U.S. patent application number 10/376668 was filed with the patent office on 2003-08-14 for electrospraying solutions of substances for mass fabrication of chips and libraries.
This patent application is currently assigned to New York University. Invention is credited to Morozov, Victor, Morozova, Tamara Ya..
Application Number | 20030150739 10/376668 |
Document ID | / |
Family ID | 26728090 |
Filed Date | 2003-08-14 |
United States Patent
Application |
20030150739 |
Kind Code |
A1 |
Morozov, Victor ; et
al. |
August 14, 2003 |
Electrospraying solutions of substances for mass fabrication of
chips and libraries
Abstract
A method of fabricating deposits of non-volatile substances,
including biomacromolecules, in the form of spots and filing on a
substrate surface by electrospray, where the deposits are used to
determine the interaction of the deposited non-volatile substances
to other substances. Also included in this method is the mass
fabrication on a single chip of an array of single and
multicomponent microsamples.
Inventors: |
Morozov, Victor; (New York,
NY) ; Morozova, Tamara Ya.; (New York, NY) |
Correspondence
Address: |
BROWDY AND NEIMARK, P.L.L.C.
624 NINTH STREET, NW
SUITE 300
WASHINGTON
DC
20001-5303
US
|
Assignee: |
New York University
New York
NY
|
Family ID: |
26728090 |
Appl. No.: |
10/376668 |
Filed: |
March 3, 2003 |
Related U.S. Patent Documents
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Application
Number |
Filing Date |
Patent Number |
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10376668 |
Mar 3, 2003 |
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09986334 |
Nov 8, 2001 |
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09986334 |
Nov 8, 2001 |
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09446188 |
May 8, 2000 |
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6350609 |
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09446188 |
May 8, 2000 |
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PCT/US98/12768 |
Jun 19, 1998 |
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60050274 |
Jun 20, 1997 |
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60055287 |
Aug 13, 1997 |
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Current U.S.
Class: |
205/133 ;
205/317 |
Current CPC
Class: |
B01J 2219/0061 20130101;
B01J 2219/0063 20130101; B01J 2219/00432 20130101; B01J 2219/00605
20130101; B01J 19/0046 20130101; B01J 2219/00596 20130101; B01J
2219/00617 20130101; B01J 2219/00637 20130101; B01J 2219/00659
20130101; G01N 33/543 20130101; B01J 2219/00711 20130101; B01J
2219/00677 20130101; C40B 60/14 20130101; B01J 2219/00725 20130101;
B05B 5/0255 20130101; C40B 40/10 20130101; G01N 33/545 20130101;
B01J 2219/0043 20130101; B01J 2219/00626 20130101; B01J 2219/00628
20130101; B82Y 30/00 20130101; B01J 2219/00585 20130101; B01J
2219/00641 20130101; B01J 2219/00371 20130101; B01J 2219/00612
20130101; B01J 2219/00527 20130101; B01J 2219/00702 20130101; B01J
2219/00635 20130101; B01J 2219/00713 20130101; B05B 5/002 20130101;
B05B 12/36 20180201 |
Class at
Publication: |
205/133 ;
205/317 |
International
Class: |
C25D 005/08; C25D
011/00 |
Claims
What is claimed is:
1. A dry deposit of a non-volatile biologically functional and/or
biologically active substance formed on a substrate, wherein said
dry deposit retains biological function and/or activity, has a
thickness ranging down to a monolayer, has a homogeneity of
thickness not larger than .+-.10% and contains molecule clusters
with a size between 5 nm and 50 nm.
2. The dry deposit of a non-volatile biologically functional and/or
biologically active substance in accordance with claim 1, wherein
the molecule clusters are densely packed but not completely
coalesced, and said dry deposit of a non-volatile biologically
functional and/or biologically active substance has intercluster
channels sufficiently penetrable by ligands.
3. The dry deposit in accordance with claim 1 which is formed on a
substrate by electrospraying a solution of a non-volatile
biologically functional and/or biologically active substance.
4. The dry deposit of a non-volatile biologically functional and/or
biologically active substance in accordance with claim 1 which is
formed as a film.
5. A sample comprising a substrate, and a plurality of dry deposits
of different non-volatile biologically functional and/or
biologically active substances electrosprayed on said substrate,
wherein each of said dry deposits is in accordance with the dry
deposit of claim 1.
6. The sample in accordance with claim 5, wherein said
electrosprayed dry deposits of different substances are formed at a
density of two to more than 200,000 deposits per square inch.
Description
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS
[0001] The present application claims priority from U.S.
provisional applications serial No. 60/050,274, filed Jun. 20,
1997, and serial No. 60/055,287, filed Aug. 13, 1997, the entire
contents of which are hereby incorporated by reference.
BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION
[0002] 1. Field of the Invention
[0003] The present invention relates to the deposition of samples
of substances, including biological molecules, such as proteins and
DNA, into a specified shape or pattern over a substrate surface and
to rapid drying and microconcentration of small amounts of
substances from their solutions.
[0004] 2. Description of the Background Art
[0005] The method of electrospray is the electrostatic atomization
of a liquid or a solution to obtain charged microdroplets, charged
clusters and ions. The solution or liquid of the substance to be
deposited is placed into a capillary (or array of capillaries), and
the application of high voltage results in instability of the
liquid or solution, which is then dispersed into small charged
droplets 0.3-20 microns in diameter, and typically about 0.5-2
microns in diameter. Electrostatic repulsion rapidly moves these
charged microdroplets from the capillary tip, and in their travel
toward a substrate surface, the microdroplets evaporate if solvent
vapor pressure is low enough, and the size of the droplets reach a
Raleigh limit of electrostatic stability. Afterwards, the
microdroplets undergo a series of decays, reducing their size to
about 10-20 nm and increasing the electrostatic field to a level
where evaporation of ionized solvated molecules becomes possible.
On further travel through a dry gas, solvent is lost-from these
solvated ionized molecules. Where evaporation proceeds rapidly, all
of the solute content of the microdroplets can be concentrated into
small nanoclusters (FIG. 1).
[0006] Electrospray of solutions in solvents with low vapor
pressure, such as water, electrospray in atmosphere containing
large amount of solvent vapor or where the electrospray source is
at a short distance from the substrate surface for deposition, can
allow microdroplets to reach the substrate without complete decay
and evaporation of all the solvent. This regime is referred to as
wet electrospray. The deposition of charged molecules or clusters
occurs in a dry electrospray regime where volatile solvents is used
and the conditions of low partial vapor pressure of the solvent in
gas or a longer distance between the electrospray source and the
substrate surface is used.
[0007] Accordingly, this electrospray phenomena permits the
deposition of substances in the form of charged microdroplets,
solvated or dry ionized molecules, or nanoclusters. Nanoclusters or
fibers can be produced by electrospray from linear polymers. The
form of deposit can be regulated by changing the travel path of the
charged species and their speed, by control of vapor pressure in
the atmosphere, and by the proper choice of solvent and solution
concentration.
[0008] One of the earliest applications of electrospraying was in
the production of thin sources for radioactivity measurements. In
this application, a collimator for providing electrostatic focusing
was introduced (Robinson, 1965; van der Eijk et al., 1973). Bruninx
et al. (1961) further disclosed a plexiglass disc with a center
hole through which the electrospray passes before it reaches the
substrate or collector. To obtain thin radioactive sources with a
well-defined area, van der Eijk et al. (1973) disclosed that masks
can be used, and further disclosed that masks made of Teflon, as
first reported by Blumberg et al. (1962), can give rise to the
production of thin radioactive sources with diameters appreciably
lower than the diameter of the hole in the mask.
[0009] Other applications of electrospraying, such as paint
spraying, pesticide spraying, and use as a source of ions for mass
spectrometry of biological molecules, are reviewed in Michelson
(1990). Thus, the electrospraying of biological molecules was
developed for use with mass spectrometry to characterize the
molecular weight, structural features and non-covalent interactions
of biological molecules. The finding that the structural integrity
of protein ions was maintained and that non-covalent interactions
were preserved was of primary significance for other electrospray
applications of biomolecules. For instance, the electrospray mass
spectrometry studies stimulated the use of electrosprayed deposits
of DNA and protein molecules for imaging by scanning tunneling
microscopy (Thundat et al., 1992; Morozov et al., 1993). Whereas
Thundat et al. (1992) electrosprayed a solution of DNA molecules
directly onto a gold substrate, Morozov et al. (1993) interposed a
protective sheet, containing an ion canal, between the electrospray
source and the substrate on which protein ions were deposited.
Besides the destruction of both protein ions and the impact surface
is well documented after collisions of accelerated protein ions
with mica and graphite (Reimann et al., 1994; Sullivan et al.,
1996).
[0010] Methods for patterning proteins and other biological
molecules have been developed by adopting either conventional
technologies, such as computer controlled robotics pipetting of
microdroplets (Shalon et al., 1996), screen printing (Hart et al.,
1994) and ink-jet deposition (Newman et al., 1992), or conventional
electronic circuit manufacturing technologies, such as those using
photo resists and lift-off techniques (Nakamoto et al., 1988).
Methods of electrodeposition of protein from solutions onto
prefabricated microelectrode arrays in biosensor technologies have
also been developed (Strike et al., 1994; Johnson et al., 1994),
but the application of electrodeposition is limited mostly to
proteins and requires complex procedures of substrate preparation
and microelectrode addressing. Furthermore, protein deposition from
solution onto microelectrodes may damage protein molecules at the
solution-metal interface due to direct oxidation and/or extreme
local pH accompanying electrochemical reaction(s) at the electrode.
These electrodeposition methods have only a few parameters for
controlling the structure and density of a deposited film, and the
electrodeposition from solution does not allow for modification of
the electrode surface with water soluble polymer in such a way as
to readily permit detachment of the sample from the substrate after
cross-linking.
[0011] Shadow masking technique has been described recently as a
method to pattern silicon surface with electrospray-produced
polypeptide fibers to increase surface adhesiveness to cells
(Buchko et al., 1996). However, the conditions of electrospray,
namely, use of formic acid as a solvent, are not compatible with
preservation of tertiary structure and functional activity of a
majority of biological macromolecules. Besides the use of shadow
maskings, on the other hand, results in the loss of a large amount
of electrosprayed material onto the mask itself. No reliable data
were available concerning the retention of functional properties of
electrodeposited protein and DNA molecules.
[0012] For the deposition of DNA molecules, Cheng et al. (1996)
revealed numerous altered DNA molecules in electrophoretic analysis
of plasmid DNA electrodeposited on a dry stainless steel electrode.
No such alterations were found in experiments where DNA was
electrodeposited into a buffer droplet.
[0013] Robinson (1966) discloses two copper annular discs around
the electrospray tip, designated as a guard ring and a
collimator.
[0014] Bertolini et al (1965) disclose a hole having an interior
surface shaped as a truncated, inverted cone.
[0015] Bruninx, et al (1961; see pp. 132-133) disclose a hole in a
plexiglass disc laid over a substrate of -aluminum foil so that the
substrate is "covered" by the disc. The substrate rotates and the
single hole is centered on the axis of rotation.
[0016] This arrangement is said to ensure uniform distribution of
spray over the uncovered area. From this, two things can be
inferred: first, that the spray pattern from the electrospray tip
is irregular, because the substrate must be rotated to ensure even
distribution; and second, that the plexiglass disc of Bruninx et al
acts in the manner of a spray-paint template, merely blocking
covered areas of the substrate rather than influencing the paths of
the charged particles by electrostatic fields. Bruninx refers to a
"well-defined area", i.e., an area with sharp boundary; such an
area is not to be expected with electrostatic focusing.
[0017] Morozov et al (1993) report on an apparatus including a
sheet with double-layered electrodes and having a central ion canal
(see FIG. 2, p. 760). to be made from a plastic tube, is shown as
conical. A potential difference is set up across the two electrode
layers, which are separated by an insulating center sheet.
[0018] Methods of fabricating biochips using photochemical
reactions have also recently been developed by a number of
different groups (U.S. Pat. No. 4,562,157; Bhatia et al., 1993;
Pritchard et al., 1995; Pease et al., 1994; Fodor et al., 1991).
These methods use light to direct the combinatorial chemical
synthesis of biopolymers on a solid support in a miniaturized
pattern or to provide a light-addressable surface onto which
proteins and DNA can be immobilized. A photolithographic mask is
used to direct light to specific areas of the light-addressable
surface to effect localized photodeprotection.
[0019] According to the methods of fabricating biochips using
photochemical reactions, the deposition of each molecule into a
pattern requires a minimum of three steps: (1) photoactivation
(photodeprotection) of the substrate surface by irradiation with
light at specific locations; (2) bringing the activated substrate
into contact with a solution of molecules to be deposited; and (3)
washing of unbound molecules (FIG. 2). These three steps are
repeated for every new substance to be deposited on the surface.
However, there are a number of disadvantages with these prior art
technologies. These disadvantages include:
[0020] (i) the amount of material deposited in each spot is limited
due to the limited number of functionalized groups appearing after
irradiation;
[0021] (ii) every deposition cycle requires exposure of the entire
surface to the solution of molecules to be deposited, which
inevitably leads to a fraction of these molecules binding
non-specifically to non-irradiated (non-photoactivated) areas,
which creates problems in the design of complex patterns of
proteins and other molecules;
[0022] (iii) another source of contamination is the solution
interface which is always enriched with surface active impurities;
and
[0023] (iv) diffraction effects and light scattering result in
irradiation beyond the pattern area, decreasing the resolution and
causing cross-contaminating of spots.
[0024] Citation of any document herein is not intended as an
admission that such document is pertinent prior art, or considered
material to the patentability of any claim of the present
application. Any statement as to content or a date of any document
is based on the information available to the applicant at the time
of filing and does not constitute an admission as to the
correctness of such a statement.
SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION
[0025] It is accordingly an object of the present invention to
overcome the deficiencies in the art, such as noted above.
[0026] The present invention provides a method of fabricating
samples of non-volatile substances by electrospray deposition, such
as a sample-containing chip, where the samples are to be used to
determine the interaction of the deposited non-volatile substances
in the sample with other substances. The present invention further
provides a method for simultaneous fabrication of many chips, each
containing a single or multiple samples of biological or other
types or molecules. Such chips have many uses. In particular,
monocomponent chips can be used as replaceable sensitive elements
of chemo-sensors. Multicomponent chips (libraries) can be used in
multianalyte assays, such as microELISA, nucleic acid hybridization
analysis, in screening for effective enzyme inhibitors, etc. Both
microchips (micron-scale size of each sample on the chip) and
macro-chips (millimeter and centimeter scale) can be prepared by
the same technology. Such macro-chips can be used for example to
prepare diagnostic tests for sensitivity to allergens, for analysis
of microbial sensitivity to antibiotics, etc.
[0027] The present invention further provides for the efficient
fabrication of microsamples of cross-linked protein or DNA films
from nanogram quantities of material. Moreover, the proteins and
DNA molecules in the microsample films which are
electrospray-deposited retain their functional properties.
[0028] Still further, the present invention provides an apparatus
for fabricating samples of non-volatile substances by electrospray,
as well as the sample product formed by the present electrospray
method.
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS
[0029] FIG. 1 is a schematic of an electrospray process
illustrating the different state of the sprayed substance at
different distances from the electrospray capillary tip.
Microdroplets of solution predominate in the wet zone, and dry
clusters and ions predominate in the dry zone.
[0030] FIG. 2 schematically shows the steps in deposition of
molecules into a pattern using light-addressable functionalization
of substrate according to the prior art.
[0031] FIGS. 3A and 3B schematically illustrate the electrostatic
concentration effect (FIG. 3A) and the electrofocusing
(electrostatic lens effect; FIG. 3B) in the electrospray deposition
of charged particles through a hole in a dielectric mask.
[0032] FIG. 4 schematically illustrates the distribution of
electrosprayed charged particles into numerous spots through an
array of holes in a dielectric mask. (FIG. 4A) and deposition onto
illuminated conductive areas of a photo-conductive dielectric layer
(FIG. 4B). FIG. 4C is a schematic cross-sectional view of the
substrate of FIG. 4B.
[0033] FIGS. 5A-5D show the polypropylene mask (FIG. 5A), myoglobin
spots electrospray deposited through holes in the mask onto glass
covered with conductive SnO.sub.2 layer (FIG. 5B), dye spots (FIG.
5C) deposited through the same mask onto mica in wet atmosphere and
dye spots (FIG. 5D) deposited onto a photoconductive dielectric
layer illuminated with a diffraction pattern of a laser beam.
[0034] FIG. 6 is a schematic of a process for the fabrication and
detachment of a sample film.
[0035] FIG. 7 schematically shows electrospray deposition onto a
substrate cooled with liquid nitrogen.
[0036] FIG. 8 schematically illustrates the use of scanning/atomic
force microscopy in detecting ligand binding to a matrix of protein
spots by measuring the changes in the size and elasticity of these
protein spots as a result of ligand binding.
[0037] FIG. 9 schematically shows the mass fabrication of
multicomponent matrices by using a means for shifting the position
of the mask relative to the substrate after each of a series of
substances are electrodeposited onto a substrate through the holes
in the mask.
[0038] FIGS. 10A-10F show a succession of six masks used to
fabricate a combinatorial library of a 6-mer oligonucleotide. The
white areas represent holes in the mask.
[0039] FIG. 11 shows a porous IMMOBILON-P membrane filter on which
a number of multicomponent matrices of different dye spots are
deposited.
[0040] FIGS. 12A and 12B show the electrospray deposition of
solutions of peroxidase (FIG. 12A) and alkaline phosphatase (FIG.
12B) onto a wet IMMOBILON-P membrane filter. The black dots are the
accumulation of insoluble products of the peroxidase and the
alkaline phosphatase enzyme reactions and reveal the positions of
the deposited enzymes on the membrane filter.
[0041] FIG. 13 shows a microELISA assay of different protein
antigens (human and bovine serum albumin, ovalbumin, human
hemoglobin) deposited by electrospray onto an IMMOBILON-P membrane
filter and detected by an immunoenzyme technique with a primary
rabbit antibody specific to human serum albumin and a secondary
anti-rabbit IgG molecules conjugated with alkaline phosphatase.
[0042] FIGS. 14A and 14B show electrospray fabricated films of
concanavalin A (FIG. 14A) and alcohol dehydrogenase from horse
liver (FIG. 14B). Protein films were deposited through a single
rectangular hole (0.8.times.0.2 mm) in a mask onto a conducting
polymer sublayer film previously deposited onto an Al
electrode.
[0043] FIGS. 15A-15C show the porous structure of the
electrospray-deposited film of human hemoglobin (image of film
surface made by scanning force microscope after dry deposition in
FIG. 15A), changes in film structure as a result of film "baking"
(image in FIG. 15B presents the structure of the same film after
exposure to wet atmosphere), and a graph demonstrating the
considerable enhancement in penetrability df electrospray deposited
film of bovine serum albumin as compared to a film obtained by a
conventional method of drying protein solution (FIG. 15C). In FIG.
15C, the ordinate represents the square of the distance that dye
molecules diffuse from small particles of solid dye applied onto
the surface of wet protein films in a humid atmosphere. Empty and
filled circles represent data for Bromphenol blue in dried and
electrospray deposited films, respectively. Empty and filled
squares represent the diffusion of Janus green B dye in dried and
electrospray deposited films. The abscissa is the time of
diffusion.
[0044] FIGS. 16A-16C schematically present two types of plastic
protective screens used to prevent escape of the electrosprayed
material from the target substrate and show the uniform
distribution of electrodeposited material. In FIG. 16A, the conical
screen concentrates charged particles directly on substrate or on
hole in mask. The design presented in FIG. 16B allows an even
deposition of sprayed material over a wide cylindrical area
confined by the walls of the mask. Screen walls in both these
designs can be made either of bulk or perforated plastic. The
latter design has an advantage of providing easy separation of air
(wind) flow from the flow of charged particles, thereby
facilitating drying and concentration of electrosprayed material.
FIG. 16C shows an uniform distribution of the electrodeposited
material inside the plastic perforated cylinder screen as opposed
to a bell-shaped distribution typical for the deposition without
the screen and when deposition is performed with the
substrate-capillary distance smaller than the diameter of the
perforated cylinder. Open circles represent deposition from a
capillary placed at a height 55 mm above the substrate, closed
circles represent a height of 43 mm, and squares represent a height
of 30 mm. The perforated cylinder, 43 mm in diameter, was made of
monofilament Nylon cloth (mesh size 1000 microns, type CMN-1000-A,
Small Parts, Inc., Miami Lakes, Fla.).
[0045] FIG. 17 shows dye patterns of macroscopic sizes fabricated
by air-jet-assisted electrospray.
[0046] FIGS. 18A and 18B show the effect of current on the recovery
of specific activity on the electrospray deposited alkaline
phosphatase in the absence (empty circles) and in the presence of
sucrose (filled circles) for the capillary with an internal
electrode (FIG. 18A) and for the capillary with an external
electrode (FIG. 18B). Sucrose was added in an amount corresponding
to 50% of dry weight of protein. The ordinate represents the
specific activity of electrospray deposited alkaline phosphatase
relative to the specific activity of the initial solution.
Electrospray deposition was performed at a relative humidity of
65.+-.5% and a flow rate solution of 6 .mu.L/h.
[0047] FIGS. 19A and 19B, respectively, show schematically (FIG.
19A) and by cross-sectional view of the deposit (FIG. 19B) the
formation of an array of samples with a large height-to-lateral
size ratio in electrospray deposition of protein through the holes
of a polypropylene tissue used as a mask.
[0048] FIGS. 20A-20C schematically illustrate three types of
capillaries used as ion sources. FIG. 20A shows a capillary with an
external electrode; FIG. 20B shows a capillary with an internal
electrode; and FIG. 20C shows a capillary with a liquid bridge,
where the reference numerals indicate the following: 1--plastic
tubing; 2--glass capillary coated with silver layer; 3--contact
wire; 4--stainless steel tube; 5--glass capillary; 6--internal
tungsten, stainless steel, platinum or gold electrode; 7--glass
capillary.
[0049] FIG. 21 schematically illustrates the chamber used to
deposit proteins on the microbalance in Example 11.
[0050] FIG. 22 shows the effect of carbohydrates on the recovery of
alkaline phosphatase activity after direct drying. Empty and filled
circles represent the results for sucrose and trehalose,
respectively. The specific activity is relative to the specific
activity in the initial solution.
[0051] FIG. 23 shows the effect of humidity on the recovery of
specific alkaline phosphatase activity after electrospray
deposition. The specific activity of the electrospray-deposited
samples is relative to the specific activity in the initial
solution. The electrospray deposition conditions are +4 kV at the
capillary with an internal electrode, current of 10-50 nA and flow
rate of 6 .mu.L/h.
[0052] FIG. 24 is a schematic overview of the apparatus of the
invention.
[0053] FIG. 25 is a schematic view of the electrospray chamber also
shown in FIG. 24.
[0054] FIG. 26 is a perspective view of the capillary of the
electrospray chamber.
[0055] FIG. 27 is a perspective view of the grid screen of the
electrospray chamber.
[0056] FIG. 28 is a perspective view of the collecting ring of the
electrospray chamber.
[0057] FIG. 29A is a cross-sectional view of the protective screen
of the electrospray chamber.
[0058] FIG. 29B is an exploded perspective view of the protective
screen of the electrospray chamber.
[0059] FIG. 30 is an exploded perspective view of the intermediate
sample holder.
[0060] FIG. 31 is a perspective view of a sample holder.
[0061] FIG. 32A is a schematic elevational view, similar to FIG.
25, of a second embodiment of the electrospray chamber.
[0062] FIG. 32B is a detail view of FIG. 32A.
[0063] FIG. 33 is an exploded perspective view of a mask
shifter.
[0064] FIG. 34 is a schematic elevational view, similar to FIG. 25,
of a third embodiment of the electrospray chamber.
DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION
[0065] The method according to the present invention was developed
to provide the fabrication of chips made from sample deposits of
non-volatile substances which include biomolecules (e.g.,
biomacromolecules sucn as proteins and DNA), organic molecules
(such as antibiotics and pharmaceuticals), inorganic substances,
salts, inorganic colloids, etc., which are deposited into a
particular shape or into an array. The present method has the
advantage over conventional methods of patterning biomolecules in
that: (1) there is no contact of the whole chip surface with
solvent and different spots are not cross-contaminated as in the
photolithographic method; (2) in contrast to the ink-jet method,
deposition onto many chips occurs simultaneously, thereby
accelerating the process; (3) the size of charged clusters and
molecules is much smaller than in the ink-jet method, thereby
facilitating the fabrication of much smaller spots; (4) the same
technology can be used to fabricate both micro- and macro-chips;
and (5) deposition can be performed under dielectric liquid, in any
gas atmosphere and/or at low temperature.
[0066] The present method uses a mask having either a single
non-round hole or an array of holes (of any shape) in a pattern,
and which mask is interposed between an electrospray source and the
substrate surface on which a sample is to be deposited. Thus, the
charged microdroplets, clusters or ions can be directed through a
hole or an array of holes in a mask and onto a substrate surface.
In the case of a mask having an array of holes, the method
according to the present invention would provide the virtually
simultaneous formation of as many distinct spots on the substrate
surface as the number of holes in a mask positioned over the
substrate. Shifting the mask after deposition of each compound will
result in the formation of a multi-component chip (library) under
each hole.
[0067] It is within the scope of the present invention to use other
methods of creating local electric fields attracting charged
particles. In particular, conductivity of a photoconductive
dielectric layer on a target electrode can be locally increased by
illumination, as shown schematically in FIG. 4B. The pattern of
deposition follows the pattern of illumination, as demonstrated in
FIG. 5D. Local heating of a dielectric layer, injection of charge
carriers (Reiser et al., 1969), irradiation and other physical
factors known to modify conductivity of dielectrics can also be
used to control electrospray deposition in the same manner as masks
with holes.
[0068] When electrospray deposition is performed through a thin
conducting mask under the same potential as the substrate and
positioned in close vicinity to it, the deposits exactly follow the
form of the hole in the mask with sample molecules uniformly
distributed over the deposit. However, much of the molecules in the
sample are deposited and lost onto the mask itself, thereby making
this configuration of the electrostatic field for electrospray
quite ineffective and time consuming.
[0069] However, when the mask is under a potential of the same sign
as that of the electrospray source and microdroplets, the
preferential deposition of electrosprayed material onto the
substrate is very efficient because the charged mask repels the
electrosprayed material and changes their trajectory so that they
pass through the hole(s) in the mask. The phenomena connected with
the repelling effect of a charged dielectric or conductive mask are
distinguished here. The first phenomenon is referred to as
"electrostatic concentration", which describes the repulsion of
charged particles from all mask areas except those in the vicinity
of a hole or in the vicinity of an illuminated spot in a
photoconductive dielectric where particles are collected by the
electrostatic field protruding through the hole, as shown in FIG.
3A. An electrode 50 with a positive charge deposited in a capillary
52 destabilizes a solution of non-volatile material 54 which is
electrosprayed from the capillary tip as a torch 56 where the
trajectories of the particles (represented by arrows) towards the
substrate 58 are deviated and concentrated through a hole 60 in a
charged mask 62 used to deposit a film 64 with size and form
corresponding to the hole. Such an even deposition is possible only
if all possible trajectories are available for charged particles as
shown in FIG. 3A. In the second phenomenon, when the spatial angle
at which charged particles approach the hole is close to normal, as
illustrated in FIG. 3B (electrospray at the lowest possible
voltage) and in FIG. 4 (with many closely placed holes), the uneven
electrostatic field in the vicinity of a hole or an illuminated
spot will deviate their trajectories to the center of the hole.
This redistribution of the deposit within the area under the hole
is referred to as "electrofocusing" or the "lens" effect. In the
latter case, the electrosprayed material is deposited as spots
having a size smaller than holes in the mask. All the charges shown
in FIGS. 3A and 3B can be opposite in charge without affecting the
overall process.
[0070] It is noteworthy that the operation of this electrostatic
lens is different from that in electronic microscopes because the
inertial forces which determine the trajectories in a vacuum
electrostatic lens are negligible in. air under normal conditions
where viscous forces dominate. This electrostatic lens effect has
the advantage that the size of the deposits are substantially
smaller than the holes in the mask, which considerably reduces the
technological problems in the fabrication of masks suitable for
deposition of deposits (spots) of micron and submicron sizes since
the holes do not need to be as small as the spots themselves.
[0071] The results of the electrostatic lens effect using a
polypropylene woven tissue as a mask are shown in FIGS. 5A-5B where
the 5-7 micron size of protein spots (FIG. 5B) is considerably
smaller than the 23-24 micron holes which are set 47 microns apart
in a polypropylene tissue used as a mask (FIG. 5A). An advantage of
electrostatic concentration is that the electrosprayed material is
deposited with close to 100% efficiency since the mask absorbs only
a small fraction of the charged molecules. FIGS. 14A and 14B
illustrate that even film deposits can be produced in conditions
where the electrofocusing effect is suppressed due to the presence
of a single hole in the mask.
[0072] The electrostatic lens effect can also be used to roduce
samples with a high height-to-lateral size aspect, as illustrated
in Example 10, where arrays of needle-like samples of RNAse are
fabricated with the use of a mask as shown in FIG. 5A. Arrays of
such rod-like samples were also fabricated from organic substances,
such as light green dye. It can be concluded from these experiments
that, even under relatively dry conditions (18% humidity in Example
10), a protein film has enough conductivity to allow the passage of
incoming charges through the film thickness of no less than 40
microns. The high electric field and the injection of charge
carriers during the electrospray deposition can be responsible for
such enhanced conductivity of protein deposits, as well as deposits
of organic substances (Reiser et al., 1969).
[0073] The mask used in accordance with the present invention has a
single hole or an array of holes and is positioned between the
electrospray source (capillary) and the target. The mask can be
preferably made from a non-conducting material, where the
concentrating electrostatic effect is automatically achieved when
the first charged molecules of the electrospray are adsorbed onto
the mask surface, thereby electrostatically blocking any further
adsorption of charged molecules. The non-conducting parts (areas)
of the mask with a layer of adsorbed charged molecules then serves
to direct all the charged molecules of the electrospray into the
hole(s) of the mask for deposition onto a substrate. A similar
electro-concentrating effect is also observed when a dielectric
photoconductive layer is used as a substrate.
[0074] The mask can also be made of a conducting material. However,
the potential on the conducting mask used according to the method
of the present invention should be adjusted to be intermediate
between the potential on the electrode on the capillary and the
potential on the substrate in order to direct the charged molecules
into the holes and thereby avoid the considerable loss of
electrosprayed material.
[0075] It was discovered that while electrofocusing as a result of
an electrostatic lens effect occurs quite readily with a mask
having an array of holes which are spaced close together,
electrofocusing is less pronounced or absent with a single hole and
with holes separated by a distance much larger than their diameter.
In the case of a single hole in a plastic plate directly placed
onto a substrate, maximum electrofocusing was achieved when the
plate thickness was about 0.5 times the hole diameter. However, if
a thin mask with similar a hole was placed over a substrate in such
a way as to have its upper surface at the same distance from the
substrate as that in a thick plate, then the degree of
electrofocusing dropped and shape of the deposit deviates from that
of the hole. These features indicate that not only electrostatic
but aerodynamic forces induced by ion-wind control the
electrofocusing process. It was also found that electrofocusing
depends on the voltage applied to the capillary (deposition with a
minimum voltage on the capillary results in larger focusing) and on
the position of the capillary relative to the hole (a minimum spot
is obtained with a capillary placed directly over the hole at close
distances).
[0076] Thus, in order to obtain even distribution of material
within the single hole of any shape, the following conditions are
preferably fulfilled: (i) dielectric mask is thin; and (ii) placed
close to the substrate; (iii) electrospray source is not positioned
directly over the hole; (iv) substrate and mask are rotated around
the normal axis through the center in the hole in the mask; and (v)
there is a means for effecting turbulence of the air in the
vicinity of the hole. The size and the shape of the deposit
conforms to the size and shape of the hole under these
conditions.
[0077] If electrofocusing is required under each hole then a thick
mask with conically shaped holes is preferable.
[0078] When the mask 62 includes a dielectric, insulating, or
semiconducting material, on which a static charge is built up by
adsorption onto the mask surface of particles from the electrode,
then the mask is preferably electrically isolated (or insulated)
but optionally may be connected to ground to more-or-less slowly
drain off accumulating excess charge, or it may be coupled to an
electrostatic charging device as discussed below.
[0079] FIG. 4A is similar to FIGS. 3A and 3B and illustrates a
plurality of the mask holes 60. The arrangement is similar to that
of FIGS. 3A and 3B with an electrosprayer including a holder 50 and
electrode/capillary 52 creating a mist of charged particles 56;
however, in FIG. 4A, the mask, here also labeled 62, can be
metallic or at least partly conductive (e.g., a sandwich of
materials having different conductivities or including a
semiconductor) and is preferably dielectric. In a conductor, any
charge (e.g., on the mask 62) will migrate to the surfaces and
concentrate in edges and points, as is well known from
electrostatics. The electric potential gradient around all the
holes should be identical if the hole geometry is identical.
[0080] The substrate 58 may be a dielectric or conductor or may
have various conductivities. Preferably the substrate 58 is coupled
to an electrostatic device (i.e., charging or electrostatic
potential-inducing device) 581 with optional voltage adjustment
582. These may likewise be provided to the apparatus of FIGS. 3A
and 3B (although not shown in FIGS. 3A and 3B). This first
electrostatic device holds the upper surface of the substrate 58,
adjacent to the deposit areas 64, at a first potential attractive
to the charged particles 56.
[0081] The mask 62 may be insulated and depend on adsorbed (or
induced) charges for its optimal polarity, but is optionally
coupled to a second electrostatic device 621, which preferably
includes a means for voltage adjustment 622, preferably independent
from the substrate 58. The voltages may be optimized for focusing
the particles onto target deposit areas 64 without deposit onto the
mask 62. For example, the mask 62 is preferably held at a potential
repulsive to the charged particles 56. Thus, the mask 62 may act as
both a physical shield and an electrostatic field-influencing
device.
[0082] The electrostatic devices 581 and 621 may include batteries,
power supplies, voltaic cells, etc.; the adjustment means 622 may
be any manual or automatic device for adjusting the voltage on the
mask 62.
[0083] FIG. 4B shows another one of the preferred embodiments,
employing light to induce a variable pattern of focusing
charges.
[0084] The mask 62 is not limited to just conductors and
dielectrics, but may be made of any material or materials including
special materials such as semi-conductors and photoconductive
polymers. In FIG. 4B, the mask 62 is embodied as an optical mask
162, and is (preferably) disposed below the substrate, here labeled
158, rather than above the substrate; it throws shadows on the
underside of the substrate. In this embodiment the substrate 158
includes a layer of material whose electrical properties are
photosensitive (herein termed "electrophotic"), e.g., a
semiconductor or photovoltaic structure which creates surface
voltage in response to light, a layer of photosensitive polymer, or
other material. In the preferred version of this embodiment, the
substrate 158 includes a sandwich including a transparent
conductive sheet, acting as an electrode, and a photoconductive
layer.
[0085] The layer 158 is most simply a perforated sheet of opaque
material having holes 160 under the deposit areas 64. A lamp,
laser, or other light source 170 shines preferably collimated light
through the holes 160 to create deposits of the charged particle 56
as described below.
[0086] Alternatively, in the present invention the mask 162 may be
eliminated and the desired light pattern be formed with a modulated
scanning laser beam, triggered photocell or laser arrays, or some
equivalent.
[0087] FIG. 4C is an elevational cross-section of the substrate 158
of FIG. 4B. From the bottom, substrate 158 preferably includes a
transparent mechanical support layer 1581, which may be glass,
acrylic sheet, etc.; a transparent conductive layer 1582; and a
photosensitive layer 1583, which is preferably a photoconductive
polymer. The transparent conductive layer may, for example, include
a sheet of transparent conductive material or a partial metallic
film on the substrate 1581.
[0088] A typical photoconductive polymer film is conductive in
light and insulating in dark. Therefore, the portions of layer 1583
which are illuminated from below through the mask 160 will be at
the same potential as the conductive sheet, because any excess
static charge will drain away through the conductive layer 1582,
which is preferably coupled to an electrostatic device 95 with
optional voltage adjustment 96. It may also simply be grounded.
[0089] Meanwhile, the portions of layer 1583 which are not
illuminated can reach a different potential through adsorption, or
maintain a previous potential simply through non-conductance. If
this different potential is repulsive to the mist particles 56
while the potential at the illuminated portions is attractive, the
particles will only settle on the deposit areas 64 above the holes
160 of the optical mask 162.
[0090] FIG. 5D shows results achieved by the electrophotic method
of the present invention.
[0091] The illumination pattern may be a photographic negative, and
the polarity from device 95 may be reversed at the same time to
achieve the same effect (not shown). Any other electrophotic means
for creating the potentials to achieve the deposits 64 is within
the scope of the present invention.
[0092] In order for biomolecules, such as proteins and DNA, to
retain their structural and functional properties when
electrosprayed, the strength of the electric field at the capillary
tip of the electrospray source is to be sufficient for effecting
electrospray but not so high as to result in corona discharge,
which destroys the functional properties of the biomolecules. The
strength of the electric field at the capillary tip can be
controlled by maintaining a constant current through the capillary
and/or a constant voltage. The minimum voltage or current is
empirically determined. It was discovered that the minimum voltage
that enables an effective electrospray is dependent on the radius
of the capillary, solution conductivity, flow rate, and the
distance between the capillary and the substrate. With a capillary
diameter of about 20-30 microns, and the capillary to substrate
distance of about 15-40 mm, a protein solution is electrosprayed
very effectively at a current of about 10-50 nA reached at a
voltage of about 3-5 kV with a flow rate up to 1 microliter/min.
Above 6 kV and a current exceeding 100 nA, the properties of the
biological molecules are likely to be destroyed in the electrospray
process. Replacement of air with freon, carbon dioxide or other
corona-suppressing gas can be used to help prevent corona
discharge. Corona discharge effects can also be inhibited if the
electrospray is assisted by gas-jet atomization, -from which
micron-sized droplets can be obtained at considerably lower
voltages than needed for electrospray alone. Jet-assisted
electrospray drastically accelerates the deposition of material
since stable dispersion can be obtained at much higher flow rates
than with electrospray alone. Air-jet-assisted as well as
ultrasound-assisted (such as with the Ultraspray apparatus produced
by Analytica Company in Bradford) electrospray are especially
effective in deposition of large samples or large number of
samples, since they can easily disperse up to 1 mL/min of
solution.
[0093] For the simultaneous electrospray deposition of multiple
spots from a single capillary through a mask with an array of
holes, the capillary preferably oscillates above the mask while the
mask and the substrate/support for the electrospray deposits are
being rotated to provide the uniform deposition of electrosprayed
particles throughout each spot. Any other relative motion of the
capillary and the substrate compatible with the condition of
spending equal time over each area of deposition on the substrate
would also provide uniform deposition and can be determined by
those of skill in the art. Another way to uniformly deposit
electrosprayed material consists in placing the capillary into a
perforated shield/screen as described below. When a single sample
of complex shape and uniform thickness is to be deposited (for
example, rectangular protein strip), the capillary is preferably
stationary and not positioned directly above a non-round hole in a
mask while the mask and the substrate/support are being rotated. In
this way, the rotating mask and substrate/support bypass the
electrostatic focusing effect of the hole by allowing charged
particles to approach the hole evenly from each side. As a rule, a
guard ring having a potential of the same sign as the charged
microdroplets leaving the capillary tip is positioned approximately
at the level of the capillary tip to surround the zone of
electrospray discharge with a charge that repels the charged
microdroplets and prevents any scatter during electrospray. It was
discovered that the guard ring can be effectively replaced by
plastic screens such as the non-limiting, examples of the two types
represented schematically on FIGS. 16A and 16B. These plastic
screens could be of a conical or cylindrical body. Deposition of a
part of the electrosprayed material on the walls of such a body
charges them and prevents further scattering. It was also
discovered that the walls of such plastic screens can be made of
woven plastic tissue permeable to air. This latter design has three
advantages: (i) it allows solvent to be easily dried from the
electrosprayed material; (ii) it allows confinement of the charged
particles in the volume surrounded by the screen, and together with
the mutual repulsion of charges, result in even deposition within
the area limited by such a screen, as illustrated in FIG. 16C;
(iii) a conical grid similar to that shown in FIG. 16A facilitates
concentration of particle flow, which is especially important in
deposition of microsamples.
[0094] The efficiency of deposition with the above described means
depends on the quality of screen and mask material as a dielectric
(low bulk and surface conductivity are required), tip-substrate
distance and the overall area of the holes. With multiple holes,
such.as those presented in FIG. 5A, or a single round hole with a
diameter of 1.5-2 mm, an efficiency of 70-80% is readily
obtainable.
[0095] Reduction of the hole to 0.2.times.0.7 mm.sup.2 results in a
decrease of the efficiency to 4-10%. It was found that the
introduction of an additional collecting ring of 2-5 mm in diameter
coaxially positioned in the plane of the plastic mask allows a
considerable increase in the efficiency upon proper adjustment of
the potential at the collecting ring. To adjust the potential, the
total current passing through the capillary, as well as the current
passing through the sample, are measured simultaneously. The
procedure is further described assuming that a positive potential
is applied to the capillary and the sample holder is grounded. On
increasing the potential on the collecting ring (from zero,
grounded), an increase in sample current is observed, and the
current goes through a maximum upon further increase in ring
potential and then drops until a complete inhibition of the
electrospray occurs. A decrease in the total current through the
capillary upon an increase in the ring potential is accompanied by
a fading of the intensity of the electrospray torch. It was found
that electrospray deposition, under the conditions where the
current passing through the sample holder reaches 50-90% of the
total current, results in 20-40% efficiency of protein deposition
through a single submillimeter-sized hole in the mask. Simultaneous
deposition of numerous microsamples is far more effective and does
not usually require a collecting ring. However, a dielectric mask
with multiple holes can also be covered with a multi-ring
collecting net in such a way as to have each hole at the center of
the ring, with all the rings connected to a power supply with
voltage adjusted, as was described above for a single hole
collector.
[0096] Another potential problem with deposition through a small
hole in a dielectric mask is that the deposition of the sprayed
material directly onto the dielectric mask in the vicinity of the
hole greatly reduces the overall efficiency. The extent of such
deposition onto the mask surface varies depending on both the type
of polymer used and on other conditions, such as voltage, charge of
the sprayed particles, presence and diameter of the collecting
ring. In particular, the laboratory of the present inventors found
that the use of mica as a mask material results in less deposition
onto the mask surface, presumably due to. the lower mobility of
injected charges or fewer holes in mica as compared to plastics,
where such mobility can be high (Reiser et al., 1969)
[0097] The substrates or supports onto which the charged particles
are deposited preferably have a high conductivity. However, other
materials with low bulk conductivity (semiconductors) or those
having small surface conductivity can also be used as substrates.
Examples of such materials include paper, hydrophilic plastics and
membrane filters (e.g., IMMOBILON-P filters prepared from PVDF,
nitrocellulose filters), mica and glass. Mica and glass are
nonconducting when dry but have surface conductivity when wet or in
a humid atmosphere. Filters are also conductive enough in an
atmosphere of high (>70%) and moderate (30-50%) humidity to
enable their use as substrates.
[0098] In one embodiment of the method of the present invention,
electrospray deposition onto a nonconducting surface in the absence
of surface conductivity, such as dry mica and glass, dry plastics,
is performed by periodic recharging of the nonconducting surface
with a stream of counter-ions from a corona discharge as shown
schematically in FIG. 34. The stream of counter-ions is generated
with an array of microelectrodes in a shielded chamber. Such
recharging provides the advantaae that successive layers of charged
molecules can be deposited onto the substrate by repeated cycles of
spray and recharging; otherwise, a buildup of charged molecules on
the substrate would prevent further deposition. In the example of a
mica surface, a mica sheet is placed on a rotating plastic disk and
periodically recharged during its period of rotation that passes
underneath an array of microelectrodes. Either positive or negative
voltage can be applied to the capillary with respect to the mica.
To reduce the surface conductivity of the mica in this embodiment,
the mica surface can be kept dry during deposition by heating with
an infrared source or with a stream of dry warm air. Deposition can
be performed for example in open air or in a chamber with a
controlled atmosphere.
[0099] In certain circumstances, the detachment of the deposited
material from the substrate or support as a sample film is
desirable, and an intermediate layer between the substrate and the
sample can be introduced to facilitate this detachment, i.e., for
transfer to a measuring device using such a sample film. Such an
intermediate layer must be slightly conductive and must be easily
removable after cross-linking of the electrospray-deposited
biomolecules. Examples of materials which can be used as an
intermediate layer include: (1) a water-soluble polymer layer, such
as polyacrylamide or polyethylene glycol which slowly swells and
dissolves in the presence of water and/or other conditions, i.e.,
variation of pH; (2) a layer of a commercially available polymer
having disulfide bonds which can be broken (chemically reduced)
when in contact with a mercaptoethanol solution, thereby resulting
in dissolution of the polymer; (3) a layer of highly dispersed
carbon with low adherence to the deposited biomolecules; and (4) a
layer of carbon-polymer conducting composites or any other
conducting polymer with a low melting point. FIG. 6 schematically
illustrates an embodiment of a process for the fabrication of a
sample film on an intermediate layer and the detachment therefrom.
A semiconductive sublayer 80 as an intermediate layer is first
deposited over a conductive substrate layer 81 on the substrate 82
by electrospray with a capillary 84 or by any other known methods,
and then a sample film 86 of the desired biomolecule(s) is
deposited by electrospray through a hole 88 in a mask 90. The
sample film can be attached to the tips 92 of a measuring device 94
and detached from the substrate by dissolving the semiconductive
sublayer with a solvent 96. Alternatively, the sample can be simply
lifted off the substrate as a detached film. A preferred
intermediate layer for the detachment of the sample film is a
sublayer of alginic acid which is insoluble to solutions with an
acidic pH but can be readily dissolved with a solution at an
alkaline pH.
[0100] Using protein as an example of a biomolecule for
electrospray deposition, the structure of the protein film and the
functional properties of the protein molecules in the film is
dependent on the path of flight of the electrospray, speed of the
charged particles controlled by voltage, sign of the charges,
humidity and temperature under which the protein molecules are
electrosprayed, protein concentration in solution, and presence of
stabilizers. At short distances, e.g., about 15 mm between
capillary and substrate, or when the electrospray takes place in a
humid atmosphere (relative humidity of more than 70-80%), charged
microdroplets from the electrospray can reach the surface without
decay or the production of dry ions, i.e., in the wet electrospray
regime. The sample films obtained after evaporation of the
deposited microdroplets on the substrate have much in common with
the sample protein films obtained conventionally by applying a
protein solution directly to the substrate and allowing the
proteins to dry. No notable difference in the mechanochemical
response to ligands, such as Ca.sup.2+, was detected between films
of .alpha.-lactalbumin, which were prepared by wet electrospray
deposition onto a glass surface covered with a conducting SnO.sub.2
layer and films of the same enzymes prepared by the conventional
method.
[0101] The electrospray deposition of biomolecules can also be used
as a means of concentrating microquantities of dilute biomolecule
solutions. By changing electrospray conditions (humidity below
40-50%, capillary-to-substrate distance of more than 30 mm, flow of
dry gas), deposition is performed in the dry regime where the
concentration of biomolecules in microdroplets occurs, and dry
nanoclusters and biomolecular ions are deposited onto the
substrate. As revealed by scanning atomic force and tunneling
microscopy, biomacromolecules are deposited as single dry molecules
only if their concentration in solution is below a critical
threshold of about 10.sup.-3-10.sup.-5 mg/ml. At higher
concentrations and in the dry electrospray regime, nanoclusters,
which are the dominant products of electrospray, form opaque porous
films, as illustrated in FIG. 15A.
[0102] Protein molecules in the films prepared by dry electrospray
retain their functional activity. The data presented in Table 1
indicate that electrospray-fabricated microsamples of different
proteins show the same level of the mechano-chemical response to
specific ligands as the films of these proteins prepared by the
conventional drying method. Retention of other functional
properties of protein molecules in electrospray deposition is
illustrated in Example 3, as well as in FIGS. 12A, 12B and 18, for
the enzyme activity of horseradish peroxidase and alkaline
phosphatase. Example 4 illustrates the retention of the antigenic
properties of electrosprayed proteins.
1TABLE 1 Comparison of the Mechano-Chemical Effects to the
Application of a Specific Ligand to Films of Different Cross-Linked
Proteins Prepared by Electrospraying and by the Conventional Method
of Drying Protein Solutions on a Glass Surface Effect.sup.2 in
Effect.sup.2 in Electrospray Dried Sample Deposit Sample PROTEIN
LIGAND.sup.1 % % Pancreatic Proflavin +69 +72; +72 Trypsin BAEE +23
+37; +38 Avidin Biotin -51 -41; -48 Cytochrome C Reduction with
-30; -50 -41; -49 (equine) dithionite Lysozyme N-acetyl-D- -7.7;
-8.7 -6.3; -3.5 (egg) glucosamine Hexokinase Glucose +31; +38; +44
+44 (yeast) Alcohol NAD +3.5; +6.2 +2.7; +7.4 dehydrogenase (horse
liver) .alpha.-Lactalbumin Ca.sup.+2 +240 +370 Concanavalin A
Ca.sup.+2, Mn.sup.+2, 10 +6 .alpha.-D- +11 +4 mannopyranoside
Pancreatic 3'-Cytidine +4.0 -3.4 RNAse monophosphate
3-phosphoglycerate Mg-ATP +13 +16 kinase (yeast) .sup.1Ligand
concentration in each testing exceeded known binding constant by
5-10 times. .sup.2Relative changes in isometric tension in protein
film induced by binding of specific ligand are presented.
[0103] Although the best conditions for protein deposition may vary
from protein to protein, it was found that the following conditions
give satisfactory results with most water-soluble proteins: 1-10
mg/ml protein concentration; 25-40% (w/w of dry protein) sugar or
trehalose; 10-15% glycerol based on dry protein; and 100-20 mM
.beta.-mercaptoethanol. The conductivity of protein solutions
prepared for electrospraying should not exceed 500 microSiemens per
cm, otherwise deposition proceeds very slowly and requires the use
of capillaries with micron-sized tips. The pH usually does not
require adjustment unless it is incompatible with the stability of
protein molecules. .beta.-mercaptoethanol should be added
immediately before spraying. The following spraying conditions can
be considered as typical for the fabrication of a single protein
microsample for the mechanochemical test: room temperature; 10-40%
relative humidity; height of the capillary tip above the sample
holder: 10-14 mm; voltage on the capillary: +2-3 kV; voltage on the
collimating ring: +(0.5-1.5) kV; current total: 5-10 nA; current
through the sample: 3-7 nA; total time to deposit one 1-2 micron
thick protein film with 0.2.times.0.7 mm lateral side measurements
takes 3-15 minutes, depending upon protein concentration.
[0104] Of all the parameters, the maintenance of a low total
current through the capillary seems to be the most important. As
illustrated in FIGS. 18A and 18B, an increase in the current by
more than 10-100 nA considerably inhibits the specific activity of
alkaline phosphatase. Low current is also beneficial from the
viewpoint of efficiency. Excessive space charge formed around the
hole in the screen at a high current repels charged clusters from
the hole and increases their deposition on the screen and
collimator.
[0105] Conditions for electrospray fabrication of multicomponent
tests may differ significantly from that described above since
higher currents, together with high flow rates, can be used without
the loss of activity and efficiency. Other conditions which may
greatly vary upon deposition of matrices include solvents (for
example, addition of 10-30% of glycerol to protein or DNA solutions
enables their wet deposition onto a porous filter even at low
humidity and large substrate-to-capillary distance), concentration,
temperature, humidity and substrates.
[0106] Besides the faster drying achieved in dry electrospray,
which helps protect proteins from damage, addition of protective
reagents, such as trehalose, sucrose, other carbohydrates, and
other polyols, also serve to provide protection against damage
and/or inactivation upon drying. When electrosprayed under mild
conditions of low voltage/current and controlled humidity, the
presence of sucrose protected the activity of alkaline phosphatase
(AP) relative to AP directly dried onto the same substrate from the
same solution used for electrospray. The specific activity of the
AP enzyme deposited by electrospray under mild conditions was found
to be similar to that of the initial enzyme solution. Radical
scavengers and antioxidants can be added as protective reagents to
protect against damage from radicals, atomic oxygen and other
active species produced during the electrospray process. For
proteins with free SH- groups that are essential for their
functional properties, such as in hexokinase, the presence of
.beta.-mercaptoethanol, a reducing agent which protects the
oxidation of SH--(sulfhydryl) groups in the electrospray solution,
was found to result in a considerably better retention of
functional properties as judged from an increase in the
mechanochemical response of the electrospray-deposited protein film
upon binding of specific ligands. .beta.-mercaptoethanol can also
act as a radical scavenger and antioxidant, and thus, its addition
is useful even with proteins lacking the sulfhydryl groups.
[0107] In addition to protecting biomolecules against damage during
drying in the method of the present invention, protective reagents,
such as the carbohydrates and polyols, e.g., glycerol, sucrose,
trehalose, etc., can also serve to decrease the packing density of
biomolecules, particularly proteins, in the deposited sample films.
These protective reagent additives are water-soluble and
non-volatile. After the biomolecules in a dry state are
cross-linked, the water-soluble non-volatile additives can be
washed away and thereby create additional voids and channels in the
sample, thus lowering the packing density in the cross-linked
sample film and enhancing the penetrability of the sample film to
ligands. Such films can be more effective in tests with specific
ligands of larger molecular weight and size.
[0108] Another way of decreasing the packing density and enhancing
the penetrability of a biomolecule sample film is to use dry
electrospray with high concentrations of biomolecules in solution,
which results in the deposition of biomolecules in the form of
nanoclusters. The size of the deposited nanoclusters strongly
depends on the biomolecule and solute concentrations. The internal
diffusion in such films composed of the electrospray-deposited
nanoclusters is much faster than in dried film of the same protein,
as illustrated in FIG. 15C, since the large intergrain channels are
easily penetrable by ligands, and only the diffusion within the
grains will be slowed down to the level of a homogeneous film.
[0109] While it is expected that large ligands can also penetrate
sample films having a low packing density as described above, the
reduction of the thickness of the deposited biomolecule film layer
is thought to be the main route to decreasing the diffusional
limitations in the sample film. A monolayer of biomolecules, free
or deposited onto a suitable material can be considered as a
limiting case of such a thin film which is completely free of any
internal diffusion limitations. To be used in mechanical tests,
such a film can be internally cross-linked and used free or
deposited onto the surface of a gel which does not restrict the
mobility of the monolayer film. In other assays (e.g., for use in
plasmon resonance sensors, in immunoassay tests, etc.), a monolayer
film or even separate molecules can be deposited by electrospray on
any suitable material within the knowledge of those in the art and
used with or without cross-linking.
[0110] Agents that are available for cross-linking biomolecules
together are well-known to those of skill in the art (Hermanson et
al., 1991). UV irradiation can be used for DNA molecules. For
protein molecules, glutaraldehyde is preferred because it has
advantages in terms of preserving the functional activity of
cross-linked proteins. Glutaraldehyde attacks free amino groups,
which are numerous in protein molecules, and their modification
does not appear to adversely affect the functional properties of
proteins unless the amino groups are directly involved at an active
site. While the amino groups at active sites can be protected from
reaction with glutaraldehyde by the steps of reversible maleilation
at basic pH, cross-linking under basic pH, and deblocking by
storage at slightly acid pH (pH 5-6), the laboratory of the present
inventors has found that ligand binding, as determined by affinity
assays performed on this film, was still detectable even if the
amino groups were left unprotected in proteins which have amino
groups in their active sites, i.e., ribonuclease, monoclonal
antibodies, etc. It is useful, however, to protect the amino groups
when the protein has either numerous free amino groups or amino
groups in a binding site so as to obtain a larger signal-to-noise
ratio.
[0111] Before the cross-linking of the deposited biomolecules, and
in particular proteins, the film of biomolecules may be exposed to
either a humid atmosphere or a solution, i.e., a glycerol solution,
which allows for limited mobility or liquidity of the biomolecules
in the sample film but not for solubility in the solution. The
effect of increased liquidity allows the protein molecules and/or
clusters in the film to move relative to each other, filling voids
inside the film and providing a film with no visible inhomogeneity.
This phenomena can be likened to transformation in a layer of big
round rocks that were haphazardly dumped onto a surface. If the big
rocks are allowed to move relative to one another due to some form
of disturbance, then the big rocks would preferably move to a more
uniform topography. A homogeneous film of proteins however provides
strength at the expense of possibly reduced ligand
penetrability.
[0112] The advantages that the method of the present invention has
over known methods of depositing multiple spots include those
listed below.
[0113] As compared with methods of direct application of spots
(dots) of substances manually or with the use of computer
controlled manipulators (like those used in Stanford University to
fabricate DNA libraries, see Shalon et al., 1996):
[0114] (i) considerably smaller spots can be deposited;
[0115] (ii) spots are deposited simultaneously, which potentially
greatly reduces the fabrication time;
[0116] (iii) spots can be of any shape;
[0117] (iv) when deposited on a filter membrane, substances are not
distributed over the whole thickness of the membrane but are
concentrated in the surface layer, which facilitates the discovery
of spots by optical methods.
[0118] As compared to methods using electrodeposition from
solution, electrospray deposition is advantageous, since
[0119] (i) no micr6electrode arrays are required to deposit the
microsample,
[0120] (ii) even slightly conducting surfaces may be used as
support. For example, the surface conductivity of mica and glass in
a humid atmosphere is enough to deposit substances onto a surface.
FIG. 5C presents an example of electrospray deposition through the
screen shown in FIG. 5A onto a wet mica surface.
[0121] (iii) sequential deposition of a different substance is not
connected with cross-contamination of spots of different substances
as it may occur when in contact with solution.
[0122] As compared to photolithographic techniques electrospray
deposition is advantageous in:
[0123] (i) reduction of number of steps in deposition
procedure;
[0124] (ii) diminution of cross-contamination due to absence of the
contact of the whole chip surface with each solution;
[0125] (iii) reduction of cross-contamination due to a smaller
number of chip transfers through the solution interface when it is
dipped or withdrawn from the solution.
[0126] Special advantages of the electrospray deposition technology
include:
[0127] (i) Electrospray allows deposition under conditions that
cannot be attained by conventional methods, e.g., substances can be
deposited onto a surface cooled to a very low temperature, i.e.,
under liquid nitrogen or a dielectric fluid, as shown schematically
in FIG. 7. These low temperature conditions might be useful in
depositing unstable molecules. Electrospray deposition also allows
for deposition under vacuum. Charged molecules and clusters can be
introduced under vacuum in a manner similar to that used to
introduce ions into mass spectrometry. Substances can also be
separated before deposition, for example, by placing the substrate
behind the slot in a mass-spectrometer, where separate components
of the electrospray solution can be deposited in different
positions on the substrate, enabling further use of the deposits in
chemical analysis.
[0128] (ii) Unusual internal structure of electrospray-deposited
substances may be obtained. For example, an amorphous protein film
obtained by electrospray may not be as densely packed and as
homogeneous as those films obtained by drying a protein solution on
a surface. Instead, a porous material formed of protein clusters
was obtained by the electrospray deposition of concentrated protein
solutions as shown in FIG. 15A. Such porous films provide
advantages in analytical applications by facilitating penetration
of substances into such films.
[0129] (iii) The amount of deposited substance is easy to control,
since essentially all the electrosprayed material goes onto the
substrate. This is not the case in the deposition of a film of
biomolecules from solution, where the efficiency with which
different molecules bind to the activated surface may be
different.
[0130] (iv) Electrospray deposition is highly economical since
practically all the electrosprayed molecules reach the substrate
surface through the holes in the mask.
[0131] (v) Electrospray deposition is very flexible with respect to
size of deposits. It can be applied to deposit not only spots as
small as 1 micron but spots as large as 1 cm or more, using similar
techniques.
[0132] The method according to the present invention can be used to
fabricate sensitive elements of biosensors from very small
quantities of proteins (0.01-1 microgram). This is especially
important when applied to a mechanochemical method of testing the
biospecificity of protein molecules by change in the properties of
a protein film, since microgram quantities of proteins are usually
readily available from common analytical scale protein purification
procedures, such as electrophoresis. The method can also be used to
prepare protein sample for other types of biosensors, e.g., enzyme
electrodes, MOSFET chemosensors, biosensors based on changes in
mass or in the optical properties of the protein, etc. In general,
the method of the present invention for fabrication of microsamples
from biospecific molecules offers a new way of combining the
biospecificity of natural biological molecules with the
capabilities of signal treatment and the small size of modern
integral electronic chips.
[0133] An example of the preparation of such a sample film is
presented in FIG. 6, where the electrospray deposition is used to
obtain a single sample film of immobilized protein for
mechanochemical testing of protein bioaffinity. The method
according to the present invention enables the fabrication of
protein samples from submicrogram amounts of protein dissolved in a
few microliters of water. To allow easy detachment of the sample, a
sublayer, as shown in FIG. 6, is predeposited on a conductive
substrate.
[0134] Direct binding detection methods using the sample film
deposit include plasmon resonance (i.e., elliptical reflectance
microscope, which is commercially available) and scanning probe
microscopy (force microscope may be used to discover the binding of
ligands to an array of large protein molecules on a substrate
surface, whereas tunneling microscopy may be used in the detection
of binding of DNA probes to complementary oligonucleotides present
in matrices on a substrate surface).
[0135] The method according to the present invention provides the
means for greatly reducing the size of the samples needed in all
these methods as well as for making multicomponent samples. For
example, scanning probe microscopy can be used as a method for
discovering the interaction of analytes with protein or other
molecules deposited as matrix elements on a substrate surface. One
such scheme is shown in FIG. 8. A scanning force microscope s
(SFM)/atomic force microscope (AFM) can measure the height and
elasticity of each spot in the matrix. Thus, in the analysis of
large analytes (i.e., proteins, DNA molecules), SFM/AFM can be
directly used to discover analyte binding by an increase in the
thickness of a protein monolayer, like in the methods using plasmon
resonance and mass changes. With small analytes, the
mechanochemical effects in the protein deposits may be exploited.
As shown in the right side of FIG. 8, each spot (deposit) in the
matrix swells and changes its elastic modulus differently upon
contact with analyte solution. The responses of different elements
having different specificities will allow analysis of complex
multicomponent solutions.
[0136] The mass fabrication of patterns and matrices of different
substances on a substrate is achieved by displacing a multi-hole
dielectric mask or a photo-mask over a specified distance after the
deposition of each particular substance. The displacement is
preferably smaller than the distance (spacing) between holes in the
screen. In this way, a pattern of spots can be formed in an array
of multicomponent matrices. As shown in FIG. 9, either the mask or
substrate is shifted by an XY scanner after each deposition of a
different solution so that single spots of multicomponent matrices
are fabricated under each hole of the mask simultaneously. While
solutions A through E in separate capillaries for depositing
different spots are shown in FIG. 9, the same equipment can also be
used to produce a large number of monocomponent samples
simultaneously. For instance, a pattern of 200,000 spots is
deposited in this manner over the area of a standard postage stamp
(approximately 2 cm.times.2 cm) by electrofocusing the electrospray
through the holes of the mask. FIGS. 32 and 33 illustrate two types
of devices for relative displacements of substrate and mask. In
FIG. 32, the substrate is attached to a moveable stage, and in FIG.
33, the mask is attached to a pair of plates, each capable of
moving within slides.
[0137] Thus the method according to the present invention provides
for the simultaneous fabrication of thousands of protein and DNA
samples for chemical tests without using much of a valuable or
difficult-to-obtain material since every electrosprayed spot
(deposit) can be made from as little as 10.sup.-10-10.sup.-17 g of
material. Electrospray can also be used to prepare microscale
modifications of existing immunoenzyme methods. For example,
antigen X can be distributed over several thousands spots on a
substrate capable of producing covalent or other strong binding.
After washing off excess antigen, each spot can be used to discover
the presence of antibodies to the antigen X in blood serum. Bound
antibodies can be detected either indirectly with an enzyme-labeled
anti-antibody or directly. A direct method capable of detecting
changes in amount of protean material in the spot region, such as
scanning force microscopy, plasmon resonance, can be used. When
bound antibodies are detected indirectly, an enzyme reaction which
results in colored, chemiluminescent or fluorescent insoluble
products may be effectively used. Simple estimates show that a spot
10.times.10 microns in size can be measured in an optical
microscope with only 10.sup.4-10.sup.5 antibody molecules in each
spot. Thus, 10.sup.8-10.sup.9 sensitive elements can be made from 1
microgram of antibody. Another advantage of the method is the
acceleration of the analysis since the diffusion limitations upon
binding and washing may be greatly reduced for small samples due to
the much thinner unstirred layers around small bodies relative to
large bodies.
[0138] Furthermore, the present method can be used to fabricate
multicomponent matrices, i.e., arrays of spots of different
proteins, DNA, and other molecules spatially distributed in a
certain way over a substrate, to detect binding, such as with
arrays of different antigens patterned on a substrate. The array of
spots of different proteins provides a multicomponent analysis of
complex mixtures, biological liquids and natural extracts, etc. It
is well understood in chemical analysis that the ability to
simultaneously register responses of different sensors with
different specificities greatly reduces the requirements for
specificity and stability.
[0139] Microfabrication of multianalyte tests for immunoassay
analysis is another example of using electrospray to modify the
existing methods. In a modern version of this method, a sandwich of
an antigen-antibody-labele- d anti-antibody is observed on the
surface of a plastic vial as visualized by the colored, fluorescent
or luminescent products of an enzyme reaction. One version of a
micro modified ELISA, according to the present invention, has
arrays of different antigens arranged on a substrate, where each
antigen at its specific position is determined by its address on
the substrate. If the antibody to the second antigen is present in
the solution, then a matrix element will be labeled with an
anti-antibody conjugated with an enzyme and readily visualized is
after the addition of an enzyme substrate, resulting in an
insoluble colored or fluorescent product. Such multi-antigen
matrices allow for the simultaneous identification of many
antibodies in biological liquids in a single analysis, the
identification of allergens, a screening to check a patient's
immunity against a large number of microbial and virus infectious
agents, etc.
[0140] In yet another application, the method according to the
present invention can be used in the fabrication of samples for the
simultaneous hybridization of multiple DNA probes. Matrices of
spots from different oligonucleotides and DNA fragments may be
prepared on glass, filter or any other suitable surface and used in
a conventional way (Hames et al., 1987), such as in the routine
identification of biological species, tissue immunotolerance,
genetic analysis and other applications of the dot blot technique.
It has been demonstrated that molecules of .lambda.-DNA
electrosprayed onto glass or nylon filter retain their ability to
hybridize biotin-labeled .lambda.-DNA probes, as it is described in
Examples 7 and 8.
[0141] Multicomponent samples can also be fabricated according to
the method of the present invention for the rapid screening of
substances for their biological activity. For instance, spots of
different organic or biological compounds are arranged in a
two-dimensional array. The resulting matrix is then brought into
contact with a surface of a cell culture or an agar gel to permit
each substance to penetrate into the media. The reaction of the
cells in the agar can then be monitored for any changes, i.e.,
morphological changes, zones of growth inhibition, etc. Matrices
containing, for example, the majority of known antibiotics would be
used for testing the sensitivity of infectious microorganisms to a
panel of different antibiotics to facilitate the choice of the most
effective course of treatment. The method according to the present
invention can also be used to rapidly identify an enzyme inhibitor
from among a variety of matrix components. After contact of the
matrix with a filter containing an impregnated enzyme, enzyme
inhibition can be found by using a histochemical reaction to reveal
the distribution of enzyme activity over the area of contact
between the matrix and the enzyme-impregnated filter. The mass
fabrication of matrices containing spots of commercial drugs
provides, for example, a ready means for determining the possible
side effects of these drugs by testing for their effect on a number
-of key enzymes.
[0142] The method according to the present invention can also be
advantageously used in the fabrication of combinatorial libraries,
an area which is presently attracting a great deal of interest. In
contrast to other techniques of designing combinatorial libraries,
the compounds in the 2-dimensional libraries do not require
labeling since they are identified by address in the matrices.
Fabrication of such libraries using electrospray deposition
technique include surface activation to make the surface capable of
producing strong (covalent) bonds to a specific element of the
structure of the compound (N- or C-end of polypeptide, etc.),
deposition of all nucleotides or amino acids via electrospray,
deactivation of the surface, washing excess unbound compounds,
activation of the end groups of the oligonucleotides or peptides.
The series of such steps are to be repeated as many times as number
of nucleotides or amino-acid residues introduced into chains.
[0143] Compared to the fabrication of such matrices using the known
technology available in the art, electrospray deposition according
to the method of the present invention greatly simplifies and
accelerates the process. For example, both methods can use the
series of six masks shown in FIGS. 10A-10F to spatially deposit
each successive nucleotide to the 16,384 element library containing
all possible combinations of 6-mer oligonucleotides. Each layer in
this matrix can be obtained by rotating every mask by 90 degrees
after the application of one of the four nucleotides. According to
conventional technology, incorporation of each nucleotide requires
the following steps: (i) photoactivation of certain substrate
area(s) through holes in the mask (represented by white areas in
FIGS. 10A-10F), (ii) reaction with a modified nucleotide
(amino-acid) in solution, (iii) washing excess of the reagent. A
whole new cycle of wet chemistry is thus performed for each new
nucleotide incorporated.
[0144] By contrast, the method of the present invention allows all
four nucleotides (or twenty amino-acids) to be spatially
distributed over the surface, and only then wet chemistry is
performed to bind all nucleotides (amino acids) of the layer. For
instance, the mask shown in FIG. 10A has a single large square hole
(represented by white area), and in the first cycle of deposition
of the-first nucleotide of the combinatorial library of 6-mer
oligonucleotides, an adenosine nucleotide is electrosprayed onto
the substrate through this single large square hole. The mask is
then rotated by 90.degree. for each of the other three cytosine,
guanosine and thymidine nucleotides so as to create a first layer
of nucleotides in which each of the four quadrants of the
substrates corresponds to the deposit of a different nucleotide.
After chemical binding of the deposited nucleotides, the next layer
of nucleotides is deposited using another mask and electrospraying
each nucleotide by rotating the mask by 90.degree. as done with the
first mask. When each of the series of masks shown in FIGS. 10A
through 10F are used successively (in any order), then all possible
combinations of nucleotides in the 6-mer are generated.
Photo-masks, similar to those shown in FIGS. 10A-10F, can also be
used to deposit charged nucleotides onto a photoconductive
dielectric substrate.
[0145] After the deposition of all four nucleotides into a layer,
the chemical binding of a nucleotide to an oligonucleotide end is
performed using conventional methods of solid state chemistry for
nucleotide binding with the reaction being activated by placing the
deposit into an atmosphere of saturated solvent vapor by raising
temperatures or using any other known method to activate chemical
reactions. Thus, electrospray deposition accelerates the synthesis
of oligonucleotide matrices by at least 4 times and accelerates the
synthesis of peptide libraries to an even greater degree (about 20
fold). The mass fabrication of such libraries is needed in the
search for new drugs, genetic analysis, etc. In particular, DNA
sequencing by hybridization of such combinatorial matrices with
overlapping DNA fragments is one of the most exciting applications
of oligonucleotide combinatorial matrices.
[0146] The present invention further contemplates an apparatus in
which an electrosprayed mist of charged particles are guided to the
deposit areas by electric fields.
[0147] FIG. 24 shows the apparatus including an electrospray
chamber 100 inside which are the capillary 52 from which a mist of
electrically charged particles is emitted, a guard ring 20, a grid
screen 70 which helps to contain and guide the mist of charged
particles, and a substrate holder 69 which holds the substrate (not
visible in FIG. 24) on which the deposits are made. The holder 69
preferably includes a bearing and magnets (not visible in FIG. 24)
which are rotated by other magnets 201, 202 rotated by a step motor
200 which is preferably driven by a driver 205. This magnetic drive
electrically- isolates the chamber 100 and damps vibration.
[0148] The sides of the electrospray chamber 100 preferably include
transparent windows 101 and the grid screen 70 includes holes (also
visible in FIG. 27) or plastic windows which permit a laser 300 to
shine a laser beam 301 through the electrospray chamber 100 into a
microscope 302. This permits viewing of the "torch" of charged
particles emitted from the capillary 52. Preferably the laser 300
is a Ne-Ar laser and the microscope has power 5.times.to
10.times..
[0149] A syringe 400 is coupled into the chamber 100 by a tube 402.
This is used to inject liquid to be turned into a mist of charged
particles.
[0150] A supply of dry air (or other gas) from a tank 500 flows
through a tube 502 and a flow meter 503 into the chamber 100. A
humidity meter 505 is preferably provided with a sensor 506 inside
the chamber 100. The humidity should be controlled to control the
evaporation rate of the mist particles, which typically are
droplets of an aqueous solution. Humidity is typically kept at
about 10-30%. Besides the illustrated tank 500, dry air can be
obtained with silica gel. Flow rates are typically 200-500
mL/min.
[0151] A dual power supply 700 supplies voltages U.sub.g and
U.sub.c in the kilovolt range to the internal parts of the chamber
as described below. Preferably the currents are measured with
respective nanoammeters 702 and 705. Voltage U.sub.g goes to the
guard ring 20, and the voltage U.sub.c is coupled to the capillary
52. Optionally, a single power supply can be used and coupled to
both the guard ring 20 and the capillary 52. Both are to be set at
a potential repulsive to the mist of charged particles emitted from
the capillary 52.
[0152] FIG. 25 shows the electrospray chamber 100 in more detail.
The chamber 100 preferably has an open bottom which rests on a base
110 in which are the step motor 200 and magnets 201, 202. These
drive corresponding magnets 111, 112 to rotate about a bearing 113
on which is mounted the sample holder 69.
[0153] A protective screen 30 (also shown in FIGS. 29A and 29B)
stands above the sample holder 69 and supports the grid screen 70
(also shown in FIG. 27). It preferably includes four acrylic-tubing
legs 33, a polystyrene ring 32, and a Teflon.RTM. top plate 31 with
a central hole 35. The top plate 31 is preferably slightly
deformed, concave downward as shown.
[0154] Just above the protective screen 30, and inside the screen
grid 70, is the collecting ring 40. The collecting ring 40 is
hollow and at its upper end couples to the dry air tube 502 seen in
FIG. 24. The air passes through a preferably stainless steel tube
42, partially sheathed in silicone tubing 43, through a
polyethylene coupling 44 to a hollow silicone tubing ring 45. From
the ring 45 smaller Teflon.RTM. tubes 46 converge on a central
opening.
[0155] Preferably, a copper ring 47 is located in the central
opening, which is to be disposed above the hole 35 of the
protective screen 30. The stainless tube 42 may be electrified by a
voltage U.sub.r from the power supply (not shown in FIG. 25 or 28)
and the voltage conducted through a wire passing through one. of
the Teflon.RTM. tubes 46. The voltage U.sub.r may be used as an
aide in guiding charged particles. The voltage is shown as being
transmitted through an alligator clip, which is merely
exemplary.
[0156] Preferably, the voltage Ur on the copper ring 47 is is
intermediate the voltage on the sample holder 69 (and the substrate
held by it, see FIGS. 3 and 4) and the voltage on the capillary 52
which has voltage U.sub.c, as described below.
[0157] The screen grid 70 is preferably made of woven polypropylene
screen cloth with 1000-micron holes, available from Small Parts,
Inc., Miami Lakes, Fla., as item CMP-1000-A. The holes should be
about 1.0-1.5 mm and the material should be a good dielectric. The
windows 71 are preferably acrylic plastic for optical-quality light
transmission. An alternative funnel-shaped screen grid is shown in
FIG. 16A and is described below.
[0158] Still within the screen grid 70 is the capillary 52,
preferably made of glass, and the capillary holder assembly 50,
best shown in FIG. 26. Liquid to be sprayed arrives from the tube
402 (also seen in FIG. 24) and passes to the capillary 52 through a
nickel-plated brass tube 53, a smaller stainless steel tube 54, and
thence out of the orifice of the drawn-glass tube 52. The bore of
the capillary 52 should noL exceed 30-40 microns outside diameter,
and the outside surface should be treated to be hydrophobic. The
emerging liquid is electrified by a fine platinum wire inserted
through the bore of the capillary tube 52, which is electrically
connected to voltage UC from the power supply 700 (FIG. 24) via the
brass and steel tubes and the exemplary alligator clip. The guard
ring 20 is merely a metal toroid or annulus disposed near the upper
end of the screen grid 70.
[0159] FIG. 30 shows the parts of the sample holder table 69. The
upper part rotates on a brass pedestal 696 soldered to a brass
plate 698, on which are fastened an acrylic plate 693 on spacers
695. The driven magnets 111 and 112 are mounted on the acrylic
plate 693. A mask assembly 691 is held by an acrylic sub-holder 692
glued to plate 693. Bearings 697 and spring 699 aid in accurate
positioning.
[0160] Rotation of the sample holder 69 during deposition is a
requirement for obtaining uniform deposition films when air flow
rates are low.
[0161] FIG. 31 shows a sample holder which fits into the sample
holder table 69 shown in FIG. 30. The sub-holder 692 is mounted on
a plastic table 6922 which in turn is mounted on a base 6923 with a
handle 6924 to place the sample holder into the space bounded by
the brass plate 698, spacers 695, and acrylic plate 693. Carbon
paste is preferably used to form an electrical contact to an
electrostatic device, e.g., electrostatic devices 581 or 621 in
FIG. 4A or 95 in FIG. 4B.
[0162] FIG. 32A illustrates an embodiment of the present invention
in which wobblers are used to oscillate or vibrate the electrospray
capillary 52. The electrospray holder 50 is moved preferably by a
wobbling motor 250 and a mechanism 252 coupled to the brass tube 53
(or some other suitable part of the capillary holder assembly 50)
for to-and-fro or rotary motion; a second mechanism 252 is set at
right angles to the first. The mechanism preferably is designed so
that the tip of the capillary 52 spends equal amounts of time over
each area portion of the substrate 58. Any other means to oscillate
the capillary is within the scope of the invention.
[0163] The embodiment of FIG. 32A also illustrates an exemplary
structure for fabrication of matrices consisting of multiple dots.
In this embodiment the sample holder 69 and substrate 58 is
shifted, after deposition of each compound, in horizontal
directions X and Y, which are generally perpendicular to the motion
of the charged particles 56. In the embodiment of FIG. 32A the
bearing 113, magnets 201, 202, 110, 112, step motor 200, and driver
205 of FIG. 25 are not used.
[0164] The shifting is accomplished by an X-Y translation stage,
which may be of any type. FIG. 32A shows a manually-operated type
of translation stage with respective X-motion and Y-motion
micrometer heads 121, 122 having vernier scales, but the
translation stages may be of any manual type or automatic, e.g., of
the type driven by step motors or the equivalent and controllable
by a momentary contact switch, circuit, or computer program. A
magnet 115 is preferably used to attach the sample holder 69 onto
the translation stage with an electrode 102 disposed between the
magnet 115 and the substrate 58.
[0165] The present invention also contemplates arrays of deposits
in other geometries, for example, deposits arranged along circles
of different radii with .theta., r rotators or translators instead
of X, Y translators.
[0166] The translation stages permit the substrate to be shifted so
that the mask holes are moved to new positions above an area of the
substrate. New deposit areas can then be deposited with new
substances. A matrix of different substance deposits can be arrayed
in rows and columns.
[0167] FIG. 32B shows the mask 62, mask holes 60, substrate 58, and
deposit 64 enlarged from the circled portion of FIG. 32A. Mask
reinforcement beams 61, shown in cross-section, are preferably
strips fastened to an upper side of the mask 62, but may be a
honeycomb grid, etc. Spacers 6258 are placed between the mask 62
and substrate 58. The spacers 6258 are preferably small spheres so
that the mask 62 can roll in any direction on the surface of the
substrate 28.
[0168] FIG. 33 shows another embodiment of a mask shifter with a
first plate slidable in an X-direction on a second plate 126, where
the second plate 126 is slidable in a Y-direction on a base plate
127. Wobblers for X and Y motions, in the form of cams 123, 124,
bear on the edges of the plates 125 and 126, respectively. When the
cams are rotated the plates move. This mask shifter. may be placed
onto the rotating-table sample holder 69 of FIG. 25.
[0169] FIG. 34 shows a chamber 100 like that of FIG. 25, except
that the rotating sample holder table 69 is larger in diameter and
the deposition takes place on one side of the chamber 100 (on the
right in FIG. 34). On the other side, the mask 62 is recharged by a
stream of counter-ions 856 discharged from a corona electrode 850
coupled to an electrostatic device (not shown in FIG. 34). The
counter-ions are so-called because they are opposite in polarity to
the charged particles; FIG. 34 shows, for an example, that the
charged particles to be deposited on the dielectric substrate 58
are of positive polarity, while the counter-ions are negative. The
corona electrode preferably includes an array of
microelectrodes.
[0170] To prevent the electric field from the corona electrode 850
from disrupting the flow of charged particles 56 from the capillary
52 to the mask 62, the corona electrode 850 is preferably enclosed
in a protective shield, e.g., a Faraday shield, 840, which may be
grounded. The bottom of the shield 840 is open and placed near to
the mask 62. Preferably, a counter-electrode 842 is placed just
under the table 69, which tends to complete the Faraday cage and
enclose a portion of the substrate within metal. However, the
counter-electrode 842 is preferably not grounded but instead is
coupled to an electrostatic device (not shown) which places a
voltage on the counter-electrode which is attractive to the
counter-ions 856, and causes them to move downward onto the mask
62.
[0171] A second counter-electrode 844 if preferably placed under
the table 69 below the capillary 52, on the other side of the axis
of the table 69 from the first counter-electrode 842. The second
counter-electrode 844 is preferably opposite in polarity to the
electrospray capillary 52 and also to the first counter-electrode
842.
[0172] In the arrangement of FIG. 34, the rotating table 69 should
not be metallic since this would prevent the electric fields from
the counter-electrodes from reaching the mask 62. The rotating
table 69 is preferably made from a dielectric such as plastic or
mica.
[0173] Having now generally described the invention, the same will
be more readily understood through reference to the following
examples which are provided by way of illustration and are not
intended to.be limiting of the present invention.
EXAMPLE 1
[0174] A 0.01% aqueous solution of horse myoglobin (Sigma, St.
Louis) was electrosprayed onto a conducting surface of glass
through a monofilament cloth with multiple holes. The conducting
glass surface was prepared by treating a glass microscope slide
with SnCl.sub.4 vapor in an oven. A +5 kV was applied to the
electrospray capillary, and a polypropylene tissue was used as a
mask to electrofocus the electrospray for deposition onto the
conducting glass surface. Comparison of FIGS. 5A and 5B shows that
the myoglobin protein is deposited into spots of 5-7 microns in
size, whereas the size of the holes in the tissue is about 22-23
microns, which illustrates the electrostatic lens effect. Some
missed spots in the pattern are due to occasional dust particles,
which are observed to be present on the screen. This example
demonstrates that protein can be deposited simultaneously into
numerous spots. Thus, a 20.times.20 mm.sup.2 area of glass
substrate covered with spots separated by a distance of about 47
microns was found to contain 1.8.times.10.sup.5 spots of
protein.
EXAMPLE 2
[0175] Solutions of nine different dyes (0.01%) in methanol were
electrosprayed through the holes in a Teflon screen (mask) onto a
surface of a porous IMMOBILON-P filter (Millipore) which was made
slightly conductive by soaking in a solution containing 15%
polyethylene glycol-8,000, 10 mM MgCl.sub.2 and 15% glycerol.
Electrospray deposition was performed with +7 kV at the capillary,
through a Teflon mask with 100 holes of 0.5 mm diameter at a
distance of 4 mm. After deposition of 0.5 microliters of each
solution, the mask was shifted by approximately 0.6 mm and another
dye was deposited. A fragment of the porous IMMOBILON-P filter
containing the matrices of deposited dye spots is presented in FIG.
11. This example demonstrates the ability of the method according
to the present invention to pattern substances over a substrate to
simultaneously produce numerous multianalyte samples and
libraries.
EXAMPLE 3
[0176] The electrospray conditions used in this example were
similar to those used in Example 1. Two commercially available
proteins, peroxidase and alkaline phosphatase (Sigma Chemical
Company, St. Louis, Mo.), that were dialyzed against distilled
water, were electrosprayed through holes in a polypropylene mask
onto a surface of a slightly wetted nitrocellulose filter to
demonstrate that proteins, deposited by electrospray into a
pattern, retain their functional properties, namely the ability to
specifically bind their natural ligands and catalyze enzymatic
reactions.
[0177] After electrospray, the pattern of deposited enzyme was not
visible on the membrane filter surface. However, the patterns of
the enzymes did become visible after soaking the
peroxidase-deposited membrane filter in a solution of a standard
peroxidase substrate (3,3'-diaminobenzidine, abbreviated DAB, and
obtained from Sigma, St. Louis, Mo.), resulting in the formation of
an insoluble brown colored product of the peroxidase reaction. The
array of dots indicating the presence of insoluble product is shown
in FIG. 12A.
[0178] Likewise, the membrane filters on which alkaline phosphatase
was deposited was soaked in a standard alkaline phosphatase
substrate (5-bromo-4-chloro-3-indolyl phosphate/nitro blue
tetrazolium substrate system kit, Sigma, St. Louis, Mo.), resulting
in the formation of an insoluble blue colored product of the
alkaline phosphatase reaction, and the pattern was visualized as
shown in FIG. 12B. The results demonstrate that the enzymatic
activity of alkaline phosphatase and peroxidase is retained after
electrospray deposition.
EXAMPLE 4
[0179] Different antigens (serum albumins from human and ox,
ovalbumin and human hemoglobin) were electrospray deposited onto a
wetted IMMOBILON-P membrane filter through a mask having multiple
holes. After each deposition of a different protein antigen, the
mask was shifted by 1.1 mm. After depositing all four protein
antigens, the membrane filter was dried for 15 min. at 37.degree.
C. and blocked by soaking in a PBS solution (10 mM sodium phosphate
buffer, pH 7.2, 0.9% NaCl) with 0.05%- Tween-20, 1% chicken albumin
(ovalbumin). After blocking, the membrane filter was soaked in a
solution of a goat antibody against human serum albumin (Sigma,
diluted 1:1000) for an hour. The filter was then washed twice with
PBS buffer for 10 seconds and reacted with a solution of anti-goat
IgG antibodies labeled with alkaline phosphatase (Sigma, diluted
1:3000). After washing off excess anti-goat antibodies with PBS,
the position of the enzyme-labeled spot was identified by soaking
the filter in a solution of an alkaline phosphatase substrate
capable of producing an insoluble product as described in Example
3. FIG. 13 shows a pattern obtained by using this microELISA assay.
As was expected the spots corresponding to the deposition of human
serum albumin are the most intense. The spots of other proteins
either are not visible at all as that of ovalbumin or less
intensively colored as bovine albumin and human hemoglobin,
presumably due to some cross-reactivity of anti-human albumin
antibody to the bovine albumin and due to some human albumin
contamination in human hemoglobin sample. This example shows that
electrospray procedure itself does not change considerably
antigenic properties of proteins and demonstrates the applicability
of electrospray to the mass fabrication of multicomponent
immunoenzyme probes.
EXAMPLE 5
[0180] Protein films were prepared by electrospray for use in a
mechanochemical method of assay. A 2 mg/ml concanavalin A (Sigma,
St. Louis, Mo.) solution, containing 0.5 mg/ml of glycerol was
electrosprayed through a rectangular single hole onto an Al
electrode covered with a polymeric conducting sublayer of about 2-5
microns thick. The sublayer was prepared by drying a thin layer of
water solution of a mixture of three compounds (polyethylene
glycol-8000, poly(anetholesulfonic acid)--Na-salt and Triton
X-100), 3% each. The protein solution was electrosprayed from a
capillary tip placed 20 mm over the substrate, with positive
voltage of 4.0 kV at the capillary and a current of 33 nA.
Deposition was performed in dry air for 10 minutes. After
electrospray deposition, the sample was cross-linked for 15 minutes
in a vapor of 25% glutaraldehyde (Aldrich Chemical Company,
Milwaukee, Wis.) at 25.degree. C. Upon applying a droplet of water
on the substrate surface, the sample was floated off the substrate
within 5 seconds. To prepare a microphotograph of the sample, as
presented in FIG. 14A, the sample was stained by treatment with a
solution of Coomassie brilliant blue R is (Sigma, St. Louis, Mo.)
placed in a droplet of water and covered by a cover slip.
[0181] A film of horse liver alcohol dehydrogenase (LADH, Sigma,
St. Louis, Mo.), shown in FIG. 14B, was fabricated on an Al
electrode covered with a sublayer consisting of 95% of the sodium
salt of alginic acid (Sigma, St. Louis, Mo.) and 5% of Triton X-100
detergent. The LADH solution containing 5 mg/ml of protein and 1.5
mg/ml of sucrose was electrosprayed in dry air at +4.3 kV and 30-40
nA from a capillary placed about 15 mm over the substrate. The
deposited film was cross-linked for 8 minutes with the vapor from
25% glutaraldehyde at 28.degree. C. The samples were then tested
for their ability to change isometric tension in response to 0.4 mM
NADH solution. Similar 6-7% ligand-induced increase in isometric
tension of both the electrospray deposited and conventionally
prepared films indicates that electrospraying retains the
functional ability of proteins to specifically bind ligands and
change their conformation as a result of such binding.
[0182] These examples demonstrate that small protein samples of a
uniform thickness, which is important for testing proteins by a
mechanochemical method, can be fabricated by electrospray
deposition without loss of their functional activity.
EXAMPLE 6
[0183] The deposition of protein from concentrated protein
solutions in a dry atmosphere results in the formation of a porous
structure. FIG. 15A presents an atomic force microscopy (AFM) image
of a human hemoglobin film deposited onto a polished gold
electrode. The protein was electrosprayed from an aqueous solution
containing 0.6 mg/ml human hemoglobin with no other additives
added. Deposition was performed in dry air at +5.3 kV on a
capillary placed at a distance of about 20 mm over the substrate,
with a current of 12 nA and solution flow rate of 100 nl/min. The
image presented in FIG. 15A shows the presence of protein clusters
with sizes up to about 300 nm. Exposure to humid air (100% relative
humidity at room temperature for 20 minutes) resulted in the
disappearance of large clusters and the formation of a flat surface
with narrow "channels" which are visible as black structures in the
image presented in FIG. 15B. FIG. 15C illustrates enhanced
penetrability of electrospray-deposited protein film. In this
example, small pieces of solid dye were placed onto the surface of
both electrospray-deposited and dried films and the films were then
placed into a humid chamber having 100% humidity. In the presence
of water, dye molecules penetrate the protein film, forming a
diffuse concentric colored zone around each dye piece. As seen from
FIG. 15C, the diffusion of the dye proceeds many times faster in
the electrospray-deposited film relative to the films prepared by
conventional methods of drying the protein solution. This example
illustrates that.the fabrication by electrospray deposition allows
the preparation of new porous materials from substances
which-otherwise form homogeneous dense films when dried from
solution. It also illustrates a means to regulate porosity, and
therefore penetrability, to specific ligands of
electrospray-fabricated films after deposition by "baking" in an
atmosphere containing solvent vapor, thereby permitting the
relative displacement of protein molecules within the clusters.
EXAMPLE 7
[0184] .lambda.-DNA stock solution (product of New England Biolabs)
containing 0.5 .mu.g/.mu.l of DNA was diluted twice with water,
denatured by boiling for 5 min and snap cooled in ice. 10 .mu.l of
this solution was placed in a capillary and 1 .mu.l was
electrosprayed at a voltage of +4.9 kv and a current of 40 nA using
a platinum wire inserted into capillary as electrode. Deposition
was performed through a polypropylene woven screen (mask) with
rectangular holes (Type E-CMP-250 of Small Parts, Inc., Fla.) onto
the surface of a cover slip briefly treated with plasma discharge
to make the glass surface hydrophilic. Electric contact with the
glass surface was made by a wet o-ring cut out of a Whatman 3M
paper. The deposited DNA was cross-linked by UV-irradiation for 15
min, rinsed in 0.1% SDS and then washed twice with water. The
slides were then rinsed in 0.1 M borate buffer, pH=8.0, and placed
into 70 mM succinic anhydride, prepared in the same buffer
containing 35% 1-methyl-2-pyrrolidinone (Aldrich product) for 10
min. Slides were then washed by the borate buffer for 2 min and, by
water 4 times by 2 min. A biotinylated EcoRI digest of .lambda.-DNA
obtained from Sigma was boiled, snap cooled in ice and added to
hybridization solution at a final concentration of 100 ng/ml. A
4.times.SSC solution containing 1% SDS 10% dextran sulfate and 100
.mu.g/ml of digested DNA from salmon testes (Sigma product) was
used as hybridization solution. Hybridization was performed for 14
hours at 62.degree. C. in a home made micro-chamber. After
hybridization, the slides were washed twice with 2.times.SSC
solution, once with 0.2.times.SSC solution for 5 min, and then
blocked for 30 min in AP buffer containing 2% BSA and 1% casein. AP
buffer consisted of 0.1 M TRIS-HCl buffer, pH=7.5, 0.1 M NaCl, 2 mM
MgCl.sub.2 and 0.5% Tween-20. After blocking, the slides were
washed with AP buffer for 5 min and incubated for 25 min in 1
.mu.g/ml solution of streptavidin-alkaline phosphatase conjugate
(Sigma product) prepared on AP buffer. Slides were then washed 4
times with AP buffer, rinsed in AP buffer with pH adjusted to 9.5
and placed in standard substrate solution of alkaline phosphatase,
as described in EXAMPLE 3. Arrays of spots similar to those
presented in FIGS. 12A and 12B appeared on glass as indication of
the concentration of alkaline phosphatase in the DNA spots due to
binding with biotinilated DNA hybrids.
EXAMPLE 8
[0185] In another experiment, .lambda.-DNA denatured molecules
prepared as described in Example 7 were electrosprayed onto nylon
filter (DuPont's Gene Screen hybridization filter) from solution
containing 20% glycerol and 0.01% of Bromphenol Blue dye. The
latter was added to visualize the sprayed pattern before
hybridization, where all the dye was then extracted from the filter
during prehybridization. Deposition was performed in a humid glove
box under a relative humidity of 60%. The filter was placed onto a
wet Whatman 3M paper covering a carbon electrode, and the filter
was then covered with propylene woven screen similar to that used
in deposition of DNA on glass. 2 .mu.l of the target DNA solution
were electrosprayed at a voltage of + (4.2-4.5) kV and a current of
20-30 nA. After deposition, the DNA was baked for 20 min at
75.degree. C., denatured in 0.5 M NaOH solution, washed in 0.5 M
TRIS-HCL buffer, pH=7.4, and UV cross-linked for 15 min. Filters
were then prehybridized for 1 hour at 42.degree. C. in buffer
containing 6.times.SSC buffer, 45% formamide, 1% SDS, 10% dextran
sulfate, 5.times.Denhardt's solution and 100 .mu.g/ml of denatured
sonicated DNA from salmon testes. Hybridization was performed at
42.degree. C. for 14 hours in the same solution to which 200 ng/ml
biotinilated .lambda.-DNA probe, similar to that in the above
experiment was added. Hybridization was -followed by washing with
2.times.SSC buffer (5 min), 2 washes with 2.times.SSC, 0.2% SDS
solutions at room temperature and then by incubation in
0.1.times.SSC with 0.2% SDS at 62.degree. C. twice for 15 min each.
After washing, the filters were rinsed with AP buffer, blocked with
a mixture of 2% bovine serum albumin and 1% casein in the AP buffer
for 1 hour at room temperature, and then incubated in a solution of
the strepavidin-phosphatase conjugate, washed and incubated in AP
substrate as described in the previous Example. Arrays of bluish
spots similar to those presented in FIGS. 7, 12A and 12B appeared,
revealing the positions of electrospray deposited spots of
.lambda.-DNA.
[0186] Examples 7 and 8 illustrate that electrosprayed DNA
molecules retain their ability to specifically interact with
complementary strands and opens the application of the electrospray
technology to the fabrication of DNA-based tests and libraries.
EXAMPLE 9
[0187] In this example, different dyes were electrosprayed from
water solution in an air-assisted mode. To perform the
electrospray, the end of a stainless steel needle was inserted into
a jet of compressed air coming from a plastic nozzle. .+-.(2-5) kV
was applied to the needle, and another pole of the high-voltage
power supply was connected to a metal plate. A 30.times.30 cm,
slightly wet Whatman 3M paper was placed onto the metal plate and
covered with a perforated plastic mask about 1 cm thick with array
of round holes of 13 mm in diameter. Air jet-assisted electrospray
was performed from 0.2-1 m distance to substrate with the rate of
solution spray of 0.1-1 ml/min. After deposition of one dye, the
mask was shifted by a small distance and another dye was deposited.
The deposited patterns are shown in FIG. 17. It is similar to the
ones obtained by use of pure electrospray with the only difference
being that much larger samples. (spots) can be deposited on a much
larger area more quickly and from larger amount of 25 material.
This example illustrates that the basic phenomena of
electrofocusing, electroconcentration and patterning through a
multi-hole mask can also be used with any other means of producing
charged particles and droplets, besides pure electrospray.
EXAMPLE 10
[0188] A 0.5% aqueous solution of pancreatic RNAse (Sigma, St.
Louis), containing 30% of sucrose and 10% of glycerol (based on the
dry weight of protein) was electrosprayed onto a conducting
aluminum layer on a polymer support through a monofilament cloth
with multiple holes similar to that used in Example 1.
Electrodeposition was performed for 10 minutes in a closed chamber
with a relative humidity of 18%, +4.0 kV applied to the capillary
with an internal diameter of 10 microns and current of 10 nA. A
larger amount of electrodeposited material as compared with that in
Example 1 revealed an ability to produce samples with
three-dimensional features. As shown in FIG. 19B, arrays of protein
samples with a lateral size of 5-7 microns and a height of 30-40
microns can be fabricated with the electrospray method according to
the present invention using the lens effect in closely placed holes
in a dielectric mask, as shown schematically in FIG. 19A.
EXAMPLE 11
[0189] MATERIALS AND METHODS
[0190] Materials. Alkaline phosphatase (AP) from bovine intestinal
mucosa, p-nitrophenyl phosphate (pNPP substrate table set, Sigma
Fast), trehalose and sucrose were obtained from Sigma Chemical Co.,
St. Louis, Mo. All other salts and buffer reagents were of
analytical grade.
[0191] Design of Capillaries for Electrospray. Three different
designs of the electrospray capillaries have been tested throughout
this study. A first design, shown in FIG. 20A, is similar to the
"nanoelectrospray ion source" (Wilm et al., 1994 and 1996) with a
silver layer plated on the external surface of the capillary
instead of gold. Glass capillaries with sealed ends were first
treated for 20 seconds with an electrodeless plasma discharge at
reduced pressure (0.01 Torr, discharge power of 10-20 W, in a Pyrex
class chamber, 0.25 L). After such plasma cleaning, the glass
capillaries were activated in an acidified solution of SnCl.sub.2
and 50 g of HCl per 1 L), washed with water and covered with a
silver "mirror" (Yampolskii et al., 1981). This design is referred
to as a capillary with an external electrode.
[0192] A second design, shown in FIG. 20B, is a modification of an
electrospray capillary described by the laboratory of the present
inventors (Morozov et al., 1993). In this capillary metal electrode
(tungsten or stainless. steel wire) is not exposed to a gas phase,
thus reducing the risk of cornea discharge at high voltages. This
second design is referred to as a capillary with an inner
electrode.
[0193] In a third design, of the capillary (referred to as a bridge
capillary), contact of protein solutions with a metal electrode was
completely.avoided by introducing a liquid bridge between them. As
shown in FIG. 20C, the external surface of the stainless steel tube
4 is used as an electrode exposed to the interior of the remote end
of the large external capillary. Since the cross-section of the
external capillary 5 is more than ten times larger than that of the
inner capillary 7, the conductivity of the external capillary
exceeds more than 100 times the conductivity of the inner
capillary, making most of the current go through the large external
capillary 5, whereas the internal plastic capillary 7 is used to
supply protein solution.
[0194] A microprocessor controlled syringe pump (Cole-Parmer,
Niles, Ill.) in combination with a 10 .mu.L Hamilton microsyringe
was used to feed the electrospray capillaries. The flow rate was
6-9 .mu.L/h, and the outer diameter of the capillary tips varied in
different experiments between 50 and 100 .mu.m.
[0195] Chamber with Controlled Humidity. To control humidity during
electrospray experiments with enzymes and to protect protein
samples from contamination with dust particles present in the
ambient air, the electrospray deposition was performed in a small
(0.5 L) nearly cubic acrylic box, schematically presented in FIG.
21. A glass window was glued to one side of the box to enable sharp
observation of the electrospray torch and substrate under a stereo
microscope. The humidity and temperature inside the chamber were
measured with solid state digital sensors (Fisher) with 2-4%
precision for humidity and 0.2.degree. C. for temperature. To
increase the rate of sensor response and to keep the same humidity
in all parts of the chamber, the air was stirred with a small fan.
Dry air from a tank or air bubbled through water was introduced
into the chamber until the required humidity was reached. The fan
was then stopped, and electrospray initiated. Occasionally,
portions of dry or wet gas were added during the spray experiment
if the humidity deviated by more than 3-5% from the required
level.
[0196] Mass Measurements of the Electrospray-Deposited Proteins. A
home-built Quartz Crystal Microbalance (QCM; Sauerbrey, 1959) was
used to measure the mass of the electrospray-deposited protein. The
microbalance was made of commercial AT-cut quartz crystals (12-17
MHz, with silver electrodes of 5 mm in diameter) after removal of
their protective shells. QCM calibration was performed using 0.1%
solution of sugar in water. A microdroplet of this solution with a
volume which varied between 0.25 and 1.0 .mu.L was placed in the
middle of the quartz electrode using a syringe pump with a Hamilton
10 .mu.l microsyringe and dried as a spot of 1-1.5 mm in diameter.
After solvent evaporation under a stream of ambient air, the quartz
was placed in a closed chamber and further dried in a flow of dry
nitrogen or dry air until no changes in its resonance frequency
were observed. A difference between the resonance frequency of the
clean crystal and the resonance frequency of the crystal dried
sugar spot was calculated for every sugar mass. Calibration curves
were linear in the range 0-2 .mu.g with 2-3% of r.m.s. deviations
of experimental points from the linear regression line. To diminish
scatter of experimental points, deposition should be. made in the
center of the quartz electrode since the electrode periphery is
less sensitive to mass deposition (Sauerbrey, 1959).
[0197] Electrospray deposition of proteins on a quartz electrode
was performed as shown schematically in FIG. 21. The electrode was
grounded and a plastic screen made of Teflon.RTM.or Parafilm.RTM.
was placed on the crystal with a hole positioned over the center of
the electrode. After protein deposition, the quartz crystal was
placed into a drying chamber of QCM, connected to the. oscillator
circuit and dried until constant frequency was achieved. The dry
mass of the protein deposit was then determined from the shift in
the quartz resonance frequency using the calibration curve. The
protein concentration in dialyzed AP solution was determined by
drying 1 .mu.L of the solution on the quartz electrode and
measuring the mass of the dry residue as described above.
[0198] Measurements of Specific Activity of AP Deposit. A
commercial dry powder of AP (Sigma Chemical Co.) was dissolved in
water in a concentration of approximately 1 mg/mL, dialyzed
overnight against a solution of 10.sup.-5 M ZnCl.sub.2, pH=7-8,
centrifuged at 3,000.times.g for 1-2 minutes and kept at
-20.degree. C. Before the experiment, the stock solution was
thawed, diluted five times with water and centrifuged again.
Electrospray capillary, tubing and microsyringe were filled with
the protein solution. No bubbles were allowed to penetrate the
system.
[0199] Typically, 1 .mu.L of the protein solution was
electrosprayed in each deposition. After measuring the dry mass of
the deposit as described above, a protein spot was then extracted
3-4 times with 1-2 .mu.L droplets of buffer solution (0.2 M
TRIS/HCl buffer, pH=9.5, 1 mM MgCl.sub.2, 0.1% Tween 20). The
extracts were then combined and diluted to a final 40 .mu.L volume
with the same buffer. In the case of carbohydrates present in the
electrosprayed protein solution, the weight of protein in the
solution was calculated assuming that the protein-to-carbohydrate
ratio was not changed upon electrospray deposition.
[0200] AP activity was measured immediately after spot extraction
by adding 5-20 .mu.L of the extract solution to 1.0 mL of the p-NPP
solution in the TRIS/HCl buffer prepared from Sigma Fast tablets.
Activity was measured in a room with a thermostat, with a
temperature of 25.+-.1.degree. C. The activities, as determined by
linear regression analysis of adsorbance measurements at 410 nm
record for 2-5 minutes with a computer-controlled spectrophotometer
(AV-IV, model 118DS), exhibited linear dependence upon enzyme
concentration. The specific activity was calculated using protein
concentration measured gravimetrically, as described above in the
mass measurement section.
[0201] Every series of deposition experiments was accompanied by
measurements of the specific activity of AP in solution prepared
for electrospray deposition and in dried samples. In the latter
case, 1 .mu.L of an AP solution was applied directly onto a quartz
electrode and dried in a flow of air. After measurement of its dry
mass, the deposit was extracted, and its activity was measured as
described for electrospray-deposited samples.
[0202] Effect of Carbohydrates. To study the effect of sucrose and
trehalose on recovery of AP activity after drying, microdroplets (5
.mu.L) of diluted AP solutions were placed onto a glass surface,
and equal volumes of water or water solution containing different
amounts of carbohydrates were added to each droplet. Well-mixed
droplets were dried in a desiccator under a reduced pressure
created with a water pump. Dry spots were then dissolved, and their
activity was measured, as described for electrospray-deposited
spots.
[0203] Results and Discussion
[0204] Measurements of Mass of Electrospray-Deposited Samples. The
deposited mass was determined from a shift in resonance frequency
of quartz oscillations. However, not only the mass of the deposit
but other factors may affect the frequency shift, particularly, the
visco-elastic properties of the deposit. Protein samples obtained
in electrospray deposition under different conditions of humidity
have very different internal structure and packing density; they
are opaque or opalescent when prepared at humidity, A<50%, and
transparent and quite invisible (similar to those obtained upon
drying) if electrospray-deposited under humidity, A>70%. The
possible effect of such structural changes on QCM measurements of
deposit mass were checked in special experiments. After a
measurement of quartz resonance frequency with dry electrospray
deposit obtained at low humidity, the quartz with the deposit was
placed for 30-60 seconds in a Petri dish with A=100%, dried again,
and then its resonance frequency was remeasured. An opalescent
deposit was transformed into a transparent film as a result of this
treatment; however, no changes in resonance frequency accompanied
this transformation. It is believed that the observed variations in
structure of electrospray deposits under different humidities do
not affect mass measurements.
[0205] Electrospray Deposition Efficiency. The electrospray
efficiency is defined as a ratio of dry mass of
electrospray-deposited sample to dry mass of protein sample dried
from the same volume of the same protein solution. This value shows
a marked dependence on (1) the diameter of the hole, d, through
which the sample is deposited, (2) the distance, h, from capillary
tip to the quartz electrode, (3) voltage, V, used in electrospray
deposition, and (4) the design of the electrospray capillary. With
typical geometrical parameters, h=10-15 mm, d=2 mm, and low
voltage, V=+(3-4) kV, the electrospray deposition efficiency varied
between 60% and 80% depending on capillary design, as is shown in
the results in Table 2. The slightly lower efficiency of the
bridge-type capillary can be explained by a leakage of part of the
protein solution into the liquid bridge, since AP has pI=4.4
(Engstrom, 1961). AP molecules are negatively charged at pH>4.4
and should move towards a positively charged electrode in these
experiments.
2TABLE 2 Electrospray Deposition Efficiency and Percentage of
Recovery of Specific AP Activity Upon Electrospraying with
Different Capillaries under Identical Conditions.sup.1 Internal
Electrode External Electrode Bridge Type Activity.sup.2 55 .+-. 10
32 .+-. 9 31 .+-. 12 % Efficiency.sup.3 79 .+-. 7 78 + 8 62 + 9 %
.sup.1Voltage at capillary, V = +(3-4) kv, current I = 1-50 nA,
solution flow rate of 0.1 .mu.L/min, distance between tip and
quartz surface is 10 mm, humidity in the electrospray chamber A =
65 .+-. 5% .sup.2Ratio of specific activity of the
electrospray-deposited AP to that in the initial solution.
.sup.3Ratio of mass of the electrospray-deposited sample to the
mass of protein in the electrosprayed solution volume.
[0206] Electrospray deposition from a capillary with an internal
electrode has not revealed any dependence of the efficiency on
humidity. Averaged over 48 independent measurements under humidity
varying between 10% and 90%, the electrospray deposition efficiency
was 74.+-.6%, if V=3-4 kV. A voltage increase to 6-7 kV resulted in
an increase of 5 electrospray deposition efficiency to 100%.
[0207] Specific Activity of Electrospray-Deposited AP. The percent
ratio of specific activity of AP after dissolution of the
electrospray deposit to the specific activity of AP in initial
solution is used as a measure of the preservation of the native
properties of a protein in electrospray deposition. As can be seen
from the data presented in FIGS. 18A and 18B, AP is subjected to
the largest damage and loses nearly all of its activity when
electrospray deposition is performed under the conditions of high
voltage (V>7-8 kV) and current (I>500-1500 nA). The following
factors may be thought of as contributing to the AP inactivation
under these conditions: (i) inactivation inside the electrospray
capillary due to electrochemical reactions occurring on the
electrode; (ii) inactivation as a result of reaction with corona
discharge product in the gas phase; (iii) inactivation as a result
of impact with target electrode; and (iv) inactivation as a result
of drying. The last factor, (iv), is expected to have an effect
similar to that of direct drying and to be independent of current
and capillary design. As shown in FIGS. 18A, 22 and 23, AP is
inactivated (by approximately 45%) upon direct drying on glass in
vacuum, upon drying in air flow on silver electrode of QCM and upon
electrospray deposition from the capillary with the internal
electrode at humidity A=65% and currents not exceeding 50 nA. Under
similar currents and humidity, AP was notably-more inactivated (by
70%) when electrospray-deposited from the two other capillary
designs (see Table 2).
[0208] The superiority of the capillary with the internal electrode
over the capillary with the liquid bridge appears surprising and
unexplainable if electrochemical reaction is assumed to be the main
damaging factor in electrospray deposition. As shown by the lower
curves in FIGS. 18A and 18B, the capillary with the internal
electrode is notably less damaging than the capillary with the
external electrode under all voltages and currents, which is also
difficult to explain by electrochemical reaction in the capillary.
The activity of AP deposited at low current from capillaries with
internal and external electrodes was measured and compared before
and after electrospray deposition with a current of 1500 nA from
the same capillary. It was expected that electrochemical products,
accumulated in the capillary with AP directly oxidized by the
electrode or damaged by the low pH from the oxidation of water
inside the capillary, would result in a diminished activity of the
successive electrospray deposition. Bovine intestinal AP is known
to be irreversibly inactivated (McComb et al., 1979) by exposure to
a pH below 4.5-5.0, and estimates of van Berkel et al. (1979) show
that the pH can drop up to pH=3-4 with current I=250 nA, and flow
rate of 1 .mu.L/min. However, no notable difference between
specific AP activity of the preceding and successive deposits was
found for both types of electrospray capillaries. It is believed,
therefore, that the inactivation of AP at high voltages and
currents occur outside the capillary as a result of reaction with
the products of corona discharge or as the result of impact with
the target electrode. Impact energy should grow with an increase of
the potential, causing protein distraction on impact. This can
explain the increase in AP inactivation with increasing voltage and
current. The generation of corona products in electrospray
deposition at I>200-300 nA was noticeable from a characteristic
smell of ozone in the electrospray chamber. The maintenance of a
high current even after the pump was switched off and the
disappearance of a visible electrospray torch was also indicative
of the presence of corona discharge under these conditions. It was
also found that electrospray at a high current resulted in the
removal of Ag-plating from the capillary tip. The capillary with
the external electrode supports corona discharge more readily than
the capillary with the internal electrode, which explains why AP is
inactivated at lower currents and to a higher extent when
electrospray deposited from the capillary with the external
electrode. It is noteworthy that contamination of the AP deposit
with Ag ions does not seem to contribute to the inactivation of AP
deposited from the capillary with the external electrode, since the
addition of 10.sup.-4 M AgNO.sub.3 to the AP solution does not
result in any inhibition.
[0209] Regardless of the mechanism of inactivation in electrospray
deposition at high voltages and currents, these experiments
establish that AP preserves as much of its activity as during
direct drying, provided that electrospray deposition is performed
from the capillary with the internal electrode at a voltage not
exceeding .+-.4.5 kV and with a current less than 50 nA. It is
believed that, under these conditions, all damaging factors listed
above do not occur and that the drying process itself seems to be
the only remaining inactivating factor left.
[0210] It has been well documented that many proteins lose their
activity when subjected to freeze-drying, and some of them were
found to be completely inactivated upon freeze-drying or drying at
room temperature (Crowe et al., 1987; Gibson et al., 1992). It is
also well known that disaccharides are capable of protecting
proteins upon drying (Gibson et al., 1992). The data presented in
FIG. 22 indicate that AP is equally well protected from
inactivation by drying by both sucrose and trehalose. The addition
of 50% (w/w) of the disaccharides is enough to preserve 100% of AP
activity. The upper curve in FIG. 18A shows that the same
substance, sucrose, that protects AP activity upon drying, protects
equally well in electrospray deposition. Taken at the same
concentration (50% w/w) of sucrose, which serves to protect 100% of
AP activity upon drying, the presence of sucrose increases the
recovery of AP activity of the electrospray-deposited enzyme to
100% as well, provided that the electrospray deposition was
performed at a low current and from a capillary with an internal
electrode. These results point to the idea that drying is the main
damaging factor under these electrospray conditions. The results of
FIG. 23 show that rapid drying of electrospray-generated droplets
in the gas phase under low humidity is seen to be even less
damaging to AP activity (30% decrease) than slow drying the AP
solution on the surface (45% decrease shown in FIG. 22). However,
the enzyme is subjected to greater damage if electrospray
deposition is performed at a humidity higher than 60%, presumably
due to multiple cycles of wetting/drying accompanying the fall of
microdroplets, which cannot become completely dry on traveling to
the substrate under this condition. In short, the functional
activity of AP can completely survive electrospray deposition onto
a metal electrode when the electrospray deposition is performed
under mild conditions in the presence of protective substances.
[0211] Having now fully described this invention, it will be
appreciated by those skilled in the art that the same can be
performed within a wide range of equivalent parameters,
concentrations, and conditions without departing from the spirit
and scope of the invention and without undue experimentation.
[0212] While this invention has been described in connection with
specific embodiments thereof, it will be understood that it is
capable of further modifications. This application is intended to
cover any variations, uses, or adaptations of the inventions
following, in general, the principles of the invention and
including such departures from the present disclosure as come
within known or customary practice within the art to which the
invention pertains and as may be applied to the essential features
hereinbefore set forth as follows in the scope of the-appended
claims.
[0213] All references cited herein, including journal articles or
abstracts, published or corresponding U.S. or foreign patent
applications, issued U.S. or foreign patents, or any other
references, are entirely incorporated by reference herein,
including all data, tables, figures, and text presented in the
cited references. Additionally, the entire contents of the
references cited within the references cited herein are also
entirely incorporated by reference.
[0214] Reference to known method steps, conventional methods steps,
known methods or conventional methods is not in any way an
admission that any aspect, description or embodiment of the present
invention is disclosed, taught or suggested in the relevant
art.
[0215] The foregoing description of the specific embodiments will
so fully reveal the general nature of the invention that others
can, by applying knowledge within the skill of the art (including
the contents of the references cited herein), readily modify and/or
adapt for various applications such specific embodiments, without
undue experimentation, without departing from the general concept
of the present invention. Therefore, such adaptations and
modifications are intended to be within the meaning and range of
equivalents of the disclosed embodiments, based on the teaching and
guidance presented herein. It is to be understood that the
phraseology or terminology herein is for the purpose of description
and not of limitation, such that the terminology or phraseology of
the present specification is to be interpreted by the skilled
artisan in light of the teachings and guidance presented herein, in
combination with the knowledge of one of ordinary skill in the
art.
* * * * *