction
136 118 94 137 Cardiac Microsomes + + + Cytosol + + Vascular
Microsomes + + + Cytosol + +
[0287] All three polyclonal antibodies (anti-NT, anti-MID and
anti-CT) reacted with recombinant PDE3A1. Anti-CT reacted with
proteins in the cytosolic and microsomal fractions of human
myocardium that had apparent molecular weights of 94,000 Da and
118,000 Da. Anti-CT also reacted with a protein with an apparent
molecular weight of 136,000 Da that was seen only in microsomal
myocardial fractions. Anti-MID also reacted with the 118,000 and
136,000 proteins, but not the 94,000 Da protein.
Example 3
Mechanisms for Generating Cardiac and Vascular PDE3A Isoforms
[0288] Addition of [.sup.35S]-labeled rtPDE3A (full-length ORF, SEQ
ID NO:14) to a sample of human myocardium prior to the preparation
of cytosolic and microsomal fractions provided no evidence for the
generation of smaller isoforms by proteolysis of the labeled
full-length rtPDE3A (not shown). Other potential mechanisms were
investigated.
[0289] The migration of cardiac and vascular isoforms of PDE3A were
compared to those of recombinant proteins generated by in vitro
transcription/translation. PDE3A constructs were prepared with 5'
deletions designed to yield rtPDE3A's starting from different
in-frame ATG's, inserted downstream from a T7 promoter and Kozak
sequence (FIG. 3). PDE3A-136, PDE3A-118 and PDE3A-94 migrated with
the same apparent molecular weights as the rtPDE3A's starting at
ATG's 1507, 1969 and 2521, respectively (FIG. 6). This is
consistent with the three PDE3A isoforms being generated by
transcription from alternative start sites.
Transcription/translation from every PDE3A-derived construct
generated an rtPDE3A whose apparent MW corresponded to PDE3A-94. To
determine whether the latter might be generated by translation from
a downstream AUG, a full-length rtPDE3A construct was prepared in
which the ATG at nt 2521 was mutated to CTG (M to L). This mutation
resulted in the disappearance of rtPDE3A-94 (not shown). It is
concluded that the PDE3A-94 isoform is generated by transcription
from the ATG initiation codon at nt 2521.
[0290] At least two different messenger RNA species are expressed
in different tissues--PDE3A1 mRNA (SEQ ID NO:14, SEQ ID NO:18) in
cardiac myocytes and PDE3A2 mRNA (SEQ ID NO:15) in both cardiac and
vascular myocytes (Choi et al., 2001). It appears that
transcription from alternative start sites in PDE3A results in the
expression of PDE3A1 mRNA (SEQ ID NO:14, SEQ ID NO:18) in cardiac
myocytes and of PDE3A2 mRNA (SEQ ID NO:15) in cardiac and vascular
myocytes. From the above results it is concluded that PDE3A-136 is
generated in cardiac myocytes by translation from the second AUG in
PDE3A1 mRNA (SEQ ID NO:14), while PDE3A-118 and PDE3A-94 are
generated in cardiac and vascular myocytes by translation from
alternative downstream AUG's in PDE3A2 mRNA (SEQ ID NO:15) (FIG.
7).
Example 4
Structure-function Relationships in PDE3A Isoforms
[0291] FIG. 11 shows the complete amino acid sequence of the open
reading frame (ORF) for PDE3A. To date, three isoforms of PDE3A
have been characterized. These are apparently generated by
N-terminal truncation of the PDE3A ORF (SEQ ID NO:14). The apparent
N-terminal methionine residues of the three isoforms are indicated
in bold in FIG. 11. Those are located at residues 146 for
PDE3A-136, 300 for PDE3A-118 and either 484 or 485 for PDE3A-94.
The locations of the phosphorylation sites on the PDE3A isoforms
are indicated by underlining in FIG. 11. The P1 site is located at
residues 288-294, the P2 site at residues 309-312 and the P3 site
at residues 435-438. The P2 and P3 sites on the PDE3A isoforms
contain a single serine residue and the phosphorylated amino acid
is unambiguous. The P1 site contains multiple serine residues and
it is presently unknown which of these is covalently modified by
phosphorylation.
Example 5
Functional Domains of PDE3A Isoforms
[0292] The functional domains in the cardiac and vascular isoforms
of PDE3 are shown in Table 4. The domains were elucidated in part
by comparison of the electrophoretic migration, via SDS-PAGE, of
native PDE3 isoforms and recombinant PDE3A isoforms generated by in
vitro transcription/translation from constructs with 5 deletions of
the open reading frame designed to result in translation from
different in-frame start codons (ATG codon sequences). The rtPDE3A
deletion constructs and the locations of the different ATG start
codons in the PDE3A1 ORF (SEQ ID NO:14) are illustrated in FIG. 12.
All recombinant isoforms migrated with apparent molecular weights
approximately 20,000 higher then predicted by their amino acid
sequences (SEQ ID NO: 1, SEQ ID NO:2, SEQ ID NO:3).
6TABLE 4 Functional domains in cardiac and vascular PDE3 isoforms.
PK-B PK-A site PK-A site, site upstream downstream NHR1 (`P1`)
(`P2`) NHR2 (`P3`) CCR PDE3B-137 + + + + + + PDE3A-136 + + + + + +
PDE3A-118 + + + + PDE3A-94 +
[0293] The apparent molecular weight of PDE3A-136 was slightly
higher than the apparent molecular weight of 131,000 for the
recombinant protein as translated from ATG-2 in the PDE3A1 open
reading frame (SEQ ID NO:14), indicating that PDE3A1-136 contains
part of the NHR1 site (a finding consistent with its recovery only
in microsomal fractions), all of NHR2, and the P1, P2 and P3 sites
for phosphorylation and activation by PK-B and PK-A. PDE3A-136 is
therefore generated in cardiac myocytes from PDE3A1 either by
translation from ATG1 followed by targeted N-terminal proteolysis
or by some post-translational modification that reduces its
electrophoretic mobility, resulting in a higher apparent molecular
weight.
[0294] The apparent molecular weight of PDE3A-118 was
indistinguishable from that of the recombinant PDE3A translated
from ATG4, indicating that PDE3A-118 lacks NHR1 and the PK-B
activation site, but includes the NHR2 and PK-A sites. PDE3A-118 is
generated in cardiac and vascular myocytes from PDE3A2 mRNA (SEQ ID
NO:15) by translation from ATG4, the third ATG in the open reading
frame predicted by the cloned cDNA (GenBank Accession No.
NM000921), or by translation from ATG2 or ATG3 followed by targeted
N-terminal proteolysis.
[0295] The apparent molecular weight of PDE3A-94 was approximately
equal to the apparent molecular weight of 94,000 for the
recombinant PDE3A translated from ATG7/8, indicating that PDE3A-94
contains neither the membrane-association domains NHR1 and NHR2,
nor any of the three phosphorylation sites. PDE3A-94 is generated
in cardiac and vascular myocytes from PDE3A2 mRNA (SEQ ID NO:15)
either by translation from AUG7/8 or by translation from a more
upstream ATG followed by proteolytic removal of a more extensive
length of N-terminal sequence. That PDE3A-118 and PDE3A-94 are
generated from a single mRNA (SEQ ID NO:15) by alternative
translational processing in vivo is consistent with the observation
that a PDE3A-94-like protein is generated from longer constructs by
translation from downstream ATG sequences in vitro.
[0296] The N-terminus predicted from the PDE3A1 open reading frame
(SEQ ID NO:14) was absent from native PDE3A-136, the longest PDE
isoform identified. All three isoforms contain the same C-terminal
amino acid sequences, downstream of different N-terminal starting
points.
[0297] PDE3A-136 and PDE3B-137, which contain the transmembrane
helices of NHR1, would be expected to be exclusively membrane-bound
in cardiac and vascular myocytes. PDE3A-118, which contains NHR2
but not NHR1, and PDE3A-94, which lacks both NHR1 and NHR2, would
be expected to associate reversibly with intracellular membrane
proteins or to be partitioned between the cytosolic and microsomal
compartments. Their presence in both microsomal and cytosolic
fractions is compatible with this conclusion. Further, the fact
that PDE3A-118 and PDE3A-94 can be recovered in microsomal
fractions suggests that interactions with anchoring or targeting
proteins are involved in their intracellular localization.
[0298] The N-terminal sequence differences may cause different PDE3
isoforms to interact with different anchoring or targeting proteins
that localize them to different signaling modules. As a
consequence, each PDE3 isoform may regulate the phosphorylation of
different substrates of PK-A and PK-G.
[0299] Surprisingly, transcription/translation from every
PDE3A-derived construct generated a recombinant PDE3A isoform whose
apparent molecular weight corresponded to that of PDE3A-94.
Determination whether the latter might be generated by translation
from a downstream AUG in the full-length PDE3A mRNA (SEQ ID NO:14,
SEQ ID NO:18) was performed by expression of a mutated construct
starting from ATG1 in the PDE3A1 mRNA (SEQ ID NO:14) in which
ATG7/8 was mutated to CTGCTG (Met-Met Leu-Leu). Expression of the
mutated construct resulted in the disappearance of the 94,000
molecular weight recombinant PDE3A, a result consistent with the
generation of PDE3A-94 from the full-length PDE3 mRNA by
translation from AUG7/8.
Example 6
5 RACE PCR
[0300] Studies have shown that a PDE3A2 mRNA (SEQ ID NO:15), whose
sequence is identical to that of the PDE3A1 cDNA downstream of
roughly nucleotide 300 in the latter's open reading frame (SEQ ID
NO:14) but which lacks PDE3A1's upstream sequence (SEQ ID NO:14,
SEQ ID NO:18), is present in both cardiac and vascular myocytes,
while PDE3A1 mRNA (SEQ ID NO:14, SEQ ID NO:18) is present in
cardiac but not in vascular myocytes (Choi, YH, et al., Biochem J.,
2001). To determine if the PDE3A2 mRNA (SEQ ID NO:15) contained an
alternative sequence upstream of roughly nucleotide 300, 5 RACE PCR
was performed on a human myocardial cDNA library using three pairs
of anti-sense primers derived from the shared sequences of PDE3A1
(SEQ ID NO:14) and PDE3A2 (SEQ ID NO:15).
[0301] Subcloning and sequencing of the multiple 5 RACE products
indicated that the PDE3A2 mRNA (SEQ ID NO:15) contained no
alternative sequence upstream of roughly nucleotide 300 (not
shown). Similar results were obtained when 5 RACE was performed
with comparable primers on a human aortic cDNA library (not
shown).
Example 7
Southern and Northern Blotting
[0302] Northern and Southern blotting was performed on nucleic
acids from human left ventricular myocardium using probes derived
from different regions of the PDE3A1 open reading frame (see SEQ ID
NO: 14). The first nucleic acid probe, derived from nucleotides
(-)268-189, corresponded to a region predicted to be present in
PDE3A1 (SEQ ID NO:14), but not in PDE3A2 (SEQ ID NO:15). The other
two nucleic acid probes used corresponded respectively to
nucleotides 517-957 and 2248-2610 of PDE3A1 (SEQ ID NO:14), regions
predicted to be present in both PDE3A1 (SEQ ID NO:14) and PDE3A2
(SEQ ID NO:15).
[0303] All three of the nucleic acid probes bound to an 8.2
kilobase band (not shown). The two downstream probes also bound to
a 6.9 kilobase band to which the upstream probe did not bind (not
shown). These results indicate that the 8.2 kilobase band is PDE3A1
(SEQ ID NO:14, SEQ ID NO:18) and the 6.9 kilobase band is PDE3A2
(SEQ ID NO:15). The size differences observed between the two
hybridized bands are accounted for by the absence of the first
roughly 300 nucleotides of the open reading frame of PDE3A1 (SEQ ID
NO: 14) from PDE3A (SEQ ID NO:15), consistent with the generation
of the latter by alternative transcription or splicing within exon
1 of the open reading frame of PDE3A1 (SEQ ID NO:14). This result
is consistent with a result predicted by ribonuclease protection
assays of RNA prepared from human myocardium and cultured human
aortic myocytes with antisense probes spanning nucleotides 208-537
and nucleotides 2248-2610 of PDE3A1 (SEQ ID NO:14) (Choi, YH, et
al., Biochem J., 2001). Importantly, PDE3A1 mRNA (SEQ ID NO:14, SEQ
ID NO:18) and PDE3A-136 were determined to be present in only
cardiac myocytes while PDE3A2 mRNA (SEQ ID NO:15), PDE3A-118, and
PDE3A-94 were present in both cardiac and vascular myocytes. This
result indicates that PDE3A1 mRNA (SEQ ID NO:14, SEQ ID NO:18)
gives rise to PDE3A-136 and PDE3A2 mRNA (SEQ ID NO:15) gives rise
to both PDE3A-118 and PDE3A-94.
Example 8
Inhibitors of PDE3 Activity and Effects of Intracellular
Localization on Catalytic Activity
[0304] The effects of two PDE3 inhibitors, cilostazol (not shown)
and milrinone (FIG. 8), on cAMP hydrolytic activity in cytosolic
and microsomal fractions of human myocardium were examined. These
drugs had more potent effects in microsomal fractions (FIG. 8).
[0305] The PDE3 inhibitor milrinone was used to quantify PDE3 cAMP-
and cGMP-hydrolytic activity in lysates of Sf9 cells expressing
recombinant PDE3A isoforms and in cytosolic and salt-washed
microsomal fractions of human myocardium (Table 5). Catalytic
activity was measured at 0.1 lam cAMP and cGMP. Milrinone-sensitive
activity for tissue fractions was calculated by measuring cyclic
nucleotide hydrolysis inhibited by milrinone at concentrations
equal to its IC.sub.50 values for cAMP and cGMP hydrolysis by
recombinant PDE3A1, and dividing by 0.5.
7TABLE 5 Milrinone-sensitive cAMP and cGMP hydrolytic activity in
subcellular fractions of human myocardium milrinone-sensitive
milrinone-sensitive cAMP hydrolytic cGMP hydrolytic ratio
milrinone-sensitive activity, activity, cAMP/cGMP hydrolytic
Preparation pmol/mg/min pmol/mg/min activity rtPDE3A1 (full ORF)
1754 405 4.3 cytosolic fraction, human 169 75 2.3 myocardium
salt-washed microsomes, 64 10 6.4 human myocardium rtPDE3A.DELTA.5
(aa 623-1141) 1408 346 4.1
[0306] The ratio of milrinone-sensitive cAMP/cGMP hydrolytic
activity in cytosolic fractions was lower than that observed with
full-length recombinant PDE3A, while the ratio in microsomal
fractions was higher. To determine if these differences were the
result of N-terminal deletions, the same studies were performed on
lysates of Sf9 cells expressing a recombinant PDE3A from which the
N-terminus had been deleted (rtPDE3A.DELTA.5). N-terminal
truncation did not affect the cAMP/cGMP activity ratio.
[0307] The higher ratio of milrinone-sensitive cAMP/cGMP hydrolytic
activity in the microsomal fraction relative to that seen in
recombinant PDE3 isoforms suggests that localization to
intracellular membranes increases the selectivity of PDE3 isoforms
for cAMP, possibly resulting from the interaction of membrane-bound
PDE3 with other proteins.
[0308] The contribution of PDE3 isoforms to compartmental
regulation of cyclic nucleotide hydrolysis was examined in
subcellular preparations from native human myocardium and cultured
pulmonary artery myocytes. The results are presented in the Table
6.
[0309] PDE3 comprises the majority of the total cAMP hydrolytic
activity in microsomal fractions of human myocardium at both low
and high cAMP concentrations. It comprises a smaller but
significant fraction of cAMP hydrolytic activity in cytosolic
fractions of these cells, probably reflecting the larger presence
of other cAMP phosphodiesterases in the cytosol. In cultured
pulmonary artery myocytes, these findings are reversed. PDE3
contributes less to membrane-bound cAMP hydrolytic activity but
more to cytosolic cAMP hydrolytic activity.
[0310] PDE3 comprises a large portion of the total cGMP hydrolytic
activity in microsomal fractions of human myocardium at low but not
at high cGMP concentrations. This likely reflects the presence of
other lower affinity cGMP phosphodiesterases in these
fractions.
8TABLE 6 Milrinone-sensitive cAMP and cGMP hydrolytic activities in
subcellular fractions of human myocardium and cultured human
pulmonary artery myocytes % of total cAMP and cGMP hydrolytic
activities in the identified fractions 0.1 .mu.M 1.0 .mu.M 0.1
.mu.M 1.0 .mu.M cAMP cAMP cGMP cGMP Myocardium, 52% 54% 10% 9%
cytosol Myocardium, 67% 73% 42% 13% microsomes Pulmonary artery,
40% 31% 19% 4% cytosol Pulmonary artery, 24% 39% 14% 9%
microsomes
[0311] PDE3 contributes relatively little to cGMP hydrolytic
activity in cytosolic fractions of human myocardium. PDE3 comprises
a surprisingly small portion of the total cGMP hydrolytic activity
in both microsomal and cytosolic fractions of pulmonary artery
myocytes at both low and high concentrations of substrate. The fact
that PDE3's contribute less to total cGMP hydrolytic activity than
to total cAMP hydrolytic activity in subcellular fractions of these
cells, taken in the context of the fact that competitive PDE3
inhibitors inhibit cAMP hydrolytic activity more potently than they
inhibit cGMP hydrolytic activity of PDE3 (see Table 7), suggest
that the clinical effects of currently-available competitive PDE3
inhibitors are likely to be mediated to a greater degree by
increases in cAMP content than by increases in cGMP content in both
cardiac and vascular myocytes. This conclusion cannot be
extrapolated to agents that may inhibit PDE3 activity through
non-competitive mechanisms proposed herein. The latter may change
the profile of cellular actions of PDE3 inhibition, representing an
additional possible benefit to the approaches proposed over
currently available therapies.
9TABLE 7 IC.sub.50's for inhibition of rtPDE3A by milrinone
Substrate concentration 0.1 .mu.M cAMP 1.0 .mu.M cAMP 0.1 .mu.M
cGMP 1.0 .mu.M cGMP IC.sub.50 0.9 .mu.M 6.0 .mu.M 2.4 .mu.M 23
.mu.M
Example 9
Phosphorylation Sites and Effects of Phosphorylation on PDE3A
Isoforms
[0312] The phosphorylation sites on PDE3A-136 were localized by
labeling studies to amino acid residues 288-294 (P1 site), 309-312
(P2 site) and 435-438 (P3 site). The P2 and P3 sites on PDE3A-136
only contain one serine residue each and the phosphorylated residue
is unambiguous (FIG. 11). The P1 site contains multiple serine
residues and it is not certain at present which is
phosphorylated.
[0313] Differences with respect to the presence of PK-A and PK-B
sites in the different isoforms of PDE3 indicate differences in
regulation by phosphorylation. PDE3A-136 and PDE3B-137 contain
sites P1, P2 and P3 and are thus potentially subject to regulation
by both PK-A and PK-B (Table 4). PDE3A-118 contains only P2 and P3
and can thus be regulated only by PK-A (Table 4). PDE3A-94 contains
none of these phosphorylation sites therefore its activity can be
regulated by neither PK-A nor PK-B. These N-terminal sequence
differences may lead to differences in regulation by other
interacting partners.
[0314] The effects of phosphorylation at the P3 site of PDE3A,
along with the apparently equivalent site on PDE3B-137, on
phosphodiesterase catalytic activity are shown in Table 8.
Flag-tagged rtPDE3B-137 isoforms (full ORF's) were prepared with
mutations at P3, one of the two PK-A sites (FIG. 4). These included
a constitutively nonphosphorylated form, in which Ser421 was
mutated to alanine ("S421A") and a form that acted as if it were
constitutively phosphorylated, in which Ser421 was mutated to
aspartic acid ("S421D"). The charged group on the end of the
aspartate side chain resembles a phosphate group in its effect on
phosphodiesterase activity. These recombinant isoforms were used,
together with the corresponding wild-type rtPDE3B, to examine the
effects of phosphorylation at site P3 on catalytic activity and
inhibitor sensitivity. Catalytic activity of PDE3 was measured in
detergent-solubilized lysates of Sf21 cells expressing Flag-tagged
rtPDE3 isoforms (full-length ORFs). Values for Vmax and Km were
calculated by nonlinear regression (first-order kinetics).
Preparations were diluted so that each contained equal
concentrations of immunoreactive PDE3 as determined by quantitative
Western blotting with anti-Flag antibodies. The three isoforms of
rtPDE3B were observed to have comparable catalytic activity toward
cAMP and cGMP (Table 8). The three isoforms also exhibited similar
sensitivity to inhibition by cilostazol (data not shown). This
suggests that phosphorylation at P3 has little if any direct effect
on enzyme activity.
10TABLE 8 Effect of ser.sup.421 mutations on catalytic activity of
PDE3B cAMP hydrolysis cGMP hydrolysis rtPDE3B V.sub.max K.sub.m
V.sub.max K.sub.m isoform pmol/min/ml .mu.M pmol/min/ml .mu.M wild
type 977 .+-. 53 0.15 .+-. 0.03 325 .+-. 18 0.09 .+-. 0.02 S421A
968 .+-. 144 0.21 .+-. 0.09 300 .+-. 16 0.07 .+-. 0.02 S421D 809
.+-. 12 0.17 .+-. 0.01 241 .+-. 42 0.07 .+-. 0.04
[0315] The rtPDE3B's were used to study the effects of
phosphorylation by PK-A at other sites. Phosphorylation of these
isoforms with PK-A caused a much greater stimulation of activity in
S421D than in S421A or the wild-type rtPDE3B (FIG. 9). These
results indicate an interaction between P3 and P2, the upstream
PK-A site. Phosphorylation of P3 may increase the stimulation of
activity by PK-A by facilitating phosphorylation at P2. The fact
that stimulation of the wild-type rtPDE3B has less effect than a
Ser.fwdarw.Asp mutation at P3 may reflect incomplete
phosphorylation of the latter site. Alternatively, phosphorylation
of P3 may potentiate the effect of phosphorylation of P2 on enzyme
activity. Another possibility is that phosphorylation of P3 has an
inhibitory effect on catalytic activity that is overcome by
phosphorylation of P2.
Example 10
Site-specific Mutations and Phosphorylation
[0316] The phosphorylation of PDE3B-137, PDE3A-136 and PDE3A-118 by
PK-A and PK-B is examined using recombinant constructs with
thrombin cleavage sites followed by hiS6 tags at the C-terminus.
Constructs are expressed in Sf9 cells by infection with baculovirus
vector. His.sub.6-tagged recombinant proteins are purified by Co
2+-affinity chromatography (Clontech resin) and their his.sub.6
tags are removed by thrombin cleavage.
[0317] rtPDE3's are phosphorylated by PK-A (Sigma) and PK-B Upstate
Biotechnology). Varying concentrations of purified rtPDE3's are
incubated in the presence of nanomolar concentrations of kinase,
saturating concentrations of [.gamma.-.sup.32P]ATP and phosphatase
inhibitors. Reaction mixtures are subjected to SDS-PAGE, and
.sup.32P incorporation is quantified in excised PDE3 bands
following established protocols (Movsesian et al., 1984). Values
for K.sub.m and V.sub.max for phosphorylation by PK-A and PK-B are
calculated by nonlinear regression and standardized using peptide
substrates as controls (Kemptide for PK-A, Crosstide for PK-B).
[0318] The use of rtPDE3's with Ser.fwdarw.Ala and Ser.fwdarw.Asp
mutations at selected phosphorylation sites allows the isolation of
individual sites (by rendering others nonphosphorylatable).
Interactions between sites may also be examined. For example, to
study the effect of phosphorylation at P2 by PK-A on
phosphorylation at P1 by PK-B, rtPDE3's are prepared with
Ser.fwdarw.Ala and Ser.fwdarw.Asp mutations at P2 and P3. The
effects on K.sub.m and V.sub.max for phosphorylation by PK-B at P1
are examined.
[0319] Non-physiologic artifacts may be induced using
Ser.fwdarw.Asp mutations. For example, they may mimic
phosphorylation at a site that is not phosphorylated in vivo in the
cell of interest. To address this problem, the phosphorylation of
specific sites in aortic myocytes and HL-1 cells transfected with
tagged rtPDE3's is examined. To examine phosphorylation at P1, HL-1
cells are transfected with PDE3 constructs with Ser.fwdarw.Ala and
Ser.fwdarw.Asp mutations at P2 and P3, using HL-1 cells transfected
with Ser.fwdarw.Ala mutations at P1 as a negative control. Cells
are preincubated with .sup.32PO.sub.4.sup.3- and exposed to
.beta..sub.1- and .beta..sub.2-adrenergic receptor agonists,
forskolin, PGE2 and IBMX (to activate PK-A) and/or
IGF-1.+-.wortmannin (to activate PI3-K, which phosphorylates and
activates PK-B). PDE3 is immunoprecipitated from the resulting
cellular fractions with anti-Tag antibodies and subjected to
SDS-PAGE and autoradiography to determine whether phosphorylation
at P1 has occurred and is influenced by phosphorylation at other
sites. Quantitative western blotting is then performed to normalize
.sup.32p incorporation to immunoreactive PDE3. This approach may be
used to determine whether phosphorylation of one site affects
phosphorylation of another in vivo (cultured cells). This approach
has been validated in adipocytes where the sites phosphorylated in
transfected proteins have been determined to be the same as those
phosphorylated in native proteins (Kitamura, et al., 1999).
[0320] Two similar approaches may be performed to validate
phosphorylation in cultured myocytes. First, antibodies are raised
to synthetic peptides corresponding to phosphorylated P1, P2 and P3
domains. The studies described above are repeated in nontransfected
cells (without radiolabeling). SDS-PAGE is performed on cell
homogenates and the phosphospecific antibodies are used to confirm
or refute phosphorylation at individual sites by Western blotting.
The same studies may be performed after preincubation with
.sup.32PO.sub.4.sup.3-. Native PDE3's are immunoprecipitated from
cellular homogenates with anti-CT antibodies. SDS-PAGE is performed
on these native proteins and the PDE bands are excised. The protein
is extracted from the gel material and limited proteolysis with
trypsin, chymotrypsin, CNBr and/or V8 is performed. The resulting
peptide fragments are resolved via two-dimensional mapping, using
two-dimensional peptide maps of mutagenized rtPDE3's phosphorylated
in vitro as controls. Comparison thereof reveals which sites are
phosphorylated in the HL-1 cells.
Example 11
Effects of Phosphorylation on Intracellular Localization
[0321] The role of the N-terminus in intracellular targeting was
elucidated through an approach that involved the transfection of
cultured cells with rtPDE3 constructs. This approach may be
expanded by stably transfecting cultured aortic myocytes
(Clonetics) with his.sub.6- or Flag-tagged PDE3B-137- and
PDE3A-118-derived constructs with Ser.fwdarw.Ala and Ser.fwdarw.Asp
mutations at the three phosphorylation sites identified herein.
PDE3A-94 is not included because it does not appear to contain any
of the phosphorylation sites.
[0322] The protocol for stable transfection uses the vector pCDNA
3.1 (Invitrogen). This vector is driven by a CMV promoter, includes
a neomycin resistance element for selection and adds a C-terminal
myc-his.sub.6 tag to the expressed protein. The choice of stable
rather than transient transfection is based on the higher levels of
recombinant protein expression observed in stable transformants
(not shown). The intracellular localization of rtPDE3 isoforms is
determined by indirect immunofluorescence using fluorophore-tagged
anti-his.sub.6 or anti-Flag antibodies. Co-localization relies on
the use of antibodies to markers for different intracellular
membranes. Phosphorylation does not induce translocation of
PDE3B-137, as it contains the transmembrane helices of NHR1 and is
therefore likely to be an intrinsic membrane protein. However, some
combinations of Ser.fwdarw.Asp mutations induce a translocation of
PDE3A-118 from intracellular membranes to the cytosol.
[0323] The results of these studies may not be applicable to
cardiac myocytes, since the PDE3 isoforms are not identical and the
intracellular targeting mechanisms may differ. For this reason, the
studies described above may be repeated in cardiac myocytes or
cells derived from cardiac myocytes using PDE3A-136 instead of
PDE3B-137.
Example 12
Indirect Immunofluorescence and Intracellular Localization
[0324] The effects of phosphorylation of the sites P1, P2 and P3 on
the membrane targeting domains NHR1 and NHR2 and intracellular
localization were studied. The role of the N-terminus of PDE3 in
intracellular targeting was elucidated by transfecting cultured
cells with rtPDE3 constructs and visualizing the intracellular
localization of these rtPDE3 constructs by indirect
immunofluorescence. COS-7 cells were transfected with PDE3A and
PDE3B constructs with C-terminal Flag-tags and varying N-terminal
deletions, and localization was visualized using
fluorescein-labeled anti-Flag antibodies. Constructs containing
NHR1 were found to be membrane-bound (not shown). Constructs
lacking NHR1 but containing NHR2 were partially membrane-bound and
partially cytosolic and constructs lacking both NHR1 and NHR2 were
exclusively cytosolic (not shown). This distribution corresponds to
the distribution of native PDE3's in human myocardium and aortic
myocytes.
[0325] To extend this approach, cultured aortic myocytes
(Clonetics, East Rutherford, N.J.) may be transfected with
Flag-tagged PDE3B-137- and PDE3A-118-derived constructs with Ser
Ala and Ser Asp mutations at the P1, P2 and P3 PK-A and PK-B
phosphorylation sites. Stable transfection utilizes the
transcription vector pCDNA 3.1 (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, Calif.). The
pCDNA vector is driven by a CMV promoter, includes a neomycin
resistance element for selection, and adds a C-terminal Flag tag to
the expressed protein. The intracellular localization of rtPDE3
isoforms with mutagenized phosphorylation sites may be determined
by indirect immunofluorescence using fluorophore-tagged anti-Flag
antibodies. Co-localization relies on the use of commercially
available antibodies to markers for different intracellular
membranes.
[0326] Results in vascular myocytes may not be applicable to
cardiac myocytes. The PDE3 isoforms in the two cell types are not
identical, and the intracellular targeting mechanisms may be
different. For this reason, the above studies may be repeated in
HL-1 cells, an immortalized cell line derived from atrial myocytes
(Claycomb, et al., 1998). Western blotting indicates that the
representation of PDE3 isoforms in subcellular fractions prepared
from these cells is similar to that seen in preparations from human
left ventricular myocardium, making these cells particularly
suitable for these experiments. Transfections of HL-1 cells is
performed with PDE3A-136- rather than PDE3B-derived constructs to
reflect the different patterns of cellular expression. This
transfection may be transient or stable. A high percentage of
transfection efficiency with PDE3 constructs using transient
transfection obviates the need for stable transfection of rtPDE3
isoforms.
Example 13
Protein-protein Interactions
[0327] The interactions of PK-B with PDE3B were examined.
Microsomal fractions of 3T3 adipocytes (which express PDE3B) were
solubilized with NP-40 and fractionated by gel filtration. Western
blotting showed the presence of separate peaks for PDE3B and PK-B,
but some of the PK-B was found in the PDE3B peak (not shown). An
association between PK-B and PDE3B was confirmed by the ability of
anti-PDE3B antibodies to co-immunoprecipitate the two proteins in
the PDE3B peak (not shown). Treatment with insulin increased the
phosphorylation of PK-B and appeared to increase the percentage of
PK-B co-purifying with PDE3B (not shown). These results suggest
that PK-B and PDE3B form stable complexes in vivo, either by direct
interaction or by co-interaction with another protein.
[0328] Detergent-solubilized lysates of Sf9 cells expressing rtPK-B
were mixed with detergent-solubilized lysates of Sf9 cells
expressing one of two Flag-tagged forms of PDE3B. The first isoform
of PDE3B contained its full ORF. The second lacked the N-terminal
604 amino acids containing the NHR1, NHR2 and the three
phosphorylation sites. PK-B could be co-immunoprecipitated with
anti-Flag antibodies in the presence of the fill-length rtPDE3B but
not in the presence of the N-terminal-deleted form (FIG. 10),
confirming the role of the N-terminus of PDE3B in its association
with PK-B.
[0329] The addition of Flag-tagged rtPDE3B to 3T3 lysates allowed
the co-immunoprecipitation of AKAP220, which co-localizes PK-A and
PP1 (Schillace et al., 2001). This indicates that interactions with
other proteins serves to localize PDE3 to specific signaling
modules, and suggests that blocking these interactions will alter
the function of PDE3.
Example 14
Identification of PDE3 Kinases, Phosphatases and Binding
Peptides/Interacting Partners
[0330] Purified rtPDE3's may be used as affinity ligands to
identify PDE3-binding proteins ("PDE3-BP's") by interaction cloning
from phage-displayed myocardial and vascular smooth muscle cDNA
libraries. This approach involves two basic steps: preparation of
phage-displayed cDNA libraries and biopanning with rtPDE3.
Preparation of Phage-displayed cDNA Libraries
[0331] cDNA inserts from commercially available human cardiac (Xba
I-(dT).sub.15-primed) and aortic (oligo(dT) and random-primed)
libraries (Clontech, Palo Alto, Calif.) are PCR-amplified using
vector-derived primers (.lambda.Trip1Ex for cardiac, .lambda.gt10
for aortic) with unique restriction sites. These libraries have
been used to clone PDE3 isoforms, which are expressed in relatively
low abundance. PCR products are size-fractionated on agarose gels.
Products greater than 500 nucleotides in length are purified by
agarose gel electrophoresis and ligated into the genes of phage
coat proteins using unique restriction sites. Proteins or protein
fragments encoded by the cDNA inserts are displayed on the phage
surface.
[0332] Two phage with different reproductive biologies are used.
One is M13, a non-lytic phage that is secreted after assembly in
the bacterial periplasm. cDNA inserts up to 1000 amino acids in
length can be expressed as C-terminal fusions to the pVI coat
protein of M13. The protocols used are as disclosed in Fransen et
al. (1999). The same vectors and protocols are used to insert human
cardiac and aortic cDNA libraries into pVI. The second phage is T7
(Novagen, Madison, Wis.). This phage, being lytic, is processed
quite differently from M13, so that cDNA inserts that may interfere
with M13 function are not likely to affect T7 (and vice versa). T7
is capable of displaying cDNA products up to 1200 amino acids in
length. Methods for its use have been disclosed in Zozulya et al.
(1999).
Biopanning with rtPDE3
[0333] Phage with cDNA inserts are incubated with rtPDE3's that are
immobilized either directly onto polystyrene wells or indirectly by
binding of C-terminal hiS6 tags to anti-his.sub.6 mAb, followed by
immunoprecipitation. Phage whose cDNA inserts encode full-length or
truncated PDE3-BP's are co-immobilized with PDE3, then eluted and
amplified in E. coli. Each round of this procedure yields a phage
library enriched in cDNAs encoding PDE3-binding proteins.
Biopanning is repeated through several iterations until the titer
of phage binding to immobilized PDE3 is ten-fold above background
(phage binding to wells in the absence of PDE3), at which point
individual phage colonies are cloned and their cDNA inserts
sequenced.
[0334] Phage are biopanned with rtPDE3s. rtPDE3A-118 and rtPDE3A-94
are used for both cardiac and aortic libraries. PDE3B-137 and
PDE3A-136 are used exclusively for aortic and cardiac libraries,
respectively. Thiophosphorylated rtPDE3 are prepared with PK-A
and/or PK-B and ATP.gamma.S for use as bait in parallel experiments
to select proteins that bind preferentially to phosphorylated
PDE3s, for example, phosphatases. Phosphothioesters are resistant
to dephosphorylation and thiophosphorylated proteins therefore bind
stably to protein phosphatases.
[0335] Cloned cDNA sequences identified by biopanning may be used
to search protein databases and identify full-length binding
proteins for PDE3.
[0336] The skilled artisan will realize that the methods discussed
above could be used to identify novel isoform selective inhibitors
or activators of PDE3. Purified isoform proteins are used as
ligands for biopanning general phage display libraries comprising
random nucleic acid sequences encoding short peptides. Phage that
bind with relatively high affinity to one or more PDE3 isoforms are
selected and their DNA inserts are sequenced. The encoded peptides
are chemically synthesized and their ability to activate or inhibit
PDE3 catalytic activity or to block or mimic the effect of
phosphorylation at P1, P2 or P3 on catalytic activity is examined
using standard enzyme analysis. The effect of identified activators
or inhibitors on each PDE3 isoform is determined and isoform
selective compounds are identified. Use of site specific
mutagenized isoforms that are designed to be constitutively
unphosphorylatable or to mimic constitutively phosphorylated
residues at P1, P2 and P3 identifies activators or inhibitors that
are selective for phosphorylated or dephosphorylated variants of
each isoform.
Example 15
Characterization of Binding Interactions and Effects on PDE3
Function
Confirmation of Binding of Cloned Prospective PDE3-BP 's to
PDE3
[0337] Binding interactions are confirmed by
co-immunoprecipitation, which can occur in any of four ways. First,
native PDE is immunoprecipitated from lysates of cardiac and aortic
myocytes using anti-PDE antibodies and co-immunoprecipitation is
confirmed via Western blotting using antibodies raised to the
cloned PDE-BP. The second method reverses the order of the
antibodies used. Thus, antibodies to the cloned PDE3-BP are used
for immunoprecipitation and co-immunoprecipitation is confirmed via
Western blotting using anti-PDE3 antibodies. Third, aortic myocytes
or HL-1 cells are transfected with Flag-tagged rtPDE3-BP's,
followed by co-immunoprecipitation and Western blotting with
anti-Flag antibodies. Lastly, tagged rtPDE3's and rtPDE3-BP's are
expressed by in vitro transcription/translation in reticulocyte
lysates or in a baculovirus/Sf9 system. the recombinant proteins
are co-incubated and co-immunoprecipitation is tested for as for
AKAP-220, a method described elsewhere in this document.
Characterization of Binding Interactions and Effects on PDE3
Function
[0338] The affinity (KD) of the interaction between PDE3 and
various binding proteins or peptides may be determined by ELISA,
using immobilized rtPDE3 and rtPDE3-BP's (obtained by expression in
E. coli or Sf9/Sf21 cells). The effects of rtPDE3-BP's on the
catalytic activity and inhibitor sensitivity of rtPDE3's is
determined as described above. The effects of PDE3-BP's on the
phosphorylation of rtPDE3's by PK-A and PK-B in vitro is determined
as described above. rtPDE3's with Ser.fwdarw.Ala and Ser.fwdarw.Asp
mutations are used to determine how phosphorylation at specific
sites affects interactions with PDE3-BP's.
[0339] Interacting domains of PDE3's and their binding partners are
identified by deletional and site-directed mutagenesis of PDE3
and/or PDE3-BPs. Peptides derived from interacting domains are
examined for inhibition of PDE3/PDE3-BP interactions. Inhibition of
PDE3/PDE3-BP interactions is examined by ELISA or by measuring
inhibition of functional correlates of binding. For example, if
binding to a PDE3-BP increases the Km of PDE3 for cAMP, the ability
of peptides to prevent this increase is determined. Alternatively,
peptides that mimic the effects of PDE3-BP's may be PDE3
activators. Peptides in either category are of interest as
potential therapeutic agents and may serve as templates for
peptidomimetic drugs or reporters for high-throughput
screening.
[0340] Peptides derived from the phage display experiments derived
above are also tested for their ability to either block the binding
of PDE3 to PDE3-BP's or to mimic the effect of PDE3-BP's on
catalytic activity or inhibitor sensitivity of PDE3.
[0341] To quantify the affinity of PDE3 to PDE3-BP, surface plasmon
resonance (Biacore, Piscataway, N.J.) using purified rtPDE3's and
rtPDE3-BP's (obtained by expression in E. coli or Sf9/Sf21 cells)
is performed. Generally, surface plasmon resonance (SPR) uses light
reflected from a conducting film at the interface between two media
of different refractive index. In this instance, the media are the
biological sample and the glass of a sensor chip. The conducting
film is a thin layer of gold on the sensor chip surface. When the
molecules in the biological sample bind to the surface of the
sensor chip, the concentration (and therefore the refractive index)
at the chip surface changes and an SPR response is detected. Here,
his-tagged rtPDE3's are captured by anti-his monoclonal antibodies
immobilized on flow-cell surfaces of biosensor chips. A series of
concentrations of rtPDE3-BP's (expressed in Sf9 cells and purified
as described above) are superfused thereon and surface plasmon
resonance responses are used to determine values for K.sub.D.
Effects of Phosphorylation on Interactions Between PDE3 and
PDE3-BP
[0342] To determine the effects of phosphorylation at specific
sites on interactions between PDE3 and PDE3-BP, surface plasmon
resonance experiments are performed as above using rtPDE3's with
Ser Ala and Ser Asp mutations at the three phosphorylation sites
P1, P2 and P3. The effects of these mutations on the K.sub.D of the
reaction described above are determined. The kinetics of
phosphorylation at P1, P2 and P3 by PK-A and PK-B in the presence
and absence of PDE3-BP's are also determined.
[0343] The ability of any new PDE3 kinase to phosphorylate P1, P2
and P3 may be examined for PK-A and PK-B, as described above.
[0344] The ability of PDE3 phosphatases to dephosphorylate P1, P2
and P3 may also be determined. This entails the use of rtPDE3's
with Ser Ala mutations at all but one of the phosphorylation sites.
These rtPDE3's are phosphorylated in the presence of
[.gamma.-.sup.32P]ATP and the appropriate kinase (e.g. PK-A or
PK-B). .sup.32p release in the presence of phosphatase is
characterized in terms of V.sub.max and K.sub.m. rtPDE3's with Ser
Asp mutations are then used to determine the effect of
phosphorylation at one site on dephosphorylation at another.
[0345] The effect of PDE3-BP's interactions on catalytic activity,
substrate preference, and inhibitor sensitivity is determined by
measuring cyclic nucleotide hydrolysis in the absence and presence
of PDE3-BP's. Functional K values for PDE3/PDE3-BP's interactions
are determined and compared to the KD values determined by surface
plasmon resonance.
Identification of the Interacting Domains of PDE3 and PDE3-BP
[0346] Identification of the interacting domains of PDE3's and
PDE3-BP's is done via deletional and site-directed mutagenesis of
PDE3 and/or PDE3-BP. Several lines of evidence suggest that
compartmentally nonselective increases in intracellular cAMP
content in cardiac myocytes have both beneficial and harmful
effects in dilated cardiomyopathy. Agents capable of selectively
activating or inhibiting individual PDE3 isoforms localized to
different intracellular compartments or of selectively affecting
activity toward cAMP or cGMP may offer major advantages in
therapeutic applications. Peptides that block or interfere with the
interaction of PDE3 with PDE3-BP may be used to identify functional
consequences in vivo. Alternatively, peptides that mimic the
effects of PDE3-BP's may be PDE3 activators. Either category of
peptides would be useful tools for studying the function of PDE3
isoforms in vivo and may be of interest as prototypical therapeutic
agents. They may serve as templates for peptidomimetic drugs or may
be tagged for use as reporters for high throughput screening.
Example 16
siRNA Inhibition of PDE3A1
[0347] 21-nucleotide siRNAs are chemically synthesized using
Expedite RNA phosphoramidites and thymidine phosphoramidite
chemistries (Proligo, Germany). Synthetic oligonucleotides are
deprotected and gel-purifed. The siRNA sequence targeting the
PDE3A1 mRNA corresponds to the nucleotide sequences -268 to -241 of
the human myocardial PDE3A1 cDNA sequence (SEQ ID NO:18; GenBank
Accession No. NM000921). That sequence is located in the 5'
untranslated region of the PDE3A1 mRNA (SEQ ID NO:18), and is not
present in PDE3A2 (SEQ ID NO:15). It should therefore be specific
for inhibition of expression of the PDE3A-136 protein.
[0348] Sf21 cells expressing rtPDE3A1 are grown at 37.degree. C. in
grown in TNM-FH media (BD-Pharmingen, San Diego, Calif.).
Transfection with 1.0 nM siRNA is performed with Oligofectamine
(Life Technologies) as described by the manufacturer. Cells are
incubated 20 h after transfection and expression of rtPDE3A1 is
assayed by Northern blotting. Transfection with siRNA is observed
to result in a complete inhibition of rtPDE3A1 expression in Sf21
cells. Control cells transfected with a random 21 bp siRNA sequence
show no effect on rtPDE3A1 expression.
Example 17
Isoform Specific Probe and Antisense Construct
[0349] In certain embodiments of the invention, isoform specific
probes may be constructed and used, for example to determine the
levels of expression of the PDE3 isoforms in different cells or
tissues or in response to various putative inhibitors or
activators, such as in a high throughput screening assay directed
towards mRNAs. Because the downstream (3') portions of the PDE3A
mRNAs (SEQ ID NO:14, SEQ ID NO:15) are apparently identical, the
only region available for isoform specific probes and/or antisense
constructs are at the 5' end of the PDE3A1 mRNA (SEQ ID NO:14, SEQ
ID NO:18). An exemplary probe specific for the A mRNA encoding the
PDE3A-136 isoform protein is disclosed below.
11 (SEQ ID NO:13) TGATCGTTTCTGCCCGTGCTTGTTTTCAACTTGAGCGTGCT-
AGCCTTTAA CTTGAAGAAGTCTCATTGGAGCATCTAGCATTCTCCAGGAGTTATTC- GA
AAGCTGAAACTTTCAGTGGATTGTGGGCCTGGGGAGAAGAAGGATTCC
GAGGGTGGAATTGGGAAGAGCGTGCGTGCGTGTGTGTGTGTGTGTGTGT
GCGCGCGCGCGTGGGTCGGGGCGGGGGCGTCGGGGGGCCACTGGGAAT
TCAGTGAAGAGGGCACCCTATACCATGGCAGTGCCCGGCGACGCTGCAC
GAGTCAGGAACAAGCCCGTCCACAGTGGGGTGAGTCAAGCCCCCACGG
CGGGCCGGGACTGCCACCATCGTGCGGACCCCGCATCGCCGCGGGACTC
GGGCTGCCGTGGCTGCTGGGGAGACCTGGTGCTGCAGCCGCTCCGGAGC
TCTCGGAAACTTTCCCTG
[0350] The probe sequence corresponds to nucleotides -268 to 189 of
PDE3A1 (SEQ ID NO:14, SEQ ID NO:18), where nucleotide 1 starts with
the first ATG codon in the largest open reading frame (ORF) of the
PDE3A1 cDNA sequence (SEQ ID NO:14). The probe sequence (SEQ ID
NO:13) is located primarily in exon 1 of the PDE3A1 mRNA, starting
in the 5' UTR and ending just before the NHR1 sequence. Primers may
be used to generate the probe from the PDE3A1 cDNA or to amplify
the target sequence from sample RNA, as disclosed below.
12 Sense Strand: TGATCGTTTCTGCCCGTGCTTGTTTTC (SEQ ID NO:16)
Anti-sense: CAGGGAAAGTTTCCGAGAGCTCCGGAG (SEQ ID NO:17)
[0351] The skilled artisan will realize that there are many
potential uses for the isoform specific probe and primers disclosed
above. For example, expression of PDE3A1 could be measured in
various cells or tissues in either normal individuals or
individuals with a disease state, such as cardiomyopathy and/or
pulmonary hypertension. The effects of various putative activators
or inhibitors on PDE3A1 expression in intact cells could be
determined as part of a high throughput screening assay.
Alternatively, an antisense construct, ribozyme and/or siRNA
inhibitor could be designed to bind only to PDE3A1 mRNA (SEQ ID
NO:14, SEQ ID NO:18). Such an inhibitor would decrease activity of
PDE3A-136, while leaving PDE3A-118 and PDE3A-94 activity
unaffected. Since SEQ ID NO:13 shows the sequence of part of the
PDE3A1 cDNA, the skilled artisan will realize that an antisense
constructs would be designed to be complementary, preferably
exactly complementary, to part or all of the sequence of SEQ ID
NO:13. Such a construct could be designed as a double-stranded DNA
sequence that is functionally coupled to a promoter and inserted
into an expression vector that can be transfected into a target
cell. Expression vectors of use in mammalian cells are well known
in the art, as summarized above.
[0352] All of the COMPOSITIONS, METHODS and APPARATUS disclosed and
claimed herein can be made and executed without undue
experimentation in light of the present disclosure. While the
compositions and methods of this invention have been described in
terms of preferred embodiments, it will be apparent to those of
skill in the art that variations may be applied to the
COMPOSITIONS, METHODS and APPARATUS and in the steps or in the
sequence of steps of the methods described herein without departing
from the concept, spirit and scope of the invention. More
specifically, it will be apparent that certain agents that are both
chemically and physiologically related may be substituted for the
agents described herein while the same or similar results would be
achieved. All such similar substitutes and modifications apparent
to those skilled in the art are deemed to be within the spirit,
scope and concept of the invention as defmed by the appended
claims.
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[0484] U.S. Pat. No. 3,850,752
[0485] U.S. Pat. No. 3,939,350
[0486] U.S. Pat. No. 3,996,345
[0487] U.S. Pat. No. 4,196,265
[0488] U.S. Pat. No. 4, 215,051
[0489] U.S. Pat. No. 4,275,149
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Sequence CWU 1
1
18 1 996 PRT Homo sapiens 1 Met Gly Leu Tyr Leu Leu Arg Ala Gly Val
Arg Leu Pro Leu Ala Val 1 5 10 15 Ala Leu Leu Ala Ala Cys Cys Gly
Gly Glu Ala Leu Val Gln Ile Gly 20 25 30 Leu Gly Val Gly Glu Asp
His Leu Leu Ser Leu Pro Ala Ala Gly Val 35 40 45 Val Leu Ser Cys
Leu Ala Ala Ala Thr Trp Leu Val Leu Arg Leu Arg 50 55 60 Leu Gly
Val Leu Met Ile Ala Leu Thr Ser Ala Val Arg Thr Val Ser 65 70 75 80
Leu Ile Ser Leu Glu Arg Phe Lys Val Ala Trp Arg Pro Tyr Leu Ala 85
90 95 Tyr Leu Ala Gly Val Leu Gly Ile Leu Leu Ala Arg Tyr Val Glu
Gln 100 105 110 Ile Leu Pro Gln Ser Ala Glu Ala Ala Pro Arg Glu His
Leu Gly Ser 115 120 125 Gln Leu Ile Ala Gly Thr Lys Glu Asp Ile Pro
Val Phe Lys Arg Arg 130 135 140 Arg Arg Ser Ser Ser Val Val Ser Ala
Glu Met Ser Gly Cys Ser Ser 145 150 155 160 Lys Ser His Arg Arg Thr
Ser Leu Pro Cys Ile Pro Arg Glu Gln Leu 165 170 175 Met Gly His Ser
Glu Trp Asp His Lys Arg Gly Pro Arg Gly Ser Gln 180 185 190 Ser Ser
Gly Thr Ser Ile Thr Val Asp Ile Ala Val Met Gly Glu Ala 195 200 205
His Gly Leu Ile Thr Asp Leu Leu Ala Asp Pro Ser Leu Pro Pro Asn 210
215 220 Val Cys Thr Ser Leu Arg Ala Val Ser Asn Leu Leu Ser Thr Gln
Leu 225 230 235 240 Thr Phe Gln Ala Ile His Lys Pro Arg Val Asn Pro
Val Thr Ser Leu 245 250 255 Ser Glu Asn Tyr Thr Cys Ser Asp Ser Glu
Glu Ser Ser Glu Lys Asp 260 265 270 Lys Leu Ala Ile Pro Lys Arg Leu
Arg Arg Ser Leu Pro Pro Gly Leu 275 280 285 Leu Arg Arg Val Ser Ser
Thr Trp Thr Thr Thr Thr Ser Ala Thr Gly 290 295 300 Leu Pro Thr Leu
Glu Pro Ala Pro Val Arg Arg Asp Arg Ser Thr Ser 305 310 315 320 Ile
Lys Leu Gln Glu Ala Pro Ser Ser Ser Pro Asp Ser Trp Asn Asn 325 330
335 Pro Val Met Met Thr Leu Thr Lys Ser Arg Ser Phe Thr Ser Ser Tyr
340 345 350 Ala Ile Ser Ala Ala Asn His Val Lys Ala Lys Lys Gln Ser
Arg Pro 355 360 365 Gly Ala Leu Ala Lys Ile Ser Pro Leu Ser Ser Pro
Cys Ser Ser Pro 370 375 380 Leu Gln Gly Thr Pro Ala Ser Ser Leu Val
Ser Lys Ile Ser Ala Val 385 390 395 400 Gln Phe Pro Glu Ser Ala Asp
Thr Thr Ala Lys Gln Ser Leu Gly Ser 405 410 415 His Arg Ala Leu Thr
Tyr Thr Gln Ser Ala Pro Asp Leu Ser Pro Gln 420 425 430 Ile Leu Thr
Pro Pro Val Ile Cys Ser Ser Cys Gly Arg Pro Tyr Ser 435 440 445 Gln
Gly Asn Pro Ala Asp Glu Pro Leu Glu Arg Ser Gly Val Ala Thr 450 455
460 Arg Thr Pro Ser Arg Thr Asp Asp Thr Ala Gln Val Thr Ser Asp Tyr
465 470 475 480 Glu Thr Asn Asn Asn Ser Asp Ser Ser Asp Ile Val Gln
Asn Glu Asp 485 490 495 Glu Thr Glu Cys Leu Arg Glu Pro Leu Arg Lys
Ala Ser Ala Cys Ser 500 505 510 Thr Tyr Ala Pro Glu Thr Met Met Phe
Leu Asp Lys Pro Ile Leu Ala 515 520 525 Pro Glu Pro Leu Val Met Asp
Asn Leu Asp Ser Ile Met Glu Gln Leu 530 535 540 Asn Thr Trp Asn Phe
Pro Ile Phe Asp Leu Val Glu Asn Ile Gly Arg 545 550 555 560 Lys Cys
Gly Arg Ile Leu Ser Gln Val Ser Tyr Arg Leu Phe Glu Asp 565 570 575
Met Gly Leu Phe Glu Ala Phe Lys Ile Pro Ile Arg Glu Phe Met Asn 580
585 590 Tyr Phe His Ala Leu Glu Ile Gly Tyr Arg Asp Ile Pro Tyr His
Asn 595 600 605 Arg Ile His Ala Thr Asp Val Leu His Ala Val Trp Tyr
Leu Thr Thr 610 615 620 Gln Pro Ile Pro Gly Leu Ser Thr Val Ile Asn
Asp His Gly Ser Thr 625 630 635 640 Ser Asp Ser Asp Ser Asp Ser Gly
Phe Thr His Gly His Met Gly Tyr 645 650 655 Val Phe Ser Lys Thr Tyr
Asn Val Thr Asp Asp Lys Tyr Gly Cys Leu 660 665 670 Ser Gly Asn Ile
Pro Ala Leu Glu Leu Met Ala Leu Tyr Val Ala Ala 675 680 685 Ala Met
His Asp Tyr Asp His Pro Gly Arg Thr Asn Ala Phe Leu Val 690 695 700
Ala Thr Ser Ala Pro Gln Ala Val Leu Tyr Asn Asp Arg Ser Val Leu 705
710 715 720 Glu Asn His His Ala Ala Ala Ala Trp Asn Leu Phe Met Ser
Arg Pro 725 730 735 Glu Tyr Asn Phe Leu Ile Asn Leu Asp His Val Glu
Phe Lys His Phe 740 745 750 Arg Phe Leu Val Ile Glu Ala Ile Leu Ala
Thr Asp Leu Lys Lys His 755 760 765 Phe Asp Phe Val Ala Lys Phe Asn
Gly Lys Val Asn Asp Asp Val Gly 770 775 780 Ile Asp Trp Thr Asn Glu
Asn Asp Arg Leu Leu Val Cys Gln Met Cys 785 790 795 800 Ile Lys Leu
Ala Asp Ile Asn Gly Pro Ala Lys Tyr Lys Glu Leu His 805 810 815 Leu
Gln Trp Thr Asp Gly Ile Val Asn Glu Phe Tyr Glu Gln Gly Asp 820 825
830 Glu Glu Ala Ser Leu Gly Leu Pro Ile Ser Pro Phe Met Asp Arg Ser
835 840 845 Ala Pro Gln Leu Ala Asn Leu Gln Glu Ser Phe Ile Ser His
Ile Val 850 855 860 Gly Pro Leu Cys Asn Ser Tyr Asp Ser Ala Gly Leu
Met Pro Gly Lys 865 870 875 880 Trp Val Glu Asp Ser Asp Glu Ser Gly
Asp Thr Asp Asp Pro Glu Glu 885 890 895 Glu Glu Glu Glu Ala Pro Ala
Pro Asn Glu Glu Glu Thr Cys Glu Asn 900 905 910 Asn Glu Ser Pro Lys
Lys Lys Thr Phe Lys Arg Arg Lys Ile Tyr Cys 915 920 925 Gln Ile Thr
Gln His Leu Leu Gln Asn His Lys Met Trp Lys Lys Val 930 935 940 Ile
Glu Glu Glu Gln Arg Leu Ala Gly Ile Glu Asn Gln Ser Leu Asp 945 950
955 960 Gln Thr Pro Gln Ser His Ser Ser Glu Gln Ile Gln Ala Ile Lys
Glu 965 970 975 Glu Glu Glu Glu Lys Gly Lys Pro Arg Gly Glu Glu Ile
Pro Thr Gln 980 985 990 Lys Pro Asp Gln 995 2 842 PRT Homo sapiens
2 Met Ser Gly Cys Ser Ser Lys Ser His Arg Arg Thr Ser Leu Pro Cys 1
5 10 15 Ile Pro Arg Glu Gln Leu Met Gly His Ser Glu Trp Asp His Lys
Arg 20 25 30 Gly Pro Arg Gly Ser Gln Ser Ser Gly Thr Ser Ile Thr
Val Asp Ile 35 40 45 Ala Val Met Gly Glu Ala His Gly Leu Ile Thr
Asp Leu Leu Ala Asp 50 55 60 Pro Ser Leu Pro Pro Asn Val Cys Thr
Ser Leu Arg Ala Val Ser Asn 65 70 75 80 Leu Leu Ser Thr Gln Leu Thr
Phe Gln Ala Ile His Lys Pro Arg Val 85 90 95 Asn Pro Val Thr Ser
Leu Ser Glu Asn Tyr Thr Cys Ser Asp Ser Glu 100 105 110 Glu Ser Ser
Glu Lys Asp Lys Leu Ala Ile Pro Lys Arg Leu Arg Arg 115 120 125 Ser
Leu Pro Pro Gly Leu Leu Arg Arg Val Ser Ser Thr Trp Thr Thr 130 135
140 Thr Thr Ser Ala Thr Gly Leu Pro Thr Leu Glu Pro Ala Pro Val Arg
145 150 155 160 Arg Asp Arg Ser Thr Ser Ile Lys Leu Gln Glu Ala Pro
Ser Ser Ser 165 170 175 Pro Asp Ser Trp Asn Asn Pro Val Met Met Thr
Leu Thr Lys Ser Arg 180 185 190 Ser Phe Thr Ser Ser Tyr Ala Ile Ser
Ala Ala Asn His Val Lys Ala 195 200 205 Lys Lys Gln Ser Arg Pro Gly
Ala Leu Ala Lys Ile Ser Pro Leu Ser 210 215 220 Ser Pro Cys Ser Ser
Pro Leu Gln Gly Thr Pro Ala Ser Ser Leu Val 225 230 235 240 Ser Lys
Ile Ser Ala Val Gln Phe Pro Glu Ser Ala Asp Thr Thr Ala 245 250 255
Lys Gln Ser Leu Gly Ser His Arg Ala Leu Thr Tyr Thr Gln Ser Ala 260
265 270 Pro Asp Leu Ser Pro Gln Ile Leu Thr Pro Pro Val Ile Cys Ser
Ser 275 280 285 Cys Gly Arg Pro Tyr Ser Gln Gly Asn Pro Ala Asp Glu
Pro Leu Glu 290 295 300 Arg Ser Gly Val Ala Thr Arg Thr Pro Ser Arg
Thr Asp Asp Thr Ala 305 310 315 320 Gln Val Thr Ser Asp Tyr Glu Thr
Asn Asn Asn Ser Asp Ser Ser Asp 325 330 335 Ile Val Gln Asn Glu Asp
Glu Thr Glu Cys Leu Arg Glu Pro Leu Arg 340 345 350 Lys Ala Ser Ala
Cys Ser Thr Tyr Ala Pro Glu Thr Met Met Phe Leu 355 360 365 Asp Lys
Pro Ile Leu Ala Pro Glu Pro Leu Val Met Asp Asn Leu Asp 370 375 380
Ser Ile Met Glu Gln Leu Asn Thr Trp Asn Phe Pro Ile Phe Asp Leu 385
390 395 400 Val Glu Asn Ile Gly Arg Lys Cys Gly Arg Ile Leu Ser Gln
Val Ser 405 410 415 Tyr Arg Leu Phe Glu Asp Met Gly Leu Phe Glu Ala
Phe Lys Ile Pro 420 425 430 Ile Arg Glu Phe Met Asn Tyr Phe His Ala
Leu Glu Ile Gly Tyr Arg 435 440 445 Asp Ile Pro Tyr His Asn Arg Ile
His Ala Thr Asp Val Leu His Ala 450 455 460 Val Trp Tyr Leu Thr Thr
Gln Pro Ile Pro Gly Leu Ser Thr Val Ile 465 470 475 480 Asn Asp His
Gly Ser Thr Ser Asp Ser Asp Ser Asp Ser Gly Phe Thr 485 490 495 His
Gly His Met Gly Tyr Val Phe Ser Lys Thr Tyr Asn Val Thr Asp 500 505
510 Asp Lys Tyr Gly Cys Leu Ser Gly Asn Ile Pro Ala Leu Glu Leu Met
515 520 525 Ala Leu Tyr Val Ala Ala Ala Met His Asp Tyr Asp His Pro
Gly Arg 530 535 540 Thr Asn Ala Phe Leu Val Ala Thr Ser Ala Pro Gln
Ala Val Leu Tyr 545 550 555 560 Asn Asp Arg Ser Val Leu Glu Asn His
His Ala Ala Ala Ala Trp Asn 565 570 575 Leu Phe Met Ser Arg Pro Glu
Tyr Asn Phe Leu Ile Asn Leu Asp His 580 585 590 Val Glu Phe Lys His
Phe Arg Phe Leu Val Ile Glu Ala Ile Leu Ala 595 600 605 Thr Asp Leu
Lys Lys His Phe Asp Phe Val Ala Lys Phe Asn Gly Lys 610 615 620 Val
Asn Asp Asp Val Gly Ile Asp Trp Thr Asn Glu Asn Asp Arg Leu 625 630
635 640 Leu Val Cys Gln Met Cys Ile Lys Leu Ala Asp Ile Asn Gly Pro
Ala 645 650 655 Lys Tyr Lys Glu Leu His Leu Gln Trp Thr Asp Gly Ile
Val Asn Glu 660 665 670 Phe Tyr Glu Gln Gly Asp Glu Glu Ala Ser Leu
Gly Leu Pro Ile Ser 675 680 685 Pro Phe Met Asp Arg Ser Ala Pro Gln
Leu Ala Asn Leu Gln Glu Ser 690 695 700 Phe Ile Ser His Ile Val Gly
Pro Leu Cys Asn Ser Tyr Asp Ser Ala 705 710 715 720 Gly Leu Met Pro
Gly Lys Trp Val Glu Asp Ser Asp Glu Ser Gly Asp 725 730 735 Thr Asp
Asp Pro Glu Glu Glu Glu Glu Glu Ala Pro Ala Pro Asn Glu 740 745 750
Glu Glu Thr Cys Glu Asn Asn Glu Ser Pro Lys Lys Lys Thr Phe Lys 755
760 765 Arg Arg Lys Ile Tyr Cys Gln Ile Thr Gln His Leu Leu Gln Asn
His 770 775 780 Lys Met Trp Lys Lys Val Ile Glu Glu Glu Gln Arg Leu
Ala Gly Ile 785 790 795 800 Glu Asn Gln Ser Leu Asp Gln Thr Pro Gln
Ser His Ser Ser Glu Gln 805 810 815 Ile Gln Ala Ile Lys Glu Glu Glu
Glu Glu Lys Gly Lys Pro Arg Gly 820 825 830 Glu Glu Ile Pro Thr Gln
Lys Pro Asp Gln 835 840 3 658 PRT Homo sapiens 3 Met Met Thr Leu
Thr Lys Ser Arg Ser Phe Thr Ser Ser Tyr Ala Ile 1 5 10 15 Ser Ala
Ala Asn His Val Lys Ala Lys Lys Gln Ser Arg Pro Gly Ala 20 25 30
Leu Ala Lys Ile Ser Pro Leu Ser Ser Pro Cys Ser Ser Pro Leu Gln 35
40 45 Gly Thr Pro Ala Ser Ser Leu Val Ser Lys Ile Ser Ala Val Gln
Phe 50 55 60 Pro Glu Ser Ala Asp Thr Thr Ala Lys Gln Ser Leu Gly
Ser His Arg 65 70 75 80 Ala Leu Thr Tyr Thr Gln Ser Ala Pro Asp Leu
Ser Pro Gln Ile Leu 85 90 95 Thr Pro Pro Val Ile Cys Ser Ser Cys
Gly Arg Pro Tyr Ser Gln Gly 100 105 110 Asn Pro Ala Asp Glu Pro Leu
Glu Arg Ser Gly Val Ala Thr Arg Thr 115 120 125 Pro Ser Arg Thr Asp
Asp Thr Ala Gln Val Thr Ser Asp Tyr Glu Thr 130 135 140 Asn Asn Asn
Ser Asp Ser Ser Asp Ile Val Gln Asn Glu Asp Glu Thr 145 150 155 160
Glu Cys Leu Arg Glu Pro Leu Arg Lys Ala Ser Ala Cys Ser Thr Tyr 165
170 175 Ala Pro Glu Thr Met Met Phe Leu Asp Lys Pro Ile Leu Ala Pro
Glu 180 185 190 Pro Leu Val Met Asp Asn Leu Asp Ser Ile Met Glu Gln
Leu Asn Thr 195 200 205 Trp Asn Phe Pro Ile Phe Asp Leu Val Glu Asn
Ile Gly Arg Lys Cys 210 215 220 Gly Arg Ile Leu Ser Gln Val Ser Tyr
Arg Leu Phe Glu Asp Met Gly 225 230 235 240 Leu Phe Glu Ala Phe Lys
Ile Pro Ile Arg Glu Phe Met Asn Tyr Phe 245 250 255 His Ala Leu Glu
Ile Gly Tyr Arg Asp Ile Pro Tyr His Asn Arg Ile 260 265 270 His Ala
Thr Asp Val Leu His Ala Val Trp Tyr Leu Thr Thr Gln Pro 275 280 285
Ile Pro Gly Leu Ser Thr Val Ile Asn Asp His Gly Ser Thr Ser Asp 290
295 300 Ser Asp Ser Asp Ser Gly Phe Thr His Gly His Met Gly Tyr Val
Phe 305 310 315 320 Ser Lys Thr Tyr Asn Val Thr Asp Asp Lys Tyr Gly
Cys Leu Ser Gly 325 330 335 Asn Ile Pro Ala Leu Glu Leu Met Ala Leu
Tyr Val Ala Ala Ala Met 340 345 350 His Asp Tyr Asp His Pro Gly Arg
Thr Asn Ala Phe Leu Val Ala Thr 355 360 365 Ser Ala Pro Gln Ala Val
Leu Tyr Asn Asp Arg Ser Val Leu Glu Asn 370 375 380 His His Ala Ala
Ala Ala Trp Asn Leu Phe Met Ser Arg Pro Glu Tyr 385 390 395 400 Asn
Phe Leu Ile Asn Leu Asp His Val Glu Phe Lys His Phe Arg Phe 405 410
415 Leu Val Ile Glu Ala Ile Leu Ala Thr Asp Leu Lys Lys His Phe Asp
420 425 430 Phe Val Ala Lys Phe Asn Gly Lys Val Asn Asp Asp Val Gly
Ile Asp 435 440 445 Trp Thr Asn Glu Asn Asp Arg Leu Leu Val Cys Gln
Met Cys Ile Lys 450 455 460 Leu Ala Asp Ile Asn Gly Pro Ala Lys Tyr
Lys Glu Leu His Leu Gln 465 470 475 480 Trp Thr Asp Gly Ile Val Asn
Glu Phe Tyr Glu Gln Gly Asp Glu Glu 485 490 495 Ala Ser Leu Gly Leu
Pro Ile Ser Pro Phe Met Asp Arg Ser Ala Pro 500 505 510 Gln Leu Ala
Asn Leu Gln Glu Ser Phe Ile Ser His Ile Val Gly Pro 515 520 525 Leu
Cys Asn Ser Tyr Asp Ser Ala Gly Leu Met Pro Gly Lys Trp Val 530 535
540 Glu Asp Ser Asp Glu Ser Gly Asp Thr Asp Asp Pro Glu Glu Glu Glu
545 550 555 560 Glu Glu Ala Pro Ala Pro Asn Glu Glu Glu Thr Cys Glu
Asn Asn Glu 565 570 575 Ser Pro Lys Lys Lys Thr Phe Lys Arg Arg Lys
Ile Tyr Cys Gln Ile 580 585 590 Thr Gln His Leu Leu Gln Asn His Lys
Met Trp Lys Lys Val Ile Glu
595 600 605 Glu Glu Gln Arg Leu Ala Gly Ile Glu Asn Gln Ser Leu Asp
Gln Thr 610 615 620 Pro Gln Ser His Ser Ser Glu Gln Ile Gln Ala Ile
Lys Glu Glu Glu 625 630 635 640 Glu Glu Lys Gly Lys Pro Arg Gly Glu
Glu Ile Pro Thr Gln Lys Pro 645 650 655 Asp Gln 4 30 DNA Artificial
Sequence Synthetic Oligonucleotide 4 cttcatctct cacattgtgg
ggcctctgtg 30 5 65 DNA Artificial Sequence Synthetic
Oligonucleotide 5 tttgcggccg cctcgagtta tttatcatca tcatctttat
aatcctggtc tggcttttgg 60 gttgg 65 6 41 DNA Artificial Sequence
Synthetic Oligonucleotide 6 ggaataatcc agtgctgctg accctcacca
aaagcagatc c 41 7 49 DNA Artificial Sequence Synthetic
Oligonucleotide 7 taatacgact cactataggg agtgaagagg gcaccctata
ccatggcag 49 8 50 DNA Artificial Sequence Synthetic Oligonucleotide
8 taatacgact cactataggg ttcagtctcc tgtgtgcctt cttctggatg 50 9 47
DNA Artificial Sequence Synthetic Oligonucleotide 9 taatacgact
cactataggg gaagcgctcg tccagattgg gctgggc 47 10 47 DNA Artificial
Sequence Synthetic Oligonucleotide 10 taatacgact cactataggg
tggagacctt acctggcgta cctggcc 47 11 47 DNA Artificial Sequence
Synthetic Oligonucleotide 11 taatacgact cactataggg actgcaggaa
gcaccttcat ccagtcc 47 12 47 DNA Artificial Sequence Synthetic
Oligonucleotide 12 tttttttttt tttttttttt tcactggtct ggcttttggg
ttggtat 47 13 457 DNA Homo sapiens 13 tgatcgtttc tgcccgtgct
tgttttcaac ttgagcgtgc tagcctttaa cttgaagaag 60 tctcattgga
gcatctagca ttctccagga gttattcgaa agctgaaact ttcagtggat 120
tgtgggcctg gggagaagaa ggattccgag ggtggaattg ggaagagcgt gcgtgcgtgt
180 gtgtgtgtgt gtgtgtgcgc gcgcgcgtgg gtcggggcgg gggcgtcggg
gggccactgg 240 gaattcagtg aagagggcac cctataccat ggcagtgccc
ggcgacgctg cacgagtcag 300 gaacaagccc gtccacagtg gggtgagtca
agcccccacg gcgggccggg actgccacca 360 tcgtgcggac cccgcatcgc
cgcgggactc gggctgccgt ggctgctggg gagacctggt 420 gctgcagccg
ctccggagct ctcggaaact ttccctg 457 14 4606 DNA Homo sapiens 14
atggcagtgc ccggcgacgc tgcacgagtc aggaacaagc ccgtccacag tggggtgagt
60 caagccccca cggcgggccg ggactgccac catcgtgcgg accccgcatc
gccgcgggac 120 tcgggctgcc gtggctgctg gggagacctg gtgctgcagc
cgctccggag ctctcggaaa 180 ctttcctccg cgctgtgcgc gggctgccta
tcctttctgc tggcgctgct ggtgaggctg 240 gtccgcgggg aggtcggctg
tgacctggag cagtgtaagg aggcggcggc ggcggaggag 300 gaggaagcag
ccccgggagc agaaggggcc gtcttcccgg ggcctcgggg aggtgctccc 360
gggggcggtg cgcggctcag cccctggctg cagccctcgg cgctgctctt cagtctcctg
420 tgtgccttct tctggatggg cttgtacctc ctgcgcgccg gggtgcgcct
gcctctggct 480 gtcgcgctgc tggccgcctg ctgcgggggg gaagcgctcg
tccagattgg gctgggcgtc 540 ggggaggatc acttactctc actccccgcc
gcgggggtgg tgctcagctg cttggccgcc 600 gcgacatggc tggtgctgag
gctgaggctg ggcgtcctca tgatcgcctt gactagcgcg 660 gtcaggaccg
tgtccctcat ttccttagag aggttcaagg tcgcctggag accttacctg 720
gcgtacctgg ccggcgtgct ggggatcctc ttggccaggt acgtggaaca aatcttgccg
780 cagtccgcgg aggcggctcc aagggagcat ttggggtccc agctgattgc
tgggaccaag 840 gaagatatcc cggtgtttaa gaggaggagg cggtccagct
ccgtcgtgtc cgccgagatg 900 tccggctgca gcagcaagtc ccatcggagg
acctccctgc cctgtatacc gagggaacag 960 ctcatggggc attcagaatg
ggaccacaaa cgagggccaa gaggatcaca gtcttcagga 1020 accagtatta
ctgtggacat cgccgtcatg ggcgaagcca cggcctcatt accgacctcc 1080
tggcagaccc ttctcttcca ccaaacgtgt gccacatcct tgagagccgt gagcaacttg
1140 ctcagcacac agctcacctt ccaggccatt cacaagccca gagtgaatcc
cgttacttcg 1200 ctcagtgaaa actatacctg ttctgactct gaagagagct
ctgaaaaaga caagcttgct 1260 attccaaagc gcctgagaag gagtttgcct
cctggcttgt tgagacgagt ttcttccact 1320 tggaccacca ccacctcggc
cacaggtcta cccaccttgg agcctgcacc agtacggaga 1380 gaccgcagca
ccagcatcaa actgcaggaa gcaccttcat ccagtcctga ttcttggaat 1440
aatccagtga tgatgaccct caccaaaagc agatccttta cttcatccta tgctatttct
1500 gcagctaacc atgtaaaggc taaaaagcaa agtcgaccag gtgccctcgc
taaaatttca 1560 cctctttcat cgccctgctc ctcacctctc caagggactc
ctgccagcag cctggtcagc 1620 aaaatttctg cagtgcagtt tccagaatct
gctgacacaa ctgccaaaca aagcctaggt 1680 tctcacaggg ccttaactta
cactcagagt gccccagacc tatcccctca aatcctgact 1740 ccacctgtta
tatgtagcag ctgtggcaga ccatattccc aagggaatcc tgctgatgag 1800
cccctggaga gaagtggggt agccactcgg acaccaagtc gaacagatga cactgctcaa
1860 gttacctctg attatgaaac caataacaac agtgacagca gtgacattgt
acagaatgaa 1920 gatgaaacag agtgcctgag agagcctctg aggaaagcat
cggcttgcag cacctatgct 1980 cctgagacca tgatgtttct ggacaaacca
attcttgctc ccgaacctct tgtcatggat 2040 aacctggact caattatgga
gcagctaaat acttggaatt ttccaatttt tgatttagtg 2100 gaaaatatag
gaagaaaatg tggccgtatt cttagtcagg tatcttacag actttttgaa 2160
gacatgggcc tctttgaagc ttttaaaatt ccaattaggg aatttatgaa ttattttcat
2220 gctttggaga ttggatatag ggatattcct tatcataaca gaatccatgc
cactgatgtt 2280 ttacatgctg tttggtatct tactacacag cctattccag
gcctctcaac tgtgattaat 2340 gatcatggtt caaccagtga ttcagattct
gacagtggat ttacacatgg acatatggga 2400 tatgtattct caaaaacgta
taatgtgaca gatgataaat acggatgtct gtctgggaat 2460 atccctgcct
tggagttgat ggcgctgtat gtggctgcag ccatgcacga ttatgatcat 2520
ccaggaagga ctaatgcttt cctggttgca actagtgctc ctcaggcggt gctatataac
2580 gatcgttcag ttttggagaa tcatcacgca gctgctgcat ggaatctttt
catgtcccgg 2640 ccagagtata acttcttaat taaccttgac catgtggaat
ttaagcattt ccgtttcctt 2700 gtcattgaag caattttggc cactgacctg
aagaaacact ttgacttcgt agccaaattt 2760 aatggcaagg taaatgatga
tgttggaata gattggacca atgaaaatga tcgtctactg 2820 gtttgtcaaa
tgtgtataaa gttggctgat atcaatggtc cagctaaatg taaagaactc 2880
catcttcagt ggacagatgg tattgtcaat gaattttatg aacagggtga tgaagaggcc
2940 agccttggat tacccataag ccccttcatg gatcgttctg ctcctcagct
ggccaacctt 3000 caggaatcct tcatctctca cattgtgggg cctctgtgca
actcctatga ttcagcagga 3060 ctaatgcctg gaaaatgggt ggaagacagc
gatgagtcag gagatactga tgacccagaa 3120 gaagaggagg aagaagcacc
agcaccaaat gaagaggaaa cctgtgaaaa taatgaatct 3180 ccaaaaaaga
agactttcaa aaggagaaaa atctactgcc aaataactca gcacctctta 3240
cagaaccaca agatgtggaa gaaagtcatt gaagaggagc aacggttggc aggcatagaa
3300 aatcaatccc tggaccagac ccctcagtcg cactcttcag aacagatcca
ggctatcaag 3360 gaagaagaag aagagaaagg gaaaccaaga ggcgaggaga
taccaaccca aaagccagac 3420 cagtgacaat ggatagaatg ggctgtgttt
ccaaacagat tgacttgtca aagactctct 3480 tcaagccagc acaagcattt
agatcacaac actgtagaaa tttgagatgg gcaaatggct 3540 attgcatttt
gggattcttc gcattttgtg tgtatatttt tacagtgagg tacattgtta 3600
aaaacttttt gctcaaagaa gctttcacat tgcaacacca gcttctaagg attttttaag
3660 gagggaatat atatgtgtgt gtgtatataa gctcccacat agatacatgt
aaaacatatt 3720 cacacccatg cacgcacaca catacacact gaaggccacg
attgctggct ccacaattta 3780 gtaacattta tattaagata tatatatagt
ggtcactgtg atataataaa tcataaagga 3840 aaccaaatca caaaggagat
ggtgtggctt agcaaggaaa cagtgcagga aatgtaggtt 3900 accaactaag
cagcttttgc tcttagtact gagggatgaa agttccagag cattatttga 3960
attctgatac atcctgccaa cactgtgtgt gtgtgtgtgt gtgtgtgtgt gtgtgtgtgt
4020 gtgtgtgaaa gagagacaga agggatggtt tgagaggggt cgcttgtgtg
catgtgtgtg 4080 ctatatgtaa agagattttt gtggtttaag taactcagaa
tagctgtagc aaatgactga 4140 atacatgtga acaaacagaa ggaagttcac
tctggagtgt ctttgggagg caggctattc 4200 caaatgccct cgtcgattta
gcttcaataa agggcctttt gctggtggag ggcactcaag 4260 ggctccctca
gagggccacg tgtttggtat tacattactg ctatgcacca cttgaaggag 4320
ctctatcacc agcctgaaac ccgaagactg aggcattttc caggtctact tgcctaatga
4380 atgtatagga actgtctatg agtatggatg tcactcaact aagatcaaat
caccatttaa 4440 gggggatggc attctttata cctaaacacc taagagctga
agtcaggtct tttaatcagg 4500 ttagaattct aaatgatgcc agagaaggct
tgggaaattg tacttcaggg tgatagcctg 4560 tgtcttctta atttactggg
aaatatgtgg tagagaaagg aaagga 4606 15 4306 DNA Homo sapiens 15
gaggaagcag ccccgggagc agaaggggcc gtcttcccgg ggcctcgggg aggtgctccc
60 gggggcggtg cgcggctcag cccctggctg cagccctcgg cgctgctctt
cagtctcctg 120 tgtgccttct tctggatggg cttgtacctc ctgcgcgccg
gggtgcgcct gcctctggct 180 gtcgcgctgc tggccgcctg ctgcgggggg
gaagcgctcg tccagattgg gctgggcgtc 240 ggggaggatc acttactctc
actccccgcc gcgggggtgg tgctcagctg cttggccgcc 300 gcgacatggc
tggtgctgag gctgaggctg ggcgtcctca tgatcgcctt gactagcgcg 360
gtcaggaccg tgtccctcat ttccttagag aggttcaagg tcgcctggag accttacctg
420 gcgtacctgg ccggcgtgct ggggatcctc ttggccaggt acgtggaaca
aatcttgccg 480 cagtccgcgg aggcggctcc aagggagcat ttggggtccc
agctgattgc tgggaccaag 540 gaagatatcc cggtgtttaa gaggaggagg
cggtccagct ccgtcgtgtc cgccgagatg 600 tccggctgca gcagcaagtc
ccatcggagg acctccctgc cctgtatacc gagggaacag 660 ctcatggggc
attcagaatg ggaccacaaa cgagggccaa gaggatcaca gtcttcagga 720
accagtatta ctgtggacat cgccgtcatg ggcgaagcca cggcctcatt accgacctcc
780 tggcagaccc ttctcttcca ccaaacgtgt gccacatcct tgagagccgt
gagcaacttg 840 ctcagcacac agctcacctt ccaggccatt cacaagccca
gagtgaatcc cgttacttcg 900 ctcagtgaaa actatacctg ttctgactct
gaagagagct ctgaaaaaga caagcttgct 960 attccaaagc gcctgagaag
gagtttgcct cctggcttgt tgagacgagt ttcttccact 1020 tggaccacca
ccacctcggc cacaggtcta cccaccttgg agcctgcacc agtacggaga 1080
gaccgcagca ccagcatcaa actgcaggaa gcaccttcat ccagtcctga ttcttggaat
1140 aatccagtga tgatgaccct caccaaaagc agatccttta cttcatccta
tgctatttct 1200 gcagctaacc atgtaaaggc taaaaagcaa agtcgaccag
gtgccctcgc taaaatttca 1260 cctctttcat cgccctgctc ctcacctctc
caagggactc ctgccagcag cctggtcagc 1320 aaaatttctg cagtgcagtt
tccagaatct gctgacacaa ctgccaaaca aagcctaggt 1380 tctcacaggg
ccttaactta cactcagagt gccccagacc tatcccctca aatcctgact 1440
ccacctgtta tatgtagcag ctgtggcaga ccatattccc aagggaatcc tgctgatgag
1500 cccctggaga gaagtggggt agccactcgg acaccaagtc gaacagatga
cactgctcaa 1560 gttacctctg attatgaaac caataacaac agtgacagca
gtgacattgt acagaatgaa 1620 gatgaaacag agtgcctgag agagcctctg
aggaaagcat cggcttgcag cacctatgct 1680 cctgagacca tgatgtttct
ggacaaacca attcttgctc ccgaacctct tgtcatggat 1740 aacctggact
caattatgga gcagctaaat acttggaatt ttccaatttt tgatttagtg 1800
gaaaatatag gaagaaaatg tggccgtatt cttagtcagg tatcttacag actttttgaa
1860 gacatgggcc tctttgaagc ttttaaaatt ccaattaggg aatttatgaa
ttattttcat 1920 gctttggaga ttggatatag ggatattcct tatcataaca
gaatccatgc cactgatgtt 1980 ttacatgctg tttggtatct tactacacag
cctattccag gcctctcaac tgtgattaat 2040 gatcatggtt caaccagtga
ttcagattct gacagtggat ttacacatgg acatatggga 2100 tatgtattct
caaaaacgta taatgtgaca gatgataaat acggatgtct gtctgggaat 2160
atccctgcct tggagttgat ggcgctgtat gtggctgcag ccatgcacga ttatgatcat
2220 ccaggaagga ctaatgcttt cctggttgca actagtgctc ctcaggcggt
gctatataac 2280 gatcgttcag ttttggagaa tcatcacgca gctgctgcat
ggaatctttt catgtcccgg 2340 ccagagtata acttcttaat taaccttgac
catgtggaat ttaagcattt ccgtttcctt 2400 gtcattgaag caattttggc
cactgacctg aagaaacact ttgacttcgt agccaaattt 2460 aatggcaagg
taaatgatga tgttggaata gattggacca atgaaaatga tcgtctactg 2520
gtttgtcaaa tgtgtataaa gttggctgat atcaatggtc cagctaaatg taaagaactc
2580 catcttcagt ggacagatgg tattgtcaat gaattttatg aacagggtga
tgaagaggcc 2640 agccttggat tacccataag ccccttcatg gatcgttctg
ctcctcagct ggccaacctt 2700 caggaatcct tcatctctca cattgtgggg
cctctgtgca actcctatga ttcagcagga 2760 ctaatgcctg gaaaatgggt
ggaagacagc gatgagtcag gagatactga tgacccagaa 2820 gaagaggagg
aagaagcacc agcaccaaat gaagaggaaa cctgtgaaaa taatgaatct 2880
ccaaaaaaga agactttcaa aaggagaaaa atctactgcc aaataactca gcacctctta
2940 cagaaccaca agatgtggaa gaaagtcatt gaagaggagc aacggttggc
aggcatagaa 3000 aatcaatccc tggaccagac ccctcagtcg cactcttcag
aacagatcca ggctatcaag 3060 gaagaagaag aagagaaagg gaaaccaaga
ggcgaggaga taccaaccca aaagccagac 3120 cagtgacaat ggatagaatg
ggctgtgttt ccaaacagat tgacttgtca aagactctct 3180 tcaagccagc
acaagcattt agatcacaac actgtagaaa tttgagatgg gcaaatggct 3240
attgcatttt gggattcttc gcattttgtg tgtatatttt tacagtgagg tacattgtta
3300 aaaacttttt gctcaaagaa gctttcacat tgcaacacca gcttctaagg
attttttaag 3360 gagggaatat atatgtgtgt gtgtatataa gctcccacat
agatacatgt aaaacatatt 3420 cacacccatg cacgcacaca catacacact
gaaggccacg attgctggct ccacaattta 3480 gtaacattta tattaagata
tatatatagt ggtcactgtg atataataaa tcataaagga 3540 aaccaaatca
caaaggagat ggtgtggctt agcaaggaaa cagtgcagga aatgtaggtt 3600
accaactaag cagcttttgc tcttagtact gagggatgaa agttccagag cattatttga
3660 attctgatac atcctgccaa cactgtgtgt gtgtgtgtgt gtgtgtgtgt
gtgtgtgtgt 3720 gtgtgtgaaa gagagacaga agggatggtt tgagaggggt
cgcttgtgtg catgtgtgtg 3780 ctatatgtaa agagattttt gtggtttaag
taactcagaa tagctgtagc aaatgactga 3840 atacatgtga acaaacagaa
ggaagttcac tctggagtgt ctttgggagg caggctattc 3900 caaatgccct
cgtcgattta gcttcaataa agggcctttt gctggtggag ggcactcaag 3960
ggctccctca gagggccacg tgtttggtat tacattactg ctatgcacca cttgaaggag
4020 ctctatcacc agcctgaaac ccgaagactg aggcattttc caggtctact
tgcctaatga 4080 atgtatagga actgtctatg agtatggatg tcactcaact
aagatcaaat caccatttaa 4140 gggggatggc attctttata cctaaacacc
taagagctga agtcaggtct tttaatcagg 4200 ttagaattct aaatgatgcc
agagaaggct tgggaaattg tacttcaggg tgatagcctg 4260 tgtcttctta
atttactggg aaatatgtgg tagagaaagg aaagga 4306 16 27 DNA Artificial
Sequence Synthetic Oligonucleotide 16 tgatcgtttc tgcccgtgct tgttttc
27 17 27 DNA Artificial Sequence Synthetic Oligonucleotide 17
cagggaaagt ttccgagagc tccggag 27 18 1890 DNA Homo sapiens 18
ctagatccca gggaacatca atagagttta agtccattga acagatactg aattcttttt
60 cataatctgc caaaaaaagg ttagcttgaa aattttcttt tagtttctca
aatatcacac 120 tgctgcagta cacgaacctt tactcattaa taactaaggt
cctgattttt ttcatatgct 180 ttgctcgaag atgtagtatt ttgcagccat
agacagtctt ctaagatctc tcctagtgtt 240 aaccacctat gctcacctct
cccttgagat ttttctttat tttttgatga actatctggg 300 cttttaaact
ttgttaacct tttttgagga tacggtcact taatctcaat gtaattttac 360
tttccacagt caaaaactat tgtgaatact catgcactgg atttaaatga ctgctgcctc
420 tccttccttt ctttttatac tattgtggtc taggtaaggc tgattcttcc
atcatttgaa 480 ccaacaggcc aggcttgggt tctcataaag cagaccttcc
agcaggagcg accaaaggat 540 gacactgtca cctgaaattg gactgctgtt
gtacctgact tgggaacatc tttgaatcag 600 acagtagaag tggctgtcat
tttcagggac agtagaaagt atgttggctc tcatctgcca 660 agtaggcaaa
cacaatcttt tttttttttt tttccttcca acgttctagg gagctcagcc 720
tcagggctag ccgcagcccc ccacaccccg gggctgcggt gggctgcgcg gtggatcaac
780 ctcagcagcc cctgctccag cctgtagggt gaaccggccg ctttcccagc
aaaggagcaa 840 tcgagctgag ggtagcgcct cctccgcagg agggggcggg
agctcggctg agaaagcttt 900 cctagggagt tgccttaaag aaagaaagcg
gaattgtcga tcactccagt tgccagtttt 960 atacaatttt aagcagtcgt
cgccactcgt ttcccctttg caaaactgca aatcaccacc 1020 aaccttgcat
caaatagaag tggggaggga aaaaaaaagc aaatctcctt ctcccttctc 1080
accctccctt tcttctcacc ctcccttcct ctcttactcg ctccttctcc ctccctccct
1140 tctgcggctg ccgctagtct ctcggtcctg gctctctctc cgacgggact
tagcaacttc 1200 ttatttctca gccccttgtc attttttttt ttccatcctt
tgccatgaat tggattgaca 1260 gaggcggggg aggctttgct ttctagccca
gggaatggcg atcgcgtcct ggggccgtgc 1320 ggggagaacg gcagaggaga
aagaaagagt gatagaaaaa gagctgcagg aaggaggaga 1380 aggagacctc
catctacctg cgggcccggc gcgctgcagc gcacgcagcg cgacgtgcgc 1440
ctcggaatgg cccggagccc gccctgcgcc ccggctcctc cagcgtcagc ggctcctgcg
1500 cgcgggatgc attgggcaat ttttgaaatc ctgaagtagg aagagacccc
ggaggataga 1560 agtcgggggt gggggtggag cagagaatct gtgaaagata
ttcaaagaga aaaggggaat 1620 cctgatcctt tctgcccgtg cttgttttca
acttgagcgt gctagccttt aacttgaaga 1680 agtctcattg gagcatctag
cattctccag gagttattcg aaagctgaaa ctttcagtgg 1740 attgtgggcc
tggggagaag aaggattccg agggtggaat tgggaagagc gtgcgtgcgt 1800
gtgtgtgtgt gtgtgtgtgc gcgcgcgcgt gggtcggggc gggggcgtcg gggggccact
1860 gggaattcag tgaagagggc accctatacc 1890
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