U.S. patent number 3,629,582 [Application Number 04/819,083] was granted by the patent office on 1971-12-21 for timepiece with radioactive timekeeping standard.
Invention is credited to John T. Grissom, Dale R. Koehler.
United States Patent |
3,629,582 |
Koehler , et al. |
December 21, 1971 |
TIMEPIECE WITH RADIOACTIVE TIMEKEEPING STANDARD
Abstract
A timepiece wherein the frequency standard takes the form of a
radioactive source having a prolonged half-life, the alpha
particulate emanations from the source being converted into
electrical pulses, the pulses then being scaled down to produce
low-frequency control pulses at a constant rate, which operate a
time indicator.
Inventors: |
Koehler; Dale R. (River Vale,
NJ), Grissom; John T. (Concord, TN) |
Family
ID: |
25227158 |
Appl.
No.: |
04/819,083 |
Filed: |
April 24, 1969 |
Related U.S. Patent Documents
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Application
Number |
Filing Date |
Patent Number |
Issue Date |
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651864 |
Jul 7, 1967 |
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592582 |
Nov 7, 1966 |
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Current U.S.
Class: |
250/363.01;
250/370.01; 250/393; 368/218; 968/830 |
Current CPC
Class: |
G21G
4/04 (20130101); G04F 5/16 (20130101) |
Current International
Class: |
G21G
4/04 (20060101); G21G 4/00 (20060101); G04F
5/16 (20060101); G04F 5/00 (20060101); G01t
001/15 () |
Field of
Search: |
;250/71.5,83.3,106,83.6
;58/23 |
References Cited
[Referenced By]
U.S. Patent Documents
Primary Examiner: Lawrence; James W.
Assistant Examiner: Frome; Morton J.
Parent Case Text
RELATED APPLICATION
This application is a continuation-in-part of the application Ser.
No. 651,864, filed July 7, 1967, which in turn is a
continuation-in-part of application Ser. No. 592,582, filed Nov. 7,
1966 (now abandoned).
Claims
We claim:
1. A compact timekeeping system operated by a battery whose voltage
is less than 15 volts comprising:
A. a timekeeping standard including a mass of radioactive material
having a prolonged half-life, and emitting alpha particles at a
relatively high statistical rate, a solid-state detector to detect
said alpha particles to produce a corresponding number of
electrical pulses, the bias voltage, if any, applied to said
detector, being no greater than the voltage of said battery, and
means to amplify all of said pulses,
B. scaler means coupled to said standard to produce for a
predetermined number of said electrical pulses a single control
pulse, the control pulses being yielded at a constant low rate,
and
C. a time register coupled to said scaler means and responsive to
said control pulses to produce time indications.
2. A system as set forth in claim 1, wherein said radioactive mass
has a half-life of at least 10.sup.3 years.
3. A system as set forth in claim 1, wherein said radioactive mass
is Uranium-233.
4. A system as set forth in claim 1, wherein said radioactive mass
is Plutonium-242.
5. A system as set forth in claim 1, wherein said radioactive mass
is Neptunium-237.
6. A system as set forth in claim 1, wherein said mass is selected
from the group consisting of U-238, Th-230, Th-232, Pa-231 and
Pu-239.
7. A system as set forth in claim 1, wherein said standard is
encapsulated in a shield which prevents light from entering the
detector and which prevents radiation particles from penetrating
said shield.
8. A system as set forth in claim 1, wherein said mass is directly
mounted on said solid-state detector.
9. A system as set forth in claim 1, wherein a scintillator is
interposed between said mass and said solid-state detector, said
detector being formed of photosensitive material.
10. A system as set forth in claim 9, wherein said mass is
uniformly dispersed in said scintillator.
11. A system as set forth in claim 10, wherein said scintillator is
of plastic material.
12. A system as set forth in claim 1, wherein said scaler is formed
by a series of binary stages.
13. A system as set forth in claim 12, wherein the scale of said
binary stages is adjustable to provide a desired output for a given
mass.
14. A system as set forth in claim 13, wherein said adjustment is
effected by an "AND" gate coupled to selected stages of the
scaler.
15. A system as set forth in claim 1, further including an
adjustable mask to vary the exposure of the detector to said
mass.
16. A system as set forth in claim 1, wherein said scaler is formed
by integrated circuits.
Description
BACKGROUND OF INVENTION
This invention relates generally to timekeeping systems, and more
particularly to an electronic timepiece wherein particulate
emanations from a radioactive source are converted into electrical
pulses, these pulses being scaled down to produce control pulses
for operating a time indicator.
The era of modern timekeeping, which begins with the use of
periodic processes for time measurement, may be traced directly to
Galileo's discovery of the isochronism of the pendulum. In the
earliest clocks, a pendulum functioned as the frequency standard
for controlling the movement of the gear train. When it was later
found that a balance wheel turning against a spring also had a
constant period, it became possible to reduce the size of a clock
and also to produce watches.
The extent to which errors inherent in pendulums and balance wheels
can be minimized is subject to practical limitations, and in the
search for higher orders of accuracy, other forms of frequency
standards have recently been developed. At present, the most
accurate timekeeper is the atomic clock, which exploits various
periodic processes in atoms and molecules. Such clocks are capable
of accuracies in the order of one part in 10.sup.12. However, the
great complexity and high cost of an atomic clock, precludes its
use for other than laboratory purposes and in special
applications.
A high degree of accuracy is also obtainable with piezoelectric
crystal-controlled timepieces. With proper temperature control, a
crystal is capable of generating high-frequency oscillations at a
substantially constant rate. By the use of frequency dividers, one
is able to derive low-frequency pulses which may be used to
synchronize or actuate a time display device. But size limitations
and other factors render the crystal-controlled system unsuitable
for wristwatches.
The most accurate time keeper commercially available in wristwatch
size is the tuning-fork type. The tuning fork is sustained in
vibration at its natural frequency by a transistor-controlled,
electromagnetic drive arrangement, the vibrations of the fork being
converted into rotary motion to operate the time-indicating hands.
Such timekeepers, sold under the trademark ACCUTRON, have an
accuracy of about one part in 4(10.sup.4).
Features other than accuracy which are desirable in a timekeeping
system are relative immunity to environmental factors such as
altitude, gravity and shock. These factors can be important in
influencing the timekeeping ability of the system as well as the
reliability of the system. Tuning fork timepieces are by no means
immune from environmental factors.
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF INVENTION
Accordingly, it is the main object of this invention to provide a
timekeeping system based on radioactivity from an alpha source and
capable of miniaturization both physically and electrically.
A salient feature of the invention is that the system has
accuracies competitive with existing devices representing the
present state of the art in practical timepieces of miniature size,
the system furthermore being very rugged and insensitive to
environmental factors.
Attempts have heretofore been made to exploit radioactivity as a
time reference. Thus in the clock manufactured by Associated
Nucleonics, Inc. and installed in the Chase Manhattan Bank Building
in New York City, a Geiger tube acts to detect gamma rays emitted
by a Cesium-137 source and to send electrical pulses to a counting
circuit which totalizes these pulses. When a preset number of
pulses is reached, a single control pulse is fed to a relay which
advances an electromechanical impulse clock. Because Cesium-137 has
a short half-life (30 years), a device operating on this principle
is highly inaccurate, it does not lend itself to miniaturization,
and it is not usable within the confines of a watch. Moreover,
gamma radiation presents a serious hazard which can be overcome
only by heavy shielding. Such shielding is not feasible in the
confines of a small timepiece. For this reason and various others,
a gamma-ray based system in miniaturized form is not feasible.
The U.S. Pat. to Lazrus et al. No. 3,370,414 discloses a time
reference based on beta radioactivity. However, while beta sources
yield a radioactive emanation not as penetrating as gamma rays,
beta particles are nevertheless more penetrating than alpha
particles and consequently require thicker detectors with their
associated prohibitive electrical requirements. Furthermore, the
beta particles emerge with a continuum of energies further
aggravating the associated electronic requirements. As will be
demonstrated hereinafter in greater detail, the problems associated
with a beta based timekeeping system are such as to make it
inferior (if feasible) to an alpha based system.
More particularly, therefore, it is an object of the invention to
provide a timekeeper using an alpha particle radioactive source as
a timekeeping standard, particulate emanations from the source
being converted by a solid-state detector into electrical pulses
which are then scaled down to produce control pulses for actuating
a time-indicator.
Also an object of the invention is to provide a scaler which may
readily be calibrated to produce a scale ratio appropriate to a
given radioactive mass.
Briefly stated, these objects are attained in a timekeeping system
in which the timekeeping standard is constituted by a radioactive
source having a relatively long half-life and producing alpha
particle emanations, the source operating in conjunction with a
solid-state detector responsive to the alpha particle emanations to
generate a number of electrical pulses per second, the pulses being
scaled down to produce a low number of control pulses such as one
per second, which control pulses are applied to an electronic or
electromechanical time register to actuate or control same to
indicate time.
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS
For a better understanding of the invention, as well as other
objects and further features thereof, reference is made to the
following detailed description to be read in conjunction with the
accompanying drawing, wherein:
FIG. 1 is a block diagram of a timekeeping system in accordance
with the invention;
FIG. 2 is a diagram of one form of binary scaler in accordance with
the invention;
FIG. 3 is a diagram of another form of binary scaler;
FIG. 4 is a schematic illustration of a preferred embodiment of a
detector; and
FIG. 5 is a schematic illustration of another detector
embodiment.
DESCRIPTION OF INVENTION
"Radioactivity" is the term applied to the spontaneous
disintegration of atomic nuclei. Of the various properties
possessed by radioactive substances, emitted radiations merit
special consideration.
A nucleus that is unstable with respect to its size will emit alpha
particles which are positively charged. These particles are shot
off from the interior of the atoms of certain elements with a
definite velocity and a definite range for each element. The range
is the distance traversed in a homogeneous medium before absorption
and is a function of among other parameters, the cube of, the
velocity. Alpha particles are only slightly deflected by electrical
and magnetic fields, these particles being nuclei of helium
carrying two-unit positive charges. The loss of a single alpha
particle by an atom leaves the residual atom four units less in
mass number and two units less in atomic number.
A nucleus which is unstable with respect to its neutron-proton
ratio may emit negatively charged beta particles, whereas if it is
unstable with respect to its total energy, the excess energy may be
given off as gamma radiation. Beta particles are electrons with a
mass 1/1,800 of that of the hydrogen atom and are deflected by
electric and magnetic fields, whereas gamma rays are similar to
X-rays but more penetrating, they constitute electromagnetic wave
energy, and are undeflected by electric and magnetic fields.
The rate of radioactive decay is proportional to the amount of
material present. This is expressed by the equation A=N.lambda.,
where A is the disintegration rate, N the number of atoms present
in the material, and .lambda. the proportionality constant
characteristic of each radioactive species.
The time required for one half of the atoms in a given material to
decay, is called the half-life. If the half-life of a given
material is in the order of 10.sup.6 years, then by the end of one
year the decay rate decreases by approximately one part in
10.sup.6. Thus in long-lived natural or artificial radioactivity
there exists a repetitive phenomenon which is virtually constant
with time and is therefore suitable for timekeeping. The change in
rate, over, say, a 5 to 10-year period, is so miniscule as to be
insignificant for timekeeping purposes.
The statistical nature of the decay process must now be considered.
Given a true mean decay rate, m per year, the standard fractional
error in an actual measurement of m is one part in m. If therefore
the source rate m is large, the statistical uncertainty given by 1/
m is very small. Thus in using the statistical process of
radioactive decay for timekeeping purposes, one needs "good"
statistics. This may be attained by simply controlling the amount
or number of radioactive atoms present in the timekeeping
source.
In order to attain an accuracy tantamount to that of a tuning fork
timepiece, that is about one part in 4 (10).sup.4, the requisite
mean activity is 16 (10).sup. 8 per year. This is approximately 50
per second or about 0.001 to 0.002 microcuries of radioactivity
(the unit of activity, one curie = 3.7 (10).sup. 10 disintegrations
per second). Using such a source and looking at the uncertainty in
an interval of a second, we are led to an accuracy of one part in
50 or about one part in 7. Hence while we have an accuracy over a
period of a year equal to one part in 4 (10).sup. 4, over a second
interval the accuracy is one part in 7.
If therefore we raise the counting rate to 5 (10.sup. 3 per second,
we decrease the uncertainty and now have an accuracy for each
second of one part in 5 (10).sup. 3 or one part in 70. Similarly,
over a year period, with this increased counting rate, one would
have a similar decrease in uncertainty of one part in 4 (10).sup.
5.
Particles emerging from a nucleus have an energy level in the mev.
range (million electron volt), whereas the kinetic energies of
atoms at room temperatures are 0.025 electron volts. Thus the
processes of radioactive decay are eight orders of magnitude more
energetic than thermal energies, and are altogether independent of
temperature. This factor is of importance in a timepiece subject to
changes in ambient temperatures. Moreover environmental factors
such as gravity, altitude, attitude, magnetism and shock have no
influence whatever on the decay rate. While the electronic circuits
associated with the radioactive source may be dependent on these
factors, the decay process itself is immune therefrom.
Referring now to Fig. 1, there is shown a basic timekeeping system
in accordance with the invention, the system comprising a
radioactive timekeeping standard, generally designated by numeral
10, an amplifier 11, a scaler 12 and a time register or indicator
13.
Timekeeping standard 10 is constituted by a radioactive mass 14 of
predetermined weight which is deposited onto the face of a solid
state detector 15, which in turn produces electrical impulses
corresponding in number to the particles emitted by the mass. This
radioactive source may for example be PLUTONIUM-242 with a
half-life of 3.79 (10).sup.5 years or URANIUM-233 with a half-life
of 1.62 (10).sup.5 years.
Preferably the source is NEPTUNIUM-237 with a half-life of 2.2
(10).sup.6 years. With this radioactive material, the change in the
emission rate at the end of the year would be one part in 3.1
(10).sup.6. Thus the frequency standard, would be effectively
invariant with time to a degree corresponding to an accuracy for
the system of the order of one part in 10.sup.6. In one working
embodiment, the mass can be about 10 micrograms deposited on the
face of a solid-state detector of 50 mm..sup.2 face area with a
thickness of 200 microns.
Solid-state detector 15 may be of the diffused junction, silicon
surface barrier type, or a transistor counter, all being extremely
high resolution devices. That is, the uncertainty in the signal
pulse .DELTA. .nu. divided by the magnitude of the signal pulse
.nu. is less than 1 percent, and the signal magnitude itself is two
orders of magnitude greater than the noise level (e.g., for natural
radioactive alpha emitters).
In the solid-state detector, an electric field is set up across a
semiconducting medium of low electrical conductivity. Usually the
low conductivity region is the charge depletion region in a
semiconductor diode operating at reverse bias. The thickness, or
width, of this depletion region is a function of the voltage across
the junction, to the one-half power. This voltage is the sum of the
built-in potential difference existing across the junction
interface, arising from the formation of a space charge related to
the relative density of the holes on the two sides of the junction,
and the applied (external) reverse bias. Typical values of this
built-in potential difference are of the order of 0.5 volt. When a
charged particle passes through the semiconductor, electron hole
pairs are produced therein. The charges are caused to separate by
the electric field, and the resultant signal in the output of the
detector reflects the presence and energy of the impinging
particle.
For a more detailed discussion of semiconductive radiation
detectors reference is made to "Nuclear Radiation Detection" by W.
J. Price--McGraw-Hill Book Co. Inc. 1964. In addition to high
resolution, these detectors have other important properties
including linearity of pulse height vs. energy, and very rapid
response time as well as insensitivity to magnetic fields. From a
total system standpoint, the main desideratum is that the signal at
each stage be as large as possible and that a minumum amount of
power be consumed in achieving this end. Furthermore, it is desired
that the electronics introduce no extraneous electrical pulses into
the counting process.
Let us look again at radiation detector 15. When the source
particles are incident to the detector, the electrical pulses of
current produced are very minute in magnitude. They therefore must
be amplified to be of use in carrying out mechanical or electronic
functions, for example, in a binary counting circuit. However, the
amplification factor (gain) of any known electronic amplifier is
not an unchanging parameter but rather is a constantly varying
quantity, subject to variations in temperature, battery voltage and
other variables. Now, in alpha decay, the radioactive nucleus has a
fixed single-valued energy which is imparted to the alpha particle
at the instant of decay. In beta decay, the radioactive nucleus
also has a fixed single-valued energy, but because the beta decay
process consists of the emission of a neutrino along with the
electron (beta particle), there is an infinite number of ways in
which this radioactive energy can be shared between the neutrino
and the beta particle. Therefore, the beta particles emerge with a
continuum of energies from zero energy up to a maximum energy,
which maximum is the fixed single-valued energy of the parent
radioactive nucleus.
Referring again to the counting circuit, there is inherent in its
operation, by design or otherwise, a voltage threshold sensitivity,
that is to say a voltage level below which an electrical pulse if
fed into the counter will not be counted by the counter. If
designed into the system we have what is called a discriminator.
One of the counting problems associated with a beta source then
becomes clear. Because of this voltage threshold, all of the beta
particle pulses will not be counted; only those above the
threshold. Since the varying gain of the amplifier causes a
variation in the number of beta particle pulses above the
threshold, an error is introduced into the counting rate as
measured by the electronic counter. In other words, the timekeeping
accuracy of a timekeeping system employing a beta source as the
time base is largely dependent upon the degree to which the
threshold of the counting system can be maintained constant, rather
than upon the time base itself.
With a single-valued energy particle, as for alpha radiation, this
problem is overcome. For example, with a one volt particle pulse
and a 0.1 volt threshold sensitivity, a 50 percent change in
threshold sensitivity from 0.1 volt to 0.15 volt will have no
effect on the alpha counting rate since the alpha particle voltage
pulse at 1 volt still exceeds the new threshold at 0.15 volt and
will certainly be counted.
Another point of interest is related to the rate at which the
particle loses, or gives up, its energy in the detector. The total
distance a particle travels in a detector material before it comes
to rest (i.e., gives up all of its energy) is proportional to its
original energy and to the rate at which it loses energy. For a 1
mev., beta particle, for example, the range (distance traveled
before coming to rest) in silicon is 2 millimeters, while for a 5
mev. alpha particle, the range in silicon is 2.8 (10).sup.-.sup.2
millimeter. Now for a silicon semiconductor detector, the sensitive
depth (the depth usable for detecting radiation) is a function of
the voltage across the junction interface in the detector. If one
uses for example, some of the purest silicon available (resistivity
P-type) =40,000.OMEGA.-cm.) it requires a voltage of 970 volts to
achieve a depletion, or sensitive, depth of 2 millimeters. This is
to be contrasted with 0.19 volts to achieve 2.8 (10).sup.-.sup.2
millimeter sensitive depth. The 970 volts requirement is obviously
a grossly impractical figure in the context of compact timepieces
such as watches. The 0.19 volt, on the other hand, is so small that
no external bias voltage is necessary at all because this potential
difference is built into the detector.
It can be argued that one can use a lower-energy beta-particle
source and thus achieve a smaller range and consequently a lower
bias voltage requirement for total beta-energy detection. Let us
look at this situation. If one chooses a range equal to that of the
5 mev. alpha particle the resultant beta particle of 0.060 mev.
will come to rest in 2.8 (10).sup.-.sup.2 millimeter of silicon.
But now the signal to noise ratio problem comes to the fore.
In the best semiconductor detector systems there are present at any
time in the material of the detector, free electrons generated
primarily by thermal agitation, which give rise to electrical
pulses which are called noise pulses in the detector output. These
can be distinguished from the radiation electrical pulses only if
they differ in magnitude from the signals generated by the
radiation. If one has a good signal to noise ratio, the signal
pulses (radiation pulses) are many times as large as the noise
pulses and no confusion results. If, however, the signal pulses are
comparable in magnitude to the noise pulses, the counting process
becomes confounded. In this instance, since the noise pulses are
counted along with the radiation pulses, the counting rate, which
is our time measuring index, is subject to whatever variations the
noise undergoes. Large errors are introduced and timekeeping
radically deteriorates.
Referring to state of the art semiconductor detectors a low noise
figure of 0.020 mev. is achievable. With such a noise figure the
counting rate due to noise pulses at 0.040 mev. is 1,000 per
minute. That is, at two-thirds of the above mentioned beta particle
energy, 0.060 mev., there are present in the detector as many as
1,000 noise pulses per minute. Keeping in mind the continuous
nature of the distribution of beta particle pulses one appreciates
how the noise contributes to and confuses the pulse counting
process. It seems clear that to eliminate the possibility of
confusion by noise pulses one needs a threshold level of at least
0.060 mev. This level should be no more than approximately one
third of the beta end point energy. In other words one would need a
beta source of at least 0.180 mev. end point energy. But the range
of a 0.180 mev. beta particle is 1.50 (10).sup.-.sup.1 millimeter
requiring an applied voltage of 6 volts (a requirement of at least
five 1.3 volt mercury cells). The alpha particle pulse on the other
hand, at 5 mev., is 83 times as large as the threshold setting of
0.060 mev. and therefore can be quite readily distinguished from
the noise. Again an alpha source is critical to the design of a
workable timepiece.
Finally it should be pointed out that, on an absolute basis, the
gain of the amplifying stage preceding the counter when using a
beta source would have to have approximately 28 times the gain that
one would need when using an alpha source due to the difference in
energies: 5 mev. as opposed to 0.180 mev. The practicality
considerations decidedly dictate an alpha source.
From the foregoing discussion it can be seen that the present
invention constitutes an improvement over the known beta source
system in at least the four following respects: (1) The detector
bias supply for the alpha system, if necessary at all, can be
supplied by a low voltage battery such as one whose voltage is 1.5
volts; (2) The nature of the alpha source spectrum results in a
superior signal-to-noise ratio; (3) The alpha system allows much
lower gain amplifiers; (4) The alpha source timekeeper results in a
system which is insensitive to voltage threshold.
The pulse height of the output of detector 15, which is constituted
by pulses equal in number to those emitted radioactive alpha
particles impinging on the detector, is therefore increased in
amplifier 11 to a level sufficient to trigger scaler 12. Scaler 12
may in practice consist of two-state binary stages in cascade
relation, with as many stages are necessary to scale down the input
pulse rate to the predetermined time stepping rate. Thus two input
pulses must be applied to the first binary stage in order to
activate it to apply a pulse to the next binary stage, and before
the next stage can apply a pulse to the third stage two additional
pulses must be applied to the first stage, and so on. In practice,
relatively elaborate scalers can be made by micromodule or
integrated circuit techniques using transistors to provide a
self-contained miniature unit which may be accommodated within the
confines of a watch casing.
Scaler 12 produces at its last output stage a single output pulse
for a predetermined number of input pulses from the amplifier. This
output pulse is applied to the register 13, which may be any
pulse-actuated device adapted to provide a visual or other
indication of time. Thus the register may be an electromagnetic
stepping device which operates time indicating hands or an
electronic display device. In practice, scaler 12 may be arranged
to yield one pulse per second or a fraction thereof. The invention
is by no means limited to binary scalers and other types, such as
10 or 12 state devices, may be used to reduce the number of stages
necessary.
The actual number of pulses at the input of the scaler required to
produce an output pulse is determined by calibrating the
timekeeping system, and this information is preset in the
calibration logic 16 which controls the scaler output. The
amplifier, scaler and calibration logic may all be in the form of
transistorized and integrated circuits. It will be appreciated that
the entire system may be operated by a small battery.
Calibration of the timekeeping system depends on a determination of
the mean counting rate. For nuclear alpha radiation, the
solid-state detector has a 100 percent detection efficiency for
those particles striking the detector; hence it is necessary only
to specify the mean source rate. The simplest technique is to
prepare by chemical means or otherwise a given source mass. One may
for example weigh out a predetermined amount of radioactive
material, since the number of radioactive atoms decaying per second
is proportional to the number of atoms present. Hence a given
source mass gives rise to a given source activity to provide a
prechosen rate or count per second to correspond to the stepping
time interval of the clock.
Another approach which may be more practical is to begin with an
approximately correct amount of the material, and then, having
determined the existing count rate, to increase or decrease the
effective area of the radioactive source seen by the detector by
means of an adjustable mask. The control of the mask would have to
be accurate to the same order of accuracy desired of the system.
The mask may be in the form of an adjustable shutter whose position
is varied with respect to the source by a Vernier screw
arrangement.
A preferred calibration technique is electronic in nature. In this
technique one first determines the actual count rate of an
approximately weighed source and then arranges the scale-down value
of a binary scaler system to respond to the source and to produce
the desired low pulse rate. Thus referring to FIG. 3, there is
shown a scaler formed by four binary stages, 2.sup.0, 2.sup.1,
2.sup.2 and 2.sup.3 in cascade relation coupled to the radioactive
detector such that for the first incoming pulse, an output is
obtained in stage 2.sup.0, for two incoming pulses an output is
obtained in stage 2.sup.1, for four incoming pulses an output is
obtained in stage 2.sup.2 and for eight input pulses an output is
obtained in stage 2.sup.3. By connecting the output of stage
2.sup.3 and 2.sup.1 to an "AND" or coincidence gage, which produces
a single pulse only when these stages are concurrently activated,
an output pulse will be produced once for every 10 incoming pulses,
thus providing a scale of 10. However, if instead of connecting
2.sup.1 to the "AND" gate, 2.sup.2 were connected so that an output
pulse is produced only when 2.sup.2 and 2.sup.3 are operative, then
the scale would be 12.
In FIG. 3 there is shown another example of how the scaler may be
adjusted to provide a desired output pulse for a given number of
incoming pulses. In this instance, the binary cascade includes a
fifth stage 2.sup.4 which is activated every 16 pulses. By applying
the output of stage 2.sup.4 as well as stages 2.sup.0 and 2.sup.1
to the "AND" gate, a single pulse is yielded for every 19 incoming
pulses. Thus by selective combinations of scaler stages with an
"AND" gate, any desired scale may be obtained to adjust the
countdown scale of the scaler to the output of the detector.
The solid-state detector is not responsive to gamma-radiation but
only to particulate radiation of the alpha and beta type. While
detectors such as Geiger counters are available which are sensitive
to gamma-radiation, this type of detector is relatively inefficient
and does not lend itself to use in the confines of a wristwatch or
a small timepiece, for among other reasons it requires a very high
operating voltage.
The solid-state detector is subject to radiation damage, for the
bombardment of the solid-state material by the particles can knock
atoms out of their crystal lattice sites, and thereby degrade the
operation of the device which is sensitive to or dependent on these
imperfections. The damage is not significant, in most instances,
for the degradation of the solid material occurs over a prolonged
period and does not materially affect the output thereof,
particularly since a degree of internal healing takes place in the
material. Although the rate of damage production is less for beta
particles the system is more sensitive to the spectral changes
which result since the damage manifests itself in a way which is
equivalent to a change in threshold sensitivity with a concomitant
change in count rate (and therefore timekeeping accuracy) as
previously discussed.
Some solid-state detectors give a response to light as well as to
particulate radiation. It is possible by the use of a scintillator,
which is less subject to radiation damage, to produce light
impulses in response to the radiation particles and to detect these
light impulses, in the manner shown in FIG. 4 where a scintillator
18, mounted on a solid-state detector 19, is exposed to the mass 17
of radioactive material.
Various scintillators are currently available including crystals of
inorganic and organic materials, as well as liquids, powders,
plastics and glasses. The designer has access to a wide range of
sizes and shapes as well as compositions and he can therefore
optimize conditions for a wide spectrum of radiation sources and
energy levels. If a solid-state detector is used in combination
with a scintillator, the nature of the solid state material must be
photoelectric such that it is sensitive to the scintillator light
impulses to produce corresponding electric pulses. Obviously with a
scintillator, other photosensitive detectors may be employed.
In order to detect as much of the source activity as possible, a
sandwich arrangement may be used, as shown in FIG. 5, wherein the
radioactive source 17 is interposed between a pair of scintillation
detectors 18, 19 and 18', 19'. These detectors may be connected in
parallel relation to provide a combined pulse output. The sandwich
arrangement may be used also without scintillators by attaching the
radioactive mass directly to the adjacent surfaces of the two
solid-state detectors.
It is also possible to integrate the radioactive source with the
scintillator. This can be done in various ways.
For example, in a liquid scintillator, the radioactive source
material may be dissolved in the liquid so that it is uniformly
dispersed therein. In the case of a plastic scintillator, one may
dissolve the radioactive material in the plastic solution before it
is solidified. In a crystal scintillator, the radioactive mass may
be introduced before crystal growth occurs.
It is difficult ordinarily to calibrate the timekeeping system by
precisely weighing the exact mass of radioactive material required
for an individual unit for we are dealing with masses in the
microgram region. But by dissolving radioactive material in a
scintillator matrix, one may initially prepare a relatively large
measured volume of such material incorporating a uniformly
dispersed radioactive substance, and then divide this volume into
individual units having a known amount of radioactivity.
As pointed out previously, the invention resides in the use of
alpha particulate radiation from a radioactive source rather than
gamma rays. In practice, the detector combined with the radioactive
mass is enclosed by an opaque shield formed of such materials as
tantalum, tungsten and gold which act as a light barrier. Such
encapsulation prevents external light and other influences from
penetrating the detector as well as providing a shield against
radiation emitted from the mass. As distinguished from gamma rays,
an extremely thin layer of gold or other shielding material will
protect against external particle radiation, whereas relatively
heavy shielding would be required for gamma rays. Inasmuch as many
alpha emitting radioisotopes also emit associated gamma rays, it
should be pointed out that an "alpha source with associated gamma
rays" is to be distinguished from a "gamma ray source" in both the
energy and number of gamma rays emitted. It can be shown that in
the former case the gamma radiation level is so low as to be
completely innocuous.
While the use of radioactive material having a highly prolonged
half-life is preferable in obtaining a high order of accuracy, it
is also possible to use masses having a shorter half-life, such as
PA-231 whose half-life is 3.4.times.10.sup.4 years. Since in this
instance, a decay in count rate will arise in a relatively short
time, corrective electronic circuits may be used to introduce
supplementary pulses into the system when a predetermined number of
pulses have been counted. Thus additional stages may be coupled to
the scaler which acts to count the incoming pulses to generate
after say every 10,000 counts, extra pulses to supplement the input
pulses.
Furthermore, when the source counting rate m is such that 1/m is
less than the desired accuracy, for example a source counting rate
of 100 per second and a desired accuracy of one part in 4
(10).sup.4 , then additional stages to generate correction pulses
must be used to realize the full accuracy potential.
With regard to power sources for microelectronic systems in
watches, one is concerned in the main with low power consumption.
In particular, for timekeeping systems one of the most important,
if not the most important, element is the scaling, or dividing,
circuitry. The scaling system is a logic circuit as opposed to a
linear circuit and at the present state of the art, logic-circuit
power-consumption is minimized by MOSFET, or complementary MOSFET,
technology. This technology, while yielding a minimum power
consumption, however, requires from 5 to 15 volts for operation.
Present research is directed toward lower voltage systems but at
the moment off-the-shelf circuitry requires the voltage
indicated.
Thus in FIG. 1, the power supply 20 is a battery whose output is
five to fifteen volts for energizing amplifier 11, scaler 12, time
indicator 13 and the calibration logic 16. The solid state detector
15 may, as previously pointed out, not require an external voltage
bias, but should such a bias be required, it will be at a low
voltage and will be derived from the same battery.
While there have been disclosed, preferred embodiments of the
invention, it will be obvious that many changes may be made
therein, without departing from the essential features of the
invention.
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