U.S. patent number 3,693,018 [Application Number 04/606,513] was granted by the patent office on 1972-09-19 for x-ray image intensifier tubes having the photo-cathode formed directly on the pick-up screen.
This patent grant is currently assigned to Varian Associates. Invention is credited to William E. Spicer.
United States Patent |
3,693,018 |
Spicer |
September 19, 1972 |
X-RAY IMAGE INTENSIFIER TUBES HAVING THE PHOTO-CATHODE FORMED
DIRECTLY ON THE PICK-UP SCREEN
Abstract
The present invention relates in general to x-ray image
intensifier tubes and, more particularly, to an improved
intensifier tube wherein the photo-cathode is formed directly on
the x-ray sensitive phosphor pick-up screen without provision of an
intermediate buffer, whereby the sensitivity of the x-ray
intensifier tube is increased. Such improved x-ray image
intensifier tubes are expecially useful for, but not limited in use
to, x-ray systems and for intensifying gamma ray images obtained in
applications of nuclear medicine.
Inventors: |
Spicer; William E. (Portola
Valley, CA) |
Assignee: |
Varian Associates (Palo Alto,
CA)
|
Family
ID: |
27541978 |
Appl.
No.: |
04/606,513 |
Filed: |
December 27, 1966 |
Current U.S.
Class: |
250/214VT;
313/541; 976/DIG.439 |
Current CPC
Class: |
H01J
29/385 (20130101); G21K 4/00 (20130101); H01J
9/12 (20130101); H01J 31/501 (20130101) |
Current International
Class: |
H01J
31/08 (20060101); H01J 29/38 (20060101); H01J
9/12 (20060101); H01J 29/10 (20060101); G21K
4/00 (20060101); H01J 31/50 (20060101); H01j
031/50 () |
Field of
Search: |
;313/94,101,102,92,94,95,68 ;252/301.4,501 ;250/213 |
References Cited
[Referenced By]
U.S. Patent Documents
Primary Examiner: Stolwein; Walter
Claims
What is claimed is:
1. An x-ray image intensifier tube apparatus including an evacuated
envelope structure having an x-ray transparent receiving face
portion for passing x-ray images therethrough, an x-ray sensitive
fluorescent layer forming a pick-up screen inside of said envelope
for receiving the x-ray images and converting same to optical
images, a photo-cathode for converting the optical images to
electron image patterns, an electrode structure for accelerating
the electron image patterns and focusing the electron patterns onto
a fluorescent screen to produce an intensified optical image for
viewing which corresponds to the x-ray image, wherein the
improvement comprises, said x-ray sensitive fluorescent layer being
made of a material selected from the class consisting of activated
alkali metal halides, and said photo-cathode being formed as a
layer directly on said x-ray sensitive fluorescent layer, whereby
the sensitivity of the image intensifier tube is enhanced and
wherein said layer of x-ray sensitive pick-up screen material is
doped at its interface with said photo-cathode with an increased
concentration of p-type dopant to produce a favorable band bending
of the energy levels of said photo-cathode material, whereby the
quantum efficiency of said photo-cathode is increased.
2. An x-ray image intensifier tube apparatus including an evacuated
envelope structure having an x-ray transparent receiving face
portion for passing x-ray images therethrough, an x-ray sensitive
fluorescent layer forming a pick-up screen inside of said envelope
for receiving the x-ray images and converting same to optical
images, a photo-cathode for converting the optical images to
electron image patterns, an electrode structure for accelerating
the electron image patterns and focusing the electron patterns onto
a fluorescent screen to produce an intensified optical image for
viewing which corresponds to the x-ray image, wherein the
improvement comprises, said x-ray sensitive fluorescent layer being
made of a material selected from the class consisting of activated
alkali metal halides, and said photo-cathode being formed as a
layer directly on said x-ray sensitive fluorescent layer, whereby
the sensitivity of the image intensifier tube is enhanced and
wherein said layer of x-ray sensitive pick-up screen material is
doped at its interface with said photo-cathode layer with an
increased concentration of p-type dopant in sufficient quantities
to produce an increased blue quantum efficiency typically falling
within the range of 20 to 35 percent.
3. The apparatus of claim 2 wherein said pick-up screen layer is
activated with an activator material and concentration of such
activator material to cause the optical fluorescence of said
pick-up screen to occur principally in the blue spectral range of
optical wavelengths at room temperature.
4. An x-ray image intensifier tube apparatus including an evacuated
envelope structure having an x-ray transparent receiving face
portion for passing x-ray images therethrough, an x-ray sensitive
fluorescent layer forming a pick-up screen inside of said envelope
for receiving the x-ray images and converting same to optical
images, a photo-cathode for converting the optical images to
electron image patterns, an electrode structure for accelerating
the electron image patterns and focusing the electron patterns onto
a fluorescent screen to produce an intensified optical image for
viewing which corresponds to the x-ray image, wherein the
improvement comprises, said x-ray sensitive fluorescent layer being
made of a material selected from the class consisting of activated
alkali metal halides, and said photo-cathode being formed as a
layer directly on said x-ray sensitive fluorescent layer, whereby
the sensitivity of the image intensifier tube is enhanced and
including means for applying an electrical potential across said
x-ray pick-up screen layer for causing current in said pick-up
screen generated by absorbed x-rays to flow into said photo-cathode
layer and there add to the photoemission current, said potential
applying means including a first electrode formed by an
electrically conductive x-ray transparent receiving face portion of
said vacuum envelope contacting one face of said pick-up screen and
a second electrode formed by an electrical contact made to said
photo-cathode layer for contacting the other face of said pick-up
screen.
Description
Heretofore, x-ray image intensifier tubes have been built wherein
the photo-cathode was separated from the x-ray sensitive phosphor,
of the pick-up screen, by a chemically inert optically transparent
buffer layer. While the buffer layer serves to prevent unwanted
chemical reactions between the ZnS x-ray sensitive phosphor of the
prior art pick-up screen and one or more of the constituents of the
photo-cathode; this buffer tends to detract from the sensitivity of
the x-ray intensifier tube. In addition, formation of the buffer
requires additional steps during the manufacturing process which it
is desired to eliminate.
In the present invention, the x-ray sensitive phosphor of the
pick-up screen is selected from the class consisting of alkali
metal halides, preferably CsI, NaI or KI. The photo-cathode,
preferably selected from the class of C.sub.3 Sb, K.sub.3 Sb and
Rb.sub.3 Sb, is formed directly onto the alkali metal halide
phosphor of the pick-up screen. In a preferred embodiment, the
activator concentration for the pick-up screen material or other
p-type dopant is increased at the interface between the pick-up
screen and the photo-cathode in order to achieve a favorable band
bending of the energy levels at the junction of the two members
and, thus, substantially enhance the quantum efficiency of the
photo-cathode, thereby improving the sensitivity of the intensifier
tube. In another embodiment of the present invention, the
photo-cathode is made thinner than that employed heretofore to
still further improve the sensitivity of the x-ray intensifier
tube.
The principal object of the present invention is the provision of
an improved x-ray intensifier tube.
One feature of the present invention is the provision of an x-ray
image intensifier tube wherein the photo-cathode is formed directly
onto the x-ray sensitive phosphor of the pick-up screen, whereby
the sensitivity of the intensifier tube is increased.
Another feature of the present invention is the same as the
preceding feature wherein the x-ray sensitive phosphor is selected
from the class consisting of an activated alkali metal halide.
Another feature of the present invention is the same as any one or
more of the preceding features wherein the photo-cathode is
selected from the class consisting of Cs.sub.3 Sb, Rb.sub.3 Sb,
K.sub.3 Sb, Sb-K-Na-Cs, Sb-K-Na, or Cs-Te.
Another feature of the present invention is the same as any one or
more of the preceding features wherein the photo-cathode layer has
a thickness less than 300 A, whereby the quantum efficiency of the
photo-cathode is increased in a spectral region in which the
phosphor screen emits.
Another feature of the present invention is the same as any one or
more of the preceding wherein the alkali halide fluorescent
material of the pick-up screen is doped with an increased
concentration of p-type material at its interface with the
photo-cathode material to produce a favorable band bending of the
energy levels of the photo-cathode material to enhance the quantum
efficiency of the photo-cathode.
Another feature of the present invention is the same as any one or
more of the preceding features including the provision of means for
applying a potential across the x-ray pick-up screen for causing
x-ray liberated electron current in the pick-up screen to drift
across into the photo-cathode layer and there to add to the
photoemission current for increasing the sensitivity of the image
intensifier tube.
Other features and advantages of the present invention will become
apparent upon the perusal of the following specification taken in
connection with the accompanying drawings wherein:
FIG. 1 is a schematic line diagram of an x-ray system employing an
x-ray image intensifier tube of the prior art,
FIG. 2 is an enlarged cross sectional view of a portion of the
structure of FIG. 1 delineated by line 2--2,
FIG. 3 is a view similar to that of FIG. 2 depicting an alternate
pick-up screen and photo-cathode construction of the present
invention,
FIG. 4 is an energy level diagram for the x-ray sensitive phosphor
interface and the photo-cathode showing the band bending
effects,
FIG. 5 is a plot of photo-cathode current I versus frequency .nu.
of applied optical radiation for the prior art photo-cathodes,
and
FIG. 6 is an enlarged sectional view of an alternative embodiment
of a portion of the structure of FIG. 1 delineated by line
6--6.
Referring now to FIG. 1, there is shown a prior art x-ray system
employing an x-ray image intensifier tube 2. Such a system is
described in an article entitled, "X-Ray Image Intensification With
A Large Diameter Image Intensifier Tube," appearing in the American
Journal of Roentgenology Radium Therapy and Nuclear Medicine,
volume 85, pages 323-341 of February 1961. Briefly, an x-ray
generator 3 serves to produce and direct a beam of x-rays onto an
object 4 to be x-rayed. The image intensifier tube 2 is disposed to
receive the x-ray image of the object 4.
The image intensifier tube 2 includes a dielectric vacuum envelope
5, as of glass, approximately 17 inches long and 10 inches in
diameter. The pick-up face portion 6 of the tube 2 comprises a
spherical x-ray transparent portion of the envelope 5, as of
aluminum or conductive glass, which is operated at cathode
potential. An image pick-up screen 7 made of x-ray sensitive
particulated phosphor such as ZnS is coated onto the inside
spherical surface of the envelope portion 6 to a thickness as of
0.020 inch. A chemically inert optically transparent buffer layer 8
is coated over the phosphor layer 7. A photo-cathode layer 9 is
formed over the buffer layer 8.
In operation, the x-rays penetrate the object 4 to be observed. The
local x-ray attenuation depends on both the thickness and atomic
number of the elements forming the object under observation. Thus,
the intensity pattern in the x-ray beam after penetration of the
object 4 contains information concerning the structure of the
object. The x-ray image passes through the envelope section 6 and
falls upon the x-ray sensitive phosphor layer 7 wherein the x-ray
photons are absorbed and re-emitted as optical photons, typically
in the blue frequency range. The optical photons pass through the
transparent buffer 8 to the photo-cathode 9 wherein they produce
electrons. The electrons are emitted from the photo-cathode in a
pattern or image corresponding to the original x-ray image. The
electrons are accelerated to a high velocity, as of 30KV, within
the tube 2 and are focused through an anode structure 12 onto a
fluorescent screen 13 for viewing by the eye or other suitable
optical pick-up device. Electron focusing electrodes 14 are
deposited on the interior surfaces of the tube 2 to focus the
electrons through the anode 12.
In the intensifier tube 2, one 50 Kev photon of x-ray energy
absorbed by the x-ray sensitive pick-up screen produces about 2,000
photons of blue light, These 2,000 photons of blue light produce
about 400 electrons when absorbed in the photo-cathode layer 9. The
400 electrons emitted from the photo-cathode produce about 400,000
photons of light in the visible band when absorbed by the
fluorescent viewing screen 13. Thus, the x-ray image is converted
to the visible range and greatly intensified for viewing.
One of the problems with the prior art intensifier tube 2 is that
the particulated pick-up screen has less than optimum resolution
due to the fact that the particulated material has about one half
the density of the material in bulk form. Thus, to provide a
certain probability of stopping or absorbing an x-ray photon, the
particulated layer 7 must have about twice the thickness of such a
layer if it had bulk density. The thicker the layer 7 the poorer
its x-ray resolution. Moreover, the particulated material serves to
scatter the emitted optical photons, thereby still further reducing
resolution.
In addition, it is desirable to utilize a pick-up screen material
having a greater intrinsic stopping or absorbing power for x-rays.
Such improved materials include the alkali metal halides such as,
for example, CsI, KI, NaI, RbI, CsBr and LiI. These improved
materials such as CsI and NaI are obtainable in bulk slab form from
Harshaw Chemical Company of Cleveland, Ohio. However, when the flat
slabs are distorted from the flat slab form into the spherical slab
form, to conform to the spherical pick-up face 6 of the image
intensifier tube 2, it is found that the conversion efficiency and
resolution of the converted x-ray image is deleteriously
affected.
Referring now to FIG. 3 there is shown a section of the x-ray
pick-up screen formed in accordance with the present invention.
More particularaly, the alkali metal halide pick-up screen layer 16
is formed on the spherical x-ray transparent substrate member 6 by
evaporation in vacuum and the photo-cathode is formed directly on
the screen 16.
In one method for forming the screen, the substrate member 6 is
cleaned and disposed in a vacuum chamber of a vacuum evaporator. A
crucible containing the activated alkali metal halide phosphor in
bulk form is heated to a temperature sufficient to evaporate the
phosphor material, as by an electrical heating element. The
evaporated activated alkali halide is condensed (deposited) on the
substrate 6 to the desired thickness as of 0.010 inch for an x-ray
image intensifier and to 0.060 inch for a gamma ray intensifier. As
used herein, "x-ray" is defined to include x-rays and other high
energy radiation including gamma ray radiation.
The bulk activated alkali metal halide may include any one of a
number of different activators to render the pick-up screen 16
fluorescent upon absorption of x-rays at room temperature. For
example, CsI may include ThI or NaI, Na or LiI as activators. After
the screen layer 16 has been deposited, it is preferably annealed
to remove any residual minute plastic deformations thereof because
such deformations have an adverse effect upon quantum conversion
efficiency. A suitable annealing process is to heat the screen 16
in vacuum to within 10.degree. C of the melting point of the screen
material for 0.5 to 2.0 hours and then cool the screen 16 through
to 400.degree. C in 10 hours and then cool to room temperature in
another 10 hours.
The deposited layer of phosphor 16 has a density approximately
equal to the bulk density of the alkali halide material. Therefore,
the x-ray stopping or absorption power of the layer 16 is
substantially improved for a given thickness as compared to the
prior particulated phosphor screens. Thus, the thickness of the
layer 16 can be reduced compared to the prior screens, thereby
providing improved resolution. Moreover, the spherical shape of the
layer 16 does not intefer with resolution and conversion efficiency
as would be expected to be encountered if a slab of the alkali
halide material were shaped to conform to the spherical substrate
6. X-ray image intensifier tubes 2 employing an evaporated x-ray
sensitive screen are described and claimed in copending U.S.
application Ser. No. 606,514 filed Dec. 27, 1966, now abandoned and
assigned to the same assignee as the present invention.
An alternative method for forming the x-ray sensitive phosphor
pick-up screen is to slice up a thin flat slab of alkali metal
halide phosphor material into sections approximately a centimeter
on a side and to fit these sections together to provide a
sphyerical shaped mosaic. The mosaic is bonded to the spherically
shaped x-ray transparent envelope portion 6 by a suitable x-ray
transparent high vacuum adhesive. Such an x-ray sensitive screen is
described and claimed in copending U.S. application Ser. No.
604,764, filed Dec. 27, 1966, now abandoned and assigned to the
same assignee as the present invention.
Once the x-ray sensitive pick-up screen 16 has been formed, the
photo-cathode layer 9, according to the present invention, is
formed directly over the screen layer 16 without the provision of
an intermediate buffer layer 8.
The photo-cathode layer 9 is deposited over the x-ray screen layer
16 by evaporating in vacuum a layer of Sb from a bead of metallic
antimony. The thickness of the Sb layer is preferably made less
than a few hundred A. The thickness is conveniently measured by
monitoring the decrease in light transmission when employing an
optically transparent conductive glass envelope portion 6 or by
measuring the decrease in reflected light when employing an
optically opaque envelope section 6, as of aluminum. The
evaporation is stopped when the light transmission or reflection
has dropped to about 85 percent of its initial value, this value
corresponds to approximately 45 A of Sb.
While the deposited Sb layer is held at a temperature within the
range of 50.degree. to 180.degree. C, preferably 130.degree. C, the
Sb film is exposed to Cs vapor. With the reaction of Cs with Sb the
resultant material changes from a metallic appearance to a reddish
color in transmitted light and is accompanied by an increase in
thickness to about 300 A or less. The electrical resistance of the
Sb layer increases indicating a transition from a metal to a
semiconductor and a photoemissive current becomes measurable with
white light illumination. With increasing Cs content of the film,
this current increases to a peak value and then decreases rapidly.
When the peak is passed, the exposure to Cs vapor is discontinued
and a baking process is continued until the photocurrent again
reaches a maximum. During the subsequent cooling of the composite
screen and photo-cathode to room temperature, the sensitivity
usually rises appreciably. Finally, a very carefully controlled
exposure of the photo-cathode surface to a slight amount of oxygen
is used to increase the sensitivity of the photo-cathode still
further.
While the above description of the photo-cathode material was
limited to Cs.sub.3 Sb other photo-cathode materials may be
employed. More particularly, many photo-cathode materials share
common characteristics in that they are semiconducting
intermetallic compounds of an alkali metal with metals of groups V
and VI of the Periodic Table. While combinations of antimony and
cesium have relatively high quantum efficiencies in the visible
range, other materials are also useful. Such other materials
include Na.sub.3 Sb, K.sub.3 Sb, Rb.sub.3 Sb, (NaK).sub.3 Sb, (Rb)
(NaK).sub.3 Sb, (Cs) (NaK).sub.3 Sb and Cs-Te. Of these materials
K.sub.3 Sb and Rb.sub.3 Sb offer the advantage of reduced dark
current.
Also during the activation process of the photo-cathode layer,
i.e., during the reaction of the Cs or other vapor with the
metallic deposit, the activation process is preferably monitored
and optimized using a monitoring light source having an optical
wavelength corresponding to the principal wavelength of the
fluorescence of the X-ray sensitive phosphor screen layer 16. For
example, CsI screen material, activated by ThI, fluoresces
primarily in the blue wavelengths. Therefore, a blue light is
preferably used for monitoring and optimizing the activation
process for the photo-cathode layer 9.
In another embodiment of the present invention, the interface of
the x-ray sensitive screen layer 16 with the photo-cathode layer is
preferably doped in such a way as to produce a favorable band
bending of the energy levels in the photo-cathode layer to enhance
the photo-emission efficiency. More particularly, the interface of
the x-ray sensitive phosphor layer 16 is doped with an increased
concentration of p-type dopant such as ThI or I which is added at
the interface, as by evaporation, and diffused into the x-ray
sensitive layer to a few 1,000 A to produce a gradient of the
p-type dopant at the interface.
Without such excess p-type dopant, the photo-cathode will exhibit
certain quantum efficiencies for blue and red light photons, as
depicted by curve 19 in the plot of FIG. 5, where photoemission
current I is plotted as a function of frequency .nu. of the
incident light photons. Typical peak quantum efficiencies for a
conventional (Cs.sub.3 Sb) photo-cathode is typically 6 percent for
red light and 12 to 20 percent for blue light. The concentration of
the p-type dopant at the interface between the x-ray phosphor and
the photo-cathode is very difficult to measure. However, the p-type
dopant concentration is increased and the cathode thickness
decreased to a value which raises the monitored peak blue quantum
efficiency to a typical range of 20 to 35 percent. Such increase in
the blue quantum efficiency is quite likely accompanied by a
decrease in the peak red quantum efficiency to 3 percent or less.
Curve 20 of FIG. 5 shows the improved response in the blue
frequency range. This peaking of the quantum efficiency in the blue
range substantially improves the efficiency of the photo-cathode
and improves the sensitivity of the image intensifier tube 2.
It is believed that the mechanism for this improved quantum
efficiency is one involving a favorable band bending of the energy
levels within the photo-cathode layer 9. More specifically, FIG. 4
shows an energy level diagram for the doped interface of the
phosphor 16 and the photo-cathode 9 when formed onto the phosphor
16.
The Fermi level 21 of the photo-cathode has an electropotential
above the electropotential of the Fermi level 22 of the doped
phosphor 16. When the two layers are formed in contact with each
other, the Fermi level potentials in the two materials equalize to
the same potential level. This results in electrons flowing across
the junction 23 from the photo-cathode to the acceptor sites in the
p-doped phosphor 16. The result is that the energy levels for the
top of the valance band 24 and the bottom of the conduction band 25
in the photo-cathode 9 are bent upwards at the junction 23. This
produces a favorable band bending in the photo-cathode layer 9
which facilitates photoemission because it provides an electrical
field inside the photo-cathode at the junction 33 which will
accelerate photoexcited electrons toward the surface.
As seen from the energy level diagram of FIG. 4, electrons
generated in the photo-cathode see an electric field at the
junction 23 in the photo-cathode which tends to cause these
electrons to drift toward the surface of the photo-cathode which is
exposed to the vacuum. This effect is enhanced in another
embodiment of the present invention (see FIG. 6) by the provision
of an electrical contact 27 formed on the edge of the photo-cathode
layer 9. An electrical lead 28 is connected to the contact 27 and
the lead 28 passes through the dielectric envelope 5. A source of
potential 29 as of less than 1,000 volts is connected between the
x-ray transparent conductive envelope portion 6 and the lead 28 for
applying an electrical potential across the x-ray sensitive
phosphor 16. This potential serves to cause electron current
produced by the absorbed x-ray image in the phosphor 16 to drift
across the junction 23 into the photo-cathode 9 and there add to
the photoemission current of the photo-cathode 9.
Since many changes could be made in the above construction and many
apparently widely different embodiments of this invention could be
made without departing from the scope thereof, it is intended that
all matter contained in the above description or shown in the
accompanying drawings shall be interpreted as illustrative and not
in a limiting sense.
* * * * *