U.S. patent number 7,969,062 [Application Number 11/994,864] was granted by the patent office on 2011-06-28 for energy converting apparatus, generator and heat pump provided therewith and method of production thereof.
This patent grant is currently assigned to Innovy. Invention is credited to Franklin Hagg.
United States Patent |
7,969,062 |
Hagg |
June 28, 2011 |
Energy converting apparatus, generator and heat pump provided
therewith and method of production thereof
Abstract
A high-efficiency thermionic energy converter comprises a
multilayer vacuum diode, the layers of which are very thin and the
intermediate spaces between the layers are several nanometers
thick. The layers are held at a distance from each other by
arranging insulator elements embedded in the layers. One of the
intermediate spaces is provided with a thin, open conductive
elastic foam plate which fills the spaces possibly occurring due to
deformation of an upper electrode. On the cold side the distance
between the layers must be so small that here the thermionically
generated current is increased by tunneling of electrons from layer
to layer. The partial efficiency per layer is as optimal as
possible by means of the choice of the geometry and the material.
For the purpose of pumping heat from for instance the thick
electrode to the other thick electrode of the converter, or vice
versa, in accordance with the Peltier effect, a current is
conducted through the converter which is increased by tunneling of
electrons. Cooling or heating takes place subject to the current
direction.
Inventors: |
Hagg; Franklin (Alkmaar,
NL) |
Assignee: |
Innovy (Alkmaar,
NL)
|
Family
ID: |
37491742 |
Appl.
No.: |
11/994,864 |
Filed: |
July 4, 2006 |
PCT
Filed: |
July 04, 2006 |
PCT No.: |
PCT/NL2006/000331 |
371(c)(1),(2),(4) Date: |
February 27, 2008 |
PCT
Pub. No.: |
WO2007/008059 |
PCT
Pub. Date: |
January 18, 2007 |
Prior Publication Data
|
|
|
|
Document
Identifier |
Publication Date |
|
US 20080203849 A1 |
Aug 28, 2008 |
|
Foreign Application Priority Data
Current U.S.
Class: |
310/306;
322/2R |
Current CPC
Class: |
H01J
45/00 (20130101); F25B 21/00 (20130101); F25B
2321/003 (20130101); Y02B 30/66 (20130101); Y10T
29/4935 (20150115); Y02B 30/00 (20130101); Y10T
29/42 (20150115) |
Current International
Class: |
H02N
11/00 (20060101); H02N 3/00 (20060101) |
Field of
Search: |
;310/306 ;322/2R |
References Cited
[Referenced By]
U.S. Patent Documents
Foreign Patent Documents
Primary Examiner: Tamai; Karl I
Attorney, Agent or Firm: Hoffmann & Baron, LLP
Claims
What is claimed is:
1. Energy converting apparatus for converting heat into electrical
energy or vice versa, comprising: a number of electrodes with
surfaces which are arranged with an intermediate space relative to
each other; and a number of insulator elements arranged between the
electrodes for the purpose of forming the intermediate space,
wherein the intermediate space is small enough to enable tunneling
of electrons between the electrodes; wherein the insulator elements
are arranged over a penetration depth in the electrodes; wherein
contact electrodes arranged at opposite ends of the apparatus are
provided with contacts for conducting electric current or for
forming a thermal contact with respectively a warm source and a
cold source or well and wherein electrodes arranged between contact
electrodes are perforated in the manner of postage stamps and are
weakened still further along the perforation with grooves.
2. Energy converting apparatus as claimed in claim 1, wherein at
least one of the intermediate spaces is filled with an elastic foam
plate with good conduction.
3. Energy converting apparatus as claimed in claim 2, wherein the
contact electrodes are sealed on side edges thereof with an
insulating elastic seal.
4. Energy converting apparatus as claimed in claim 3, wherein the
elastic seal is substantially bellows-shaped.
5. Energy converting apparatus as claimed in claim 3, wherein the
elastic seal is made from an insulating ceramic material which can
withstand relatively high temperature.
6. Energy converting apparatus as claimed in claim 1, wherein the
electrodes are substantially plate-like.
7. Energy converting apparatus as claimed in claim 1, wherein the
electrodes have a thickness in the order of 0.5 to 10
micrometers.
8. Energy converting apparatus as claimed in claim 1, wherein the
intermediate spaces or gaps between the electrodes are filled with
gas at a low pressure.
9. Energy converting apparatus as claimed in claim 8, wherein the
gas comprises caesium for the purpose of reducing the work
function.
10. Energy converting apparatus as claimed in claim 1, wherein the
intermediate space is substantially vacuum.
11. Energy converting apparatus as claimed in claim 1, wherein the
intermediate space between the electrodes is several
nanometers.
12. Energy converting apparatus as claimed in claim 1, wherein the
insulator elements are elements with a spherical diameter of about
100 to 500 nanometers.
13. Energy converting apparatus as claimed in claim 12, wherein the
electrodes are arranged in a housing, wherein the energy converting
apparatus is provided with electrical contacts on a warm and a cold
side, wherein piezo-elements are arranged on the cold side for
controlling the intermediate space using a control means and for
setting the tunnel current to a desired value.
14. Energy converting apparatus as claimed in claim 1, wherein the
insulator elements are arranged between the electrodes at a spacing
of 1 to 50 micrometers relative to each other.
15. Energy converting apparatus as claimed in claim 1, wherein the
electrodes comprise a foam core.
16. Energy converting apparatus as claimed in claim 15, wherein the
foam core is compressed during pressing-in of the insulator
elements.
17. Energy converting apparatus as claimed in claim 1, wherein the
electrodes are provided with recesses at the location of the
insulator elements.
18. Energy converting apparatus as claimed in claim 1, wherein the
contact electrodes are arranged in a housing, wherein electrical
contacts are arranged on the warm and on the cold contact
electrode, comprising a displacing mechanism for calibrating a
desired electric current during thermal load.
19. Energy converting apparatus as claimed in claim 1, wherein an
electric current through the intermediate space between the
electrodes is adjusted such that the electric current is
saturated.
20. Energy converting apparatus as claimed in claim 1, wherein the
electrodes comprise a semiconductor material.
21. Energy converting apparatus as claimed in claim 1, wherein the
electrodes comprise ceramic semiconductors.
22. Generator unit comprising a number of alternately arranged
energy converting apparatuses as claimed in claim 1.
23. Generator unit as claimed in claim 22, comprising cold and warm
spaces arranged between respective energy converting apparatuses,
wherein gases are combusted in the warm spaces which heat the
energy converting apparatuses, and wherein condensation is
evaporated in the cold spaces, which are provided with cooling
ribs, in order to cool the energy converting apparatuses on the
cold side.
24. Generator unit as claimed in claim 23, wherein a radiation
emitter is heated to a still higher temperature in the warm spaces
and provides the energy converting apparatuses through radiation
with a greater heat flux.
25. Generator unit as claimed in claim 23, wherein a vapour
condenses in the warm spaces provided with ribs for combustionless
transfer of heat to the energy converting apparatuses.
26. Generator unit as claimed in claim 23, wherein the warm spaces
provided with ribs are adapted for the flow of hot gases or liquids
for combustionless transfer of heat to the energy converting
apparatuses.
27. Generator unit as claimed in claim 23, wherein an isotope is
arranged in the warm spaces for the purpose of providing the energy
converting apparatuses with nuclear generated heat.
28. Generator unit as claimed in claim 23, wherein surfaces are
adapted in the warm spaces for direct irradiation thereof by
concentrated sunlight.
29. Generator unit as claimed in claim 22, comprising a recuperator
for flow therethrough of hot discharge gases for the purpose of
preheating the ingoing combustion air and the ingoing fuel for the
generator unit.
30. Generator unit as claimed in claim 29, wherein a heat or
work-producing unit is arranged close to the recuperator in order
to make use of residual heat.
31. Generator unit as claimed in claim 29, a heat or work-producing
unit is arranged after the recuperator in order to make use of
residual heat.
32. Heat pump comprising energy converting apparatuses as claimed
in claim 1 which are mutually separated by cold and warm spaces,
wherein an electric current is carried through the energy
converting apparatuses in accordance with the Peltier effect for
the purpose of pumping heat from a warm space to a cold space, or
vice versa.
33. Heat pump as claimed in claim 32, wherein heat is produced by
liquids or gases which flow along ribs connected to the energy
converting apparatuses, and wherein the heat in opposite spaces is
carried away by liquids or gases flowing along ribs connected to
the energy converting apparatuses.
34. Heat pump as claimed in claim 32, comprising heat pipes for
providing cooling by evaporating condensation.
35. Heat pump as claimed in claim 32, comprising heat pipes for
providing heating by condensing vapour.
36. Energy converting apparatus as claimed in claim 1, wherein the
geometry per electrode pair is determined individually so that at a
predetermined operational current flowing through the apparatus
during use the partial efficiency of each electrode pair is as
optimal as possible and/or so that an overall efficiency of the
apparatus is as optimal as possible.
37. Method for manufacturing an energy converting apparatus,
comprising the steps of: providing a number of electrodes having
surfaces; and arranging a number of insulator elements between the
surfaces of the electrodes in order to form an intermediate space,
wherein the intermediate space is small enough to enable tunneling
of electrons between the electrodes; wherein the insulator elements
are arranged over a penetration depth in the electrodes; wherein
contact electrodes arranged at opposite ends of the apparatus are
provided with contacts for conducting electric current or for
forming a thermal contact with respectively a warm source and a
cold source or well and wherein electrodes arranged between contact
electrodes are perforated in the manner of postage stamps and are
weakened still further along the perforation with grooves.
38. Method as claimed in claim 37, wherein forming of the
intermediate spaces between the electrodes comprises the step of
removing a removable layer applied beforehand to the electrodes
after penetration of the insulator elements into the
electrodes.
39. Method as claimed in claim 38, wherein removal of the removable
layer comprises of evaporating, diffusing away and/or dissolving
the removable layer.
40. Method as claimed in claim 37, wherein the intermediate space
is in the order of 1 to 20 nanometers.
41. Method as claimed in claim 37, wherein the intermediate space
is arranged by the pressed-in insulator elements and/or the
electrode material springing back in elastic manner, wherein the
electrodes are made alternately of different non-adhering materials
repelling each other to some extent.
42. Method as claimed in claim 37, wherein the coefficient of
expansion of the insulator elements is greater than the coefficient
of expansion of the electrodes, wherein the desired intermediate
spaces between the electrodes occur at the operational
temperature.
43. Method as claimed in claim 37, wherein a mixture of electrodes
and insulator elements is pressed together between thicker, outer
contact electrodes until gaps between the electrodes become several
nanometers high and a tunnel current begins to flow at a difference
in temperature.
44. Method as claimed in claim 43, wherein the electrodes are
larger than the insulator elements.
45. Method as claimed in claim 37, comprising the further steps of:
arranging a layer of electrodes on a substrate; subsequently
arranging a layer of insulator elements on the layer of electrodes;
(vapour-)depositing a removable layer on the layer of insulator
elements; repeating the above stated steps until sufficient layers
have been created; and removing the removable layer are by means of
evaporation or diffusion and sintering the remaining particles in
order to form a nanostructure, wherein because of the particle size
the nanostructure becomes smaller than the Debye length and an
additional, more effective current increase occurs.
46. Method as claimed in claim 45, wherein the arranging of a layer
of electrodes comprises of mechanical disposition or electrolytic
disposition from a colloidal solution.
Description
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS
This application is the National Stage of International Application
No. PCT/NL2006/000331, filed Jul. 4, 2006, which claims the benefit
of Netherlands Application No. NL 1029477, filed Jul. 8, 2005, the
contents of which is incorporated by reference herein.
FIELD OF THE INVENTION
The present invention relates to an energy converting apparatus, a
generator and a heat pump which are provided with such an energy
converting apparatus, and a method for manufacture thereof. The
energy converting apparatus serves to convert thermal energy into
electricity or vice versa, in particular to convert heat into
electrical energy or vice versa by means of a thermionic
effect.
BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION
Such an energy converting apparatus is also referred to as a
thermionic generator (TIG). The TIG can serve for instance as
source of electrical energy. Conversion by means of this effect
takes place for instance in compact TIGs for generating electrical
energy in spacecraft, often in combination with nuclear generated
heat. Conversely, the converting apparatus, in combination with a
tunnel effect of electrons, can also pump heat by means of the
Peltier effect. The converting apparatus can for instance be used
as heat pump, for instance as cooling element in an
air-conditioning system or a refrigerator.
A known converting apparatus of the above stated type comprises an
electrode provided with an emitter and collector, with vacuum or an
ionizable gas as medium present therebetween. In order to release
from the surface of the electrode the electrons must first overcome
a threshold voltage, the so-called work function of the electrode
material. Because of the magnitude of the work function electrons
are only released from the emitter at relatively high temperatures
and are then carried to the collector since heat, in this case the
kinetic energy of the electrons or ions, flows from the warm
emitter to the colder collector. An electric current likewise
begins to flow due to the electrical charge of the electrons.
Because the thermionic effect is however only effective at
temperatures above about 1600 K, much radiation is sent from the
emitter to the collector and a relatively large amount of heat loss
occurs. The maximum efficiency that is achieved is thus 10 to 12%,
which is uneconomic for most applications. The application of the
known apparatus therefore remains limited to space travel and to
applications wherein a relatively low weight and long-term reliable
availability are crucial factors.
In order to solve the problem of great heat loss U.S. Pat. No.
6,876,123-B2 provides a TIG wherein a plurality of electrodes are
stacked on each other and held at a mutual distance by insulating
elements for the purpose of forming a gap between the electrodes.
If the gap is small enough, the electrons can also tunnel and the
effective work function is decreased, so that the thermionic effect
can also be applied effectively at low temperatures. At low
temperatures however the gap must then be so small that the ratio
between the dimensions of the electrodes and the gap height becomes
relatively large, this up to 1:10,000,000. Thermal stresses can
hereby occur, whereby the insulator elements can shift and come
loose. The surfaces of the electrodes can also come into contact
with each other, thereby terminating the operation of the known
TIG. U.S. Pat. No. 6,876,123-B2 further makes use of a gap height
of 5 to 10 nm. This is however too large to realize a tunnel effect
with a high efficiency. When on the other hand the distance between
the electrodes is smaller, it becomes more difficult to maintain
this intermediate distance. The known apparatus also involves
removal of materials from the gap between the electrodes. This is
difficult to realize in the case of caps with a height of less than
5 nm and diameters or lengths of the electrodes in the order of
centimeters.
With intermediate distances smaller than the original 5 nm the
problems of thermal expansion and manufacture are also greater. In
an electrode of a few centimeters the differences in expansion are
many times greater than the height of the gap, in the order of 200
nm per degree, and the thermal stresses can become so great that
the insulator elements are pressed into the electrode. The
electrodes can thus nevertheless come into mutual contact, thereby
terminating the operation of the TIG. The electrodes can also
detach locally, whereby the tunnel effect at the location in
question is no longer active and, as weakest link in the series,
seriously limits the electric current in the whole stack. With a
smaller gap height the heat conduction through the insulators is
here greater, and more layers of electrodes are necessary to limit
the thermal loss. In the apparatus of U.S. Pat. No. 6,876,123-B2
the thickness of the insulating layer or of the insulator elements
is equal to the height of the gap and the insulating layer covers
25% of the electrode surface. Since the electrons also tunnel
through the insulator elements, the electrons will tunnel less
through the vacuum. The effective area of the vacuum part of the
electrodes hereby becomes (much) smaller. The converting apparatus
is thus largely a metal insulating metal (MIM) diode, for which it
is the case that thousands of layers are necessary to limit thermal
losses. The plurality of electrodes stacked in series are further
roughly the same per layer, and the geometry and material type per
layer is not adapted to the local temperature. The partial
efficiencies per layer are greatly dependent on the temperature and
the energy density, or rather the electric current density, this
latter remaining roughly the same for all layers. The overall
efficiency can hereby be greatly reduced.
SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION
The present invention therefore has for its object to provide a
converting apparatus of the above stated type with a better
efficiency.
The present invention provides for this purpose an energy
converting apparatus for converting heat into electrical energy or
vice versa, comprising: a number of electrodes having surfaces
which are arranged with an intermediate space relative to each
other; a number of insulator elements arranged between the
electrodes for the purpose of forming the intermediate space,
wherein the intermediate space is small enough to enable tunneling
of electrons between the electrodes at low temperatures;
wherein the insulator elements are arranged over a penetration
depth in the electrodes; a plurality of electrodes and intermediate
spaces which are stacked in series and which are dimensioned per
layer as optimally as possible subject to partial efficiency and
overall efficiency in accordance with the operationally prevailing
local temperature and the desired energy density.
In the present invention the part-surfaces for controlling are
drastically smaller because of the freedom of the electrodes which
are coupled loosely to each other and which are held at bridgeable
distances by insulator elements at a controllable intermediate
distance.
The radiation loss is minimized by applying multiple layers of
electrodes, whereby the differences in temperature between the
layers become smaller and the radiation is drastically reduced.
Electrons also tunnel through the intermediate space or gap instead
of through the insulator elements, since the distance to be covered
through the insulator elements, and the energy jump to be bridged
thereby, is greater than in known apparatuses. The insulator
elements are herein longer and/or higher than the intermediate
space since the insulator elements are partially embedded in the
conductor material of the electrodes. Due to the longer distance
over which the heat must flow through the insulator elements and
because the ratio between the useful area and the cross-sectional
area of the insulator elements per layer is relatively large, only
little parasitic heat can leak away. The path length is also so
large that the electrons do not tunnel through the insulator
elements but effectively only through the intermediate space
without loss of conduction heat.
In one embodiment caesium vapour is introduced into the
intermediate space in order to decrease the work function of the
emitter material, whereby the emitter temperature can be reduced.
This is then more favourable for the applied materials and the
lifespan. Semiconductors can also be applied in order to decrease
the work function.
In a further embodiment the intermediate space is reduced to
several nanometers, in the order of 1 to 20 nm, whereby the
electrons are not only driven thermionically but electric current
is also increased by the tunnel effect. Due to the tunnel effect
the TIG can also operate at low temperatures, and the Carnot
efficiency is higher due to the greater difference in
temperature.
The electrodes preferably comprise elements or plates which are
coupled, optionally elastically, substantially parallel to the
intermediate space or can move completely freely relative to each
other in order to minimize temperature stresses. Due to this
freedom of movement the electrode plates can also move freely
perpendicularly of the gap direction, and they are more readily
able to maintain the gap by pressing on one side of the plates. The
height of the intermediate space can hereby be less than 5 nm.
The conversion process has a high efficiency and is close to the
maximum that can be achieved in accordance with the Carnot
efficiency .DELTA.T/T. Calculations show that an efficiency can be
achieved with the present invention in the order of for instance
70-90% of the Carnot efficiency. This is possible in the case of
small temperature differences, in the order of 10 to 500 K, as well
as large temperature differences in the order of 500-1500 K.
At high temperatures the thermionic current is high enough and the
tunnel effect for increasing the current is not necessary, and it
is possible to suffice with larger intermediate spaces which can
increase to 1000 nm or more.
Because the transfer of electrons is also obtained by the tunnel
effect, the invention can also be used at lower temperature as heat
pump, by causing electrons to flow from the one electrode to the
other by applying a potential difference. The kinetic energy
present in the electrons is hereby transported, while the
temperature is increased with the additionally applied electrical
energy. This effect is known as the Peltier effect. The pumping of
heat usually takes place at low temperatures, and the tunnel effect
is therefore always necessary, and so small intermediate spaces
too.
With the apparatus according to the present invention efficiencies
of for instance 70-90% of the efficiency achievable according to
Carnot can also be obtained in heat pumping. Because of the lower
heat loss of the invention such an efficiency is many times higher
than the efficiency of the known Peltier elements, and also higher
than that of conventional heat pumps with a compressor.
The power density at which a maximum efficiency is achieved greatly
depends on the temperature of a warm side of the apparatus
according to the invention and on the spacing between the
electrodes. If the apparatus according to the invention is used to
produce work, i.e. an applied temperature difference is converted
into electrical energy, the following power densities can for
instance be achieved. At a temperature of about 1000 K the maximum
efficiency is obtained at a power density in the order of 1
W/cm.sup.2 for an intermediate space of about 160 nm. For an
intermediate space of 5 nm the maximum efficiency is obtained at a
power density in the order of 5 W/cm.sup.2 at 1000 K. When the
temperature is increased, the maximum is reached at a higher power
density.
If the apparatus consists of multiple layers, the intermediate
electrodes will then function on the one side as collector and on
the other side as emitter, while the temperature of the electrodes
become lower from hot to cold. Because all electrodes are in
series, the electric current will remain roughly the same per
layer. In order to achieve a high overall efficiency it is
favourable that each layer has a high partial efficiency. The
partial efficiency depends on the energy density, the emitter
temperature, the temperature of the opposite collector, the work
functions of the emitter and the collector, the size of the
intermediate space and the structure of the emitter surface. The
magnitude of the partial efficiency is determined substantially by
the local Carnot efficiency and depends on the temperature of the
mutually opposite emitter and collector. The power density at which
the maximum partial efficiency is achieved is determined largely by
the other parameters. These other parameters, wherein the size or
height of the intermediate space and is the work function of the
material are important factors, will be used to set the highest
partial efficiency at a determined desired energy density, and thus
realize a high overall efficiency of the apparatus for generating
energy. Desired energy densities lie between 0.1 and 500
W/cm.sup.2.
In one embodiment the gas pressure in the intermediate spaces is
very low so as to also limit the heat convection loss in the
intermediate spaces. The energy converting apparatus is therefore
arranged in a vacuum-tight housing which is sealed at the edges
with an elastic seal which can bridge the expansion differences
resulting from operational thermal cycles. At high temperature this
seal of quartz or a temperature-resistant ceramic material will be
made in the form of instance an elastic bellows. Such a seal is
both thermally and electrically insulating.
In contrast to a thermocouple, wherein the current contacts are
both on the cold side, the current from a TIG must be taken from
the hot and cold side of a diode or electrode forming part of the
TIG.
The electrical conductor to the warm side hereby produces
additional losses and is preferably heat-resistant with a thermal
insulation and good electrical conduction. Cobalt is recommended as
conductor with a combined thermal-electrical loss in the order of
8.5%. The use of chromium, which can withstand a higher
temperature, is also possible. At very high temperatures tungsten
can be used with a loss of 12.5%.
Preferably used as conductor material at high temperatures are
molybdenum, tantalum, tungsten or semiconductors such as zirconium
oxide, metal silicides such as molybdenum disulphide or other
high-temperature ceramic semiconductors, which are optionally doped
with other elements in order to influence the conduction and the
work function.
Preferably used as insulating elements are aluminium oxide,
magnesium oxide, quartz or other non-conductive high-temperature
ceramic materials such as carbides and nitrides.
A wide range of conductors and semiconductors is possible at low
temperatures, and a wide range of insulating materials is also
possible, the choice being determined by stability, cost, a low
coefficient of expansion and the prevention of cold welding if this
is desirable because of release during manufacture.
According to a further aspect, the present invention provides a
method for manufacturing an energy converting apparatus, comprising
the steps of: providing a number of electrodes having surfaces;
arranging a number of insulator elements between the surfaces of
the electrodes in order to form an intermediate space, wherein the
height of the intermediate space is small enough to enable
tunneling of electrons between the electrodes;
wherein the insulator elements are arranged over a penetration
depth in the electrodes.
Different embodiments are possible for manufacture of the
invention, wherein plates provided with a vapour-deposited
removable layer of a uniform thickness of several nanometers are
recommended. The plates can optionally be perforated like postage
stamps and placed on top of each other as foils, wherein an
insulator element of quartz or ceramic with a diameter of 100 to
500 nm is arranged between the layers every 10 to 20 micrometers as
seen in the direction of a surface of the plates. The perforation
can optionally become even more elastic by also arranging grooves
in the plate at the position of the perforation. The layers and the
insulator elements are then pressed plastically into and onto each
other, wherein the insulator elements are pressed into the foil and
wherein the foil material deforms plastically as much as possible.
In order to increase the plasticity the foil is soft-annealed
beforehand and, for the purpose of stability, later refined again
to a harder material. A removable layer with a uniform thickness of
several nanometers is thus created between the plates.
The upper and lower layer are thicker and consist of one part such
that there is space at the edges for arranging an elastic seal.
Between the last upper layer but one and the thick upper layer a
thin, elastic open foam layer with good conduction is arranged in
order to fill spaces possibly occurring due to expansion or
deformation of the upper thick plate. The removable layer is then
evaporated at the correct temperature and drawn off via a passage
at the seal. Once all vapour has been removed, the passage is
sealed by melting and the energy converter is closed
vacuum-tightly. The TIG can optionally then be placed in a second
housing in which the electrical contacts are arranged and where,
optionally using flat piezo-elements lying parallel, the height of
the gaps between the plates can be elastically controlled with a
control means by feeding the tunnel current back through the diode.
Locally the current density can optionally also be distributed
uniformly over the surface. This adjustment can also be carried out
in once-only manner by calibrating the tunnel current mechanically
to the correct value with wedges or other mechanisms at the start.
In order to avoid large current fluctuations which can occur due to
vibrations and deformations, the current will be chosen such that
it is saturated.
By making holes beforehand in the conductive foil at the position
where the insulator elements must be placed, the insulator elements
are protected against possible crumbling, and less insulator
material need be drained during pressing in of the insulator
elements. It is then also simpler during manufacture to place the
insulator elements at their position and to remove the excess
insulator elements. After placing, the foils and a thicker upper
and lower plate, for arranging electrical or thermal contacts, can
then be placed on each other and pressed onto each other in a final
operation for the purpose of copying each other's surface.
Another option is to provide the conductive foil, plates or
elements with a foam core, thereby creating a crumple zone in the
foam in which the insulator material for pressing in can be pressed
in with a force that is then smaller.
Other embodiments of the invention are, among others: Mixtures of
electrodes or plates and insulator elements in a vacuum space
between a thickened emitter and collector which press the
intermediate electrodes and insulator elements together in
controlled manner until the distance between the electrodes is
several nanometers and a tunnel current occurs. Plates not adhering
to each other by making these alternately of different materials
repelling each other to some extent and pressing them into each
other with insulator elements therebetween, and subsequently
allowing them to spring back elastically until a gap of several
nanometers is created. Plates likewise not adhering to each other
which are pressed onto each other and wherein the insulator
elements, because of a greater thermal coefficient of expansion
than the electrodes, bring the distance between the plates to
several nanometers by thermal expansion. The whole is then
constructed such that the desired intermediate space occurs at the
operational temperature. Conductive layers which are applied to a
substrate by means of mechanical or electrolytic disposition,
wherein after the applying of each layer nano-insulator elements
are scattered thereon. A thin removable layer is then applied by
means of vapour deposition, wherein the materials are chosen such
that no vapour deposition takes place on the insulator elements,
which are thereby not covered by a removable layer. Another
conductive layer is then applied by deposition onto the removable
layer and the insulator elements, and the process is repeated until
the required number of layers is obtained. The removable layers are
subsequently removed by evaporation or diffusion such that gaps are
created between the conductive layers with a height in the order of
one nanometer through which a tunnel current can flow.
An example of mechanical disposition is the use of colloidal
solutions of small particles. A colloidal solution is a mixture of
two substances, wherein the one substance is admixed in relatively
very small particles with the other substance, and the mixture
remains mixed. The colloidal solution is pressed through a membrane
by means of a high pressure, wherein the particles remain behind on
the membrane. Using this production method, which is also used to
make, among other products, nanostructures such as photonic
crystals, very thin layers of different materials can be applied in
precise measures. The desired diodes can be manufactured by
deposition in layers of (semi)conductor particles, insulating
particles and removable dummy particles. The particles are adhered
to each other after deposition. Adhering takes place for instance
by sintering or diffusion welding. The removable dummy particles
are subsequently dissolved or evaporated.
The tunnel current is increased still further when the conductor
elements are smaller than the Debye length, the so-called range of
the electrons. The electrodes are provided for this purpose with
small islands or cones, also referred to as quantum dots. When the
quantum dots are smaller than the Debye length, the tunnel current
is then greater and the TIG becomes even more effective. The Debye
length depends on the conductivity of the electrode material and
increases as conductivity becomes poorer. When semiconductors are
applied, this conductivity can be adjusted by doping of donor
atoms. With low-density doping the Debye length is increased and
the tunnel current increase occurs when quantum dots are smaller
and gaps larger.
The apparatus is simpler to manufacture in this application. In the
production method for manufacturing electrodes from a colloidal
solution the diode surfaces automatically acquire a nanostructure
with quantum dots because of the mutually connected particles. The
size of the quantum dots is fixed by the choice of the
(semi)conductor particles in the colloidal solution and, in
combination with the choice of the (semi)conductor material, can be
selected optimally subject to the operating temperature and the
desired current density. When semiconductors are applied the work
function of the electrodes can also become lower and it is also
possible to operate with a lower temperature, at which an effective
thermionic flow can still be generated. When high temperatures are
applied ceramic semiconductors will be applied, such as cobalt
oxides or metal silicides.
Because of the compact embodiment, the invention must likewise be
provided with a compact heat supply and discharge. The energy
converting apparatuses will therefore be stacked onto each other
with the hot and the cold side alternately toward each other. In
the thus resulting warm space direct combustion will preferably
take place at a high temperature so that the cleanest and fullest
possible combustion takes place. Preferably with a radiation
emitter, which also transmits extra energy by means of radiation
and thus makes the system even more compact. The opposite cold
space must preferably be cooled with heat pipes, which provide a
very good heat transfer. In the embodiment for low-temperature
applications, such as conversion of waste heat or as heat pump for
heating and cooling, operation will preferably take place with heat
pipes on both sides, i.e. in the warm space and in the cold
space.
A very compact embodiment is obtained by placing in the warm space
an isotope which generates heat by means of a nuclear reaction
which the TIGs will convert into electric current. Concentrated
sunlight can also directly irradiate the warm side of the TIGs and
provide it with heat.
Because energy-producing TIGs make use on the hot side of inter
alia hot gases which are heated by combustion and which gases also
leave the TIGs in hot state, much residual heat will be lost unless
it is employed usefully in another way.
The TIGs can themselves partially use the residual heat by
preheating the incoming process gases with this residual heat by
means of a recuperator. For purposes of a stable combustion this is
not possible up to any temperature, and there still remains
residual heat which can be usefully employed. This remaining
residual heat can be usefully employed by connecting after the TIG
unit a heat or work-producing unit, such as a gas turbine, hot-air
motor, steam turbine, steam generator or heater and so forth. For
processes at high temperature the unit to be connected can be
placed in front of the recuperator, and for medium or low
temperature processes after the recuperator.
According to a further aspect, the present invention provides a
generator unit comprising alternately arranged energy converting
apparatuses as described above.
According to a further aspect, the present invention provides a
heat pump comprising alternately arranged energy converting
apparatuses as described above.
Both heating and cooling are possible with the heat pump.
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS
Further advantages and features of the present invention will be
elucidated with reference to the accompanying figures, in
which:
FIG. 1 shows a schematic cross-section of a first embodiment of an
energy converting apparatus according to the present invention;
FIG. 2 shows a detail of the energy converting apparatus of FIG.
1;
FIG. 3 shows a generator unit comprising energy converting
apparatuses according to the present invention;
FIG. 4 shows a generator unit comprising energy converting
apparatuses according to the present invention;
FIG. 5A shows a second embodiment of an energy converting apparatus
according to the present invention;
FIG. 5B shows a third embodiment of an energy converting apparatus
according to the present invention;
FIG. 6 shows a diagram of a first embodiment of an energy-producing
energy converting apparatus according to the present invention;
FIG. 7 shows a diagram of a second embodiment of an
energy-producing energy converting apparatus according to the
present invention;
FIG. 8 shows a diagram of a first embodiment of a heat pump
according to the present invention;
FIG. 9 shows a diagram of a second embodiment of a heat pump
according to the present invention;
FIG. 10 shows a diagram of a third embodiment of an
energy-producing energy converting apparatus according to the
present invention;
FIG. 11 shows a diagram of a fourth embodiment of an
energy-producing energy converting apparatus according to the
present invention;
FIG. 12 shows a cross-section of a first embodiment of an electrode
and insulator elements according to the present invention in a
first position;
FIG. 13 shows a cross-section of the embodiment of an electrode and
insulator elements of FIG. 12 in a second position;
FIG. 14 shows a cross-section of the embodiment of an electrode and
insulator elements of FIG. 12 in a third position;
FIG. 15 shows a cross-section of a second embodiment of an
electrode and insulator elements according to the present invention
in a first position;
FIG. 16 shows a cross-section of the second embodiment of an
electrode and insulator elements of FIG. 15 in a second
position;
FIG. 17 shows a cross-section of the second embodiment of an
electrode and insulator elements of FIG. 15 in a third
position;
FIG. 18 shows a cross-section of a first step of an embodiment of a
method for producing an apparatus according to the invention, a
so-called mechanical disposition of a colloidal solution on a
membrane;
FIG. 19 shows a cross-section of a subsequent step of the method of
FIG. 18;
FIG. 20 shows a cross-section of a following step of the method of
FIG. 18;
FIG. 21 shows a cross-section of a following step of the method of
FIG. 18; and
FIG. 22 shows a cross-section of a portion of a mechanical
disposition of a colloidal solution provided with an elastic
function;
FIG. 23 shows the partial efficiencies and the overall efficiency
of a multilayer energy converting apparatus, wherein in the usual
but incorrect method all layers are the same and which according to
the present invention must not be used;
FIG. 24 shows the partial efficiencies and the overall efficiency
of a multilayer energy converting apparatus according to the
present invention, wherein the geometry and the work function is
designed optimally at a desired energy density per layer;
FIG. 25 shows the embodiment of a multilayer energy converting
apparatus optimally designed for efficiency per layer.
DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS
FIG. 1 shows an embodiment of an energy converting apparatus or
thermionic generator (TIG) with intermediate spaces or gaps 1 which
are created by taking away removable layers between electrode
plates 2, for instance by evaporation thereof. Spherical insulator
elements 3 hold electrode plates 2 at a distance of several
nanometers in order to guarantee a tunnel current between the
electrode plates. The electrode plates are divided into small
plates with a length and/or width of for instance 0.01 to 1 mm. The
plates are formed by perforation thereof, optionally in the manner
of postage stamps in a foil, so as to thus have sufficient freedom
of movement to be able to compensate thermal expansion.
A lower contact electrode 4 and an upper contact electrode 5 are
thicker and in one piece so as to form a firm whole and in order to
be able to connect an elastic bellows-like seal 6, comprising
insulating quartz or ceramic material, by means of a recess.
Between upper electrode layer 2 and upper contact electrode 5 is
arranged a thin, open elastic foam plate 54 with good conduction in
order to enable elastic filling of possible spaces created by
deformations occurring between the thick upper electrode 5 and
lower electrode 4. With a view to simplified production technique
the foil 7, optionally perforated in the manner of a book of
postage stamps, is used in order to thus make a more manageable
whole of the divided plates. Due to the perforation the electrode
plates will be able to move mutually elastically or when torn off
in the case of expansion, wherein the occurrence of inadmissibly
high stresses and deformations is prevented.
In order to enhance the above described elastic effect, another
groove or more grooves can optionally be arranged at the position
of the perforation. Vacuum inclusions, which can have resulted from
removable dummy particles arranged beforehand at the correct
position, can also be arranged inside the plate. The dummy
particles are also described with reference to FIG. 22. The
insulator elements preferably have a diameter of about 100 to about
500 nm.
Other embodiments with mutually non-adhering electrodes are in
final form identical to FIG. 1. The difference is that the gaps
have to be controlled with a pressure mechanism which must ensure
optimum and long-term operation. This is also an option for the
above stated embodiment and will be described hereinbelow in FIG.
5.
Non-adhering electrode plates, after pressing thereof, will further
be vibrated loose of each other with ultrasonic vibrations.
FIG. 2 shows a part of an embodiment with mixed conductor elements
or electrodes 8 and insulator elements 9. This embodiment can be
made inexpensively with conventional techniques since it does not
really involve nanotechnology. Owing to the somewhat random form
the gaps 10 will not be uniform and neither the tunnel current nor
the insulation is optimal. Different plates can also come into
contact with each other, whereby they lose their function, although
due to the great number there will be sufficient plates which do
function, and this has little influence. The efficiency is however
higher than of conventional TIGs, and also of conventional
thermocouples or thermo-electric generators (TEGs). This
inexpensive alternative can serve for temporarily applications such
as disposable articles needing a very compact energy source.
FIG. 3 shows stacked TIGs 11 with warm spaces 12 in which a
radiation emitter 13 is heated by combusting gas or vapour from
evaporated flammable liquids which is pumped into space 12 by means
of pipe 14. Air is also pumped into space 12 by means pipe 15 so
that, mixed with the gas, it begins to burn at or in the vicinity
of emitter 13. The heat of combustion is transferred by means of
convection to TIGs 11 and by means of radiation by radiation
emitter 13. In cold spaces 16 condensation from a cooling medium is
evaporated via inlet 21 on cooling ribs 17 on the cold side of TIGs
11, and the cooling ribs are cooled with the latent heat of the
medium and discharged once again via outlet 22. The condensation is
preferably supplied from an external condenser through the action
of gravity. For transportable TIGs the cooling medium transport
will be in capillary manner by means of capillary grooves in
transport pipes or through a wick. The warm and cold side are
separated from each other by thermal insulation 18. The TIGs are
electrically connected in series to conductors 19 by
interconnecting the emitter electrode or warm side to the collector
electrode or cold side. The discharge gases are discharged at
outlets 20. The combustible mixture is ignited by an incandescent
filament or spark ignition 44.
Shown in FIG. 4 are stacked TIGs 11 which are suitable for
low-temperature applications. The warm side 12 here likewise
consists of ribs 17 on which vapour condenses via inlet 21 of a
cooling medium, while the condensation flows away via outlet 22.
The condensation is preferably discharged by means of gravity and
connected via a heat pipe to the heat source, which evaporates the
medium. The cold side operates the same as in FIG. 3.
FIG. 5A shows a housing 23 which controls the intermediate spaces
or gaps of the TIG, wherein TIG 11 is pressed in with a
piezo-element 24 which expands when an electrical voltage is
applied thereto. With this element the tunnel current flowing
through conductors 25 is optimally regulated by a control means 26.
If the current is too low, the electrical voltage on the element is
then increased until the current through the conductor reaches a
desired optimum value. If the current is too high, the electrical
voltage is then decreased. The piezo-element is optionally divided
into three or more parts 27, wherein using fuzzy logic the parts
each separately make a small displacement and, converging, attempt
to find the correct local position at which the optimum current
occurs. The TIG is optionally calibrated to the correct diode gap
thicknesses, once only before delivery or during maintenance, with
wedges 28 or other mechanism (FIG. 5B).
FIG. 6 shows the diagram of an energy-producing energy converting
apparatus. The hot outlet gases from the warm spaces 29 are guided
to a recuperator 30 where their heat is relinquished to the
incoming combustion air 31 and the incoming combustion gases or
liquids 32. The cooled outlet gases are discharged to a chimney 33
and the heated process gases go separately to combustion space 34
where they are mixed and combusted. The vapour from the cooling
medium evaporated in the cold space 35 of the TIGs passes by means
of a heat pipe 36 to a condenser 37, where the medium condenses by
relinquishing its latent heat to cooling air or cooling water 38
from the environment. The condensation flows back again to the cold
space of the TIGs by means of gravity or in capillary manner in the
heat pipes. The electric current generated by the stack of
electrodes and insulator elements is carried to a converter 45
which converts it into the desired electric current and
voltage.
FIG. 7 shows the diagram of an energy-producing energy converting
apparatus which is suitable for a low-temperature circuit which is
powered by residual heat or heat from a durable source. The heat
from source 39 is carried to the warm space 34 of TIGs by means of
heat pipes, liquids or gases 40. The cold spaces 35 are cooled by
means of heat pipes, liquids or gases 38 by exchanging heat with
the environment.
In FIG. 8 is drawn the diagram of a heat-pumping energy converting
apparatus which is suitable for cooling. During cooling the cold
spaces 35 of the TIGs are connected in direct contact by means of
heat pipes, gases or liquids 38 to the object or space 42 for
cooling. The hot or warm spaces 29 are cooled with heat pipes,
liquids and gases 41 by exchanging heat with the environment. The
supply of the electric current is provided by a control means 46
which is connected to the mains electricity supply or other current
or voltage source.
In FIG. 9 is drawn a diagram of a heat-pumping energy converting
apparatus which is suitable for heating. During heating the hot or
warm spaces 29 of the TIGs are connected in direct contact by means
of heat pipes, gases or liquids 41 to the object or space for
heating. The cold spaces 35 are then heated by means of heat pipes,
liquids and gases 43 by exchanging heat with the environment.
FIG. 10 shows a diagram of an energy-producing unit after which a
high-temperature heat or work-producing unit 47 is arranged. The
residual heat resulting from the high temperature in the outlet is
here used wholly or partially by the heat or work-producing unit 47
by placing this latter before recuperator 30.
In FIG. 11 is drawn a diagram of an energy-producing energy
converting apparatus, after which is placed a heat or
work-producing device 48 for medium or low temperature. The
residual heat resulting from the high temperature in the outlet is
here used wholly or partially by the heat or work-producing unit 48
by placing this latter after recuperator 30.
FIG. 12 shows a part of electrode 49 with a foam core 50 in which
is outlined an insulator element 51 still to be pressed in.
In FIG. 13 the insulator elements 51 are pressed into the
electrodes and, due to the pressing, the electrode surfaces are
copied or mirrored onto each other in largely plastic manner at the
correct temperature, and the foam core is likewise deformed
plastically in order to give the electrode material space to
deform.
In FIG. 14 the insulator elements and the electrodes have sprung
back again after the pressing due to the residual elasticity, and
the housing (not shown) leaves a freedom wherein a gap 53 in the
order of 2 nm occurs between the electrodes. The material of the
electrodes stacked onto each other differs alternately and is such
that they adhere poorly to each other.
In order to guarantee release, the plates are also vibrated loose
by for instance impacts or ultra (sonic) sound.
FIG. 15 shows a portion of electrode plates 49 pretreated with
holes in which insulator elements 51 are placed.
In FIG. 16 the insulator elements 51 have been pressed deeper into
electrode plates 49 in largely plastic manner, and the electrode
plates have been copied or mirrored onto each other in largely
plastic manner at the correct temperature.
In FIG. 17 the insulator elements and the electrodes have sprung
back again after pressing due to the residual elasticity and the
housing (not shown) leaves a freedom wherein a gap 53 in the order
of 2 nm occurs between the electrodes. The material of the
electrodes stacked onto each other differs alternately and such
that they adhere poorly to each other.
In order to guarantee release, the electrodes are likewise vibrated
loose by for instance impacts or ultrasonic sound.
FIG. 18 shows a membrane 67 on which (semi)conductor particles 55
have been left behind from a colloidal solution. The
(semi)conductor particles 55 form an electrode on the conductive
membrane. In a subsequent production step insulator particles 51
are also left behind on the layer of (semi)conductor particles 55
from a colloidal solution at a mutual distance in the order of 1 to
50 .mu.m. The mutual distance of insulator particles 51 can be
obtained by using a mask 57 during deposition which is provided
with openings at the position where the (semi)conductor particles
must be arranged.
FIG. 19 shows how in a following step the layer of (semi)conductor
particles 55 is supplemented to about half the height of the
insulator particles 51. A removable layer of dummy particles 56 is
then deposited.
In FIG. 20 is shown how the following electrode layer with
(semi)conductor particles 55 is deposited on the layer of dummy
particles 56. Insulator particles 51 are hereby embedded.
FIG. 21 shows how the above described steps are repeated in order
to arrange a subsequent electrode pair. The above stated production
steps can be repeated until a desired number of layers has been
obtained. Dummy particles 56 are then removed. A nanostructure 58
is thus created on the surfaces of the electrodes.
FIG. 22 shows how removable dummy particles 59 are arranged in each
layer with (semi)conductor particles 55 by means of a mask 60. When
dummy particles 59 are removed, the layer acquires an elastic
function so that the electrodes can deform in thermally free
manner.
FIG. 23 shows in a graph how partial efficiencies of different
layers of a multilayer embodiment must preferably not look.
The partial efficiencies and the overall efficiency "total" are on
the vertical axis. The energy density through the electrode
surfaces of the different layers is shown logarithmically on the
horizontal axis in Watt per square centimeter
(log(W/cm.sup.2)).
In the example of FIG. 23 an energy converting apparatus comprises
seven layers, and a layer is designated with the temperature it
undergoes during operation. The hottest emitter is in this example
1700 K and the coldest collector is 300 K. In this example all
intermediate spaces and all electrode materials are the same,
whereby the maximums of the different partial efficiencies do not
coincide at the same power density. The theoretical maximum overall
efficiency is hereby 50% and occurs at an unrealistically high
energy density of about 0.2 MW/cm.sup.2, wherein very great losses
will occur in practice due to the supply and discharge of heat and
electric current. At a realistic energy density of 0.1 to 500
W/cm.sup.2 the overall efficiency is low and not much better than
the efficiency of an energy converting apparatus comprising only
one layer at a temperature of the warmest electrode of 500 K. FIG.
23 shows that an embodiment as according to U.S. Pat. No.
6,876,123-B2, wherein all layers are roughly the same, cannot
produce an optimum efficiency.
FIG. 24 shows a graph with partial efficiencies of different layers
of a multilayer embodiment of an energy converting apparatus
improved according to the present invention.
The partial efficiencies and the overall efficiency are shown on
the vertical axis. The energy density through the electrode
surfaces of the different layers in Watt per square centimeter is
shown logarithmically on the horizontal axis (log(W/cm.sup.2)). In
the example of FIG. 24 the apparatus comprises seven layers. A
layer is indicated with the operationally prevailing temperature in
Kelvin. The hottest emitter is in this example 1700 K and the
coldest collector is 300 K.
The values used for the example of FIG. 24 are shown in table 1
below. Here T.sub.e is the emitter temperature of the layer,
T.sub.c is the collector temperature of the layer, d, is the size
of the intermediate space, r.sub.t is the tip radius of the surface
structure, .phi. is the work function of the material, .eta. the
efficiency. In the .eta. column the bottom percentage is the
overall efficiency, while the percentages given thereabove are the
partial efficiencies of the respective layers.
In the example of FIG. 24 the size or height of the intermediate
spaces, the structure of the emitter surfaces and the electrode
materials are chosen such that the partial efficiencies per layer
are optimal at a desired energy density. The theoretical maximum
overall efficiency is in this case 70% at a desired realistic
energy density.
TABLE-US-00001 TABLE 1 The geometry and material data of a TIG
comprising seven layers and having a power density of 100
W/cm.sup.2 chosen subject to optimum efficiency layer T.sub.e
T.sub.c d.sub.s r.sub.t .phi. .eta. number K. K. nm nm eV % 1 500
300 2.6 2 1 31.8 2 700 500 4 6 1 22.8 3 900 700 15 20 1 17.7 4 1100
900 200 flat 1.3 14.5 5 1300 1100 1000 flat 1.5 12.3 6 1500 1300
1000 flat 2 9.4 7 1700 1500 1000 flat 2.5 7.5 total 1700 300 71
It will be self evident that at other desired energy densities,
other temperatures and through feedback in practice other
combinations are necessary or possible in order to realize the
highest possible practical overall efficiency.
FIG. 25 shows a portion of a multilayer embodiment according to the
present invention. The geometry is modified to the temperature
prevailing per layer in order to realize the highest possible
overall efficiency. As table 1 shows, the structure of the
electrode pairs connected in series must differ for an optimum
efficiency. Because of the series connection the electric current
through each electrode pair will be the same, and each pair is
designed such that at the prevailing temperature and desired
current the partial efficiency and/or the overall efficiency is as
optimal as possible. The nanotechnology as described with reference
to FIGS. 12-22 is necessary here for the manufacture of cold
electrodes. For the manufacture of hotter electrodes it is possible
to suffice with microtechnology. By way of example the temperature
of the hottest emitter is 1700 K and of the coldest collector 300
K. A seven-layer embodiment is also shown as example. In practice
the number of layers, and thereby the difference in temperature per
layer, will be so small that the radiation losses will only be a
few percent of the supplied energy. The hottest electrode 61 has
only an emitter and a material preferably having a normal work
function of 1.5 to 4 eV. The intermediate space 62 preferably has a
size of 100 to 1000 nm and is manufactured with microtechnology by
placing insulating microcolumns 63 embedded therebetween.
The coldest conductor layer 66 comprises only a collector.
Intermediate space 64 is manufactured with nanotechnology.
Intermediate space 64 has a size of for instance 2 to 10 nm with
insulator elements 65 therebetween. The electrodes on the cold
side, i.e. on the side of electrode 66, are preferably made from a
material with a low work function, for instance a semiconductor.
The intervening layers have intermediate spaces 62 which become
increasingly larger toward the hot side. Above a determined size,
preferably between 50 and 1000 nm, intermediate spaces 62 are held
in position by columns 63 manufactured by means of
microtechnology.
At a determined temperature on the cold side it is favourable for
purposes of efficiency to make intermediate spaces smaller than for
instance 50 nm. These will also be manufactured by means of
nanotechnology.
The surface of the emitters on the cold side is preferably provided
with a nanostructure if this is necessary for a high efficiency.
The nanostructure comprises for instance cones 68 standing
perpendicularly of the surface (FIG. 25), quantum dots or spheres
58 (FIG. 21), all with a tip radius of for instance 2 to 200
nm.
The present invention is not limited to the above described
embodiments thereof, wherein many changes and modifications can be
envisaged within the scope of the appended claims.
* * * * *