U.S. patent number 9,362,553 [Application Number 14/334,901] was granted by the patent office on 2016-06-07 for microstructured electrode structures.
This patent grant is currently assigned to ENOVIX CORPORATION. The grantee listed for this patent is ENOVIX CORPORATION. Invention is credited to Michael J. Armstrong, Brian E. Brusca, Christopher G. Castledine, Ashok Lahiri, Laurie J. Lauchlan, Murali Ramasubramanian, Harrold J. Rust, III, Nirav S. Shah, Robert M. Spotnitz, James D. Wilcox.
United States Patent |
9,362,553 |
Lahiri , et al. |
June 7, 2016 |
Microstructured electrode structures
Abstract
A structure for use in an energy storage device, the structure
comprising a backbone system extending generally perpendicularly
from a reference plane, and a population of microstructured
anodically active material layers supported by the lateral surfaces
of the backbones, each of the microstructured anodically active
material layers having a void volume fraction of at least 0.1 and a
thickness of at least 1 micrometer.
Inventors: |
Lahiri; Ashok (Cupertino,
CA), Spotnitz; Robert M. (Pleasanton, CA), Shah; Nirav
S. (Pleasanton, CA), Ramasubramanian; Murali (Fremont,
CA), Rust, III; Harrold J. (Alamo, CA), Wilcox; James
D. (Pleasanton, CA), Armstrong; Michael J. (Danville,
CA), Brusca; Brian E. (Tracy, CA), Castledine;
Christopher G. (Sunnyvale, CA), Lauchlan; Laurie J.
(Saratoga, CA) |
Applicant: |
Name |
City |
State |
Country |
Type |
ENOVIX CORPORATION |
Fremont |
CA |
US |
|
|
Assignee: |
ENOVIX CORPORATION (Fremont,
CA)
|
Family
ID: |
48797489 |
Appl.
No.: |
14/334,901 |
Filed: |
July 18, 2014 |
Prior Publication Data
|
|
|
|
Document
Identifier |
Publication Date |
|
US 20140329132 A1 |
Nov 6, 2014 |
|
Related U.S. Patent Documents
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Application
Number |
Filing Date |
Patent Number |
Issue Date |
|
|
13357320 |
Jan 24, 2012 |
8841030 |
|
|
|
Current U.S.
Class: |
1/1 |
Current CPC
Class: |
H01G
4/015 (20130101); H01M 10/054 (20130101); H01G
4/012 (20130101); H01M 10/0564 (20130101); H01M
4/386 (20130101); H01G 4/008 (20130101); H01M
10/0436 (20130101); H01M 10/052 (20130101); H01M
4/1395 (20130101); H01M 4/134 (20130101); H01G
4/32 (20130101); H01M 10/0525 (20130101); H01M
4/70 (20130101); H01M 4/80 (20130101); H01M
2300/0017 (20130101); Y02E 60/10 (20130101); H01M
2220/30 (20130101); H01M 2004/021 (20130101); H01M
4/38 (20130101); H01M 2004/027 (20130101); B82Y
30/00 (20130101) |
Current International
Class: |
H01M
4/13 (20100101); H01M 4/1395 (20100101); H01M
4/38 (20060101); H01G 4/32 (20060101); H01G
4/008 (20060101); H01M 10/052 (20100101); H01M
4/134 (20100101); H01G 4/012 (20060101); H01M
4/70 (20060101); H01G 4/015 (20060101); H01M
4/80 (20060101); H01M 10/04 (20060101); H01M
10/0525 (20100101); H01M 10/054 (20100101); H01M
10/0564 (20100101); H01M 4/02 (20060101); B82Y
30/00 (20110101) |
References Cited
[Referenced By]
U.S. Patent Documents
Foreign Patent Documents
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
02388711 |
|
May 2001 |
|
CA |
|
1555588 |
|
Dec 2004 |
|
CN |
|
0883199 |
|
Dec 1998 |
|
EP |
|
1015956 |
|
Feb 2002 |
|
NL |
|
2008/089110 |
|
Jul 2008 |
|
WO |
|
2009/129490 |
|
Oct 2009 |
|
WO |
|
2009/140300 |
|
Nov 2009 |
|
WO |
|
Other References
Green et al., Structured silicon anodes for lithium battery
applications, Electrochemical and Solid State Letters, 6, 2003,
A75-A79. cited by applicant .
Liu, Chang, Foundations of MEMS, Prentice Hall Inc. Chapter 10, pp.
1-55. cited by applicant .
Long et al., Three Dimensional Battery Architectures, Chemical
Reviews, 2004, 104, 4463-4492. cited by applicant .
Obrovac, M. N. et al., Reversible Cycling of Crystalline Silicon
Powder, Journal of the Electrochemical Society, 2007, A103-A108,
154(2). cited by applicant .
Shin et al., Porous Silicon Negative Electrodes for Rechargeable
Lithium Batteries, Journal of Power Sources, 139 (2005) 314-320.
cited by applicant .
Vyatkin et al., Random and Ordered Macropore in p-type silicon J.
Electrochem. Soc. 149, 1, G70-G76 (2002). cited by applicant .
Waidmann, S. et al., Tuning nickel silicide properties using a lamp
based RTA, a heat conduction based RTA or a furnace anneal,
Microelectronic Engineering 83, 2006, 2282-2286. cited by applicant
.
Xu, Chengkun et al., Nickel Displacement Deposition of Porous
Silicon with Ultrahigh Aspect Ratio, Journal of the Electrochemical
Society, 2007,170-174,154(3). cited by applicant .
Arora, P. et al., Battery Separators, Chemical Reviews 2004, 104,
4419-4462. cited by applicant .
Bourderau et al., Amorphous Silicon as a Possible Anode Material
for Li-Ion Batteries, Journal of Power Sources, 1999, 81-82,
233-236. cited by applicant .
Li et al., The Crystal Structural Evolution of Nano-Si Anode Caused
by Lithium Insertion and Extraction at Room Temperature, Solid
State Ionics, 2000, 135, 181-191. cited by applicant .
Kasavajjula et al., Nano- and Bulk-Silicon-Based Insertion Anodes
for Lithium-Ion Secondary Cells, Journal of Power Sources, 2007,
163, 1003-1039. cited by applicant .
Mu et al., Silicon nanotube array/gold electrode for direct
electrochemistry of cytochrome C, J. Phys. Chem. B, 2007, 111(6),
1491-1495. cited by applicant .
European Patent Office, Extended Search Report for EP 13 74 0825,
App. No. 13740825.8, issued Aug. 8, 2015, 9 pages. cited by
applicant.
|
Primary Examiner: Chmielecki; Scott J
Attorney, Agent or Firm: Bryan Cave LLP
Claims
What is claimed is:
1. A secondary battery comprising carrier ions, a non-aqueous
electrolyte and at least two electrochemical stacks in a stacked
arrangement, the direction of stacking of the at least two
electrochemical stacks relative to each other being in a direction
that is orthogonal to a reference plane, the carrier ions being
lithium, sodium or potassium ions, each of the electrochemical
stacks comprising, in a stacked arrangement, cathode structures,
current collectors, cathodically active material layers, separator
layers, anode current collectors, and a population of
microstructured anodically active material layers, the separator
layers being disposed between the cathodically active material
layers and the members of the population of anodically active
material layers, the anode current collectors having an electrical
conductance that is substantially greater than the electrical
conductance of the microstructured anodically active material
layers, the direction of stacking of the cathode current
collectors, cathodically active material layers, separator layers,
anode current collectors, and microstructured anodically active
material layers within each of the at least two electrochemical
stacks being parallel to the reference plane, the carrier ions
having a direction of travel between the cathodically active
material layers and the anodically active materials of each of the
at least two electrochemical stacks that is generally parallel to
the reference plane as the secondary battery is charged and
discharged, the members of the population of microstructured
anodically active material layers of each of the at least two
electrochemical stacks having a height, H.sub.A, of at least 100
micrometers measured in a direction orthogonal to the reference
plane, a front surface, a back surface, a thickness, T, measured
from the front surface to the back surface, and a void volume
fraction of at least 0.1, wherein the front and back surfaces are
substantially perpendicular to the reference plane, the thickness,
T, is at least 1 micrometer and measured in a direction parallel to
the reference plane, and the microstructured anodically active
material layers comprise a fibrous or a porous anodically active
material, and wherein the lineal distance, D.sub.L, between at
least two members of the population of microstructured anodically
active material layers of each of the at least two electrochemical
stacks, measured in a direction parallel to the reference plane, is
greater than the maximum value of H.sub.A for the population within
each such electrochemical stack.
2. The secondary battery of claim 1 wherein the carrier ions are
lithium ions.
3. The secondary battery of claim 1 wherein the population
comprises at least 20 members.
4. The secondary battery of claim 1 wherein each member of the
population comprises nanowires of silicon or an alloy thereof, or
porous silicon or an alloy thereof.
5. The secondary battery of claim 1 wherein each member of the
population comprises silicon or an alloy thereof and has a
thickness of about 1 to about 100 micrometers.
6. The secondary battery of claim 1 wherein for each member of the
population H.sub.A is greater than T.
7. The secondary battery of claim 1 wherein each member of the
population comprises porous silicon or an alloy thereof, has a void
volume fraction of at least 0.1 but less than 0.8, and a thickness
of about 1 to about 200 micrometers.
8. The secondary battery of claim 1 wherein each member of the
population comprises nanowires of silicon or an alloy thereof, or
porous silicon or an alloy thereof, has a void volume fraction of
at least 0.1 but less than 0.8, a thickness of about 1 to about 200
micrometers, and is supported by a backbone and the maximum value
of H.sub.A for the population is less than 5,000 micrometers.
9. The secondary battery of claim 1 wherein each member of the
population comprises nanowires of silicon or an alloy thereof, or
porous silicon or an alloy thereof, has a void volume fraction of
at least 0.1 but less than 0.8, a thickness of about 1 to about 200
micrometers, and is supported by a backbone having an electrical
conductivity of less than 10 Siemens/cm, and the maximum value of
H.sub.A for the population is less than 1,000 micrometers.
10. The secondary battery of claim 1 wherein the anode structures
comprise an anode current collector, the cathode structures
comprise a cathode current collector, and the anode current
collector or the cathode current collector comprises an ionically
permeable conductor layer.
11. The secondary battery of claim 1 wherein the anode structures
comprise an anode current collector layer and the anode current
collector layer is disposed between the anodically active material
layer and a separator layer.
12. The secondary battery of claim 1 wherein each member of the
population comprises nanowires of silicon or an alloy thereof, or
porous silicon or an alloy thereof, has a void volume fraction of
at least 0.1 but less than 0.8, a thickness of about 1 to about 200
micrometers, and is supported by a backbone and the maximum value
of H.sub.A for the population is less than 5,000 micrometers.
13. The secondary battery of claim 1 wherein a ratio of the
electrical conductance of the anode current collector to the
electrical conductance of the microstructured anodically active
material layer is at least 100:1.
14. The secondary battery of claim 1 wherein a ratio of the
electrical conductance of the anode current collector to the
electrical conductance of the microstructured anodically active
material layer is at least 500:1.
15. The secondary battery of claim 1 wherein the anode current
collector comprises a porous layer of a metal or a metal alloy that
does not form an intermetallic compound with lithium.
16. The secondary battery of claim 1 wherein the anode current
collector comprises porous copper silicide or porous nickel
silicide.
17. The secondary battery of claim 1 wherein the cathode current
collectors, cathodically active material layers, separator layers,
anode current collectors, and microstructured anodically active
material layers are stacked in this order.
18. The secondary battery of claim 1 wherein the cathodically
active material layers, cathode current collectors, separator
layers, microstructured anodically active material layers and anode
current collectors are stacked in this order.
19. The secondary battery of claim 1 wherein the lineal distance,
D.sub.L, between at least two members of the population of
microstructured anodically active material layers of each of the at
least two electrochemical stacks, measured in a direction parallel
to the reference plane, is greater than the maximum value of
H.sub.A for the population within each such electrochemical stack,
respectively, by a factor of at least 10.
20. The secondary battery of claim 1 wherein each of the
electrochemical stacks additionally comprises anode backbones and
the anode backbones comprise an anode current collector having an
electrical conductivity of at least about 10.sup.4 Siemens/cm.
Description
FIELD OF THE INVENTION
The present invention generally relates to structures for use in
energy storage devices, to energy storage devices incorporating
such structures, and to methods for producing such structures and
energy devices.
BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION
Rocking chair or insertion secondary batteries are a type of energy
storage device in which carrier ions, such as lithium, sodium or
potassium ions, move between an anode electrode and a cathode
electrode through an electrolyte. The secondary battery may
comprise a single battery cell, or two more battery cells that have
been electrically coupled to form the battery, with each battery
cell comprising an anode electrode, a cathode electrode, and an
electrolyte.
In rocking chair battery cells, both the anode and cathode comprise
materials into which a carrier ion inserts and extracts. As a cell
is discharged, carrier ions are extracted from the anode and
inserted into the cathode. As a cell is charged, the reverse
process occurs: the carrier ion is extracted from the cathode and
inserted into the anode.
FIG. 1 shows a cross sectional view of an electrochemical stack of
an existing energy storage device, such as a non-aqueous,
lithium-ion battery. The electrochemical stack 1 includes a cathode
current collector 2, on top of which a cathode layer 3 is
assembled. This layer is covered by a microporous separator 4, over
which an assembly of an anode current collector 5 and an anode
layer 6 are placed. This stack is sometimes covered with another
separator layer (not shown) above the anode current collector 5,
rolled and stuffed into a can, and filled with a non-aqueous
electrolyte to assemble a secondary battery.
The anode and cathode current collectors pool electric current from
the respective active electrochemical electrodes and enables
transfer of the current to the environment outside the battery. A
portion of an anode current collector is in physical contact with
the anode active material while a portion of a cathode current
collector is in contact with the cathode active material. The
current collectors do not participate in the electrochemical
reaction and are therefore restricted to materials that are
electrochemically stable in the respective electrochemical
potential ranges for the anode and cathode.
In order for a current collector to bring current to the
environment outside the battery, it is typically connected to a
tab, a tag, a package feed-through or a housing feed-through,
typically collectively referred to as contacts. One end of a
contact is connected to one or more current collectors while the
other end passes through the battery packaging for electrical
connection to the environment outside the battery. The anode
contact is connected to the anode current collectors and the
cathode contact is connected to the cathode current collectors by
welding, crimping, or ultrasonic bonding or is glued in place with
an electrically conductive glue.
During a charging process, lithium leaves the cathode layer 3 and
travels through the separator 4 as a lithium ion into the anode
layer 6. Depending upon the anode material used, the lithium ion
either intercalates (e.g., sits in a matrix of an anode material
without forming an alloy) or forms an alloy. During a discharge
process, the lithium leaves the anode layer 6, travels through the
separator 4 and passes through to the cathode layer 3. The current
conductors conduct electrons from the battery contacts (not shown)
to the electrodes or vice versa.
Existing energy storage devices, such as batteries, fuel cells, and
electrochemical capacitors, typically have two-dimensional laminar
architectures (e.g., planar or spiral-wound laminates) as
illustrated in FIG. 1 with a surface area of each laminate being
roughly equal to its geometrical footprint (ignoring porosity and
surface roughness).
Three-dimensional batteries have been proposed in the literature as
ways to improve battery capacity and active material utilization.
It has been proposed that a three-dimensional architecture may be
used to provide higher surface area and higher energy as compared
to a two dimensional, laminar battery architecture. There is a
benefit to making a three-dimensional energy storage device due to
the increased amount of energy that may be obtained out of a small
geometric area. See, e.g., Rust et al., WO2008/089110 and Long et.
al, "Three-Dimensional Battery Architectures," Chemical Reviews,
(2004), 104, 4463-4492.
New anode and cathode materials have also been proposed as ways to
improve the energy density, safety, charge/discharge rate, and
cycle life of secondary batteries. Some of these new high capacity
materials, such as silicon, aluminum, or tin anodes in lithium
batteries have significant volume expansion that causes
disintegration and exfoliation from its existing electronic current
collector during lithium insertion and extraction. Silicon anodes,
for example, have been proposed for use as a replacement for
carbonaceous electrodes since silicon anodes have the capacity to
provide significantly greater energy per unit volume of host
material for lithium in lithium battery applications. See, e.g.,
Konishiike et al., U.S. Patent Publication No. 2009/0068567;
Kasavajjula et al., "Nano- and Bulk-Silicon-Based Insertion Anodes
for Lithium-Ion Secondary Cells," Journal of Power Sources 163
(2007) 1003-1039. The formation of lithium silicides when lithium
is inserted into the anode results in a significant volume change
which can lead to crack formation and pulverisation of the anode.
As a result, capacity of the battery can be decreased as the
battery is repeatedly discharged and charged.
Various strategies have been proposed to overcome the challenges
presented by the significant volume changes experienced by silicon
anodes as a result of repeated charge and discharge cycles. For
example, Bourderau et al. discloses amorphous silicon (Bourderau et
al., "Amorphous Silicon As A Possible Anode Material For Li-Ion
Batteries," Journal of Power Sources 81-82 (1999) 233-236)). Li et
al. discloses silicon nanowires (Li et al., "The Crystal Structural
Evolution Of Nano-Si Anode Caused By Lithium Insertion And
Extraction At Room Temperature," Solid State Ionics 135 (2000)
181-191. In NL1015956, Sloe Yao Kan discloses a porous silicon
electrode for a battery. Shin et al. also disclose porous silicon
electrodes for batteries (Shin et al., "Porous Silicon Negative
Electrodes For Rechargeable Lithium Batteries," Journal of Power
Sources 139 (2005) 314-320.
Monolithic electrodes, i.e., electrodes comprising a mass of
electrode material that retains its a shape without the use of a
binder, have also been proposed as an alternative to improve
performance (gravimetric and volumetric energy density, rates, etc)
over particulate electrodes that have been molded or otherwise
formed into a shape and depend upon a conductive agent or binder to
retain the shape of an agglomerate of the particulate material. A
monolithic anode, for example, may comprise a unitary mass of
silicon (e.g., single crystal silicon, polycrystalline silicon, or
amorphous silicon) or it may comprise an agglomerated particulate
mass that has been sintered or otherwise treated to fuse the anodic
material together and remove any binder. In one such exemplary
embodiment, a silicon wafer may be employed as a monolithic anode
material for a lithium-ion battery with one side of the wafer
coupled to a first cathode element through a separator, while the
other side is coupled to a second cathode element opposing it. In
such arrangements, one of the significant technical challenges is
the ability to collect and carry current from the monolithic
electrode to the outside of the battery while efficiently utilizing
the space available inside the battery.
The energy density of conventional batteries may also be increased
by reducing inactive component weights and volumes to pack the
battery more efficiently. Current batteries use relatively thick
current collectors since the foils that make up the current
collectors are used with a minimum thickness requirement in order
to be strong enough to survive the active material application
process. Advantages in performance can be anticipated if an
invention was made in order to separate the current collection from
processing constraints.
Despite the varied approaches, a need remains for improved battery
capacity and active material utilization.
SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION
Among the various aspects of the present invention is the provision
of three-dimensional structures for use in energy storage devices
such as batteries, fuel cells, and electrochemical capacitors. Such
three dimensional structures comprise a layer of microstructured
anodically active material on a lateral surface of a backbone
structure, the layer containing a void fraction that accommodates
significant volume changes in the anodically active material as it
cycles between a charged and a discharged state. Advantageously,
such three-dimensional structures may be incorporated into two or
more battery cells that have been stacked vertically whereby, the
shortest distance between the anodically active material and the
cathode material in a battery cell is measured in a direction that
is orthogonal to the direction of stacking of the battery cells
(e.g., in X-Y-Z coordinates, if the direction of stacking is in the
Z-direction, the shortest distance between the anodically active
material and the cathode material is measured in the X- or
Y-direction). Such three-dimensional energy storage devices may
produce higher energy storage and retrieval per unit geometrical
area than conventional devices. They may also provide a higher rate
of energy retrieval than two-dimensional energy storage devices for
a specific amount of energy stored, such as by minimizing or
reducing transport distances for electron and ion transfer between
an anode and a cathode. These devices may be more suitable for
miniaturization and for applications where a geometrical area
available for a device is limited and/or where energy density
requirement is higher than what may be achieved with a laminar
device.
Briefly, therefore, one aspect of the present invention is a
structure for use in an energy storage device. The structure
comprises a population of microstructured anodically active
material layers, wherein (a) members of the population comprise a
fibrous or porous anodically active material and have a surface
that is substantially perpendicular to a reference plane, (ii) a
thickness of at least 1 micrometer measured in a direction parallel
to the reference plane, a height of at least 50 micrometers
measured in a direction orthogonal to the reference plane, and a
void volume fraction of at least 0.1. In addition, the lineal
distance between at least two members of the population, measured
in a direction parallel to the reference plane, is greater than the
maximum height of any of the layers in the population.
Another aspect of the present invention is a structure for use in
an energy storage device comprising a backbone network comprising a
series of lateral surfaces. The lateral surfaces are substantially
perpendicular to a reference plane and have a height of at least 50
micrometers measured in a direction that is substantially
perpendicular to the reference plane. The structure further
comprises a population of microstructured anodically active
material layers supported by the lateral surfaces, the greatest
lineal distance between at least two of the lateral surfaces in the
population measured in a direction parallel to the reference plane
being greater than the maximum height of any of the lateral
surfaces in the series. The microstructured anodically active
material layers comprise a front surface, a back surface, and a
fibrous or porous anodically active material, the microstructured
anodically active material layers having a void volume fraction of
at least 0.1 and a thickness between the front and back surfaces of
at least 1 micrometer. The back surface of each such
microstructured anodically active material layer is proximate the
lateral surface of the backbone supporting such microstructured
anodically active material layer. The front surface of each such
microstructured anodically active material layer is distal to the
lateral surface of the backbone supporting such microstructured
anodically active material layer. Fibers comprised by a member of
the population of microstructured anodically active material layers
are attached to and have central axes that are substantially
parallel to the reference plane at the point of attachment of the
fibers to the back surface of the population member comprising such
fibers. Pores comprised by a member of the population of
microstructured anodically active material layers have pore
openings having major axes that are substantially parallel to the
reference plane.
Another aspect of the present invention is an electrochemical stack
for use in an energy storage device. The electrochemical stack
comprises, in a stacked arrangement, cathode structures, separator
layers and anode structures, the separator layers being disposed
between the anode structures and the cathode structures, with the
direction of stacking of the cathode structures, the separator
layers, and the anode structures in the electrochemical stack being
parallel to a reference plane. The anode structures comprise a
population of microstructured anodically active material layers
wherein (a) members of the population comprise a fibrous or porous
anodically active material and have (i) a surface that is
substantially perpendicular to the reference plane, (ii) a
thickness of at least 1 micrometer measured in a direction parallel
to the reference plane, (iii) a height of at least 50 micrometers
measured in a direction orthogonal to the reference plane, and (iv)
a void volume fraction of at least 0.1. Additionally, the lineal
distance between at least two members of the population, measured
in a direction parallel to the reference plane, is greater than the
maximum height of a member of the population.
Another aspect of the present invention is an electrochemical stack
for use in an energy storage device. The electrochemical stack
comprises a population of anode structures, cathode structures, and
separator layers comprising a porous dielectric material between
the anode structures and the cathode structures. The anode
structures, cathode structures and separator layers are stacked in
a direction substantially parallel to a reference plane wherein
each anode structure comprises (a) a backbone having a lateral
surface, the lateral surface being substantially perpendicular to
the reference plane and having a height of at least 50 micrometers
measured in a direction that is substantially perpendicular to the
surface of the reference plane, and (b) a microstructured
anodically active material layer supported by the lateral surface.
The lineal distance between at least two members of the population,
measured in a direction parallel to the reference plane, is greater
than the maximum height of a member of the population. The
microstructured anodically active material layer comprises a back
surface, a front surface, and a fibrous or porous anodically active
material. The microstructured anodically active material layer
further has a void volume fraction of at least 0.1 and a thickness
between the back and front surfaces of at least 1 micrometer,
wherein (i) the back surface of each such microstructured
anodically active material layer is proximate the lateral surface
of the backbone supporting such microstructured anodically active
material layer, (ii) the front surface of each such microstructured
anodically active material layer is distal to the lateral surface
of the backbone supporting such microstructured anodically active
material layer, (iii) fibers comprised by a member of the
population of microstructured anodically active material layers are
attached to and have central axes that are substantially
perpendicular to the back surface of the member comprising such
fibers and (iv) pores comprised by a member of the population of
microstructured anodically active material layers have pore
openings having major axes that are substantially parallel to the
reference plane.
Another aspect of the present invention is an energy storage device
comprising carrier ions, a non-aqueous electrolyte and an
electrochemical stack, the carrier ions being lithium, sodium or
potassium ions, the electrochemical stack comprising, in a stacked
arrangement, cathode structures, separator layers and anode
structures, the separator layers being disposed between the anode
structures and the cathode structures. The direction of stacking of
the cathode structures, separator layers, and anode structures in
the electrochemical stack is parallel to a reference plane. The
anode structures comprise a population of microstructured
anodically active material layers wherein (a) members of the
population comprise a fibrous or porous anodically active material
and have (i) a surface that is substantially perpendicular to the
reference plane, (ii) a thickness of at least 1 micrometer measured
in a direction parallel to the reference plane, (iii) a height of
at least 50 micrometers measured in a direction orthogonal to the
reference plane, and (iv) a void volume fraction of at least 0.1.
The lineal distance between at least two members of the population,
measured in a direction parallel to the reference plane, is greater
than the maximum height of any member of the population of
microstructured anodically active material layers.
Another aspect of the present invention is a secondary battery
comprising carrier ions, a non-aqueous electrolyte and at least two
electrochemical stacks, the carrier ions being lithium, sodium or
potassium ions. Each of the electrochemical stacks comprises, in a
stacked arrangement, cathode structures, separator layers and anode
structures. The separator layers are disposed between the anode
structures and the cathode structures, and the direction of
stacking of the cathode structures, the separator layers, and the
anode structures within each such electrochemical stack is parallel
to a reference plane. The anode structures comprise a population of
microstructured anodically active material layers wherein (a)
members of the population comprise a fibrous or porous anodically
active material and have (i) a surface that is substantially
perpendicular to the reference plane, (ii) a thickness of at least
1 micrometer measured in a direction parallel to the reference
plane, (iii) a height of at least 50 micrometers measured in a
direction orthogonal to the reference plane, and (iv) a void volume
fraction of at least 0.1. Additionally, the electrochemical stacks
are stacked relative to each other in a direction that is
orthogonal to the reference plane.
Other objects and features will be in part apparent and in part
pointed out hereinafter.
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS
FIG. 1 is a generic cross-section of a cell of an electrochemical
stack of an existing two-dimensional energy storage device such as
a lithium ion battery.
FIG. 2 is a schematic illustration of two cells of a
three-dimensional energy storage device of the present invention
such as a secondary battery.
FIG. 3 is a fragmentary, cross-sectional view of an anodically
active material layer comprising silicon taken along line 3-3 in
FIG. 2.
FIGS. 4A-4E are schematic illustrations of some shapes into which
anode and cathode structures may be assembled according to certain
embodiments of the present invention.
FIG. 5 is a fragmentary, cross-sectional view of three die, each
comprising an electrochemical stack.
FIG. 6 is a view of an anode structure of one of dies of FIG.
5.
FIG. 7 is a fragmentary, cross-sectional view of an anodically
active material layer comprising porous silicon taken along line
7-7 in FIG. 6.
FIG. 8 is a schematic illustration of a starting material for a
step of manufacturing an anode backbone and a cathode support
structure of the present invention.
FIG. 9 is a schematic illustration of an exemplary anode backbone
and a cathode support structure formed in accordance with one
embodiment of a process of the present invention.
FIG. 10 is a schematic illustration of a secondary battery of the
present invention.
FIG. 11 is a schematic view of a 3-dimensional electrochemical
stack of an energy storage device according to an alternative
embodiment of the present invention.
FIG. 12 is a schematic view of a 3-dimensional electrochemical
stack of an energy storage device according to an alternative
embodiment of the present invention.
FIG. 13 is a schematic view of an interdigitated 3-dimensional
electrochemical stack of an energy storage device according to an
alternative embodiment of the present invention.
FIG. 14 is a photograph of a porous silicon layer on a silicon
backbone prepared as described in Example 1.
Corresponding reference characters indicate corresponding parts
throughout the drawings.
DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS
Among the various aspects of the present invention may be noted
three-dimensional structures offering particular advantages when
incorporated into electrochemical stacks of energy storage devices
such as batteries, capacitors, and fuel cells. For example, such
structures may be incorporated into secondary batteries in which an
anode, a cathode, and/or a separator are non-laminar in nature.
Advantageously, the surface area for such non-laminar anode
structures and cathode structures may exceed the geometrical
footprint of a base supporting the electrodes by a factor of 1.5, a
factor of 2, a factor of 2.5 or even a factor of 3 or more. In one
preferred exemplary embodiment, such structures are incorporated
into secondary batteries in which carrier ions selected from
lithium, sodium and potassium ions move between the anode and the
cathode.
FIG. 2 schematically depicts electrochemical stacks of two cells of
a three-dimensional battery in accordance with one embodiment of
the present invention. For ease of illustration, only one anode
structure 24 and two cathode structures 26 are depicted in FIG. 2
for each cell 20 and only two cells appear in FIG. 2; in practice,
however, the electrochemical stack of each cell will typically
comprise a series of anode and cathode structures extending
vertically from a common reference plane, with the number of anode
and cathode structures per cell and the number of cells in the
battery depending upon the application. For example, in one
embodiment the number of anode structures in an electrochemical
stack is at least 10. By way of further example in one embodiment
the number of anode structures in an electrochemical stack is at
least 50. By way of further example the number of anode structures
in an electrochemical stack is at least 100.
The electrochemical stack of each cell 20, as depicted, comprises
base 22, anode structure 24 and cathode structures 26. Each anode
structure 24 projects vertically (i.e., in the Z-direction as
illustrated by the axes in FIG. 2) from a common reference plane,
the surface of base 22 (as illustrated) and has a bottom surface B
proximate base 22, a top surface T distal to base 22 and lateral
surfaces S.sub.1, S.sub.2 extending from top surface T to bottom
surface B. Lateral surface S.sub.1 intersects the surface of base
22 at angle .alpha. and lateral surface S.sub.2 intersects the
surface of base 22 at angle .delta.. In a preferred embodiment,
.alpha. and .delta. are approximately equal and are between about
80.degree. and 100.degree.. For example, in one embodiment, .alpha.
and .delta. are approximately equal and are
90.degree..+-.5.degree.. In a particularly preferred embodiment,
.alpha. and .delta. are substantially the same and approximately
90.degree.. Independent of the angle of intersection, it is
generally preferred that the majority of the surface area of each
of lateral surfaces S.sub.1 and S.sub.2 is substantially
perpendicular to the reference plane, in this embodiment, the
surface of base 22; stated differently, it is generally preferred
that the majority of the surface area of each of lateral surfaces
S.sub.1 and S.sub.2 lie in a plane (or planes) that intersect(s)
the reference plane (the surface of base 22, as illustrated) at an
angle between about 80.degree. and 100.degree., and more preferably
at an angle of 90.degree..+-.5.degree.. It is also generally
preferred that top surface T be substantially perpendicular to
lateral surfaces S.sub.1 and S.sub.2 and substantially parallel to
the reference plane, in this embodiment the surface of base 22. For
example, in one presently preferred embodiment, base 22 has a
substantially planar surface and anode structure 24 has a top
surface T that is substantially parallel to the reference plane,
i.e., the planar surface of the base 22 in this embodiment and
lateral surfaces S.sub.1 and S.sub.2 are substantially
perpendicular to the reference plane, i.e., the planar surface of
the base 22 in this embodiment.
As illustrated, each anode structure 24 comprises an anode backbone
32 having thickness T.sub.3 (measured from surface S.sub.3 to
S.sub.4 in a direction parallel to the reference plane, the planar
surface of base 22 as illustrated) and anodically active material
layers 30, 31 having thicknesses T.sub.1 (measured from surface
S.sub.1 to S.sub.3 in a direction parallel to the reference plane,
the planar surface of base 22 as illustrated) and T.sub.2 (measured
from surface S.sub.2 to S.sub.4 in a direction parallel to the
reference plane, the planar surface of base 22 as illustrated)
respectively. During a charging process, lithium (or other carrier)
leaves cathode structures 26 and generally travels in the direction
of arrows 23 through a separator (not shown) as lithium ions into
anodically active material layers 30, 31. Depending on the
anodically active material used, the lithium ions either
intercalate (e.g., sit in a matrix of an anode material without
forming an alloy) or form an alloy. During a discharge process, the
lithium ions (or other carrier ions) leave the anodically active
material layers 30, 31 and generally travel in the direction of
arrows 21 through the separator (not shown) and into the cathodes
26. As illustrated in FIG. 2, the two cells are arranged vertically
(i.e., in the Z-direction, as illustrated) and the shortest
distance between the anodically active material layer and the
cathode material of an individual cell is measured in a direction
that is parallel to the reference plane, i.e., in this embodiment
the substantially planar surface of base 22 (i.e., in the X-Y plane
as illustrated), and orthogonal to the direction of stacking of the
cells (i.e., in the Z-direction as illustrated). In another
embodiment, the two cells are arranged horizontally (i.e., in the
X-Y plane, as illustrated in FIG. 2), the shortest distance between
the anodically active material layer and the cathode material of an
individual cell is measured in a direction that is parallel to the
reference plane, i.e., in this embodiment the substantially planar
surface of base 22 (i.e., in the X-Y plane as illustrated), and the
direction of stacking of the cells is also parallel to the
reference plane (i.e., in the X-Y plane as illustrated in FIG.
2).
Anode backbone 32 provides mechanical stability for anodically
active material layers 30, 31. Typically, anode backbone 32 will
have a thickness T.sub.3 (measured from back surface S.sub.3 to
back surface S.sub.4 in a direction parallel to the surface of the
reference plane, i.e., the substantially planar surface of base 22
as illustrated) of at least 1 micrometer. Anode backbone 32 may be
substantially thicker, but generally will not have a thickness in
excess of 100 micrometers. For example, in one embodiment, anode
backbone 32 will have a thickness of about 1 to about 50
micrometers. In general, anode backbone will have a height (as
measured in a direction perpendicular to the reference plane, i.e.,
the substantially planar surface of base 22 as illustrated) of at
least about 50 micrometers, more typically at least about 100
micrometers. In general, however, anode backbone 32 will typically
have a height of no more than about 10,000 micrometers, and more
typically no more than about 5,000 micrometers. By way of example,
in one embodiment, anode backbone 32 will have a thickness of about
5 to about 50 micrometers and a height of about 50 to about 5,000
micrometers. By way of further example, in one embodiment, anode
backbone 32 will have a thickness of about 5 to about 20
micrometers and a height of about 100 to about 1,000 micrometers.
By way of further example, in one embodiment, anode backbone 32
will have a thickness of about 5 to about 20 micrometers and a
height of about 100 to about 2,000 micrometers.
Depending upon the application, anode backbone 32 may be
electrically conductive or insulating. For example, in one
embodiment the anode backbone 32 may be electrically conductive and
may comprise a current collector for anodically active material
layers 30,31. In one such embodiment, anode backbone comprises a
current collector having a conductivity of at least about 10.sup.3
Siemens/cm. By way of further example, in one such embodiment,
anode backbone comprises a current collector having a conductivity
of at least about 10.sup.4 Siemens/cm. By way of further example,
in one such embodiment, anode backbone comprises a current
collector having a conductivity of at least about 10.sup.5
Siemens/cm. In other embodiments, anode backbone 32 is relatively
nonconductive. For example, in one embodiment, anode backbone 32
has an electrical conductivity of less than 10 Siemens/cm. By way
of further example in one embodiment, anode backbone 32 has an
electrical conductivity of less than 1 Siemens/cm. By way of
further example in one embodiment, anode backbone 32 has an
electrical conductivity of less than 10.sup.-1 Siemens/cm.
Anode backbone 32 may comprise any material that may be shaped,
such as metals, semiconductors, organics, ceramics, and glasses.
Presently preferred materials include semiconductor materials such
as silicon and germanium. Alternatively, however, carbon-based
organic materials or metals, such as aluminum, copper, nickel,
cobalt, titanium, and tungsten, may also be incorporated into anode
backbone structures. In one exemplary embodiment, anode backbone 32
comprises silicon. The silicon, for example, may be single crystal
silicon, polycrystalline silicon, amorphous silicon or a
combination thereof.
Anodically active material layers 30, 31 are microstructured to
provide a significant void volume fraction to accommodate volume
expansion and contraction as lithium ions (or other carrier ions)
are incorporated into or leave the anodically active material
layers 30, 31 during charging and discharging processes. In
general, the void volume fraction of the anodically active material
layer is at least 0.1. Typically, however, the void volume fraction
of the anodically active material layer is not greater than 0.8.
For example, in one embodiment, the void volume fraction of the
anodically active material layer is about 0.15 to about 0.75. By
way of the further example, in one embodiment, the void volume
fraction of the anodically active material layer is about 0.2 to
about 0.7. By way of the further example, in one embodiment, the
void volume fraction of the anodically active material layer is
about 0.25 to about 0.6.
Depending upon the composition of the microstructured anodically
active material layer and the method of its formation, the
microstructured anodically active material layers may comprise
macroporous, microporous or mesoporous material layers or a
combination thereof such as a combination of microporous and
mesoporous or a combination of mesoporous and macroporous.
Microporous material is typically characterized by a pore dimension
of less than 10 nm, a wall dimension of less than 10 nm, a pore
depth of 1-50 micrometers, and a pore morphology that is generally
characterized by a "spongy" and irregular appearance, walls that
are not smooth and branched pores. Mesoporous material is typically
characterized by a pore dimension of 10-50 nm, a wall dimension of
10-50 nm, a pore depth of 1-100 micrometers, and a pore morphology
that is generally characterized by branched pores that are somewhat
well defined or dendritic pores. Macroporous material is typically
characterized by a pore dimension of greater than 50 nm, a wall
dimension of greater than 50 nm, a pore depth of 1-500 micrometers,
and a pore morphology that may be varied, straight, branched or
dendritic, and smooth or rough-walled. Additionally, the void
volume may comprise open or closed voids, or a combination thereof.
In one embodiment, the void volume comprises open voids, that is,
the anodically active material layer contains voids having openings
at the front surface (surfaces S.sub.1, S.sub.2 as illustrated in
FIG. 2) of the anodically active material layer, the void openings
facing the separator and the cathodically active material and
through which lithium ions (or other carrier ions) can enter or
leave the anodically active material layer; for example, lithium
ions may enter the anodically active material layer through the
void openings after leaving the cathodically active material and
traveling to the anodically active material generally in the
direction indicated by arrows 23. In another embodiment, the void
volume comprises closed voids, that is, the anodically active
material layer contains voids that are enclosed by anodically
active material. In general, open voids can provide greater
interfacial surface area for the carrier ions whereas closed voids
tend to be less susceptible to solid electrolyte interface ("SEI")
while each provides room for expansion of the anodically active
material layer upon the entry of carrier ions. In certain
embodiments, therefore, it is preferred that anodically active
material layer comprise a combination of open and closed voids.
Anodically active material layers 30, 31 comprise an anodically
active material capable of absorbing and releasing a carrier ion
such as lithium. Such materials include carbon materials such as
graphite, or any of a range of metals, semi-metals, alloys, oxides
and compounds capable of forming an alloy with lithium. Specific
examples of the metals or semi-metals capable of constituting the
anode material include tin, lead, magnesium, aluminum, boron,
gallium, silicon, indium, zirconium, germanium, bismuth, cadmium,
antimony, gold, silver, zinc, arsenic, hafnium, yttrium, and
palladium. In one exemplary embodiment, anodically active material
layers 30, 31 comprises aluminum, tin, or silicon, or an oxide
thereof, a nitride thereof, a fluoride thereof, or other alloy
thereof. In another exemplary embodiment, anodically active
material layers 30, 31 comprise microstructured silicon or an alloy
thereof. In one particularly preferred embodiment, anodically
active material layers 30, 31 comprise porous silicon or an alloy
thereof, fibers (e.g., nanowires) of silicon or an alloy thereof, a
combination of porous silicon or an alloy thereof and fibers (e.g.,
nanowires) of silicon or an alloy thereof, or other forms of
microstructured silicon or an alloy thereof having a void volume
fraction of at least 0.1. In each of the embodiments and examples
recited in this paragraph and elsewhere in this patent application,
the anodically active material layer may be monolithic or a
particulate agglomerate.
In general, anodically active material layers 30, 31 have front
surfaces S.sub.1, S.sub.2, respectively, back surfaces, S.sub.3,
S.sub.4, respectively and thicknesses T.sub.1, T.sub.2,
respectively (measured in a direction parallel to the surface of
base 22) of at least 1 micrometer. Typically, however, anodically
active material layers 30, 31 will each have a thickness that does
not exceed 200 micrometers. For example, in one embodiment,
anodically active material layers 30, 31 will have a thickness of
about 1 to about 100 micrometers. By way of further example, in one
embodiment, anodically active material layers 30, 31 will have a
thickness of about 2 to about 75 micrometers. By way of further
example, in one embodiment, anodically active material layers 30,
31 have a thickness of about 10 to about 100 micrometers. By way of
further example, in one embodiment, anodically active material
layers 30, 31 have a thickness of about 5 to about 50 micrometers.
By way of further example, in one such embodiment, anodically
active material layers 30, 31 have a thickness of about 1 to about
100 micrometers and contain microstructured silicon and/or an alloy
thereof such as nickel silicide. Additionally, in one embodiment,
anodically active material layers 30, 31 will have a thickness of
about 1 to about 50 micrometers and contain microstructured silicon
and/or an alloy thereof such as nickel silicide. In general,
anodically active material layers 30, 31 will have a height (as
measured in a direction perpendicular to the reference plane, i.e.,
the substantially planar surface of base 22 as illustrated) of at
least about 50 micrometers, more typically at least about 100
micrometers. In general, however, anodically active material layers
30, 31 will typically have a height of no more than about 10,000
micrometers, and more typically no more than about 5,000
micrometers. By way of example, in one embodiment, anodically
active material layers 30, 31 will have a thickness of about 1 to
about 200 micrometers and a height of about 50 to about 5,000
micrometers. By way of further example, in one embodiment,
anodically active material layers 30, 31 will have a thickness of
about 1 to about 50 micrometers and a height of about 100 to about
1,000 micrometers. By way of further example, in one embodiment,
anodically active material layers 30, 31 will have a thickness of
about 5 to about 20 micrometers and a height of about 100 to about
1,000 micrometers. By way of further example, in one embodiment,
anodically active material layers 30, 31 will have a thickness of
about 10 to about 100 micrometers and a height of about 100 to
about 1,000 micrometers. By way of further example, in one
embodiment, anodically active material layers 30, 31 will have a
thickness of about 5 to about 50 micrometers and a height of about
100 to about 1,000 micrometers.
In one embodiment, microstructured anodically active material
layers 30, 31 comprise porous aluminum, tin or silicon or an alloy
thereof. Porous silicon layers may be formed, for example, by
anodization, by etching (e.g., by depositing gold, platinum, or
gold/palladium on the (100) surface of single crystal silicon and
etching the surface with a mixture of hydrofluoric acid and
hydrogen peroxide), or by other methods known in the art such as
patterned chemical etching. Additionally, the anodically active
material layer will generally have a porosity fraction of at least
about 0.1 but less than 0.8 and have a thickness of about 1 to
about 100 micrometers. For example, in one embodiment anodically
active material layers 30, 31 comprise porous silicon, have a
thickness of about 5 to about 100 micrometers, and have a porosity
fraction of about 0.15 to about 0.75. By way of further example, in
one embodiment, anodically active material layers 30, 31 comprise
porous silicon, have a thickness of about 10 to about 80
micrometers, and have a porosity fraction of about 0.15 to about
0.7. By way of further example, in one such embodiment, anodically
active material layers 30, 31 comprise porous silicon, have a
thickness of about 20 to about 50 micrometers, and have a porosity
fraction of about 0.25 to about 0.6. By way of further example, in
one embodiment anodically active material layers 30, 31 comprise a
porous silicon alloy (such as nickel silicide), have a thickness of
about 5 to about 100 micrometers, and have a porosity fraction of
about 0.15 to about 0.75. In each of the foregoing embodiments the
thickness of the anodically active material layer will typically
exceed the pore depth. Stated differently, the base of the pore
(e.g., the surface of the pore proximate anode backbone 32 (see
FIG. 2) will typically not occur at the boundary (i.e., surfaces
S.sub.3 and S.sub.4 as depicted in FIG. 2) between the anodically
active material layer and the anode backbone; instead, the boundary
between the anodically active material layer and the anode backbone
will occur at a greater depth (e.g., at a greater distance measured
in the direction of arrow 23 in FIG. 2) from the base of the
pore.
Although there may be significant pore-to-pore variation, the pores
of the porous silicon (or an alloy thereof) have major axes
(sometimes referred to as a central axis) which are predominantly
in the direction of the chemical or electrochemical etching
process. Referring now to FIG. 3, when anodically active material
layer 32 comprises porous silicon, pores 60 will have major axes 62
that are predominantly perpendicular to lateral surface S.sub.1
(see FIG. 2) and generally parallel to a reference plane, in this
embodiment the planar surface of base 22. Notably, when cells are
stacked vertically as illustrated in FIG. 2, the major axes of the
pores are generally orthogonal to the direction of stacking of the
cells (that is, the major axes of the pores lie in the X-Y plane
when the direction of stacking is in the Z-direction as illustrated
in FIG. 2).
In another embodiment, microstructured anodically active material
layers 30, 31 comprise fibers of aluminum, tin or silicon, or an
alloy thereof. Individual fibers may have a diameter (thickness
dimension) of about 5 nm to about 10,000 nm and a length generally
corresponding to the thickness of the microstructured anodically
active material layers 30, 31. Fibers (nanowires) of silicon may be
formed, for example, by chemical vapor deposition or other
techniques known in the art such as vapor liquid solid (VLS) growth
and solid liquid solid (SLS) growth. Additionally, the anodically
active material layer will generally have a porosity fraction of at
least about 0.1 but less than 0.8 and have a thickness of about 1
to about 200 micrometers. For example, in one embodiment anodically
active material layers 30, 31 comprise silicon nanowires, have a
thickness of about 5 to about 100 micrometers, and have a porosity
fraction of about 0.15 to about 0.75. By way of further example, in
one embodiment, anodically active material layers 30, 31 comprise
silicon nanowires, have a thickness of about 10 to about 80
micrometers, and have a porosity fraction of about 0.15 to about
0.7. By way of further example, in one such embodiment, anodically
active material layers 30, 31 comprise silicon nanowires, have a
thickness of about 20 to about 50 micrometers, and have a porosity
fraction of about 0.25 to about 0.6. By way of further example, in
one embodiment anodically active material layers 30, 31 comprise
nanowires of a silicon alloy (such as nickel silicide), have a
thickness of about 5 to about 100 micrometers, and have a porosity
fraction of about 0.15 to about 0.75.
Although there may be significant fiber-to-fiber variation,
nanowires of aluminum, tin or silicon (or an alloy thereof) have
major axes (sometimes referred to as a central axis) which are
predominantly perpendicular to the anode backbone (at the point of
attachment of the nanowire to the microstructured anodically active
material layer) and parallel to the surface of the base supporting
the backbone (See FIG. 2). Notably, when cells are stacked
vertically as illustrated in FIG. 2, the major axes of the fibers
are generally orthogonal to the direction of stacking of the
cells.
In another embodiment, microstructured anodically active material
layers 30, 31 comprise nanowires of silicon or an alloy thereof and
porous silicon or an alloy thereof. In such embodiments, the
anodically active material layer will generally have a porosity
fraction of at least about 0.1 but less than 0.8 and have a
thickness of about 1 to about 100 micrometers as previously
described in connection with porous silicon and silicon
nanowires.
Referring again to FIG. 2, base 22 serves as a rigid backplane and
may constitute any of a wide range of materials. For example, base
22 may comprise a ceramic, a glass, a polymer or any of a range of
other materials that provide sufficient rigidity to the overall
structure. In one embodiment, base 22 is insulating; for example,
base 22 may have an electrical conductivity of less than 10
Siemens/cm. In one exemplary embodiment, base 22 may comprise a
silicon-on-insulator structure. In some embodiments, however, base
22 may be removed after the electrochemical stack is formed.
Referring now to FIGS. 4A-4E, anode structures 24 and cathode
structures 26 project from the same reference plane, in this
embodiment, the planar surface of base 22 and are alternating in
periodic fashion. Additionally, in each of FIGS. 4A-4E, each anode
structure 24 contains at least one lateral surface between its
bottom and top surfaces as described more fully in connection with
FIG. 2 to support a population of microstructured anodically active
material layers 30. For example, when anode structures 24 are in
the shape of pillars (FIG. 4A), the microstructured anodically
active material layer extends at least partially, and preferably
fully about the circumference of the lateral surface. By way of
further example, when anode structures 24 have two (or more)
lateral surfaces as illustrated, for example, in FIGS. 4B-4E, the
anodically active material layer at least partially covers, and
preferably fully covers, at least one of the lateral surfaces.
Additionally, each of the microstructured anodically active
material layers in the population has a height (measured in a
direction perpendicular to base 22) and the layers are disposed
such that the distance between at least two of the layers of the
population, e.g., layers 30A and 30B, measured in a direction that
is substantially parallel to the planar surface of base 22 is
greater than the maximum height of any of the layers in the
population. For example, in one embodiment, the distance between at
least two of the layers of the population, e.g., layers 30A and
30B, is greater than the maximum height of any of the layers in the
population by a factor of at least 2, and in some embodiments
substantially more, e.g., by a factor of at least 5 or even 10. By
way of further example, in one embodiment, the distance between a
majority of the layers of the population is greater than the
maximum height of any of the layers in the population by a factor
of at least 2, and in some embodiments substantially more, e.g., by
a factor of at least 5 or even 10.
FIG. 4A shows a three-dimensional assembly with anode structures 24
and cathode structures 26 in the shape of pillars. Each of the
pillars comprises a backbone having a lateral surface (not shown)
projecting vertically from base 22. The lateral surface of each of
the backbones supports an anodically active material layer 30 and
the layers 30 are disposed such that the distance between at least
two of the layers of the population, e.g., layers 30A and 30B, is
greater than the maximum height of any of the layers in the
population.
FIG. 4B shows a three-dimensional assembly with cathode structures
26 and anode structures 24 in the shape of plates. Each of the
plates comprises a backbone having a lateral surface (not shown)
projecting vertically from base 22. The lateral surface of each of
the backbones supports an anodically active material layer 30 and
the layers 30 are disposed such that the distance between at least
two of the layers of the population, e.g., layers 30A and 30B, is
greater than the maximum height of any of the layers in the
population.
FIG. 4C shows a three-dimensional assembly with cathode structures
26 and anode structures 24 in the shape of concentric circles. Each
of the concentric circles comprises a backbone having a lateral
surface (not shown) projecting vertically from base 22. The lateral
surface of each of the backbones supports an anodically active
material layer 30 and the layers 30 are disposed such that the
distance between at least two of the layers of the population,
e.g., layers 30A and 30B, is greater than the maximum height of any
of the layers in the population.
FIG. 4D shows a three-dimensional assembly with cathode structures
26 and anode structures 24 in the shape of waves. Each of the waves
comprises a backbone having a lateral surface (not shown)
projecting vertically from base 22. The lateral surface of each of
the backbones supports an anodically active material layer 30 and
the layers 30 are disposed such that the distance between at least
two of the layers of the population, e.g., layers 30A and 30B, is
greater than the maximum height of any of the layers in the
population.
FIG. 4E shows a three-dimensional assembly with cathode structures
26 and anode structures 24 in a honeycomb pattern. The cathode
structures 26 are in the shape of pillars at the center of each
unit cell of the honeycomb structure and the walls of each unit
cell of the honeycomb structure comprise an interconnected backbone
network (system) having lateral surfaces (not shown) projecting
vertically from base 22. The lateral surfaces of the backbone
network (system) support anodically active material layers 30 and
the layers 30 are disposed such that the distance between at least
two of the layers of the population, e.g., layers 30A and 30B, is
greater than the maximum height of any of the layers in the
population. In an alternative embodiment, the three-dimensional
assembly is a honeycomb structure, but the relative positions of
the anode structures and cathode structures reversed relative to
the embodiment depicted in FIG. 4E, i.e., in the alternative
embodiment, the anode structures are in the shape of pillars
(having lateral surfaces supporting anodically active material
layers) and the walls of each unit cell comprise cathodically
active material.
Independent of the geometry of the anode structures, in one
embodiment an electrochromic stack comprises a population of
microstructured anodically active material layers having at least
20 anodically active material layers as members. For example, in
one embodiment, the population comprises at least 50 members. By
way of further example, in one embodiment the population comprises
at least 100 members. In other embodiments, the population may
comprise at least 150, at least 200 or even at least 500
members.
Referring now to FIG. 5, die stack 14 comprises three dies, each
die 20 comprising a base 22 and an electrochemical stack comprising
an alternating series of anode structures 24 and cathode structures
26 projecting from base 22. Each anode structure 24 comprises anode
backbone 32, microstructured anodically active material layer 31,
and anode current collector 28. Each cathode structure 26 comprises
cathode material 27, cathode current collector 34 and cathode
backbone 36. Separator 38 is positioned between each anode
structure 24 and each cathode structure 26. In one embodiment, base
22 is removed and anode structures 24 and cathode structures 26
project from a common reference plane parallel to base 22.
For ease of illustration, only two anode structures 24 and only one
cathode structure 26 are depicted in FIG. 5 for each die 20 and
only three die appear in the vertical stack depicted in FIG. 5; in
practice, however, each die will typically comprise an
electrochemical stack comprising an alternating series of anode
structures and cathode structures, with the number of anode
structures and cathode structures per electrochemical stack and the
number of dies in the vertical stack depending upon the
application. For lithium ion batteries for portable electronics
such as mobile phones and computers, for example, each die may
contain about 20 to about 500 anode structures and an approximately
equal number of cathode structures. For example, in one embodiment
each die may contain at least 20, at least 50, at least 100, at
least 150, at least 200 or even at least 500 anode structures and
an approximately equal number of cathode structures. The size of
the die may also vary substantially depending upon the application.
For lithium ion batteries for portable electronics such as mobile
phones and computers, for example, each die may have a size of 50
mm (L).times.50 mm(W).times.5 mm(H). Additionally, in one
embodiment the dies are preferably stacked, relative to each other,
in a direction that is orthogonal to the direction of stacking of
the anode structures, separator layers, and cathode structures
within an electrochemical stack of a die; stated differently each
die is preferably stacked in a direction that is orthogonal to the
substantially planar surface of each base 22 (or common reference
plane) of an individual die. In one alternative embodiment, the
dies are stacked, relative to each other, in a direction that is
parallel to the direction of stacking of the anode structures,
separator layers, and cathode structures within an electrochemical
stack of a die; stated differently each die is preferably stacked
in a direction that lies within a plane that is parallel to the
substantially planar surface of each base 22 (or common reference
plane) of an individual die.
Base 22 serves as a rigid backplane and may constitute any of a
wide range of materials. As previously noted, base 22 may comprise
a ceramic, a glass, a polymer or any of a range of other materials
that provide sufficient rigidity and electrical insulation to the
overall structure. In one embodiment, base 22 is removed or
otherwise omitted (provided some structure or means are provided to
prevent electrical shorting between the anode and the cathode
structures) and the anode and cathode structures project from a
common reference plane instead of a common base.
The overall size of the anode structure 24 may depend, in part,
upon the application and, in part, upon manufacturing concerns. For
lithium ion batteries for portable electronics such as mobile
phones and computers, for example, each anode structure 24 will
typically have a height, H.sub.A, (as measured in a direction
perpendicular to base 22) of at least about 50 micrometers, more
typically at least about 100 micrometers. In general, however, the
anode structure(s) will typically have a height of no more than
about 10,000 micrometers, and more typically no more than about
5,000 micrometers. Additionally, the lineal distance between at
least one pair of anodically active material layers 31 of the same
electrochemical stack 20 preferably exceeds the maximum height,
H.sub.A, of a member of the population of anodically active
material layers in the same electrochemical stack.
Referring again to FIG. 5, each anode structure 24 comprises an
anode current collector layer 28 overlying and in contact with
anodically active material layer 31 which, in turn, overlies and is
contact with anode backbone 32. As carrier ions move between the
anodically active material and the cathodically active material in
such an electrochemical stack, therefore, they pass through the
anode current collector layer 28 positioned between the separator
and the anodically active material layer. In this embodiment, anode
current collector layer 28 comprises an ionically permeable
conductor that has sufficient ionic permeability to carrier ions to
facilitate the movement of carrier ions from the separator to the
anodically active material layer and sufficient electrical
conductivity to enable it to serve as a current collector.
Being positioned between the anodically active material layer and
the separator, the anode current collector layer may facilitate
more uniform carrier ion transport by distributing current from the
anode current collector across the surface of the anodically active
material layer. This, in turn, may facilitate more uniform
insertion and extraction of carrier ions and thereby reduce stress
in the anodically active material during cycling; since the anode
current collector layer distributes current to the surface of the
anodically active material layer facing the separator, the
reactivity of the anodically active material layer for carrier ions
will be the greatest where the carrier ion concentration is the
greatest.
In this embodiment, the anode current collector layer comprises an
ionically permeable conductor material that is both ionically and
electrically conductive. Stated differently, the anode current
collector layer has a thickness, an electrical conductivity, and an
ionic conductivity for carrier ions that facilitates the movement
of carrier ions between an immediately adjacent active electrode
material layer one side of the ionically permeable conductor layer
and an immediately adjacent separator layer on the other side of
the anode current collector layer in an electrochemical stack. On a
relative basis, the anode current collector layer has an electrical
conductance that is greater than its ionic conductance when there
is an applied current to store energy in the device or an applied
load to discharge the device. For example, the ratio of the
electrical conductance to the ionic conductance (for carrier ions)
of the anode current collector layer will typically be at least
1,000:1, respectively, when there is an applied current to store
energy in the device or an applied load to discharge the device. By
way of further example, in one such embodiment, the ratio of the
electrical conductance to the ionic conductance (for carrier ions)
of the anode current collector layer is at least 5,000:1,
respectively, when there is an applied current to store energy in
the device or an applied load to discharge the device. By way of
further example, in one such embodiment, the ratio of the
electrical conductance to the ionic conductance (for carrier ions)
of the anode current collector layer is at least 10,000:1,
respectively, when there is an applied current to store energy in
the device or an applied load to discharge the device. By way of
further example, in one such embodiment, the ratio of the
electrical conductance to the ionic conductance (for carrier ions)
of the anode current collector layer is at least 50,000:1,
respectively, when there is an applied current to store energy in
the device or an applied load to discharge the device. By way of
further example, in one such embodiment, the ratio of the
electrical conductance to the ionic conductance (for carrier ions)
of the anode current collector layer is at least 100,000:1,
respectively, when there is an applied current to store energy in
the device or an applied load to discharge the device.
In one embodiment and when there is an applied current to store
energy in the device or an applied load to discharge the device,
such as when a secondary battery is charging or discharging, the
anode current collector layer has an ionic conductance that is
comparable to the ionic conductance of an adjacent separator layer.
For example, in one embodiment the anode current collector layer
has an ionic conductance (for carrier ions) that is at least 50% of
the ionic conductance of the separator layer (i.e., a ratio of
0.5:1, respectively) when there is an applied current to store
energy in the device or an applied load to discharge the device. By
way of further example, in some embodiments the ratio of the ionic
conductance (for carrier ions) of the anode current collector layer
to the ionic conductance (for carrier ions) of the separator layer
is at least 1:1 when there is an applied current to store energy in
the device or an applied load to discharge the device. By way of
further example, in some embodiments the ratio of the ionic
conductance (for carrier ions) of the anode current collector layer
to the ionic conductance (for carrier ions) of the separator layer
is at least 1.25:1 when there is an applied current to store energy
in the device or an applied load to discharge the device. By way of
further example, in some embodiments the ratio of the ionic
conductance (for carrier ions) of the anode current collector layer
to the ionic conductance (for carrier ions) of the separator layer
is at least 1.5:1 when there is an applied current to store energy
in the device or an applied load to discharge the device. By way of
further example, in some embodiments the ratio of the ionic
conductance (for carrier ions) of the anode current collector layer
to the ionic conductance (for (anode current collector layer)
carrier ions) of the separator layer is at least 2:1 when there is
an applied current to store energy in the device or an applied load
to discharge the device.
In one embodiment, the anode current collector layer also has an
electrical conductance that is substantially greater than the
electrical conductance of the anodically active material layer. For
example, in one embodiment the ratio of the electrical conductance
of the anode current collector layer to the electrical conductance
of the anodically active material layer is at least 100:1 when
there is an applied current to store energy in the device or an
applied load to discharge the device. By way of further example, in
some embodiments the ratio of the electrical conductance of the
anode current collector layer to the electrical conductance of the
anodically active material layer is at least 500:1 when there is an
applied current to store energy in the device or an applied load to
discharge the device. By way of further example, in some
embodiments the ratio of the electrical conductance of the anode
current collector layer to the electrical conductance of the
anodically active material layer is at least 1000:1 when there is
an applied current to store energy in the device or an applied load
to discharge the device. By way of further example, in some
embodiments the ratio of the electrical conductance of the anode
current collector layer to the electrical conductance of the
anodically active material layer is at least 5000:1 when there is
an applied current to store energy in the device or an applied load
to discharge the device. By way of further example, in some
embodiments the ratio of the electrical conductance of the anode
current collector layer to the electrical conductance of the
anodically active material layer is at least 10,000:1 when there is
an applied current to store energy in the device or an applied load
to discharge the device.
The thickness of the anode current collector layer (i.e., the
shortest distance between the separator and the anodically active
material layer between which the anode current collector layer is
sandwiched) in this embodiment will depend upon the composition of
the layer and the performance specifications for the
electrochemical stack. In general, when an anode current collector
layer is an ionically permeable conductor layer, it will have a
thickness of at least about 300 Angstroms. For example, in some
embodiments it may have a thickness in the range of about 300-800
Angstroms. More typically, however, it will have a thickness
greater than about 0.1 micrometers. In general, an ionically
permeable conductor layer will have a thickness not greater than
about 100 micrometers. Thus, for example, in one embodiment, the
anode current collector layer will have a thickness in the range of
about 0.1 to about 10 micrometers. By way of further example, in
some embodiments, the anode current collector layer will have a
thickness in the range of about 0.1 to about 5 micrometers. By way
of further example, in some embodiments, the anode current
collector layer will have a thickness in the range of about 0.5 to
about 3 micrometers. In general, it is preferred that the thickness
of the anode current collector layer be approximately uniform. For
example, in one embodiment it is preferred that the anode current
collector layer have a thickness non-uniformity of less than about
25% wherein thickness non-uniformity is defined as the quantity of
the maximum thickness of the layer minus the minimum thickness of
the layer, divided by the average layer thickness. In certain
embodiments, the thickness variation is even less. For example, in
some embodiments the anode current collector layer has a thickness
non-uniformity of less than about 20%. By way of further example,
in some embodiments the anode current collector layer has a
thickness non-uniformity of less than about 15%. In some
embodiments the ionically permeable conductor layer has a thickness
non-uniformity of less than about 10%.
In one preferred embodiment, the anode current collector layer is
an ionically permeable conductor layer comprising an electrically
conductive component and an ion conductive component that
contribute to the ionic permeability and electrical conductivity.
Typically, the electrically conductive component will comprise a
continuous electrically conductive material (such as a continuous
metal or metal alloy) in the form of a mesh or patterned surface, a
film, or composite material comprising the continuous electrically
conductive material (such as a continuous metal or metal alloy).
Additionally, the ion conductive component will typically comprise
pores, e.g., interstices of a mesh, spaces between a patterned
metal or metal alloy containing material layer, pores in a metal
film, or a solid ion conductor having sufficient diffusivity for
carrier ions. In certain embodiments, the ionically permeable
conductor layer comprises a deposited porous material, an
ion-transporting material, an ion-reactive material, a composite
material, or a physically porous material. If porous, for example,
the ionically permeable conductor layer may have a void fraction of
at least about 0.25. In general, however, the void fraction will
typically not exceed about 0.95. More typically, when the ionically
permeable conductor layer is porous the void fraction may be in the
range of about 0.25 to about 0.85. In some embodiments, for
example, when the ionically permeable conductor layer is porous the
void fraction may be in the range of about 0.35 to about 0.65.
In the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 5, anode current collector
layer 28 is the sole anode current collector for anodically active
material layer 31. Stated differently, in this embodiment anode
backbone 32 does not comprise an anode current collector. In
certain other embodiments, however, anode backbone 32 may
optionally comprise an anode current collector.
Each cathode structure 26 may comprise any of a range of cathode
active materials 27, including mixtures of cathode active
materials. For example, for a lithium-ion battery, a cathode
material, such as LiCoO.sub.2, LiNi.sub.0.5Mn.sub.1.5O.sub.4,
Li(Ni.sub.xCo.sub.yAl.sub.2)O.sub.2, LiFePO.sub.4,
Li.sub.2MnO.sub.4, V.sub.2O.sub.5, and molybdenum oxysulfides. The
cathode active material be deposited to form the cathode structure
by any of a range of techniques including, for example,
electrophoretic deposition, electrodeposition, co-deposition or
slurry deposition. In one exemplary embodiment, one of the
aforementioned cathode active materials, or a combination thereof,
in particulate form is electrophoretically deposited. In another
exemplary embodiment, a cathode active material such as
V.sub.2O.sub.5 is electrodeposited. In another exemplary
embodiment, one of the aforementioned cathode active materials, or
a combination thereof, in particulate form is co-deposited in a
conductive matrix such as polyaniline. In another exemplary
embodiment, one of the aforementioned cathode active materials, or
a combination thereof, in particulate form is slurry deposited.
Independent of the method of deposition, the cathode active
material layer will typically have a thickness between 1 micron and
1 mm. In certain embodiments, the layer thickness is between 5
microns and 200 microns, and in certain embodiments, the layer
thickness is between 10 microns and 150 microns.
Each cathode structure 26 further comprises a cathode current
collector 34 which, in the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 5,
overlies cathode support 36. Cathode current collector 34 may
comprise any of the metals previously identified for the anode
current collector; for example, in one embodiment, cathode current
collector 34 comprises aluminum, carbon, chromium, gold, nickel,
NiP, palladium, platinum, rhodium, ruthenium, an alloy of silicon
and nickel, titanium, or a combination thereof (see "Current
collectors for positive electrodes of lithium-based batteries" by
A. H. Whitehead and M. Schreiber, Journal of the Electrochemical
Society, 152(11) A2105-A2113 (2005)). By way of further example, in
one embodiment, cathode current collector layer 34 comprises gold
or an alloy thereof such as gold silicide. By way of further
example, in one embodiment, cathode current collector layer 34
comprises nickel or an alloy thereof such as nickel silicide.
Similarly, cathode support 36 may comprise any of the materials
previously identified for the anode backbone. Presently preferred
materials include semiconductor materials such as silicon and
germanium. Alternatively, however, carbon-based organic materials
or metals, such as platinum, rhodium, aluminum, gold, nickel,
cobalt, titanium, tungsten, and alloys thereof may also be
incorporated into cathode support structures. Typically, the
cathode support will have a height of at least about 50
micrometers, more typically at least about 100 micrometers, and any
of a range of thicknesses (including the minimum) permitted by the
fabrication method being used. In general, however, cathode support
36 will typically have a height of no more than about 10,000
micrometers, and more typically no more than about 5,000
micrometers. Additionally, in such embodiments, the cathode current
collector 34 will have a thickness in the range of about 0.5 to 50
micrometers.
In an alternative embodiment, the positions of the cathode current
collector layer and the cathode active material layer are reversed
relative to their positions as depicted in FIG. 5. Stated
differently, in some embodiments, the cathode current collector
layer is positioned between the separator layer and the
cathodically active material layer. In such embodiments, the
cathode current collector for the immediately adjacent cathodically
active material layer comprises an ionically permeable conductor
having a composition and construction as described in connection
with the anode current collector layer; that is, the cathode
current collector layer comprises a layer of an ionically permeable
conductor material that is both ionically and electrically
conductive. In this embodiment, the cathode current collector layer
has a thickness, an electrical conductivity, and an ionic
conductivity for carrier ions that facilitates the movement of
carrier ions between an immediately adjacent cathodically active
material layer on one side of the cathode current collector layer
and an immediately adjacent separator layer on the other side of
the cathode current collector layer in an electrochemical stack. On
a relative basis in this embodiment, the cathode current collector
layer has an electrical conductance that is greater than its ionic
conductance when there is an applied current to store energy in the
device or an applied load to discharge the device. For example, the
ratio of the electrical conductance to the ionic conductance (for
carrier ions) of the cathode current collector layer will typically
be at least 1,000:1, respectively, when there is an applied current
to store energy in the device or an applied load to discharge the
device. By way of further example, in one such embodiment, the
ratio of the electrical conductance to the ionic conductance (for
carrier ions) of the cathode current collector layer is at least
5,000:1, respectively, when there is an applied current to store
energy in the device or an applied load to discharge the device. By
way of further example, in one such embodiment, the ratio of the
electrical conductance to the ionic conductance (for carrier ions)
of the cathode current collector layer is at least 10,000:1,
respectively, when there is an applied current to store energy in
the device or an applied load to discharge the device. By way of
further example, in one such embodiment, the ratio of the
electrical conductance to the ionic conductance (for carrier ions)
of the cathode current collector layer is at least 50,000:1,
respectively, when there is an applied current to store energy in
the device or an applied load to discharge the device. By way of
further example, in one such embodiment, the ratio of the
electrical conductance to the ionic conductance (for carrier ions)
of the cathode current collector layer is at least 100,000:1,
respectively, when there is an applied current to store energy in
the device or an applied load to discharge the device.
When there is an applied current to store energy in the device or
an applied load to discharge the device in this embodiment, such as
when a secondary battery is charging or discharging, the cathode
current collector layer has an ionic conductance that is comparable
to the ionic conductance of an adjacent separator layer. For
example, in one embodiment the cathode current collector layer has
an ionic conductance (for carrier ions) that is at least 50% of the
ionic conductance of the separator layer (i.e., a ratio of 0.5:1,
respectively) when there is an applied current to store energy in
the device or an applied load to discharge the device. By way of
further example, in some embodiments the ratio of the ionic
conductance (for carrier ions) of the cathode current collector
layer to the ionic conductance (for carrier ions) of the separator
layer is at least 1:1 when there is an applied current to store
energy in the device or an applied load to discharge the device. By
way of further example, in some embodiments the ratio of the ionic
conductance (for carrier ions) of the cathode current collector
layer to the ionic conductance (for carrier ions) of the separator
layer is at least 1.25:1 when there is an applied current to store
energy in the device or an applied load to discharge the device. By
way of further example, in some embodiments the ratio of the ionic
conductance (for carrier ions) of the cathode current collector
layer to the ionic conductance (for carrier ions) of the separator
layer is at least 1.5:1 when there is an applied current to store
energy in the device or an applied load to discharge the device. By
way of further example, in some embodiments the ratio of the ionic
conductance (for carrier ions) of the cathode current collector
layer to the ionic conductance (for (cathode current collector
layer) carrier ions) of the separator layer is at least 2:1 when
there is an applied current to store energy in the device or an
applied load to discharge the device.
In this embodiment in which the cathode current collector layer is
between the cathodically active material layer and the separator,
the cathode current collector comprises an ionically permeable
conductor layer having an electrical conductance that is
substantially greater than the electrical conductance of the
cathodically active material layer. For example, in one embodiment
the ratio of the electrical conductance of the cathode current
collector layer to the electrical conductance of the cathodically
active material layer is at least 100:1 when there is an applied
current to store energy in the device or an applied load to
discharge the device. By way of further example, in some
embodiments the ratio of the electrical conductance of the cathode
current collector layer to the electrical conductance of the
cathodically active material layer is at least 500:1 when there is
an applied current to store energy in the device or an applied load
to discharge the device. By way of further example, in some
embodiments the ratio of the electrical conductance of the cathode
current collector layer to the electrical conductance of the
cathodically active material layer is at least 1000:1 when there is
an applied current to store energy in the device or an applied load
to discharge the device. By way of further example, in some
embodiments the ratio of the electrical conductance of the cathode
current collector layer to the electrical conductance of the
cathodically active material layer is at least 5000:1 when there is
an applied current to store energy in the device or an applied load
to discharge the device. By way of further example, in some
embodiments the ratio of the electrical conductance of the cathode
current collector layer to the electrical conductance of the
cathodically active material layer is at least 10,000:1 when there
is an applied current to store energy in the device or an applied
load to discharge the device.
The thickness of the cathode current collector layer (i.e., the
shortest distance between the separator and the cathodically active
material layer between which the cathode current collector layer is
sandwiched) in this embodiment will depend upon the composition of
the layer and the performance specifications for the
electrochemical stack. In general, when a cathode current collector
layer is an ionically permeable conductor layer, it will have a
thickness of at least about 300 Angstroms. For example, in some
embodiments it may have a thickness in the range of about 300-800
Angstroms. More typically, however, it will have a thickness
greater than about 0.1 micrometers. In this embodiment, a cathode
current conductor will typically have a thickness not greater than
about 100 micrometers. Thus, for example, in one embodiment, the
cathode current collector layer will have a thickness in the range
of about 0.1 to about 10 micrometers. By way of further example, in
some embodiments, the cathode current collector layer will have a
thickness in the range of about 0.1 to about 5 micrometers. By way
of further example, in some embodiments, the cathode current
collector layer will have a thickness in the range of about 1 to
about 3 micrometers. In general, it is preferred that the thickness
of the cathode current collector layer be approximately uniform.
For example, in one embodiment it is preferred that the ionically
permeable conductor layer have (cathode current conductor) a
thickness non-uniformity of less than about 25% wherein thickness
non-uniformity is defined as the quantity of the maximum thickness
of the layer minus the minimum thickness of the layer, divided by
the average layer thickness. In certain embodiments, the thickness
variation is even less. For example, in some embodiments the
cathode current collector layer has a thickness non-uniformity of
less than about 20%. By way of further example, in some embodiments
the cathode current collector layer has a thickness non-uniformity
of less than about 15%. In some embodiments the cathode current
collector layer has a thickness non-uniformity of less than about
10%.
In one preferred embodiment, the cathode current collector layer is
an ionically permeable conductor layer comprising an electrically
conductive component and an ion conductive component that
contribute to the ionic permeability and electrical conductivity as
described in connection with the anode current collector.
Typically, the electrically conductive component will comprise a
continuous electrically conductive material (such as a continuous
metal or metal alloy) in the form of a mesh or patterned surface, a
film, or composite material comprising the continuous electrically
conductive material (such as a continuous metal or metal alloy).
Additionally, the ion conductive component will typically comprise
pores, e.g., interstices of a mesh, spaces between a patterned
metal or metal alloy containing material layer, pores in a metal
film, or a solid ion conductor having sufficient diffusivity for
carrier ions. In certain embodiments, the ionically permeable
conductor layer comprises a deposited porous material, an
ion-transporting material, an ion-reactive material, a composite
material, or a physically porous material. If porous, for example,
the ionically permeable conductor layer may have a void fraction of
at least about 0.25. In general, however, the void fraction will
typically not exceed about 0.95. More typically, when the ionically
permeable conductor layer is porous the void fraction may be in the
range of about 0.25 to about 0.85. In some embodiments, for
example, when the ionically permeable conductor layer is porous the
void fraction may be in the range of about 0.35 to about 0.65.
In one embodiment, the ionically permeable conductor layer
comprised by an electrode current collector layer (i.e., an anode
current collector layer or a cathode current collector layer)
comprises a mesh positioned between a separator layer and an
electrode active material layer. The mesh has interstices defined
by mesh strands of an electrically conductive material. For
example, when electrode active material layer is an anodically
active material layer, the mesh may comprise strands of carbon,
cobalt, chromium, copper, nickel, titanium, or an alloy of one or
more thereof. By way of further example, when electrode active
material layer is a cathodically active material layer, the mesh
may comprise strands of aluminum, carbon, chromium, gold, NiP,
palladium, rhodium, ruthenium, titanium, or an alloy of one or more
thereof. In general, the mesh will have a thickness (i.e., the
strands of the mesh have a diameter) of at least about 2
micrometers. In one exemplary embodiment, the mesh has a thickness
of at least about 4 micrometers. In another exemplary embodiment,
the mesh has a thickness of at least about 6 micrometers. In
another exemplary embodiment, the mesh has a thickness of at least
about 8 micrometers. In each of the foregoing embodiments, the open
area fraction of the mesh (i.e., the fraction of the mesh
constituting the interstices between mesh strands) is preferably at
least 0.5. For example, in each of the foregoing embodiments, the
open area fraction of the mesh may be at least 0.6. By way of
further example, in each of the foregoing embodiments, the open
area fraction of the mesh may be at least 0.75. By way of further
example, in each of the foregoing embodiments, the open area
fraction of the mesh may be at least 0.8. In general, however, in
each of the foregoing embodiments, the ratio of the average
distance between the strands of the mesh to the thickness of the
electrode active material layer is no more than 100:1,
respectively. For example, in each of the foregoing embodiments,
the ratio of the average distance between the mesh strands to the
thickness of the electrode active material layer is no more than
50:1, respectively. By way of further example, in each of the
foregoing embodiments, the ratio of the average distance between
the mesh strands to the thickness of the electrode active material
layer is no more than 25:1. Advantageously, one or both ends of the
mesh may be welded or otherwise connected to metal tabs or other
connectors to enable collected current to be carried to the
environment outside the battery.
In one embodiment, the ionically permeable conductor layer
comprised by an electrode current collector layer (i.e., an anode
current collector layer or a cathode current collector layer)
comprises a mesh of a metal or an alloy thereof as previously
described, and the interstices between the strands of the mesh are
open, filled with a porous material that may be permeated with
electrolyte, or they contain a nonporous material through which the
carrier ions may diffuse. When filled with a porous material, the
porous material will typically have a void fraction of at least
about 0.5, and in some embodiments, the void fraction will be at
least 0.6, 0.7 or even at least about 0.8. Exemplary porous
materials include agglomerates of a particulate ceramic such as
SiO.sub.2, Al.sub.2O.sub.3, SiC, or Si.sub.3N.sub.4 and
agglomerates of a particulate polymer such as polyethylene,
polypropylene, polymethylmethacrylates and copolymers thereof.
Exemplary nonporous materials that may be placed in the interstices
of the mesh include solid ion conductors such as
Na.sub.3Zr.sub.2Si.sub.2PO.sub.12 (NASICON),
Li.sub.2+2xZn.sub.1-xGeO.sub.4 (LISICON), and lithium phosphorous
oxynitride (LiPON).
In one embodiment, the ionically permeable conductor layer
comprised by an electrode current collector layer (i.e., an anode
current collector layer or a cathode current collector layer)
comprises conductive lines deposited or otherwise formed on the
surface of the immediately adjacent separator layer or the
immediately adjacent electrode active material layer (i.e., the
immediately adjacent anodically active material layer or the
immediately adjacent cathodically active material layer). In this
embodiment, the conductive lines may comprise any of the metals (or
alloys thereof) previously identified in connection with the mesh
component. For example, when the ionically permeable conductor
layer is positioned between a separator layer and an anodically
active material layer, the conductive lines may comprise carbon,
cobalt, chromium, copper, nickel, titanium, or an alloy of one or
more thereof. When the ionically permeable conductor layer is
positioned between a separator layer and a cathodically active
material layer, the conductive lines may comprise aluminum, carbon,
chromium, gold, NiP, palladium, rhodium, ruthenium, titanium, or an
alloy of one or more thereof. In general, the conductive lines will
have a thickness of at least about 2 micrometers. In one exemplary
embodiment, the conductive lines have a thickness of at least about
4 micrometers. In another exemplary embodiment, the conductive
lines have a thickness of at least about 6 micrometers. In another
exemplary embodiment, the conductive lines have a thickness of at
least about 8 micrometers. In each of the foregoing embodiments,
the ratio of the average distance between the conductive lines to
the thickness of the electrode active material layer is no more
than 100:1, respectively. For example, in each of the foregoing
embodiments, the ratio of the average distance between the
conductive lines to the thickness of the electrode active material
layer is no more than 50:1, respectively. By way of further
example, in each of the foregoing embodiments, the ratio of the
average distance between the conductive lines to the thickness of
the electrode active material layer is no more than 25:1,
respectively. Advantageously, one or more ends of the conductive
lines may be welded or otherwise connected to metal tabs or other
connectors to enable collected current to be carried to the
environment outside the battery.
In one embodiment, the ionically permeable conductor layer
comprised by an electrode current collector layer (i.e., an anode
current collector layer or a cathode current collector layer)
comprises a conductive line of a metal or an alloy thereof as
previously described, the spaces on the surface of the coated
material may be open, they may be filled with a porous material
that may be permeated with electrolyte, or they may contain a
nonporous material through which the carrier ions may diffuse. When
filled with a porous material, the porous material will typically
have a void fraction of at least about 0.5, and in some
embodiments, the void fraction will be at least 0.6, 0.7 or even at
least about 0.8. Exemplary porous materials include agglomerates of
a particulate ceramic such as SiO.sub.2, Al.sub.2O.sub.3, SiC, or
Si.sub.3N.sub.4 and agglomerates of a particulate polymer such as
polyethylene, polypropylene, polymethylmethacrylates and copolymers
thereof. Exemplary nonporous materials that may be placed between
the conductive lines include solid ion conductors such as
Na.sub.3Zr.sub.2Si.sub.2PO.sub.12 (NASICON),
Li.sub.2+2xZn.sub.1-xGeO.sub.4 (LISICON), and lithium phosphorous
oxynitride (LiPON).
In one embodiment, the ionically permeable conductor layer
comprised by an electrode current collector layer (i.e., an anode
current collector layer or a cathode current collector layer)
comprises a porous layer or film such as a porous metal layer. For
example when the electrode active material layer is an anodically
active material layer, the porous layer may comprise a porous layer
of carbon, cobalt, chromium, copper, nickel, titanium, or an alloy
of one or more thereof. By way of further example, when electrode
active material layer is a cathodically active material layer, the
porous layer may comprise a porous layer of aluminum, carbon,
chromium, gold, NiP, palladium, rhodium, ruthenium, titanium, or an
alloy of one or more thereof. Exemplary deposition techniques for
the formation of such porous layers include electroless deposition,
electro deposition, vacuum deposition techniques such as
sputtering, displacement plating, vapor deposition techniques such
as chemical vapor deposition and physical vapor deposition,
co-deposition followed by selective etching, and slurry coating of
metal particles with a binder. In general, it is preferred that the
void fraction of such porous layers be at least 0.25. For example,
in one embodiment the void fraction of a porous metal layer will be
at least 0.4, at least 0.5, at least 0.6, at least 0.7 and up to
about 0.75. To provide the desired electrical conductance, the
layer will typically have a thickness of at least about 1
micrometer. In some embodiments, the layer will have a thickness of
at least 2 micrometers. In some embodiments, the layer will have a
thickness of at least 5 micrometers. In general, however, the layer
will typically have a thickness that does not exceed 20
micrometers, and more typically does not exceed about 10
micrometers. Optionally, such metal layers or films may contain a
binder such as polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) or other polymeric or
ceramic material.
In yet another alternative embodiment, the ionically permeable
conductor layer comprised by an electrode current collector layer
(i.e., an anode current collector layer or a cathode current
collector layer) comprises a metal-filled ion conducting polymer
composite film. For example, the ionically permeable conductor
layer may comprise an ionically conducting film such as
polyethylene oxide or gel polymer electrolytes containing a
conductive element such as aluminum, carbon, gold, titanium,
rhodium, palladium, chromium, NiP, or ruthenium, or an alloy
thereof. Typically, however, solid ion conductors have relatively
low ionic conductivity and, thus, the layers need to be relatively
thin to provide the desired ionic conductance. For example, such
layers may have a thickness in the range of about 0.5 to about 10
micrometers.
In yet another alternative embodiment, the ionically permeable
conductor layer comprised by an electrode current collector layer
(i.e., an anode current collector layer or a cathode current
collector layer) comprises a porous layer of a metal or a metal
alloy, preferably one which does not form an intermetallic compound
with lithium. In this embodiment, for example, the ionically
permeable conductor layer may comprise at least one metal selected
from the group consisting of copper, nickel, and chromium, or an
alloy thereof. For example, in one such embodiment, the electrode
current collector layer comprises porous copper, porous nickel, a
porous alloy of copper or nickel, or a combination thereof. By way
of further example, in one such embodiment, the electrode current
collector layer comprises porous copper or an alloy thereof such as
porous copper silicide. By way of further example, in one such
embodiment, the electrode current collector layer comprises porous
nickel or a porous alloy thereof such as porous nickel silicide. In
each of the foregoing embodiments recited in this paragraph, the
thickness of the electrode current collector layer (i.e., the
shortest distance between the immediately adjacent electrode active
material layer and the immediately adjacent separator layer) will
generally be at least about 0.1 micrometers, and typically in the
range of about 0.1 to 10 micrometers. In each of the foregoing
embodiments recited in this paragraph, the electrode current
collector layer may be porous with a void fraction of in the range
of about 0.25 to about 0.85 and, in certain embodiments, in the
range of about 0.35 to about 0.45.
In one preferred embodiment, an anode current collector layer is
formed by a process comprising a displacement plating step. In this
embodiment, anodically active material layer preferably comprises
silicon and the layer is contacted with a solution comprising ions
of a metal and a dissolution component for dissolving part of the
silicon. The silicon is dissolved, the metal in solution is reduced
by electrons provided by the dissolution of the silicon, and the
metal is deposited on the anodically active material layer, and
annealing to form a metal-silicon alloy layer. The "dissolution
component" refers to a constituent that promotes dissolution of the
semiconductor material. Dissolution components include fluoride,
chloride, peroxide, hydroxide, permanganate, etc. Preferred
dissolution components are fluoride and hydroxide. Most preferred
dissolution component is fluoride. The metal may be any of the
aforementioned metals, with nickel and copper being preferred.
Advantageously, the resulting layer will be porous, having a void
fraction of about 0.15 to about 0.85. Additionally, the thickness
of the resulting ionically permeable conductor layer can be
controlled to be between about 100 nanometers and 3 micrometers; if
desired, thicker layers can be formed.
Referring again to FIG. 5, separator layer 38 is positioned between
each anode structure 24 and each cathode structure 26. Separator
layer 38 may comprise any of the materials conventionally used as
secondary battery separators including, for example, microporous
polyethylenes, polypropylenes, TiO.sub.2, SiO.sub.2,
Al.sub.2O.sub.3, and the like (P. Arora and J. Zhang, "Battery
Separators" Chemical Reviews 2004, 104, 4419-4462). Such materials
may be deposited, for example, by electrophoretic deposition of a
particulate separator material, slurry deposition (including spin
or spray coating) of a particulate separator material, or sputter
coating of an ionically conductive particulate separator material.
Separator layer 38 may have, for example, a thickness (the distance
separating an adjacent anodic structure and an adjacent cathodic
structure) of about 5 to 100 micrometers and a void fraction of
about 0.25 to about 0.75.
In operation, the separator may be permeated with a non-aqueous
electrolyte containing any non-aqueous electrolyte that is
conventionally used for non-aqueous electrolyte secondary
batteries. Typically, the non-aqueous electrolyte comprises a
lithium salt dissolved in an organic solvent. Exemplary lithium
salts include inorganic lithium salts such as LiClO.sub.4,
LiBF.sub.4, LiPF.sub.6, LiAsF.sub.6, LiCl, and LiBr; and organic
lithium salts such as LiB(C.sub.6H.sub.5).sub.4,
LiN(SO.sub.2CF.sub.3).sub.2, LiN(SO.sub.2CF.sub.3).sub.3,
LiNSO.sub.2CF.sub.3, LiNSO.sub.2CF.sub.5,
LiNSO.sub.2C.sub.4F.sub.9, LiNSO.sub.2C.sub.5F.sub.11,
LiNSO.sub.2C.sub.6F.sub.13, and LiNSO.sub.2C.sub.7F.sub.15.
Exemplary organic solvents to dissolve the lithium salt include
cyclic esters, chain esters, cyclic ethers, and chain ethers.
Specific examples of the cyclic esters include propylene carbonate,
butylene carbonate, .gamma.-butyrolactone, vinylene carbonate,
2-methyl-.gamma.-butyrolactone, acetyl-.gamma.-butyrolactone, and
.gamma.-valerolactone. Specific examples of the chain esters
include dimethyl carbonate, diethyl carbonate, dibutyl carbonate,
dipropyl carbonate, methyl ethyl carbonate, methyl butyl carbonate,
methyl propyl carbonate, ethyl butyl carbonate, ethyl propyl
carbonate, butyl propyl carbonate, alkyl propionates, dialkyl
malonates, and alkyl acetates. Specific examples of the cyclic
ethers include tetrahydrofuran, alkyltetrahydrofurans,
dialkyltetrahydrofurans, alkoxytetrahydrofurans,
dialkoxytetrahydrofurans, 1,3-dioxolane, alkyl-1,3-dioxolanes, and
1,4-dioxolane. Specific examples of the chain ethers include
1,2-dimethoxyethane, 1,2-diethoxythane, diethyl ether, ethylene
glycol dialkyl ethers, diethylene glycol dialkyl ethers,
triethylene glycol dialkyl ethers, and tetraethylene glycol dialkyl
ethers.
Referring now to FIG. 6, anode structure 24 has a bottom surface B
proximate to base 22, a top surface T distal to base 22 and lateral
surfaces S.sub.1, S.sub.2 extending from top surface T to bottom
surface B. Lateral surface S.sub.1 intersects the surface of base
22 at angle .alpha. and lateral surface S.sub.2 intersects the
surface of base 22 at angle .delta. relative to the surface of base
22. In a preferred embodiment, .alpha. and .delta. are
approximately equal and between about 80.degree. and 100.degree..
For example, in one embodiment, .alpha. and .delta. are
approximately equal and are 90.degree..+-.5.degree.. In a
particularly preferred embodiment, .alpha. and .delta. are
substantially the same and approximately 90.degree.. Independent of
the angle of intersection, it is generally preferred that the
majority of the surface area of each of lateral surfaces S.sub.1
and S.sub.2 is substantially perpendicular to the reference plane,
in this embodiment, the surface of base 22; stated differently, it
is generally preferred that the majority of the surface area of
each of lateral surfaces S.sub.1 and S.sub.2 lie in a plane (or
planes) that intersect(s) the reference plane (the surface of base
22, as illustrated) at an angle between about 80.degree. and
100.degree., and more preferably at an angle of
90.degree..+-.5.degree.. It is also generally preferred that top
surface T be substantially perpendicular to lateral surfaces
S.sub.1 and S.sub.2 and substantially parallel to the surface of
base 22. For example, in one presently preferred embodiment, base
22 has a substantially planar surface and anode structure 24 has a
top surface T that is substantially parallel to the planar surface
of the base 22 and lateral surfaces S.sub.1 and S.sub.2 are
substantially perpendicular to the planar surface of the base
22.
Referring now to FIG. 7, porous layer 31 comprises an anodically
active material having pores 60 and pore axes 62. In a preferred
embodiment, the anodically active material comprises porous silicon
or an alloy of silicon such as nickel silicide. Although the size,
shape and symmetry of pores 60 may be diverse, pore axes 62 will be
(i) predominantly perpendicular to lateral surface S.sub.1 in
regions of porous layer 31 proximate lateral surface S.sub.1, (ii)
predominantly perpendicular to lateral surface S.sub.2 in regions
of porous layer 31 proximate lateral surface S.sub.2, and (iii)
predominantly perpendicular to top surface T in regions of porous
layer 31 proximate top surface T (see FIG. 6). Accordingly, when
lateral surfaces S.sub.1 and S.sub.2 are substantially
perpendicular to the surface of base 22, pore axes 62 will be (i)
predominantly parallel to the surface of base 22 in regions of
porous layer 31 proximate lateral surfaces S.sub.1 and S.sub.2, and
(iii) predominantly perpendicular to the surface of base 22 in
regions of porous layer 31 proximate top surface T (see FIG. 6).
Additionally, in one embodiment the pore dimension, wall dimension,
pore depth and pore morphology in the region of porous layer 31
that is proximate the top T may differ from the wall dimension,
pore depth and pore morphology in the region of porous layer 31
proximate surfaces S.sub.1 and S.sub.2.
FIGS. 8-9 depict a schematic representation of one embodiment of a
process for manufacturing an anode backbone and a cathode support
of the present invention. Referring now to FIG. 8, a silicon wafer
50 is attached by conventional means to base 22. The base may have
the same dimensions as, or may be dimensionally larger or smaller
than the substrate. For example, wafer 50 and base 22 may be
anodically bonded together, adhered using an adhesive, or a polymer
layer may be formed in situ. As previously noted, base 50 may
comprise a layer of a glass, ceramic, polymer or other material
that provides sufficient rigidity in subsequent processing steps.
Alternatively, a silicon-on-insulator wafer may be used as the
starting material.
Referring now to FIG. 9, a photoresist is patterned onto wafer 50
to provide the desired backbone structures and chemically etched to
provide an anode backbone and a cathode support. The resulting
anode backbone 32 has length L.sub.AB, height H.sub.AB, and width
W.sub.AB wherein height H.sub.AB is measured in a direction
perpendicular to the surface of base 22 and length L.sub.AB and
width W.sub.AB are measured in a direction that is parallel to the
surface of base 22; typically, W.sub.AB will be at least 5
micrometers, H.sub.AB will be at least 50 micrometers and L.sub.AB
will be at least 1,000 micrometers. The resulting cathode support
36 has length L.sub.CB, height H.sub.CB, and width W.sub.CB wherein
height H.sub.CB is measured in a direction perpendicular to the
surface of base 22 and length L.sub.CB and width W.sub.CB.
After the anode backbone and cathode supports are formed in the
illustrated embodiment, cathode support is masked and anode
backbone 32 is treated to form a layer of microstructured silicon
having a void volume fraction of at least 0.1 on anode backbone 32
as previously described. The cathode may then be unmasked and an
anode current collector is formed on the anodically active material
layer and a cathode current collector is formed on the cathode
support. After a cathode material is selectively deposited on the
cathode current collector, the separator may be deposited between
the cathode material and the anode current collector, the
respective current collectors are connected to battery tabs, and
the whole assembly is inserted into a conventional battery pouch,
filled with a conventional lithium battery electrolyte containing a
lithium salt, and a mixture of organic carbonates (Propylene
Carbonate+Ethylene Carbonate), and sealed using a vacuum sealer
with the wires extending out of the pouch in order to make the
electrical connection. In one alternative embodiment, two or more
die, each containing one or more anodes and one or more cathodes
assembled as described are placed in a stack and electrically
connected to battery tabs before the entire assembly is inserted
into a conventional battery pouch, etc., to form the battery.
Referring now to FIG. 10, one embodiment of a three-dimensional
battery 10 of the present invention comprises battery enclosure 12,
die stack 14, and tabs 16, 18 for electrically connecting die stack
14 to an external energy supply or consumer (not shown). For
lithium ion batteries for portable electronics such as mobile
phones and computers, for example, battery enclosure 12 may be a
pouch or other conventional battery enclosure. Die stack 14
comprises several dies, each die comprising a battery cell having a
series of interdigitated anodes and cathodes with the anodes being
electrically connected to tab 16 and the cathodes being
electrically connected to tab 18. The number of die in a vertical
stack is not critical and may range, for example, from 1 to 50,
with 2 to 20 die in a stack being typical.
Referring now to FIG. 11, in one embodiment an electrochemical
stack 610 comprises reference plane 601 and backbones 603
projecting generally vertically from reference plane 601. The
cathodic elements of electrochemical stack 610 comprise cathode
current collector layers 620 and cathode active material layers
618. The anodic elements of electrochemical stack 610 comprise
anodic active material layers 612 and ionically permeable conductor
layer 614 which also serves as an anodic current collector layer.
Preferably, ionically permeable conductor layer 614 has a thickness
at the top of backbone 603, i.e., the surface of backbone distal to
reference plane 601, that is greater than the thickness of
ionically permeable layer on the lateral sides of backbone 603 (the
surfaces between the top and reference plane 601); for example, in
one embodiment, the thickness of the ionically permeable conductor
at the top of the backbone is 110% to 2,000% of the thickness of
the ionically permeable conductor on the lateral surfaces. By way
of further example, in one embodiment the thickness at the top of
the backbone is 200% to 1,000% of the thickness of the ionically
permeable conductor on the lateral surfaces. In one embodiment, the
permeability of the ionically permeable conductor to at the top of
the backbone is less permeable to carrier ions (e.g., lithium ions)
than is the ionically permeable conductor on the lateral surfaces,
and may even be impermeable to carrier ions. Separator layer 616 is
between ionically permeable conductor layer 614 and cathodically
active material layers 618. Cathode current collector layers 620
are electrically connected to the cathode contact (not shown) and
ionically permeable conductor layer 614 is electrically connected
to the anode contact (not shown). For ease of illustration, only
one anode backbone and only two cathode backbones are depicted in
FIG. 11; in practice, however, an electrochemical stack will
typically comprise an alternating series of anode and cathode
backbones, with the number per stack depending upon the
application.
Referring now to FIG. 12, in one embodiment an electrochemical
stack 610 comprises reference plane 601 and backbones 603
projecting generally vertically from reference plane 601. The
cathodic elements of electrochemical stack 610 comprise cathode
current collector layers 620 and cathode active material layers
618. The anodic elements of electrochemical stack 610 comprise
anodic active material layers 612 and ionically permeable conductor
layer 614 which also serves as an anodic current collector layer.
Separator layer 616 is between ionically permeable conductor layer
614 and cathodically active material layers 618. In this
embodiment, anodic active material layer 612 is on the top and
lateral surfaces of backbone 603 and cathodic active material 618
is proximate the top and lateral surfaces of backbone 603. As a
result, during charging and discharging of an energy storage device
comprising electrochemical stack 610, carrier ions are
simultaneously moving in two directions relative to reference plane
601: carrier ions are moving in a direction generally parallel to
reference plane 601 (to enter or leave anodically active material
612 on the lateral surface of backbone 603) and in a direction
generally orthogonal to the reference plane 601 (to enter or leave
anodically active material 612 at the top surface of backbone 603).
Cathode current collector layers 620 are electrically connected to
the cathode contact (not shown) and ionically permeable conductor
layer 614 is electrically connected to the anode contact (not
shown). For ease of illustration, only one anode backbone and only
two cathode backbones are depicted in FIG. 12; in practice,
however, an electrochemical stack will typically comprise an
alternating series of anode and cathode backbones, with the number
per stack depending upon the application.
Referring now to FIG. 13, in one embodiment an electrochemical
stack 710 comprises interdigitated anodically active material
layers 712 and cathodically material layers 718. The cathodic
elements of electrochemical stack 710 further comprise cathode
current collector layer 720 and the anodic elements of the
electrochemical stack comprise ionically permeable conductor layer
714 which functions as the anode current collector. Separator 716
is between ionically permeable conductor layer 714 and cathodically
active material layer 718. Support layers 705, 707 provide
mechanical support for interdigitated anodically active material
layers 712. Although not shown in FIG. 12, in one embodiment,
anodically active material layers 712 and cathodically active
material layers 718 and may be supported by backbones, as
illustrated in and described in connection with FIG. 2.
The following non-limiting examples are provided to further
illustrate the present invention.
EXAMPLES
Example 1
A silicon on insulator (SOI) wafer with a layer thickness of 100
.mu.m/1 .mu.m/675 .mu.m (device layer/insulating layer/backing
layer) was used as the sample. A hard mask layer of 2000 .ANG.
silicon dioxide was sputter deposited on top of the device silicon
layer. This wafer was then spin coated with 5 .mu.m of resist and
patterned with a mask to obtain a honeycomb shaped structure with
the honeycomb wall thickness of 100 .mu.m and the gap thickness of
200 .mu.m. The photoresist was then used as a photomask to remove
the silicon dioxide by ion milling.
The combination of silicon dioxide and photoresist was used as a
mask for silicon removal using Deep Reactive Ion Etching (DRIE) in
a fluoride plasma. The DRIE was performed until the silicon
constituting the device layer in the honeycomb gaps was completely
removed, stopping on the oxide layer. The overetch time used was
10% of the total DRIE time in order to remove islands of silicon in
the trench floor. Any top photoresist was removed by stripping in
acetone.
The top masking oxide layer was removed by dipping the sample for 1
minute in dilute (5:1) Buffered Oxide Etch (BOE):water solution.
The dissolution time is tailored so that the insulating oxide layer
in the bottom of the trench is not completely etched off.
The silicon sample was then inserted into an evaporation chamber,
and 100 .ANG. Au is deposited on the sample surface. This process
resulted in Au on the top of the honeycomb structures, its
sidewalls, as well as on the bottom oxide layer. The silicon
backing layer was protected at this time by an adhesive tape mask.
This sample was subsequently immersed in a solution of 1:1 by
volume of hydrofluoric acid (49%) and hydrogen peroxide (30%) at 30
C to form a porous silicon layer. The porous silicon depth was
tailored by varying the etching time. The approximate rate of
formation of porous silicon was 750-1000 nm/min. The parts were
removed and dried when the target pore depth of 30 .mu.m was
reached. The resulting porous silicon layer had a void volume
fraction of approximately 0.3.
The sample was then dried, cross-sectioned and photographed. As
illustrated in FIG. 14 the pores of the dried and cross-sectioned
sample are oriented predominantly in the direction parallel to the
base oxide layer.
Example 2
A silicon on insulator (SOI) wafer with a layer thickness of 100
.mu.m/1 .mu.m/675 .mu.m (device layer/insulating layer/backing
layer) was used as the sample. 1000 .ANG. of Pd was sputter
deposited on top of the device layer followed by a hard mask layer
of 2000 .ANG. silicon dioxide. This wafer was then spin coated with
5 .mu.m of resist and patterned with a mask to obtain a comb shaped
structure with two interdigitated combs isolated from each other as
shown in FIG. 3. The two interdigitated combs also have a landing
pad on each side that may be isolated and serve as the contact pad
for processing and for the final battery. The photoresist was then
used as a photomask to remove the silicon dioxide and palladium by
ion milling.
The combination of silicon dioxide, photoresist, and Pd was used as
a mask for silicon removal using Deep Reactive Ion Etching (DRIE)
in a fluoride plasma. The DRIE was performed until the silicon
constituting the device layer in the mask gaps was completely
removed, stopping on the oxide layer. The overetch time used was
10% of the total DRIE time in order to remove islands of silicon in
the trench floor. Any top photoresist was removed by stripping in
acetone. At this point, the two combs had been electrically
isolated by the DRIE.
The top masking oxide layer was removed by dipping the sample for 1
minute in dilute (5:1) Buffered Oxide Etch (BOE) solution. The
dissolution time was tailored so that the insulating oxide layer in
the bottom of the trench was not completely etched off.
One of the isolated pair of comb like structures was electrically
connected through the palladium conductor and immersed in an
electrophoretic resist bath. A commercially available
electrophoretic resist was used (Shipley EAGLE), and the comb was
electrophoretically deposited at 50 V for 120 seconds to form a
resist coating. The die was baked at 120 C for 30 min to harden the
resist. This resist acts as a protection layer during the
subsequent metal deposition step.
The silicon sample was then inserted into an evaporation chamber,
and 100 .ANG. Au was deposited on the sample surface. This Au
deposition process resulted in Au on the top of the comb, its
sidewalls, and on the bottom oxide layer. However, the photoresist
being present on one of the combs causes the Au to be in contact
with the silicon on only one of the two comb structures. The
silicon backing layer was also protected at this time by an
adhesive tape mask. This sample was subsequently immersed in a
solution of 1:1 by volume of hydrofluoric acid (49%) and hydrogen
peroxide (30%), at 30 C to form a porous silicon layer. The porous
silicon depth was tailored by varying the etching time. The
approximate rate of formation of porous silicon was 750-1000
nm/min. The parts were removed and dried when a the target pore
depth of 30 .mu.m was reached. The resulting porous silicon layer
had a void volume fraction of approximately 0.3.
The porous silicon was formed only on the comb-set that did not
have the electrophoretic resist patterned onto it. The porous
silicon set may then be used as the anode in a lithium ion battery.
The electrophoretic resist was subsequently stripped in acetone for
15 minutes.
Example 3
A silicon on insulator (SOI) wafer with a layer thickness of 100
.mu.m/1 .mu.m/675 .mu.m (device layer/insulating layer/backing
layer) was used as the sample. 1000 .ANG. of Pd was sputter
deposited on top of the device layer followed by a hard mask layer
of 2000 .ANG. silicon dioxide. This wafer was then spin coated with
5 .mu.m of resist and patterned with a mask to obtain a comb shaped
structure with two interdigitated combs isolated from each other as
shown in FIG. 3. The two interdigitated combs also have a landing
pad on each side that may be isolated and serve as the contact pad
for processing and for the final battery. The photoresist was then
used as a photomask to remove the silicon dioxide and Palladium by
Ion Milling.
The combination of silicon dioxide, photoresist, and Pd was used as
a mask for silicon removal using Deep Reactive Ion Etching (DRIE)
in a fluoride plasma. The DRIE was performed until the silicon
constituting the device layer in the mask gaps was completely
removed, stopping on the oxide layer. The overetch time used was
10% of the total DRIE time in order to remove islands of silicon in
the trench floor. Any top photoresist was removed by stripping in
acetone. At this point, the two combs had been electrically
isolated by the DRIE.
The top masking oxide layer was removed by dipping the sample for 1
minute in dilute (5:1) Buffered Oxide Etch (BOE) solution. The
dissolution time was tailored so that the insulating oxide layer in
the bottom of the trench was not completely etched off.
One of the isolated pair of comb like structures was electrically
connected through the palladium conductor and immersed in an
electrophoretic resist bath. A commercially available
electrophoretic resist was used (Shipley EAGLE), and the comb was
electrophoretically deposited at 50 V for 120 seconds to form a
resist coating. The die was baked at 120 C for 30 min to harden the
resist.
The silicon sample was then inserted into an evaporation chamber,
and 20 .ANG. Au is deposited on the sample surface. This Au
deposition process resulted in Au on the comb, its sidewalls, as
well as on the bottom oxide layer. However, the photoresist being
present on one of the combs causes the Au to be in contact with the
silicon on only one of the two comb structures. The silicon backing
layer was protected at this time by an adhesive tape mask. The
sample was subsequently immersed in acetone for 15 min to remove
the electrophoretic resist along with the evaporated Au on top of
the electrophoretic resist. This isolates the Au nanoclusters to
one of the two isolated combs.
Silicon nanowires were then grown on top of one of the comb
structures by CVD method. The sample is inserted into a CVD chamber
and heated to 550 C. Silane gas was introduced into the chamber and
the reactor pressure was kept at 10 Torr. The silicon nanowires
grew on the surface that had the Au deposited on it. The deposition
rate was 4 .mu.m/hr; and the deposition was done to a target
nanowire thickness of 20 .mu.m. Since the Au was in contact with
only one of the silicon wavesets, the wires start growing out of
this waveset outward, in the direction parallel to the bottom oxide
layer. The resulting silicon nanowire layer had a void volume
fraction of approximately 0.5.
Example 4
A silicon on insulator (SOI) wafer with a layer thickness of 100
.mu.m/1 .mu.m/675 .mu.m (device layer/insulating layer/backing
layer) was used as the sample. 1000 .ANG. of Pd was sputter
deposited on top of the device layer followed by a hard mask layer
of 2000 .ANG. silicon dioxide. This wafer was then spin coated with
5 .mu.m of resist and patterned with a mask to obtain a comb shaped
structure with two interdigitated combs isolated from each other as
shown in FIG. 3. The two interdigitated combs also have a landing
pad on each side that will may be isolated and serve as the contact
pad for processing and for the final battery. The photoresist was
then used as a photomask to remove the silicon dioxide and
palladium by ion milling.
The combination of silicon dioxide, photoresist, and Pd was used as
a mask for silicon removal using Deep Reactive Ion Etching (DRIE)
in a fluoride plasma. The DRIE was performed until the silicon
constituting the device layer in the mask gaps was completely
removed, stopping on the oxide layer. The overetch time used was
10% of the total DRIE time in order to remove islands of silicon in
the trench floor. Any top photoresist was removed by stripping in
acetone. At this point, the two combs had been electrically
isolated by the DRIE.
A second photoresist was applied on the majority of the wafer, and
exposed with a second mask to expose a small area opening on each
of the comb patterns. This was subsequently used to remove the
silicon dioxide by ion mill and expose the Pd layer.
The comb structure that was to serve as the anode was immersed in a
solution containing HF/H.sub.2O in DMSO (2M/2.5M) and an anodic
potential was applied with respect to a Pt counter electrode. The
silicon comb to be anodically oxidized to form porous silicon was
connected through the Pd in the open via. Current density was kept
at 3 mA/cm2, and the anodization process was carried out for 60
minutes to yield a pore depth of .about.20 .mu.m. The resulting
porous silicon layer had a void volume fraction of approximately
0.4. This process restricted the porous silicon formation to only
one of the two comb structures.
Example 5
A silicon on insulator (SOI) wafer with a layer thickness of 100
.mu.m/1 .mu.m/675 .mu.m (device layer/insulating layer/backing
layer) was used as the sample. 1000 .ANG. of Pd was sputter
deposited on top of the device layer followed by a hard mask layer
of 2000 .ANG. silicon dioxide. This wafer was then spin coated with
5 .mu.m of resist and patterned with a mask to obtain a comb shaped
structure with two interdigitated combs isolated from each other.
The two interdigitated combs also have a landing pad on each side
that may be isolated and serve as the contact pad for processing
and for the final battery. The photoresist was then used as a
photomask to remove the silicon dioxide and palladium by ion
milling.
The combination of silicon dioxide, photoresist, and Pd was used as
a mask for silicon removal using Deep Reactive Ion Etching (DRIE)
in a fluoride plasma. The DRIE was performed until the silicon
constituting the device layer in the mask gaps was completely
removed, stopping on the oxide layer. The overetch time used was
10% of the total DRIE time in order to remove islands of silicon in
the trench floor. Any top photoresist was removed by stripping in
acetone. At this point, the two combs had been electrically
isolated by the DRIE.
At this point, the sample was thermally oxidized to form a 0.25
.mu.m layer of SiO.sub.2 on top of all the exposed silicon
surfaces. This SiO.sub.2 was deposited to serve as the mask for the
electrochemical etching of silicon. Subsequently, a 50 .ANG. layer
of Au was deposited on top of the oxide layer using sputter
deposition technique. The thickness of this layer of Au was
optimized in order to obtain Au in the form of islands and not a
full film. This Au in the form of islands was then used as a
masking layer for etching the thermal oxide layer under it.
A second photoresist was applied on the majority of the wafer, and
exposed with a second mask to expose the landing pad area on each
of the comb patterns. This was subsequently used to remove the Au
and SiO.sub.2 layers by wet chemical etching. The Au was removed
using a commercial KI/I2 solution, and the SiO.sub.2 layer was
removed using a Buffered Oxide Etch solution in order to expose the
Pd top layer for a subsequent electrical contact.
The sample was then immersed in acetone to strip off the
photoresist, and subsequently immersed in 1:25 BOE:water solution.
The BOE solution attacks the SiO.sub.2 layer in the sidewalls of
the combs underneath the Au particle and transfers the pattern of
the Au into the oxide. The etch was stopped after 90 seconds, this
being enough to etch the oxide and expose the Si, while not
undercutting the oxide layer under the Au. After rinsing and
drying, the sample was ready for electrochemical dissolution.
The contact pad that had been exposed in the prior step is used to
make the electrical connection for the sample during the silicon
anodic etch process. This was connected as a working electrode,
using a Pt counter electrode, and was electrochemically driven to
dissolve the silicon from the exposed area of the connected comb
structure. The sample was dipped in a solution containing 1 part
ethanol, 1 part 49% HF, and 10 parts water by volume; and was
driven as an anode at a current density of 15 mA/cm.sup.2. The
exposed silicon was dissolved leaving a microstructured silicon
layer that replicated the Au nanocluster distribution comprising
fibers and voids and having a void volume fraction of approximately
0.5.
Example 6
A silicon on insulator (SOI) wafer with a layer thickness of 100
.mu.m/1 .mu.m/675 .mu.m (device layer/insulating layer/backing
layer) was used as the sample. 1000 .ANG. of Pd was sputter
deposited on top of the device layer followed by a hard mask layer
of 2000 .ANG. silicon dioxide.
This wafer was then spin coated with 5 .mu.m of resist and
patterned with a mask to obtain a comb shaped structure with two
interdigitated combs isolated from each other as shown in FIG. 3.
The design shows a structure that results in two independent comb
shape structures with each structure terminating in a landing pad
suitable for making electrical contact. The photoresist in this
pattern was then used as a photomask to remove the silicon dioxide
and palladium by ion milling.
The combination of silicon dioxide, photoresist, and Pd was used as
a mask for silicon removal using Deep Reactive Ion Etching (DRIE)
in a fluoride plasma. The DRIE was performed until the silicon
constituting the device layer in the mask gaps was completely
removed, stopping on the oxide layer. The overetch time used was
10% of the total DRIE time in order to remove islands of silicon in
the trench floor. Any top photoresist was removed by stripping in
acetone. At this point, the two combs are electrically isolated by
the DRIE.
The top masking oxide layer was subsequently removed by dipping the
sample for 1 minute in dilute (5:1) Buffered Oxide Etch (BOE)
solution. The dissolution time was tailored so that the insulating
oxide layer in the bottom of the trench was not completely etched
off.
One of the isolated pair of comb like structures was electrically
connected through the palladium conductor and immersed in an
electrophoretic resist bath. A commercially available
electrophoretic resist was used (Shipley EAGLE), and the comb was
electrophoretically deposited at 50 V for 120 seconds to form a
resist coating. The die was baked at 120 C for 30 min to harden the
resist.
The silicon sample was then inserted into an evaporation chamber,
and 20 .ANG. Au is deposited on the sample surface. This Au
deposition process resulted in Au on the top of the honeycomb
structures as well as on its sidewalls, as well as on the bottom
oxide layer. However, the photoresist being present on one of the
combs causes the Au to be in contact with the silicon on only one
of the two comb structures. The silicon backing layer was protected
at this time by an adhesive tape mask. The sample was subsequently
immersed in acetone for 15 min to remove the electrophoretic resist
along with the evaporated Au on top of the electrophoretic resist.
This isolated the Au nanoclusters to one of the two isolated
combs.
Silicon nanowires were then grown on top of one of the comb
structures by CVD method. The sample was inserted into a CVD
chamber and heated to 550 C. Silane gas was introduced into the
chamber and the reactor pressure was kept at 10 Torr. The silicon
nanowires grew on the surface that had the Au deposited on it. The
deposition rate was 4 .mu.m/hr; and the deposition was done to a
target nanowire thickness of 20 .mu.m. The resulting silicon
nanowire layer had a void volume fraction of approximately 0.5 and
served as the anode for the lithium-ion battery.
The comb without the silicon nanowires attached to it was
electrophoretically deposited with a lithium ion battery cathode
material. The Electrophoretic deposition solution contained the
cathode material (LiCoO.sub.2), 15 wt % carbon black, and 150 ppm
of iodine in a solution of acetone. The solution mixture was
stirred overnight in order to disperse the particles uniformly. The
Pd contact pad was used as the terminal for electrical connection
for the cathode deposition. A Pt counter electrode was used. The
sample was deposited for 3 min at a voltage of 100V to deposit a 40
.mu.m thick cathode structure.
The sample was then sent to a spin coater where the macroporous
separator was applied onto the battery. The macroporous separator
in this case was a combination of fine glass powder (<2 .mu.m
diameter) dispersed in acetone along with a PVDF binder of 2 volume
percent. This slurry was coated on to the die and the excess slurry
is spun off to fill and planarize the separator layer. The drying
process resulted in the solvent evaporating and forming a
macroporous separator layer.
The contact pads were then used to wirebond Au wires to serve as
connection points for the battery. The whole assembly was inserted
into a conventional battery pouch, filled with a conventional
lithium battery electrolyte containing a lithium salt, and a
mixture of organic carbonates (Propylene Carbonate+Ethylene
Carbonate). The pouch was then sealed using a vacuum sealer with
the wires extending out of the pouch in order to make the
electrical connection.
Example 7
The process of Example 6 was repeated, except that five dies were
stacked on top of each other, and each of the lines from the
connection pads from each die was connected to a tab for each
electrode.
The whole assembly was inserted into a conventional battery pouch,
filled with a conventional lithium battery electrolyte containing a
lithium salt, and a mixture of organic carbonates (Propylene
Carbonate+Ethylene Carbonate). The pouch was then sealed using a
vacuum sealer with the wires extending out of the pouch in order to
make the electrical connection.
In view of the above, it will be seen that the several objects of
the invention are achieved and other advantageous results
attained.
When introducing elements of the present invention or the preferred
embodiments(s) thereof, the articles "a", "an", "the" and "said"
are intended to mean that there are one or more of the elements.
The terms "comprising", "including" and "having" are intended to be
inclusive and mean that there may be additional elements other than
the listed elements.
As various changes could be made in the above articles,
compositions and methods without departing from the scope of the
invention, it is intended that all matter contained in the above
description and shown in the accompanying drawings shall be
interpreted as illustrative and not in a limiting sense.
* * * * *