U.S. patent number 11,173,129 [Application Number 16/783,528] was granted by the patent office on 2021-11-16 for nanowire-coated microdevice and method of making and using the same.
This patent grant is currently assigned to The Regents of the University of California. The grantee listed for this patent is The Regents of the University of California. Invention is credited to Tejal Ashwin Desai, Hariharasudhan Chirra Dinakar, Cade B. Fox.
United States Patent |
11,173,129 |
Desai , et al. |
November 16, 2021 |
Nanowire-coated microdevice and method of making and using the
same
Abstract
A microdevice containing a plurality of nanowires on a
biocompatible surface, and methods of making and using the same are
provided. Aspects of the present disclosure include forming a
plurality of microdevices on a substrate where each microdevice
includes a plurality of nanowires. The nanowires may be loaded with
an active agent by disposing the active agent onto the surface of
the nanowires. Also provided herein are kits that include the
subject microdevices.
Inventors: |
Desai; Tejal Ashwin (San
Francisco, CA), Dinakar; Hariharasudhan Chirra (San
Francisco, CA), Fox; Cade B. (San Francisco, CA) |
Applicant: |
Name |
City |
State |
Country |
Type |
The Regents of the University of California |
Oakland |
CA |
US |
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Assignee: |
The Regents of the University of
California (Oakland, CA)
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Family
ID: |
56127408 |
Appl.
No.: |
16/783,528 |
Filed: |
February 6, 2020 |
Prior Publication Data
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Document
Identifier |
Publication Date |
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US 20200352871 A1 |
Nov 12, 2020 |
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Related U.S. Patent Documents
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Application
Number |
Filing Date |
Patent Number |
Issue Date |
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15536071 |
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10596125 |
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PCT/US2015/065360 |
Dec 11, 2015 |
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62092125 |
Dec 15, 2014 |
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Current U.S.
Class: |
1/1 |
Current CPC
Class: |
B81C
1/00031 (20130101); A61K 47/32 (20130101); A61K
47/34 (20130101); A61K 9/70 (20130101); B81B
7/00 (20130101); A61M 37/00 (20130101); A61L
31/16 (20130101); A61K 9/7007 (20130101); B81B
2207/056 (20130101); B82Y 30/00 (20130101); A61K
9/0097 (20130101); A61L 2400/12 (20130101) |
Current International
Class: |
B82Y
40/00 (20110101); A61L 31/16 (20060101); A61K
47/32 (20060101); A61K 47/34 (20170101); B81B
7/00 (20060101); A61M 37/00 (20060101); A61K
9/70 (20060101); A61K 9/00 (20060101); B82Y
30/00 (20110101) |
References Cited
[Referenced By]
U.S. Patent Documents
Foreign Patent Documents
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2005/033685 |
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Apr 2005 |
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WO |
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2008/109886 |
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Sep 2008 |
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WO |
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2012/102678 |
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Aug 2012 |
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WO |
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2012/135065 |
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Oct 2012 |
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WO |
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Other References
Du and Gan (2012) "Cellular Interactions on Hierarchical
Poly([epsilon]-caprolactone) Nanowire Micropatterns" ACS Applied
Materials & Interfaces 4(9): 4643-4650. cited by applicant
.
Fan et al. (2003) "Fabrication of Silica Nanotube Arrays from
Vertical Silicon Nanowire Templates" J. Am. Chem. Soc. 125(18):
5254-5255. cited by applicant .
Fine et al. (2013) "Silicon Micro- and Nanofabrication for
Medicine" Adv. Healthcare Mater. 2: 632-666. cited by applicant
.
Uskokovic et al. (2012) "Shape Effect in the Design of
Nanowire-Coated Microparticles as Transepithelial Drug Delivery
Devices" ACS Nano 6(9): 7832-7841. cited by applicant.
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Primary Examiner: Proctor; Cachet I
Attorney, Agent or Firm: Baba; Edward J. Chandra; Shweta
Bozicevic, Field & Francis
Parent Case Text
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION
The present application is a continuation of U.S. patent
application Ser. No. 15/536,071, filed Jun. 14, 2017, now U.S. Pat.
No. 10,596,125, which is a national phase application of
PCT/US2015/065360, filed Dec. 11, 2015 which application is based
on and claims priority to U.S. provisional patent application No.
62/092,125, filed Dec. 15, 2014, which is incorporated herein by
reference in its entirety.
Claims
What is claimed is:
1. A device comprising a substrate comprising a micropattern of a
plurality of nanowire devices, wherein each of the nanowire devices
comprises a first biocompatible polymer layer disposed on a surface
of the substrate, a second biocompatible polymer layer disposed on
a surface of the first biocompatible polymer layer, the second
biocompatible polymer layer comprising a plurality of nanowires
formed from the second biocompatible polymer layer, wherein the
nanowires are substantially perpendicular to the surface of the
first biocompatible polymer layer.
2. The device of claim 1, wherein the nanowires have an average
length of 1 to 100 .mu.m.
3. The device of claim 1, wherein the nanowires have an average
diameter of 100 to 500 nm.
4. The device of claim 1, wherein an active agent is disposed on
the plurality of nanowires.
5. A method of delivering an active agent to a mucosal surface,
comprising: contacting a device of claim 1 with a mucosal surface,
wherein an active agent is disposed on the plurality of
nanowires.
6. A method of loading an active agent on a device comprising a
plurality of nanowire devices, the method comprising: contacting a
device of claim 1 with a solution comprising an active agent,
wherein the contacting comprises contacting the plurality of the
nanowire devices thereby loading the device comprising a plurality
of nanowires on a biocompatible surface with an active agent.
7. The method of claim 6, wherein the method comprises drying the
device.
8. The method according to claim 7, wherein the drying comprises
inverting the device such that the biocompatible surface comprising
the nanowires substantially faces down.
Description
INTRODUCTION
Substrates that contain micro- and nanoscale features are important
for a number of biological applications. Because micro- and
nanotopography influence cellular adhesion, alignment, shape,
proliferation, and differentiation, topographical cues incorporated
into cellular scaffolds are capable of controlling a wide range of
cellular behaviors. Hierarchical structures provide enhanced
control, as cells are influenced both on the microscale by contact
guidance and on the nanoscale through direct interaction of
cellular receptors with external physical cues. Hierarchical
substrates may also have utility for micron-scale reagent and drug
loading of miniaturized biological assays and biomedical
microdevices.
SUMMARY
A microdevice containing a plurality of nanowires on a
biocompatible surface, and methods of making and using the same are
provided. The microdevice facilitates efficient loading of a
therapeutic agent onto the surface of the nanowires which provide
for loading of the therapeutic agent via capillary action. The
increased surface area of the microdevice also enables loading of a
greater amount of the therapeutic agent.
Aspects of the present disclosure include a method of forming a
plurality of nanowires on a biocompatible surface, including the
steps of depositing a second biocompatible polymeric layer onto a
surface of a first biocompatible polymeric layer, contacting a
nanoporous membrane with a surface of the second biocompatible
polymeric layer, and forming a plurality of nanowires from the
second biocompatible polymeric layer using the nanoporous membrane
as a template.
In any method embodiment of forming a plurality of nanowires on a
biocompatible surface set out above or infra, the contacting step
may include contacting the nanoporous membrane with the second
biocompatible polymeric layer under heat.
In any method embodiment of forming a plurality of nanowires on a
biocompatible surface set out above or infra, the forming step may
include dissolving the nanoporous membrane. In certain embodiments,
the dissolving may include etching the nanoporous membrane in an
alkaline solution.
In any method embodiment of forming a plurality of nanowires on a
biocompatible surface set out above or infra, the depositing step
may include contacting a heated first biocompatible polymeric layer
with the second biocompatible polymeric layer.
In any method embodiment of forming a plurality of nanowires on a
biocompatible surface set out above or infra, the first
biocompatible polymeric layer may include a biocompatible polymer
selected from the group consisting of: polymethyl methacrylate
(PMMA), collagen, poly(lactic acid) (PLA), polyglycolic acid (PGA),
poly(anhydrides), poly(hydroxy acids), poly(lactic-co-glycolic
acid) (PLGA), chitosan PEG or PEGDMA, or combinations thereof.
In any method embodiment of forming a plurality of nanowires on a
biocompatible surface set out above or infra, the second
biocompatible polymeric layer comprises a biocompatible polymer
selected from the group consisting of: polycaprolactone (PCL),
gelatin, agarose, poly(anhydrides), poly(hydroxy acids),
poly(propylfumerates), poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA),
chitosan, or combinations thereof.
In any method embodiment of forming a plurality of nanowires on a
biocompatible surface set out above or infra, the nanoporous
membrane may be an anodized metal oxide membrane or a nanoporous
silica membrane. In certain embodiments, the anodized metal oxide
may contain aluminum, tin or titanium. In certain embodiments, the
nanoporous membrane is a nanoporous anodized aluminum oxide (AAO)
membrane.
In any method embodiment of forming a plurality of nanowires on a
biocompatible surface set out above or infra, the method may
include creating a micropattern in the first biocompatible
polymeric layer prior to depositing the second biocompatible
polymeric layer onto a surface of the first biocompatible polymeric
layer. In certain embodiments, creating a micropattern includes
using photolithography.
In any method embodiment of forming a plurality of nanowires on a
biocompatible surface set out above or infra, the method may
include creating a micropattern in the nanoporous membrane prior to
contacting a nanoporous membrane with a surface of the second
biocompatible polymeric layer. In certain embodiments, creating a
micropattern includes using photolithography.
In any method embodiment of forming a plurality of nanowires on a
biocompatible surface set out above or infra, the method includes
providing the first biocompatible polymeric layer on a substrate.
In certain embodiments, the substrate is a silicon wafer.
In any method embodiment of forming a plurality of nanowires on a
biocompatible surface set out above or infra, the first polymeric
layer has an average thickness in the range of 1 to 100 .mu.m.
In any method embodiment of forming a plurality of nanowires on a
biocompatible surface set out above or infra, the second
biocompatible polymeric layer has an average thickness in the range
of 1 to 100 .mu.m.
In any method embodiment of forming a plurality of nanowires on a
biocompatible surface set out above or infra, the average diameter
of the pores of the nanoporous membrane is in the range of 10 to
500 nm.
Further aspects of the present disclosure include a microdevice
containing a plurality of nanowires disposed on a biocompatible
surface, wherein the microdevice is formed by a process including
any method embodiment of forming a plurality of nanowires on a
biocompatible surface set out above.
In any microdevice embodiment set out above or infra, the first and
second biocompatible polymeric layers comprise a micropattern. In
certain embodiments, the microdevice is disposed on a
substrate.
In any microdevice embodiment set out above or infra, the nanowires
have an average diameter of 10 to 500 nm.
In any microdevice embodiment set out above or infra, the nanowires
have an average length of 1 to 100 .mu.m.
In any microdevice embodiment set out above or infra, the
microdevice includes an active agent disposed on the plurality of
nanowires.
Also provided herein is a method of loading a microdevice
containing a plurality of nanowires on a biocompatible surface with
an active agent, the method including contacting a microdevice of
any of the microdevice embodiments set out above with a solution
that contains an active agent, thereby loading the microdevice
containing a plurality of nanowires on a biocompatible surface with
an active agent.
In any method embodiment of loading a microdevice containing a
plurality of nanowires on a biocompatible surface with an active
agent set out above or infra, the method includes drying the
microdevice. In some embodiments, the drying includes inverting the
microdevice such that the biocompatible surface containing the
nanowires substantially faces down.
Also provided herein is a method of delivering an active agent to a
mucosal surface, the method including contacting a plurality of
nanowires of a microdevice that contains the plurality of nanowires
on a biocompatible surface with a mucosal surface, wherein an
active agent is disposed on the plurality of nanowires.
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS
FIG. 1 shows a schematic of an exemplary method for fabricating
nanowire-coated microdevices, according to embodiments of the
present disclosure.
FIG. 2 shows scanning electron microscope (SEM) micrographs of
nanowire-coated microdevices, according to embodiments of the
present disclosure.
FIG. 3 shows SEM micrographs and measurements of nanowires formed
on microdevices, according to embodiments of the present
disclosure.
FIG. 4 shows further SEM micrographs and measurements of nanowires
formed on microdevices, according to embodiments of the present
disclosure. Cross sections of Whatman Anodise.RTM. AAO membranes
with nominal pore diameters of 0.02 .mu.m (A), 0.1 .mu.m (B), and
0.2 .mu.m (C) were imaged with SEM, and diameters were measured to
determine average pore diameters of 120.+-.40, 200.+-.60, and
290.+-.50 nm, respectively. Scale bars are 1 .mu.m. *Indicates
statistically significant difference between average nanowire
diameter with p<0.001.
FIG. 5 shows three-dimensional confocal imaging reconstructions of
arrays of fluorescently detectable active agent-loaded
microdevices, according to embodiments of the present disclosure,
as well as control microdevices, and measurements of loading
efficiency.
FIG. 6 shows fluorescent images of arrays of fluorescently
detectable active agent-loaded microdevices, according to
embodiments of the present disclosure.
FIG. 7 shows a brightfield image of detached microdevices,
according to embodiments of the present disclosure.
FIG. 8 shows scanning electron microscopy micrographs of
microdevices with and without a nanowire-coated surface, and
fluorescent images of fibroblasts cultured on the microdevices,
according to embodiments of the present disclosure.
FIG. 9 shows another schematic of a method for fabricating a
nanowire-coated microdevices, according to embodiments of the
present disclosure.
FIG. 10 shows SEM micrographs of a nanowire-coated microdevice,
according to embodiments of the present disclosure.
FIG. 11 shows enhanced cytoadhesion of nanowire-coated
microdevices, according to embodiments of the present
disclosure.
FIG. 12 shows enhanced epithelial penetration of protein using
nanowire-coated microdevices, according to embodiments of the
present disclosure.
FIG. 13 shows that nanowire films are highly wettable following
initial contact with water. 5 .mu.L water were dispensed onto PCL
films composed of PCL, PCL treated with 0.5 M NaOH for 1 h (to
match NaOH treatment for AAO membrane etching), and PCL nanowires
with and without pre-wetting. Pre-wetting consisted of submerging
the films in water, spinning the films at 2000 rpm for 5 s to
remove excess water, and imaging droplets within 1 min. Under dry
conditions, the nanowire coating resulted in a higher contact angle
than both non-templated PCL and NaOH-treated non-templated PCL,
possibly as a result of air entrapment within the nanowire arrays.
However, when nanowire films were pre-wetted, water droplets were
taken up by the nanowire arrays, preventing measurement of contact
angle and demonstrating that nanowires arrays are highly wettable
following initial exposure to water.
FIG. 14 shows time-lapse fluorescence imaging of Oregon
Green--Paclitaxel and FITC-BSA localization over micropatterned PCL
nanowire array films demonstrates that drug/reagent solution
collects over nanowire regions over time as solvent evaporates.
Each image is labeled with the time after the addition of
drug/reagent. Scale bars are 500 .mu.m.
FIG. 15 shows SEM imaging and quantification of AAO membrane pore
density. Five regions of 200 nm nominal pore size AAO membranes
were analyzed to determine a density of 13.+-.1.
FIG. 16 shows that drug localization signal is not a result of
polymer autofluorescence. Micro-grooved nanowire arrays on PMMA
films show no detectable signal before loading but show localized
signal under identical fluorescence imaging conditions after
loading FITC-BSA at 5 .mu.g/cm.sup.2, indicating that observed
signal is a result of FITC-BSA fluorescence rather than polymer
autofluorescence. Scale bars are 50 .mu.m.
FIG. 17 shows Z-stacks of confocal fluorescent images of
non-templated (A-D) and nanowire-coated (E-H) microstructures
loaded with Oregon Green--paclitaxel (A, E), FITC-BSA (B, F),
FITC-dextran (C, G), and Nile red (D, H) merged according to mean
intensity values prior to quantification of fluorescence intensity
to calculate localization efficiency. Scale bars are 50 .mu.m.
FIG. 18 shows quantification of cellular elongation and alignment
of cells grown on PCL films. A. Quantification of cellular
elongation, as determined by the distance between the two furthest
points of each cell, demonstrated that cells grown on
micropatterned nanowires were significantly more elongated than
cells grown on films lacking micro- and/or nanotopography.
*Indicates statistically significant difference between average
cellular elongation with p<0.01. B. Quantification of cellular
alignment demonstrated that micropatterned films enhanced cellular
alignment in the direction of microgrooves.
FIG. 19 shows high-resolution SEM micrographs of non-templated PCL
(A), PCL nanowire (B), micropatterned non-templated PCL (C), and
micropatterned nanowire (D) films used for fibroblast cell culture.
Scale bars are 2 .mu.m.
DETAILED DESCRIPTION
Before the present invention is further described, it is to be
understood that this invention is not limited to particular
embodiments described, as such may, of course, vary. It is also to
be understood that the terminology used herein is for the purpose
of describing particular embodiments only, and is not intended to
be limiting, since the scope of the present invention will be
limited only by the appended claims.
Where a range of values is provided, it is understood that each
intervening value, to the tenth of the unit of the lower limit
unless the context clearly dictates otherwise, between the upper
and lower limit of that range and any other stated or intervening
value in that stated range, is encompassed within the invention.
The upper and lower limits of these smaller ranges may
independently be included in the smaller ranges, and are also
encompassed within the invention, subject to any specifically
excluded limit in the stated range. Where the stated range includes
one or both of the limits, ranges excluding either or both of those
included limits are also included in the invention.
Unless defined otherwise, all technical and scientific terms used
herein have the same meaning as commonly understood by one of
ordinary skill in the art to which this invention belongs. Although
any methods and materials similar or equivalent to those described
herein can also be used in the practice or testing of the present
invention, the preferred methods and materials are now described.
All publications mentioned herein are incorporated herein by
reference to disclose and describe the methods and/or materials in
connection with which the publications are cited.
It must be noted that as used herein and in the appended claims,
the singular forms "a," "an," and "the" include plural referents
unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. Thus, for example,
reference to "a microdevice" includes a plurality of such
microdevices and reference to "the active agent" includes reference
to one or more active agents and equivalents thereof known to those
skilled in the art, and so forth. It is further noted that the
claims may be drafted to exclude any optional element. As such,
this statement is intended to serve as antecedent basis for use of
such exclusive terminology as "solely," "only" and the like in
connection with the recitation of claim elements, or use of a
"negative" limitation.
It is appreciated that certain features of the invention, which
are, for clarity, described in the context of separate embodiments,
may also be provided in combination in a single embodiment.
Conversely, various features of the invention, which are, for
brevity, described in the context of a single embodiment, may also
be provided separately or in any suitable sub-combination. All
combinations of the embodiments pertaining to the invention are
specifically embraced by the present invention and are disclosed
herein just as if each and every combination was individually and
explicitly disclosed. In addition, all sub-combinations of the
various embodiments and elements thereof are also specifically
embraced by the present invention and are disclosed herein just as
if each and every such sub-combination was individually and
explicitly disclosed herein.
The publications discussed herein are provided solely for their
disclosure prior to the filing date of the present application.
Nothing herein is to be construed as an admission that the present
invention is not entitled to antedate such publication by virtue of
prior invention. Further, the dates of publication provided may be
different from the actual publication dates which may need to be
independently confirmed.
Method of Forming a Microscale Device with Plurality of
Nanowires
Microdevices containing a plurality of nanowires on a biocompatible
surface, and methods of making and using the same are provided.
Aspects of the present disclosure includes a method of forming a
plurality of nanowires on a biocompatible surface, e.g., in a
microdevice. The subject microdevices include a plurality of
nanowires disposed on a biocompatible surface, wherein the
biocompatible surface includes a first biocompatible polymeric
layer and a plurality of nanowires formed from a second
biocompatible polymeric layer disposed on a surface of the first
biocompatible polymeric layer. The microdevices containing a
plurality of nanowires disposed on a biocompatible surface find use
in loading active agents on the plurality of nanowires for delivery
of the active agents to a mucosal surface in a subject in need of
treatment. Further aspects of the present disclosure are described
in detail below.
Disposing a Second Biocompatible Polymer Layer onto a First
Biocompatible Polymer Layer
As summarized above, aspects of the present disclosure include a
method of forming a plurality of nanowires on a biocompatible
surface, e.g., a biocompatible surface of a microdevice. The
biocompatible surface may be a surface of a layer of a
biocompatible polymer, i.e., a biocompatible polymer membrane. In
certain embodiments, the biocompatible polymer layer is
substantially planar. In certain embodiments, the plurality of
nanowires is formed by molding at least part of the biocompatible
polymer layer, using a nanoporous membrane as the template. Thus,
in certain embodiments, the subject method of forming a plurality
of nanowires on a biocompatible surface produces a microdevice that
includes a biocompatible polymeric substrate wherein a first
surface of the biocompatible polymeric substrate is substantially
flat and a plurality of nanowires is disposed on a second surface
of the biocompatible polymeric substrate, opposite the first
surface, by molding at least part of the biocompatible polymer
substrate using a nanoporous membrane as a template.
A method of forming plurality of nanowires on a biocompatible
surface includes depositing a second biocompatible polymeric layer
onto a surface of a first biocompatible polymeric layer (see, for
examples, FIGS. 1 and 9). In certain embodiments, the first
biocompatible polymeric layer may be provided on a substrate,
including, but not limited to, a silicon wafer. The first
biocompatible polymeric layer may be deposited on the substrate
using any convenient method. In certain embodiments, the first
biocompatible polymeric layer is deposited onto a substrate by
spin-coating.
The second biocompatible polymeric layer may be deposited onto the
first biocompatible polymeric layer in any suitable manner. In
certain embodiments, the second biocompatible polymeric layer is
deposited onto the first biocompatible polymeric layer such that
the second biocompatible polymeric layer covers substantially the
entire area of a surface of the first biocompatible polymeric
layer. In certain embodiments, the second biocompatible polymeric
layer coats substantially the entire area of a surface of the first
biocompatible polymeric layer.
The second biocompatible polymeric layer may be deposited onto the
first biocompatible polymeric layer using any suitable method. In
certain embodiments, the second biocompatible polymeric layer is
deposited onto the first biocompatible polymeric layer by
spin-coating.
In another embodiment, the second biocompatible polymeric layer is
deposited onto the first biocompatible polymeric layer by heating
the first biocompatible polymeric layer and contacting the heated
first biocompatible polymeric layer with the second biocompatible
polymeric layer. In some cases, the first biocompatible polymeric
layer is provided on a substrate, such as, but not limited to, a
silicon wafer. In certain embodiments, the first biocompatible
polymeric layer is heated to a temperature above the melting
temperature of the second biocompatible polymeric layer, thereby
bonding the first biocompatible polymeric layer with the second
biocompatible polymeric layer. In certain embodiments, the second
biocompatible polymeric layer is deposited onto the first
biocompatible polymeric layer by first disposing an adhesive
material on one or both of the biocompatible polymeric layers and
then attaching the two layers via the adhesive material. In certain
cases, the adhesive may be a heat sensitive adhesive or a pressure
sensitive adhesive. In these embodiments, heat or pressure may be
applied in order to bond the first and second biocompatible
polymeric layers, thereby depositing the second biocompatible
polymeric layer onto the first biocompatible polymeric layer.
In certain embodiments, the first biocompatible polymeric layer has
an average thickness in the range of 1 .mu.m to about 100 .mu.m,
e.g., 3 .mu.m to 50 .mu.m, including 5 .mu.m to 20 .mu.m, 5 .mu.m
to 15 .mu.m, or 5 .mu.m to 10 .mu.m. For example, the first
biocompatible polymeric may have an average thickness of about 1
.mu.m, 3 .mu.m, 5 .mu.m, 8 .mu.m, 10 .mu.m, 12 .mu.m, 15 .mu.m, 20
.mu.m, 30 .mu.m, 40 .mu.m, 50 .mu.m, 60 .mu.m, 70 .mu.m, 80 .mu.m,
90 .mu.m, or 100 .mu.m.
The first biocompatible polymeric layer may be
poly(DL-lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA),
poly(DL-lactide-co-.epsilon.-caprolactone) (DLPLCL),
poly(.epsilon.-caprolactone) (PCL), collogen, gelatin, agarose,
poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA),galatin/.epsilon.-caprolactone,
collagen-GAG, collagen, fibrin, poly(lactic acid) (PLA),
polyglycolic acid (PGA), PLA-PGA co-polymers, poly(anhydrides),
poly(hydroxy acids), poly(ortho esters), poly(propylfumerates),
poly(caprolactones), poly(hydroxyvalerate), polyamides, polyamino
acids, polyacetals, biodegradable polycyanoacrylates, biodegradable
polyurethanes and polysaccharides, polypyrrole, polyanilines,
polythiophene, polystyrene, polyesters, non-biodegradable
polyurethanes, polyureas, poly(ethylene vinyl acetate),
polypropylene, polymethacrylate, polyethylene, polycarbonates,
poly(ethylene oxide), co-polymers of the above, mixtures of the
above, and adducts of the above, or combinations thereof.
In certain embodiments, the second biocompatible polymeric layer
has an average thickness in the range of 1 .mu.m to about 100
.mu.m, e.g., 3 .mu.m to 50 .mu.m, including 5 .mu.m to 30 .mu.m, or
5 .mu.m to 20 .mu.m, or 5 .mu.m to 15 .mu.m. For example, the
second biocompatible polymeric may have an average thickness of
about 1 .mu.m, 3 .mu.m, 5 .mu.m, 8 .mu.m, 10 .mu.m, 12 .mu.m, 15
.mu.m, 20 .mu.m, 30 .mu.m, 40 .mu.m, 50 .mu.m, 60 .mu.m, 70 .mu.m,
80 .mu.m, 90 .mu.m, or 100 .mu.m.
The second biocompatible polymeric layer may be PLGA, DLPLCL, PCL,
collogen, gelatin, agarose, poly(methyl
methacrylate),galatin/.epsilon.-caprolactone, collagen-GAG,
collagen, fibrin, PLA, PGA, PLA-PGA co-polymers, poly(anhydrides),
poly(hydroxy acids), poly(ortho esters), poly(propylfumerates),
poly(caprolactones), poly(hydroxyvalerate), polyamides, polyamino
acids, polyacetals, biodegradable polycyanoacrylates, biodegradable
polyurethanes and polysaccharides, polypyrrole, polyanilines,
polythiophene, polystyrene, polyesters, non-biodegradable
polyurethanes, polyureas, poly(ethylene vinyl acetate),
polypropylene, polymethacrylate, polyethylene, polycarbonates,
poly(ethylene oxide), co-polymers of the above, mixtures of the
above, and adducts of the above, or combinations thereof.
In certain embodiments, the first biocompatible polymeric layer has
a higher melting temperature than the second biocompatible
polymeric layer. Thus the melting temperature of the first
biocompatible polymeric layer may be higher than the melting
temperature of the second biocompatible polymeric layer by
40.degree. C. or more, e.g., 50.degree. C. or more, including
60.degree. C. or more, 70.degree. C. or more, 80.degree. C. or
more, 90.degree. C. or more, 100.degree. C. or more, 110.degree. C.
or more, 120.degree. C. or more, 130.degree. C. or more,
140.degree. C. or more, or 150.degree. C. or more. In certain
instances, the melting temperature of the first biocompatible
polymeric layer is higer than the melting temperature of the second
biocompatible polymeric layer by 200.degree. C. or less, e.g.,
180.degree. C. or less, including 160.degree. C. or less,
150.degree. C. or less, 140.degree. C. or less, 130.degree. C. or
less, 120.degree. C. or less, 110.degree. C. or less, or
100.degree. C. or less. Thus, in certain instances the melting
temperature of the first biocompatible polymeric layer is higher
than the melting temperature of the second biocompatible polymeric
layer by 40.degree. C. to 200.degree. C., e.g., by 60.degree. C. to
180.degree. C., including by 70.degree. C. to 150.degree. C., or by
80.degree. C. to 130.degree. C.
In certain embodiments, the first biocompatible polymeric layer has
a higher glass transition temperature than the second biocompatible
polymeric layer. Thus the glass transition temperature of the first
biocompatible polymeric layer may be higher than the glass
transition temperature of the second biocompatible polymeric layer
by 100.degree. C. or more, e.g., 120.degree. C. or more, including
140.degree. C. or more, 160.degree. C. or more, 180.degree. C. or
more, 200.degree. C. or more, or 220.degree. C. or more. In certain
instances, the glass transition temperature of the first
biocompatible polymeric layer is higher than the glass transition
temperature of the second biocompatible polymeric layer by
300.degree. C. or less, e.g., 280.degree. C. or less, including
260.degree. C. or less, 240.degree. C. or less, 220.degree. C. or
less, 200.degree. C. or less, 180.degree. C. or less, or
160.degree. C. or less. Thus, in certain instances the glass
transition temperature of the first biocompatible polymeric layer
is higher than the glass transition temperature of the second
biocompatible polymeric layer by 100.degree. C. to 300.degree. C.,
e.g., by 120.degree. C. to 260.degree. C., including by 140.degree.
C. to 240.degree. C., or by 160.degree. C. to 220.degree. C.
In some embodiments, the first biocompatible polymeric layer
includes PMMA and the second biocompatible polymeric layer includes
PCL. Thus, in certain embodiments, the method of forming a
plurality of nanowires on a biocompatible surface includes
depositing a second biocompatible polymeric layer containing PCL
onto a surface of a first biocompatible polymeric layer containing
PMMA. In some embodiments, the method of forming a plurality of
nanowires on a biocompatible surface includes depositing a layer of
PCL onto a surface of a PMMA layer.
Contacting a Nanoporous Membrane with the Second Biocompatible
Layer
After depositing a second biocompatible polymeric layer onto a
first biocompatible polymeric layer, as described above, the second
biocompatible polymeric layer is contacted with a nanoporous
membrane (see, for example, FIGS. 1 and 9). Thus, after contacting
the second biocompatible polymeric layer with a nanoporous
membrane, a first surface of the second biocompatible polymeric
layer is bonded to a surface of the first biocompatible polymeric
layer, and a second surface of the second biocompatible polymeric
layer opposite the first surface of the second biocompatible
polymeric layer is juxtaposed with a porous surface of the
nanoporous membrane.
The nanoporous membrane may be any suitable nanoporous membrane. In
some cases the nanoporous membrane is an anodized metal oxide
membrane. Methods of making an anodized metal oxide membrane is
described, e.g., in U.S. Pat. No. 7,393,391, which are incorporated
herein by reference. A suitable metal oxide may contain, e.g.,
aluminum, titanium or tin. In certain embodiments, the nanoporous
membrane is an anodized aluminum oxide (AAO) nanoporous membrane.
Suitable AAO membranes include Whatman.RTM. Anodisc membranes and
Synkera Unikera.TM. membranes. In some embodiments, the nanoporous
membrane is a nanoporous silica membrane. Methods of making an
anodized metal oxide membrane is described, e.g., in Fine et al.
(Adv Healthc Mater. 2013 2:632) and Fan et al. (J Am Chem Soc. 2003
125:5254), which are incorporated herein by reference.
The nanoporous membrane is characterized by having disposed therein
an array of pores that penetrate the membrane from a first surface
of the membrane to a second surface opposite to the first surface.
In some cases the pores penetrating the membrane are substantially
perpendicular to the plane of the membrane. In certain embodiments,
the pores are arranged in a regular array, such as a regular
hexagonal array, or a square array. The shape of the pores may be
any convenient shape, including, but not limited to, circular,
square, hexagonal, oval, rectangular, etc. The average diameter of
the pores may range from 5 nm to 500 nm, e.g., 10 nm to 400 nm,
including 10 nm to 300 nm, 10 to 200 nm, 50 nm to 200 nm, 80 nm to
160 nm, 100 nm to 300 nm, 140 nm to 260 nm, 200 nm to 360 nm, or
240 nm to 340 nm. In certain embodiments, the average diameter of
the pores may be 10 nm, 18 nm, 20 nm, 35 nm, 55 nm, 80 nm, 100 nm,
120 nm, 150 nm, 190 nm, 200 nm, 250 nm, 290 nm, or 300 nm. The
density of pores on the surface of the nanoporous membrane may be
in the range of 10.sup.6 to 10.sup.10 pores/cm.sup.2, e.g.,
5.times.10.sup.6 to 5.times.10.sup.8 pores/cm.sup.2, 10.sup.7 to
5.times.10.sup.8 pores/cm.sup.2, or 5.times.10.sup.7 to
5.times.10.sup.8 pores/cm.sup.2. In some instances, the density of
pores on the surface of the nanoporous membrane is about 10.sup.6
pores/cm.sup.2, 10.sup.7 pores/cm.sup.2, 10.sup.8 pores/cm.sup.2,
or 10.sup.9 pores/cm.sup.2. The average thickness of the nanoporous
membrane may be in the range of 15 to 150 .mu.m, e.g., 20 to 120
.mu.m, including 30 to 100 .mu.m, or 30 to 80 .mu.m. In some
instances, the average thickness of the nanoporous membrane is
about 15 .mu.m, 20 .mu.m, 30 .mu.m, 50 .mu.m, 80 .mu.m, 100 .mu.m,
120 .mu.m, 150 .mu.m, 200 .mu.m, 250 .mu.m, or 300 .mu.m.
In certain embodiments, the method of forming a plurality of
nanowires on a biocompatible surface includes the step of creating
a micropattern in the nanoporous membrane. Thus, in some cases, the
nanoporous membrane is patterned to specify regions on the
biocompatible surface where the nanowires will be formed. The
patterning may be achieved by any suitable method. In one
embodiment, creating a micropattern on the nanoporous membrane
includes photolithography. Thus, in some cases, the nanoporous
membrane is patterned by covering over the pores on a first surface
of the nanoporous membrane with a photoresist in a desired pattern
such that nanowires are formed only where the pores remain
accessible to the biocompatible surface when the patterned surface
of the nanoporous membrane is contacted with the biocompatible
surface. In some cases, the photoresist is a positive photoresist.
Further aspects of patterning a biocompatible surface using
photolithography is described below.
The nanoporous membrane may be patterned to allow nanowires to be
formed in a region of any convenient pattern of shape. In some
cases, the nanoporous membrane is patterned in to grooves of width
ranging from 1 .mu.m to 100 .mu.m, such as 1 .mu.m, 3 .mu.m, 5
.mu.m, 8 .mu.m, 10 .mu.m, 20 .mu.m, 30 .mu.m, 40 .mu.m, 50 .mu.m,
60 .mu.m, 70 .mu.m, 80 .mu.m, 90 .mu.m, or 100 .mu.m, with equal
spacing between the grooves, such that the nanopores are accessible
to the biocompatible surface in the grooves but are not accessible
between the grooves when the patterned surface of the nanoporous
membrane is contacted with the biocompatible surface. In other
instances, the nanoporous membrane may be patterned into different
shapes, such as, but not limited to, a circle, square, rectangle,
oval, triangle, hexagon, etc.
In certain embodiments, the method of forming a plurality of
nanowires on a biocompatible surface includes the step of
contacting the nanoporous membrane with the second biocompatible
polymeric layer under heat. In certain embodiments, the nanoporous
membrane, which may or may not be patterned, as described above, is
brought into contact with a surface of the second biocompatible
polymeric layer deposited over a first biocompatible polymeric
layer, and the second biocompatible polymeric layer is heated to a
temperature sufficient to melt the second biocompatible polymeric
layer. Thus, in some instances, the temperature is higher than the
melting temperature of the polymeric material comprising the second
biocompatible polymeric layer, e.g., 80.degree. C. In certain
embodiments, the temperature is raised for a sufficient amount of
time such that the melted second biocompatible polymeric layer
extrudes into the accessible pores (i.e., pores that are not
covered with photoresist) of the nanoporous membrane that is in
contact with the second biocompatible polymeric layer. Thus, in
certain embodiments, the nanoporous membrane is contacted with a
surface of the second biocompatible polymeric layer deposited over
a first biocompatible polymeric layer, under conditions sufficient
to extrude at least part of the second biocompatible polymeric
layer into the accessible pores of the nanoporous membrane that is
in contact with the second biocompatible polymeric layer. In
certain embodiments, the nanoporous membrane is brought into
contact with a surface of the second biocompatible polymeric layer
deposited over a first biocompatible polymeric layer, and the
second biocompatible polymeric layer is heated above the melting
temperature of the polymeric material comprising the second
biocompatible polymeric layer for a sufficient amount of time to
cause the second biocompatible polymeric layer to extrude into the
accessible pores of the nanoporous membrane that is in contact with
the second biocompatible polymeric layer. In some instances, the
second biocompatible polymeric layer is heated to about 80.degree.
C. for about 5 minutes after the nanoporous membrane is contacted
with a surface of the second biocompatible polymeric layer
deposited over a first biocompatible polymeric layer.
Forming a Plurality of Nanowires
Further aspects of the present disclosure include a method of
forming a plurality of nanowires on a biocompatible surface
including the step of forming a plurality of nanowires on the
second biocompatible polymeric layer using the nanoporous membrane
as a template (see, for example, FIGS. 1 and 9). Thus, in some
embodiments, after contacting the nanoporous membrane with a
surface of the second biocompatible polymeric layer deposited over
a first biocompatible polymeric layer, the nanoporous membrane is
used as a template, i.e., a mold, to form a plurality of nanowires
from the second biocompatible polymeric layer. Thus, in some
instances, at least a part of the second biocompatible polymeric
layer is extruded into the accessible pores of the nanoporous
membrane that is in contact with the second biocompatible polymeric
layer.
Extruding the second biocompatible polymeric layer into the pores
of the nanoporous membrane may be achieved by any suitable method.
As described above, in certain embodiments, the second
biocompatible polymeric layer is heated to a temperature above the
melting temperature of the polymeric material comprising the second
biocompatible polymeric layer, thereby melting and extruding at
least a portion of the second biocompatible polymeric layer into
the accessible pores of the nanoporous membrane. In some instances,
the second biocompatible polymeric layer may be dissolved using a
solvent, e.g., a volatile solvent, thereby allowing the second
biocompatible polymeric layer to extrude into the accessible pores
of the nanoporous membrane that is in contact with the second
biocompatible polymeric layer.
After the second biocompatible polymeric layer is extruded into the
pores of the nanoporous membrane, as described above, the extruded
portion of the second biocompatible polymeric layer is allowed to
solidify, e.g., by lowering the temperature or through evaporation
the solvent.
In certain embodiments, a method of forming a plurality of
nanowires on a biocompatible surface includes the step of
dissolving the nanoporous membrane after contacting the nanoporous
membrane with the second biocompatible polymeric layer. Dissolving
the nanoporous membrane exposes the nanowires that are formed from
the extruded second biocompatible polymeric layer in the pores of
the nanoporous membrane. Thus, in certain embodiments, the method
of forming a plurality of nanowires on a biocompatible surface
includes the step of dissolving the nanoporous membrane after
contacting the nanoporous membrane with the second biocompatible
polymeric layer under conditions sufficient to extrude at least
part of the second biocompatible polymeric layer into the
accessible pores of the nanoporous membrane that is in contact with
a surface of the second biocompatible polymeric layer, thereby
exposing the plurality of nanowires formed on the second
biocompatible polymeric layer.
Dissolving the nanoporous membrane may be achieved in any
convenient method. For example, dissolving the nanoporous membrane
may include etching the nanoporous membrane with an alkaline
solution, such as sodium hydroxide. Dissolving the nanoporous
membrane may take any suitable amount of time. In some instances,
the nanoporous membrane may be dissolved by etching the nanoporous
membrane with a 0.5 M sodium hydroxide solution for about an
hour.
In certain embodiments, when the nanoporous membrane is patterned
with photoresist such that the nanowires are formed in a desired
pattern on the second biocompatible polymeric layer, the dissolving
step may also dissolve the photoresist on the nanoporous membrane.
Thus in some embodiments, nanoporous membrane and the photoresist
may be dissolved by etching the photoresist-patterned nanoporous
membrane with an alkaline solution, such as sodium hydroxide.
An aspect of the present disclosure includes a method of forming a
plurality of nanowires on a biocompatible surface by contacting a
second biocompatible polymeric layer deposited over a first
biocompatible polymeric layer with a nanoporous membrane under
conditions sufficient to extrude at least part of the second
biocompatible polymeric layer into the accessible pores of the
nanoporous membrane, wherein the average length of the plurality of
nanowires formed on the second biocompatible polymeric layer
depends on the thickness of the second biocompatible polymeric
layer. Thus, in some embodiments, the average length of a plurality
of nanowires formed on a thinner second biocompatible polymeric
layer is shorter than the length of a plurality of nanowires formed
on a thicker second biocompatible polymeric layer. In certain
embodiments, the average length of the plurality of nanowires
formed on the second biocompatible polymeric layer can be
controlled by solely controlling the thickness of the second
biocompatible polymeric layer.
Creating a Micropattern in the First Biocompatible Polymeric
Layer
Another aspect of the present disclosure includes a method of
forming a plurality of nanowires on a biocompatible surface
including creating a micropattern in the first biocompatible
polymeric layer, thereby producing a microdevice that includes a
plurality of nanowires on a biocompatible surface (FIGS. 1 and 9).
In certain embodiments the first biocompatible polymeric layer is
patterned into a micropattern, using, e.g., photolithography. Thus,
in certain instances, the first biocompatible polymeric layer is
provided on a substrate, e.g. a silicon wafer, and the first
biocompatible polymeric layer is patterned by photolithography,
i.e., by transferring a computer-designed photomask pattern to a
photoresist-coated first biocompatible polymeric layer by etching.
Creating the micropattern in the first biocompatible polymeric
layer may be performed before depositing a second biocompatible
polymeric layer onto the first biocompatible polymeric layer, as
described above.
Either a positive or a negative photoresist may be used to define
the dimensions and shape of the microdevice that includes a
plurality of nanowires on a biocompatible surface. The photoresist
may be deposited by dipping the substrate with the polymer layer in
a solution containing the photoresist, by pipetting the photoresist
solution onto the substrate, or by spin coating, for example. In
certain cases, a positive photoresist may be used. A mask that
defines the shape of the microdevice structures may be positioned
over the photoresist. In certain embodiments, the mask may allow
light to pass through a ring shaped region in the mask, thereby
exposing a ring shaped region of the positive photoresist to light
and making the photoresist in the ring shaped region soluble to the
photoresist developer. Accordingly, upon development of the
photoresist, ring shaped region of the photoresist is removed.
In other embodiments, the photoresist may be a negative
photoresist. In these embodiments, the mask may be designed to
allow light to pass through a circular region in the mask, thereby
exposing a circular region of the negative photoresist to light and
making the photoresist in the ring shaped region surrounding the
circular region soluble to the photoresist developer. Accordingly,
upon development of the photoresist, a ring shaped region of the
photoresist is removed.
A variety of positive and negative photoresists may be used in the
methods disclosed herein. As used herein, the phrase "positive
photoresist" refers to a type of photoresist in which the portion
of the photoresist that is exposed to light becomes soluble to the
photoresist developer. While, the portion of the photoresist that
is unexposed remains insoluble to the photoresist developer. As
used herein, the phrase "negative photoresist" refers to a type of
photoresist in which the portion of the photoresist that is exposed
to light becomes insoluble to the photoresist developer. While, the
unexposed portion of the photoresist is dissolved by the
photoresist developer. For example, the photoresist may be Hoechst
AZ 4620, Hoechst AZ 4562, AZ 1500, e.g., AZ 1514 H, Shipley
1400-17, Shipley 1400-27, Shipley 1400-37, etc.
Other shapes of the microdevice structures, such as square,
triangular, oval, diamond, etc., may also be defined by using an
appropriately designed mask. The surface area of the microdevice
may be determined by the surface area of the area in the photomask
through which the light passes. In certain cases, the microdevice
may be circular in shape and have an average diameter in the range
of about 10 .mu.m -1000 .mu.m, for example, 10 .mu.m -500 .mu.m, 10
.mu.m -300 .mu.m, 10 .mu.m -250 .mu.m, 10 .mu.m -200 .mu.m, e.g.,
10 .mu.m, 20 .mu.m, 40 .mu.m, 50 .mu.m, 60 .mu.m, 70 .mu.m, 80
.mu.m, 90 .mu.m, 100 .mu.m, 130 .mu.m, 150 .mu.m, 180 .mu.m, 200
.mu.m, 250 .mu.m, 300 .mu.m, 400 .mu.m, or 500 .mu.m. In certain
cases, the microdevice may be square in shape and have an average
width and length in the range of about 10 .mu.m -1000 .mu.m, for
example, 10 .mu.m -500 .mu.m, 10 .mu.m -300 .mu.m, 10 .mu.m -250
.mu.m, 10 .mu.m -200 .mu.m, e.g., 10 .mu.m, 20 .mu.m, 40 .mu.m, 50
.mu.m, 60 .mu.m, 70 .mu.m, 80 .mu.m, 90 .mu.m, 100 .mu.m, 130
.mu.m, 150 .mu.m, 180 .mu.m, 200 .mu.m, 250 .mu.m, 300 .mu.m, 400
.mu.m, or 500 .mu.m.
The photomask may be generated by standard procedure based on the
desired pattern of the microdevices to be manufactured. As
described above, the image for the photomask defines the shape and
dimension of the microdevices.
Light may be used to expose a defined region of the photoresist
layer via the mask. In certain cases, light may be a short
wavelength light (for example, a wavelength of about 100 nm-440
nm), such as, ultra violet (UV) light, deep UV light, H and I lines
of a mercury-vapor lamp. The step of exposing the photoresist to
light may be followed with a step of photoresist development where
the photoresist is contacted with a photoresist developer. In
embodiments, where a positive photoresist is used, the regions of
the positive photoresist layer exposed to light are washed away in
the photoresist developer. In embodiments, where a negative
photoresist is used, the regions of the negative photoresist layer
not exposed to light are washed away in the photoresist
developer.
Any standard photoresist developer compatible with the photoresist
deposited may be used in the methods described herein. As such, a
positive developer may be used to remove any positive photoresist
exposed to light. In certain cases, a negative developer may be
used to remove any negative photoresist not exposed to light.
The regions of the polymer layer from which the photoresist has
been removed are then etched to remove the biocompatible polymer
layer. The portion or portions of the biocompatible polymer layer
that are covered by the photoresist form the microdevice. A dry or
wet etching process as is standard in the art may be used to remove
the exposed biocompatible polymer layer. In certain cases, the
etching process is reactive ion etching. Standard procedures and
apparatus for etching may be used. For example, reactive ion
etching methods and apparatus are described in U.S. Pat. No.
6,669,807, 5,567,271, which are herein incorporated by reference.
The etching is carried out for a length of time sufficient to
remove all of the polymer material not covered with the photoresist
such that the plurality of microdevice structures are not connected
together via any residual polymer material.
Following the etching step, the photoresist may be removed using
any standard photoresist remover or photoresist stripper compatible
with the photoresist used. Exemplary photoresist removers include
1-methyl-2-pyrrolidon, dimethyl sulfoxide, AZ.RTM. 100 Remover, and
the like.
The plurality of microdevice structures generated by the foregoing
method may be 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 500, 1000, 1500, 2000, 2500,
3000, 3500, 4000, 4500, 5000, 5500, 6000, 6500, or more, for
example, 1000-100,000 microdevices may be generated, such as
2000-80,000, or about 3000-70,000. In certain embodiments, the
microdevices are patterned as an array on a substrate.
"Etching" as used herein refers to removing the polymer completely
or substantially completely, for example, in embodiments where the
planar layer of biocompatible material is, for example, 10 .mu.m
thick, "etching" or "complete etching" removes the polymer to a
depth of about 10 .mu.m, such as, a depth of 9.999 .mu.m, 9.5
.mu.m, 9.2 .mu.m. In general, "etching" or "complete etching"
removes the polymer to an extent such that the individual
microdevices fabricated on a substrate are no longer connected to
each other as a result of the polymer present in between the
microdevices not being completely removed. As such, "etching" or
"complete etching" provides for microdevices that when removed from
the substrate are released as individual microdevices instead of
being connected by residual polymer layer.
In some embodiments, wherein the first biocompatible polymeric
layer is provided on a first substrate, e.g., a first silicon
wafer, and micropatterned by photolithography, depositing the
second biocompatible polymeric layer onto the first biocompatible
polymeric layer may be achieved by heating the first biocompatible
polymeric layer and contacting a surface of the heated first
biocompatible polymeric layer with a second biocompatible polymeric
layer spun-cast onto a second substrate, e.g., a second silicon
wafer (FIGS. 1 and 9). In such cases, the second biocompatible
polymeric layer may become bonded to the first biocompatible
polymeric layer according to the micropattern created on the first
biocompatible polymeric layer. Subsequently, separating the wafers
causes the second biocompatible polymeric layer to lift off onto
the micropatterned first biocompatible polymeric layer, thereby
depositing the second biocompatible polymeric layer over the
micropatterned first biocompatible polymeric layer, wherein both
layers have the same micropattern.
In certain embodiments, creating a micropattern on a first
biocompatible polymeric layer and subsequently forming a plurality
of nanowires from the second biocompatible surface deposited over
the first biocompatible polymeric layer, as described above,
defines the dimensions of a microdevice that includes a first
biocompatible polymeric layer and a plurality of nanowires formed
from a second biocompatible polymeric layer disposed on the first
biocompatible polymeric layer. In certain embodiments, the first
biocompatible polymeric layer is provided on a substrate, e.g., a
silicon wafer, and creating a micropattern on the first
biocompatible polymeric layer produces an array of micropatterned
first biocompatible polymeric layers on the substrate (FIGS. 2, 5
and 6). In such cases, certain embodiments of the subject method
produces a plurality of microdevices, each comprising a first
biocompatible polymeric layer disposed on the substrate and a
plurality of nanowires formed from a second biocompatible polymeric
layer disposed on the first biocompatible polymeric layer,
according to the pattern of the array. The individual microdevices
may be detached from the substrate by scraping the substrate and
the microdevices may be used in various applications, as described
further below.
Microdevices
Also provided herein are microdevices containing a plurality of
nanowires disposed on a biocompatible surface, wherein the
microdevices are formed by a process including a method of forming
a plurality of nanowires on a biocompatible surface, as described
above. In certain embodiments, the microdevice includes a plurality
of nanowires disposed on a biocompatible surface, wherein the
biocompatible surface includes a first biocompatible polymeric
layer and a plurality of nanowires formed from a second
biocompatible polymeric layer disposed on a surface of the first
biocompatible polymeric layer. In certain embodiments, the subject
microdevices are characterized in that the plurality of nanowires
are derived from the second biocompatible polymeric layer, e.g., by
extruding at least part of the second biocompatible polymeric layer
into the pores of a nanoporous membrane, thereby molding the
polymeric material of the second biocompatible polymeric layer
using the pores of the nanoporous membrane as a template, as
described above. Thus, in certain embodiments, the nanowires are
biocompatible nanowires formed from the same polymeric material,
e.g., PCL, as the second biocompatible polymeric layer.
In certain embodiments, the subject microdevices are characterized
in that the plurality of nanowires are disposed on a biocompatible
surface in such a way that the nanowires substantially protrudes
out of the biocompatible surface of the microdevice. Thus, in
certain embodiments, a first end of a nanowire is attached to the
biocompatible surface and a second end is unattached and is
oriented distally to the surface of the microdevice (FIGS. 1, 3, 9
and 10). The attached end of a nanowire may be said to be the
proximal end and the unattached end of a nanowire may be defined as
the distal end of the nanowire. Thus, in certain embodiments, a
nanowire of the plurality of nanowires disposed on a biocompatible
surface of a microdevice, wherein the biocompatible surface
includes a first biocompatible polymeric layer and the plurality of
nanowires formed from a second biocompatible polymeric layer
disposed on a surface of the first biocompatible polymeric layer,
has an attached proximal end and an unattached or free distal end.
In certain embodiments, a nanowire is attached at the proximal end
directly to the second biocompatible polymeric layer. In certain
embodiments, a nanowire is attached at the proximal end directly to
the first biocompatible polymeric layer. In certain embodiments,
each nanowire of the plurality of nanowires is attached at the
proximal end directly to the first or second biocompatible
polymeric layers.
In certain embodiments, the subject microdevices are characterized
in that the plurality of nanowires are disposed on a biocompatible
surface such that the nanowires are present only on one surface of
the microdevice. Thus, in certain embodiments, the microdevice
includes a substantially flat, planar surface formed by a first
surface of the first biocompatible polymeric layer, and includes a
plurality of nanowires formed from a second biocompatible polymeric
layer disposed on a second surface opposite the first surface of
the first biocompatible polymeric layer, wherein the plurality of
nanowires is disposed on a surface opposite to the substantially
flat, planar surface of the microdevice.
In certain embodiments, the nanowires have an average diameter in
the range of 20 nm to 500 nm, e.g., 50 nm to 400 nm, including 100
nm to 350 nm, 140 to 320 nm. In some embodiments, the nanowires
have a diameter that range from 20 to 600 nm, e.g., from 40 nm to
500 nm, including 60 nm to 450 nm, 80 nm to 420 nm, 20 nm to 300
nm, 50 nm to 250 nm, 80 nm to 220 nm, 50 nm to 350 nm, 80 nm to 300
nm, 100 nm to 280 nm, 100 nm to 500 nm, 150 nm to 450 nm, or 180 nm
to 420 nm. Thus, the average diameter of the nanowires may be 50
nm, 80 nm, 100 nm, 110 nm, 120 nm, 130 nm, 140 nm, 150 nm, 160 nm,
170 nm, 180 nm, 200 nm, 250 nm, 290 nm, 300 nm, 320 nm, 330 nm or
350 nm. The density of nanowires on the surface of the second
biocompatible polymeric layer may be in the range of 10.sup.6 to
10.sup.10 nanowires/cm.sup.2, e.g., 5.times.10.sup.6 to
5.times.10.sup.8 nanowires/cm.sup.2, 10.sup.7 to 5.times.10.sup.8
nanowires/cm.sup.2, or 5.times.10.sup.7 to 5.times.10.sup.8
nanowires/cm.sup.2. In some instances, the density of nanowires on
the surface of the second biocompatible polymeric layer is about
10.sup.6 nanowires/cm.sup.2, 10.sup.7 nanowires/cm.sup.2, 10.sup.8
nanowires/cm.sup.2, or 10.sup.9 nanowires/cm.sup.2. The average
length of the nanowires may be in the range of 2 to 14 .mu.m, e.g.,
2 to 4 .mu.m, 5 to 9 .mu.m, or 10 to 14 .mu.m. In certain
instances, the length of the nanowires may range from 2 to 15
.mu.m, e.g., 2 to 5 .mu.m, 5 to 10 .mu.m, or 10 to 15 .mu.m. The
diameter, distribution density and length of the nanowires may be
determined by analyzing scanning electron microscopy (SEM)
micrographs.
In certain embodiments, the subject microdevices containing a
plurality of nanowires disposed on a biocompatible surface allow
for enhanced adhesion to an epithelial surface, such as a mucosal
surface. Adhesion to an epithelial surface may be measured by
placing a nanowire-coated surface of a microdevice onto a layer of
Caco-2 cells for 10 minutes, followed by exposure to increasing
shear forces at 5 minute intervals, and determining the fraction of
microdevices remaining after exposure to each shear force. In
certain embodiments, the fraction of microdevices containing a
plurality of nanowires disposed on a biocompatible surface and
placed on an epithelial surface remaining after exposure to a shear
force of up to 1 dyne/cm.sup.2 is 0.4 or greater, e.g., 0.45 or
greater, 0.475 or greater, 0.5 or greater, 0.525 or greater, or
0.55 or greater, such as 0.9 or less, e.g., 0.85 or less, 0.8 or
less, 0.75 or less, 0.7 or less, 0.65 or less, or 0.6 or less, such
as between 0.4 and 0.9, e.g., 0.45 and 0.85, 0.5 and 0.8, or 0.55
and 0.7. In certain embodiments, the fraction of microdevices
containing a plurality of nanowires disposed on a biocompatible
surface and placed on an epithelial surface remaining after
exposure to a shear force of up to 10 dyne/cm.sup.2 is 0.3 or
greater, e.g., 0.325 or greater, 0.35 or greater, or 0.375 or
greater, such as 0.9 or less, e.g., 0.80 or less, 0.7 or less, 0.6
or less, 0.55 or less, 0.5 or less, or 0.4 or less, such as between
0.3 and 0.9, e.g., 0.34 and 0.8, 0.36 and 0.7, or 0.38 and 0.6. In
certain embodiments, the fraction of microdevices containing a
plurality of nanowires disposed on a biocompatible surface and
placed on an epithelial surface remaining after exposure to a shear
force is larger than the fraction of microdevices without nanowires
and placed on an epithelial surface remaining after exposure to the
shear force, by 0.15 or more, e.g., 0.2 or more, 0.25 or more, 0.3
or more, 0.35 or more, or 0.4 or more, such as 0.6 or less, 0.55 or
less, 0.5 or less, or 0.45 or less, and may be in the range of 0.15
to 0.6, e.g., 0.2 to 0.55, including 0.25 to 0.5, or 0.3 to
0.45.
In certain embodiments, a microdevice containing a plurality of
nanowires disposed on a biocompatible surface is disposed on a
solid substrate, e.g., a silicon wafer. In certain embodiments, a
plurality of microdevices containing a plurality of nanowires
disposed on a biocompatible surface is disposed on a solid
substrate, e.g., a silicon wafer. In such instances, the
microdevices may be micropatterned on the substrate using
photolithography, to form an array of microdevices, as described
above. In some instances, the microdevices containing a plurality
of nanowires disposed on a biocompatible surface formed in an array
on the substrate are detachable microdevices. For example, these
microdevices formed in an array on the substrate may be detached
from the substrate with a scraping device, e.g., a razor blade, a
scalpel, a spatula, a scraper, and the like.
Active Agents and Method of Loading a Microdevice Therewith
In certain embodiments, the microdevice includes an active agent
disposed on the plurality of nanowires. The active agent may be
disposed on the plurality of nanowires using any convenient method.
In certain embodiments, the active agent is loaded onto a
microdevice containing a plurality of nanowires disposed on a
biocompatible surface by contacting the microdevice with a solution
that contains an active agent. For example, the agent may be
disposed onto the plurality of nanowires by releasing a solution
containing the agent on the surface of the nanowires, using a
pipette, such as a micropipette, or a nanopipette. In certain
cases, the agent may be loaded onto the nanowires of the
microdevices using an automatic or semi-automatic dispensing
device.
In certain embodiments, contacting the microdevice with a solution
that contains an active agent is followed by drying the
microdevice. Any suitable method may be used to dry the
microdevice. Drying may include air-drying, heating, applying a
stream of gas, such as an inert gas, or a combination thereof. In
certain embodiments, the drying includes air-drying. In certain
embodiments, the microdevice is air-dried by inverting the
microdevice such that the surface of the microdevice containing the
nanowires faces down.
In certain embodiments, the active agent may be disposed on the
plurality of nanowires by releasing a small volume of a solution of
the agent onto the surface of the nanowires. In certain
embodiments, the nanowires may be elevate, for example, the
nanowires may be present on a plane higher than the plane on which
the first biocompatible material is disposed. In certain cases, the
first biocompatible material may be disposed on a substrate and the
nanowires may be present on the surface of the first biocompatible
material and thus elevated with respect to the surface of the
substrate. These elevated nanowires may be contacted with a
dispenser for dispensing a solution of an agent of interest. In
certain embodiments, deposition of an agent onto the elevated
nanowires may results in containment of the solution onto the
surface of the nanowires such that the solution does not flow onto
the surface of the substrate. Thus, the microdevice may be loaded
with an agent with minimal wasting, such as, due to loss of the
agent from flowing on to surface of the substrate. In certain
cases, the agent may be loaded on the nanowires while the nanowires
are present on the substrate and the microdevices with loaded
nanowires may then be separated from the substrate.
The concentration of the active agent that is loaded onto a
microdevice containing a plurality of nanowires disposed on a
biocompatible surface may vary depending on the active agent and
the intended therapeutic use for the microdevice, e.g., the
intended target tissue to which the microdevice is to be delivered.
In certain embodiments, the active agent may be loaded at a
concentration ranging from 0.01 .mu.g/cm.sup.2 to 1 mg/cm.sup.2,
e.g., 0.1 .mu.g/cm.sup.2 to 100 .mu.g/cm.sup.2, 0.5 .mu.g/cm.sup.2
to 50 .mu.g/cm.sup.2, or 1 .mu.g/cm.sup.2 to 10 .mu.g/cm.sup.2,
wherein the area is the total area of the microdevice surface that
contains the plurality of nanowires.
In some embodiments, the subject microdevice containing a plurality
of nanowires disposed on a biocompatible surface allows for
efficient loading of an active agent. "Loading efficiency," as used
herein, refers to the relative proportion of the total amount of
active agent present on the microdevice surface that is localized
to the surface containing the plurality of nanowires. The loading
efficiency may be measured by, e.g., loading the microdevice with a
fluorescently detectable active agent, such as Oregon Green 488
paclitaxel or fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC)-bovine serum
albumin (BSA), as described above, and then imaging the loaded
microdevices with a confocal microscope to determine the
localization of the fluorescently detectable active agent. In
certain embodiments, a plurality of microdevices may be patterned
into an array on a substrate, such as a silicon wafer, and the
nanowires disposed on a surface of each of the plurality of
microdevices may allow for efficient loading of an active agent on
the microdevices when the substrate is contacted with a solution
containing the active agent. In such embodiments, the loading
efficiency of a patterned array of a plurality of microdevices
containing a plurality of nanowires disposed on a biocompatible
surface is 60% or greater, e.g., 65% or greater, 70% or greater,
75% or greater, 80% or greater, 82% or greater, 84% or greated, 86%
or greater, 88% or greater, or 90% or greater, such as 98% or less,
e.g., 95% or less, 93% or less, 91% or less, or 90% or less, and in
some cases ranges from 60% to 98%, e.g., from 65% to 95%, including
from 70% to 94%, from 75% to 93%, or from 80% to 90%. In some
embodiments, the loading efficiency of a patterned array of a
plurality of microdevices containing a plurality of nanowires
disposed on a biocompatible surface by percentage is higher than
the loading efficiency of a patterned array of a plurality of
microdevices that do not contain nanowires by 50% or more, e.g.,
55% or more, 60% or more, 65% or more, 70% or more, 75% or more, or
80% or more, such as 90% or more, e.g., 88% or less, 85% or less,
83% or less or 81% or less, and in some cases by a range from 55%
to 90%, e.g., 60% to 88%, 65% to 85%, 70% to 83%, or 75% to
81%.
In some instances, the subject microdevice containing a plurality
of nanowires disposed on a biocompatible surface has enhanced
permeation of active agents loaded onto the nanowires across an
epithelial surface to which the biocompatible nanowire-coated
surface is attached. Permeation of active agent may be measured by,
e.g., loading a microdevice with BSA may be placed on a monolayer
of Caco-2 cells in the apical chamber of a transwell insert, and
the amount of BSA permeating through the Caco-2 cell monolayer to
the basolateral chamber can be measured over a time period, such as
over 18 hours. In certain embodiments, microdevices containing a
plurality of nanowires disposed on a biocompatible surface has a
higher rate of permeation across an epithelial surface to which the
biocompatible nanowire-coated surface is attached than a micro
device that does not contain nanowires by 1.2 fold or more, e.g.,
1.4 fold or more, 1.6 fold of more, 1.8 fold or more, 2.0 fold or
more, 2.2 fold or more, or 2.4 fold or more, such as, 3.0 fold or
less, 2.8 fold or less, 2.6 fold or less, or 2.5 fold or less, and
may be higher by a range of 1.2 to 3.0 fold, e.g., 1.3 to 2.8 fold,
1.4 to 2.6 fold, or 1.5 to 2.5 fold.
In certain instances, the active agent is a bioactive agent. In
some embodiments, the bioactive agent is selected from a
polypeptide, growth factor, a steroid, an antibody, an antibody
fragment, a DNA, an RNA, and siRNA, an antimicrobial agent, an
antibiotic, an antiretro viral drug, an anti-inflammatory compound,
an antitumor agent, anti-angiogeneic agent, and a chemotherapeutic
agent. The bioactive agents may be in a purified form, partially
purified form, recombinant form, or any other form appropriate for
inclusion in the microdevices. In general, the bioactive agents are
free of impurities and contaminants.
Exemplary bioactive agents that may be incorporated in the
microdevices are sugars, carbohydrates, peptides, nucleic acids,
aptamers, small molecules, large molecules, vitamins; inorganic
molecules, organic molecules, proteins, co-factors for protein
synthesis, antibody therapies, such as Herceptin.RTM.,
Rituxan.RTM., Myllotarg.RTM., and Erbitux.RTM.; hormones, enzymes
such as collagenase, peptidases, and oxidases; antitumor agents and
chemotherapeutics such as cis-platinum, ifosfamide, methotrexate,
and doxorubicin hydrochloride; immuno-suppressants; permeation
enhancers such as fatty acid esters including laureate, myristate,
and stearate monoesters of polyethylene glycol; bisphosphonates
such as alendronate, clodronate, etidronate, ibandronate,
(3-amino-1-hydroxypropylidene)-1,1-bisphosphonate (APD),
dichloromethylene bisphosphonate, aminobisphosphonatezolendronate,
and pamidronate; pain killers and anti-inflammatories such as
non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAID) like ketorolac
tromethamine, lidocaine hydrochloride, bipivacaine hydrochloride,
and ibuprofen; antibiotics and antiretroviral drugs such as
tetracycline, vancomycin, cephalosporin, erythromycin, bacitracin,
neomycin, penicillin, polymycin B, biomycin, chloromycetin,
streptomycin, cefazolin, ampicillin, azactam, tobramycin,
clindamycin, gentamicin, and aminoglycocides such as tobramycin and
gentamicin; and salts such as strontium salt, fluoride salt,
magnesium salt, and sodium salt.
Examples of antimicrobial agents include, but are not limited to,
tobramycin, amoxicillin, amoxicillin/clavulanate, amphotericin B,
ampicillin, ampicillin/sulbactam, atovaquone, azithromycin,
cefazolin, cefepime, cefotaxime, cefotetan, cefpodoxime,
ceftazidime, ceftizoxime, ceftriaxone, cefuroxime, cefuroxime
axetil, cephalexin, chloramphenicol, clotrimazole, ciprofloxacin,
clarithromycin, clindamycin, dapsone, dicloxacillin, doxycycline,
erythromycin, fluconazole, foscarnet, ganciclovir, atifloxacin,
imipenem/cilastatin, isoniazid, itraconazole, ketoconazole,
metronidazole, nafcillin, nafcillin, nystatin, penicillin,
penicillin G, pentamidine, piperacillin/tazobactam, rifampin,
quinupristin-dalfopristin, ticarcillin/clavulanate,
trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole, valacyclovir, vancomycin, mafenide,
silver sulfadiazine, mupirocin, nystatin, triamcinolone/nystatin,
clotrimazole/betamethasone, clotrimazole, ketoconazole,
butoconazole, miconazole, and tioconazole.
Antiangiogenic agents include, but are not limited to,
interferon-.alpha., COX-2 inhibitors, integrin antagonists,
angiostatin, endostatin, thrombospondin-1, vitaxin, celecoxib,
rofecoxib, JTE-522, EMD-121974, and D-2163, FGFR kinase inhibitors,
EGFR kinase inhibitors, VEGFR kinase inhibitors, matrix
metalloproteinase inhibitors, marmiastat, prinomastat, BMS275291,
BAY12-9566, neovastat, rhuMAb VEGF, SU5416, SU6668, ZD6474, CP-547,
CP-632, ZD4190, thalidomide and thalidomide analoges, sqalamine,
celecoxib, ZD6126, TNP-470, and other angiogenesis inhibitor
drugs.
In some embodiments, the bioactive agent is a small molecule, such
as but not limited to an anti-inflammatory drug, an
immunosuppressant drug, a vitamin, micronutrient or antioxidant, an
antibacterial drug (e.g., vancomycin or cephazolin), an anti-viral
drug (e.g., gancyclovir, acyclovir or foscarnet), an anti-fungal
drug (e.g., amphotericin B, fluconazole or voriconazole) or an
anti-cancer drug (e.g., cyclophosphamide or melphalan). In certain
embodiments, the small molecule is a vitamin, micronutrient or
antioxidant, such as but not limited to, vitamin A, vitamin C,
vitamin E, zinc, copper, lutein or zeaxanthin. In certain
embodiments, the small molecule is an immunosuppressant drug, such
as but not limited to, cyclosporine, methotrexate or azathioprine.
In certain embodiments, the small molecule is an anti-inflammatory
drug, such as but not limited to, a corticosteroid (e.g.,
triamcinolone acetonide or dexamethasone) or a non-steroidal drug
(e.g., ketorolac or diclofenac).
In certain embodiments, the large molecule drug is an
immunosuppressant drug, such as but not limited to, etanercept,
infliximab or daclizumab. In certain embodiments, the large
molecule drug is a neuromuscular blocker drug, such as but not
limited to, botulinum toxin A. In certain embodiments, the large
molecule drug is a complement inhibitor, such as but not limited
to, an anti-C3 compound.
In certain embodiments, the bioactive agent may be Mesalazine, also
known as Mesalamine, or 5-aminosalicylic acid (5-ASA), prednisone,
TNF inhibitor, azathioprine (Imuran), methotrexate, or
6-mercaptopurine, aminosalicylate anti-inflammatory drugs,
corticosteroids, azathioprine, mercaptopurine, methotrexate,
infliximab, adalimumab, certolizumab, natalizumab, and
hydrocortisone, statins, e.g., atorvastatin, such as atorvastatin
calcium, anti-psychotic drugs, e.g., olanzapine.
In certain cases, the bioactive agent may be combined with a
pharmaceutically acceptable additive before or after placement of
the bioactive agent on a layer of the subject device. The term
"pharmaceutically acceptable additive" refers to preservatives,
antioxidants, emulsifiers, dyes and excipients known or used in the
field of drug formulation and that do not unduly interfere with the
effectiveness of the biological activity of the active agent, and
that is sufficiently non-toxic to the patient. For example, the
bioactive agent may be formulated with inert fillers,
anti-irritants, gelling agents, stabilizers, surfactant,
emollients, coloring agents, preservatives, or buffering agents, as
are known in the art. The term "excipients" is conventionally known
to mean carriers, diluents and/or vehicles used in formulating drug
compositions effective for the desired use.
Utility
The subject microdevices formed according to the methods of the
present disclosure find use in many applications. The nanoscale and
microscale features of the subject microdevices promote cellular
adhesion and enhance attachment of the microdevice to epithelial
surfaces, such as a mucosal surface. The micropatterned
nanowire-coated microdevice arrays of the subject disclosure also
provide high-throughput, low-waste, loading of active agents. Thus
the nanowires serve as a drug reservoir. The nanowires of the
subject microdevice facilitate adhesion of the microdevice to
monolayers of epithelial cells and unidirectional drug release
toward the epithelial tissue.
In general, the subject method produces microdevices that are
substantially planar, and provide for release of the bioactive
agent(s) deposited in the nanowires of the microdevice from the
biocompatible surface of the microdevice. As such, the release of
the bioactive agents is substantially in a single direction in
contrast to bioactive agents release from a capsule, tablet, or
microsphere. The nanowires mediate attachment of the microdevice to
the surface of a target tissue, such as, to epithelial cells of a
mucosal lining of the gastrointestinal tract. The combination of
attachment of the nanowires of the microdevice to the target tissue
and release of the bioactive agent from the nanowires provides a
localized release of the bioactive agent in close proximity to the
target tissue, thereby providing a higher effective concentration
of bioactive agent available for uptake by the cells and/or
permeation through the epithelial layer. As such, the microdevice
lowers the amount of bioactive agent that may be required to treat
a condition. In addition, the attachment of the microdevice to the
target tissue may increase the residence time of the microdevice
near the target tissue. For example, attachment of the microdevice
to the epithelial lining of the gastrointestinal tract increases
its residence time in the gastrointestinal tract as the attached
microdevice may be better able to resistant peristaltic motion of
the gastrointestinal tract. Moreover, the microdevice may be sized
to increase the surface area available to attach to the cells of
the target tissue while simultaneously being resistant to the shear
stress that may be present in the target tissue.
In certain embodiments, the subject microdevices formed according
to the methods of the present disclosure find use in delivering an
active agent to a mucosal surface in a subject, e.g., a patient in
need of treatment. In some embodiments, the microdevices may be
loaded with an active agent, as described above, and the active
agent is delivered to a mucosal surface of a patient in need of
treatment by contacting the plurality of nanowires of the
microdevice disposed with the active agent to the mucosal surface.
The microdevice may be delivered to the subject by any suitable
method, including oral, nasal, anal, vaginal, transcutaneous,
surgical routes, etc. The microdevice may be delivered in a
capsule, tablet or microsphere. In some embodiments, the
microdevice may be suspended in a physiologically compatible
solution, e.g. saline solution. Delivery may be through a syringe,
catheter, directly placing, etc. Methods of delivering a
microdevice are described in, e.g., U.S. Appl. Pub. 201401700204,
which is incorporated herein by reference.
In certain embodiments, the subject microdevices formed according
to the methods of the present disclosure find use in influencing
cellular behavior and development that are relevant for studying
wound healing and stem cell development.
In certain embodiments, the subject microdevices formed according
to the methods of the present disclosure find use in developing
enhanced biological assays, such as diagnostic analyte detection
assays. In addition to efficient loading, the concentration of
luminescent samples to microscale regions may also increase local
signal intensity, thereby enhancing sensitivity. Furthermore, based
on a pore density of approximately 10.sup.8 pores/cm.sup.2 for the
290 nm pore size AAO membranes, nanowires fabricated from these
membranes to 15 .mu.m in length and 320 nm in diameter will provide
an approximately 1000-fold increase in surface area available for
conjugation of biomolecules or reagents, also potentially enhancing
signal intensity.
Kits
Also provided herein are kits containing a microdevice that
includes a plurality of nanowires disposed on a biocompatible
surface, wherein the biocompatible surface includes a first
biocompatible polymeric layer and a plurality of nanowires formed
from a second biocompatible polymeric layer disposed on a surface
of the first biocompatible polymeric layer. In certain embodiments,
the kit includes a substrate, such as a silicon substrate. Thus, in
certain embodiments, the kit provides the microdevices disposed on
a substrate. In some instances, the microdevices in the kit are
disposed on the substrate in an array. In some instances, the kit
contains a microdevice containing a plurality of nanowires disposed
on a biocompatible surface, wherein the biocompatible surface
includes a first biocompatible polymeric layer and a plurality of
nanowires formed from a second biocompatible polymeric layer
disposed on a surface of the first biocompatible polymeric layer,
and wherein an active agent is disposed on the plurality of
nanowires. In certain embodiments, the kit contains sterilized
microdevices.
Components of a subject kit can be in separate containers; or can
be combined in a single container, where desired.
In addition to the above-mentioned components, a subject kit can
further include instructions for using the components of the kit
and to practice the subject methods of delivering an active agent
to a mucosal surface. The instructions for practicing the subject
methods are generally recorded on a suitable recording medium. For
example, the instructions may be printed on a substrate, such as
paper or plastic, etc. As such, the instructions may be present in
the kits as a package insert, in the labeling of the container of
the kit or components thereof (i.e., associated with the packaging
or subpackaging) etc. In other embodiments, the instructions are
present as an electronic storage data file present on a suitable
computer readable storage medium, e.g. CD-ROM, diskette, flash
drive, etc. In yet other embodiments, the actual instructions are
not present in the kit, but means for obtaining the instructions
from a remote source, e.g. via the internet, are provided. An
example of this embodiment is a kit that includes a web address
where the instructions can be viewed and/or from which the
instructions can be downloaded. As with the instructions, this
means for obtaining the instructions is recorded on a suitable
substrate.
EXAMPLES
The following examples are put forth so as to provide those of
ordinary skill in the art with a complete disclosure and
description of how to make and use the present invention, and are
not intended to limit the scope of what the inventors regard as
their invention nor are they intended to represent that the
experiments below are all or the only experiments performed.
Efforts have been made to ensure accuracy with respect to numbers
used (e.g. amounts, temperature, etc.) but some experimental errors
and deviations should be accounted for. Unless indicated otherwise,
parts are parts by weight, molecular weight is weight average
molecular weight, temperature is in degrees Celsius, and pressure
is at or near atmospheric. Standard abbreviations may be used,
e.g., bp, base pair(s); kb, kilobase(s); pl, picoliter(s); s or
sec, second(s); min, minute(s); h or hr, hour(s); aa, amino
acid(s); kb, kilobase(s); bp, base pair(s); nt, nucleotide(s);
i.m., intramuscular(ly); i.p., intraperitoneal(ly); s.c.,
subcutaneous(ly); and the like.
Example 1
Fabrication of Micropatterned Nanowire Arrays
An approach to fabricate polymeric nanowire arrays with custom
micropatterns and tunable nanowire dimensions was developed. Two
variations of this approach were utilized to pattern nanowire
arrays either over a flat polymer base layer or on the surface of
detachable microstructures. The ability of these micropatterned
nanowire arrays to 1) provide efficient drug/reagent loading with
micron-scale resolution and 2) influence cellular behavior through
both micro- and nanoscale interactions was investigated.
The fabrication approach employed polymer templating, a rapid and
inexpensive nanofabrication technique that involved extruding a
polymer into a nanoporous membrane and subsequently etching the
membrane to expose polymeric nanowires. For custom nanowire array
micropatterning and enhanced resolution, templating and
photolithographic techniques were combined. As shown in FIG. 1, two
approaches were used to fabricate either flat or elevated nanowire
arrays consisting of a polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) base layer
coated with polycaprolactone (PCL) nanowires. PMMA is a common
material in FDA-approved orthopedic implants, and PCL is a polymer
used in FDA-approved sutures and drug delivery devices and has been
shown to facilitate cellular adhesion and growth.
FIG. 1. Fabrication approaches to create flat and elevated PCL
nanowire arrays. A. Flat nanowire array fabrication. (i) A
nanoporous AAO membrane was coated with positive photoresist (red)
and patterned by exposure to UV light through a computer-designed
photomask with subsequent chemical development. (ii) The AAO
membrane was inverted, and its micropatterned side was brought into
contact with a layer of PCL (white) deposited over a PMMA base
layer (gray) under heat, allowing PCL to melt and extrude into
membrane pores in regions not coated with photoresist. (iii) The
AAO and resist were dissolved in an alkaline solution to expose the
PCL nanowires. B. Elevated nanowire array fabrication. (i) A layer
of PMMA (gray) spun-cast onto a silicon wafer (black) was coated
with positive photoresist (red), which is patterned via
photolithography. (ii) The photoresist pattern was transferred to
the PMMA layer by reactive ion etching with oxygen plasma. (iii)
After stripping the photoresist, the PMMA features were heated and
brought into contact with PCL (white) spun-cast onto a separate
silicon wafer. (iv) Upon separation of the wafers, the PCL lifted
off onto the PMMA features. (v) The PCL was melted and templated
with an AAO membrane. (vi) The AAO membrane was etched in an
alkaline solution.
To form flat PCL nanowire microarrays (FIG. 1A), a nanoporous
anodized aluminum oxide (AAO) membrane (GE Healthcare, Piscataway,
N.J.) was spun-cast with Microposit S1818 positive photoresist
(MicroChem, Westborough, Mass.) and patterned via photolithography
with grooves of 10, 20, 40, or 80 .mu.m widths and equal spacing.
The patterned side of the AAO membrane was then brought into
contact with a wafer spun-cast with a PMMA base layer and an
overlying layer of PCL 5, 10, or 15 .mu.m in thickness and heated
to 80.degree. C., above the melting temperature of PCL but below
that of PMMA. After uptake of melted PCL into pores of the AAO
membrane in regions not coated with photoresist, the AAO membrane
and photoresist were selectively dissolved in a 0.5 M sodium
hydroxide solution for 1 h to expose the PCL nanowires.
To form elevated nanowire microarrays (FIG. 1B), PMMA and an
overlying photoresist layer were spun-cast onto a silicon wafer,
and the photoresist was patterned with arrays of squares with 10,
20, 40, or 80 .mu.m edge lengths and equal spacing via
photolithography. The photoresist pattern was then transferred to
the PMMA layer by reactive ion etching with oxygen plasma to form
elevated PMMA structures. After chemically stripping the remaining
photoresist, the PMMA features were heated to 80.degree. C. and
brought into contact with PCL spun-cast onto a separate wafer at
thicknesses of 5, 10, or 15 .mu.m. Upon separation of the wafers,
the PCL lifted off onto the PMMA features. Finally, the PCL-coated
features were templated with an AAO membrane at 80.degree. C., and
the membrane was etched in 0.5 M sodium hydroxide for 1 h.
These fabrication approaches resulted in micropatterned arrays of
densely packed PCL nanowires on either flat or elevated PMMA base
layers (FIG. 2). Fabrication approaches for both flat and elevated
nanowire arrays had adequate resolution for all feature sizes
tested (10 to 80 .mu.m). Nanowires formed clusters approximately 1
to 10 .mu.m in width, possibly as a result of capillary force
during drying in preparation for SEM. The flat nanowire arrays had
well-defined borders, but the elevated nanowire arrays had rounded
corners and edges overhanging the PMMA base layer (FIGS. 2 and 3A),
likely due to beading of molten PCL during the lift-off step and/or
compression during templating.
FIG. 2. Nanowire array fabrication approaches demonstrated
sufficient resolution to pattern features as small as 10 .mu.m. SEM
micrographs of flat (A-D) and elevated (E-H) arrays of 10 .mu.m (A,
E), 20 .mu.m (B, F), 40 .mu.m (C, G), and 80 .mu.m (D, H) feature
sizes. Scale bars are 20 .mu.m.
FIG. 3. Adjusting templating parameters to tune nanowire
dimensions. A. PCL thickness controlled nanowire length. 45.degree.
SEM micrographs of flat and elevated nanowire arrays fabricated
with PCL thicknesses of 5, 10, and 15 .mu.m demonstrated that
nanowire length increases with PCL thickness. Scale bars are 2
.mu.m. B. Membrane pore size controlled nanowire diameter. As shown
in SEM micrographs and histograms, nanowire diameters correlated
with AAO membrane diameter. Templating with mean membrane pore
diameters of 120.+-.40, 200.+-.60, and 290.+-.50 nm yielded mean
nanowire diameters of 140.+-.30, 190.+-.30, and 320.+-.50 nm,
respectively. Scale bars are 500 nm. *Indicates statistically
significant difference between average nanowire diameter with
p<0.001.
After demonstrating custom patterning of nanowire arrays,
approaches to tune nanowire dimensions were investigated. First an
approach to adjust nanowire length was investigated. For the
approach used in this study, it was hypothesized that templating
would occur until the AAO membrane contacted the PMMA base layer,
allowing for control of nanowire length by adjusting PCL thickness.
For flat arrays, nanowire lengths roughly matched respective PCL
thicknesses for PCL layers 5, 10, and 15 .mu.m thick (FIG. 3 A).
Nanowires of the elevated arrays also scaled in length with PCL
thickness but were shorter than nanowires of flat arrays fabricated
with identical PCL thicknesses, indicating only partial adhesion of
the PCL layer during the lift-off step. Control over nanowire
diameter through selection of AAO membranes of varying pore sizes
was also investigated. As shown in FIG. 3 B, templating with AAO
membranes with mean pore sizes of 120.+-.40, 200.+-.60, and
290.+-.50 nm (FIG. 4) resulted in mean nanowire diameters of
140.+-.30, 190.+-.30, and 320.+-.50 nm, respectively. Thus, in
addition to customizable nanowire array patterning, nanowire
dimensions can also be tuned for length and diameter by adjusting
PCL thickness and AAO pore size, respectively.
FIG. 4. SEM images and histograms of AAO pore diameters. Cross
sections of Whatman Anodise.RTM. AAO membranes marketed as 0.02
.mu.m (A), 0.1 .mu.m (B), and 0.2 .mu.m (C) pore sizes were imaged
with SEM, and diameters were measured to determine average pore
diameters of 120.+-.40, 200.+-.60, and 290.+-.50 nm, respectively.
Scale bars are 1 .mu.m. *Indicates statistically significant
difference between average nanowire diameter with p<0.001.
Example 2
Loading Nanowire-Coated Microdevices with Active Agent
It was hypothesized that the increased surface area of the nanowire
regions of micropatterned arrays would facilitate high-resolution
drug and reagent loading via capillary action. To investigate this
loading approach, elevated 40 .mu.m features with either PCL
nanowires or non-templated PCL (termed "flat PCL") as a control
were wetted with solutions of FITC-BSA in water or Oregon Green 488
paclitaxel in ethanol at 5 .mu.g/cm.sup.2, inverted, and allowed to
dry. The features were then imaged with confocal microscopy to
determine the localization of the fluorescently labeled paclitaxel
and BSA. While features with flat PCL demonstrated loading at the
base of the elevated structures (FIG. 5 A,D), features coated with
PCL nanowires facilitated loading onto the elevated surface of the
structures (FIG. 5 B,E) indicating that the nanowire arrays
mediated drug/reagent loading. Within the nanowire arrays, the
FITC-BSA and Oregon Green 488 paclitaxel intensity patterns showed
clustered regions approximately 1 to 10 .mu.m in width (FIG. 5
C,F), similar to the PCL nanowire folding/clustering pattern
observed in nanowire arrays (FIGS. 2 and 3). This intensity pattern
indicated that drug/reagent localized to clustered nanowires,
suggesting that loading was mediated by capillary action between
nanowires as solvent evaporated. While many drug loading techniques
are only compatible with water-soluble drugs, micropatterned
nanowire arrays provided efficient loading of both the
water-soluble protein FITC-BSA and the hydrophobic, water-insoluble
drug Oregon Green 488 paclitaxel through selection of solvents to
maximize solubility. Drug loading efficiencies of nanowire arrays,
which were calculated from averaged confocal imaging Z-stacks as
the ratio of fluorescence intensity integrated over micropatterned
regions to fluorescence intensity integrated over the entire
analyzed region, were 94.+-.1% for Oregon Green 488 paclitaxel and
88.+-.2% for FITC-BSA (FIG. 5 G). Further investigation of FITC-BSA
loading demonstrated efficient localization onto both flat and
elevated nanowire arrays for all feature sizes tested (FIG. 6).
FIG. 5. Nanowires mediate drug/reagent loading. Three-dimensional
confocal imaging reconstructions of 5 .mu.g/cm.sup.2 Oregon Green
488 paclitaxel (A-B) and FITC-BSA (D-E) loaded onto features with
either flat PCL (A, D) or PCL nanowires (B, E) demonstrated that
nanowires dramatically enhance drug/reagent localization to array
features. Two-dimensional confocal imaging slices of loaded
nanowire arrays (C, F) show clustered localization upon loading,
suggesting that loading occurs between nanowires as a result of
capillary action. G. Loading efficiencies were quantified by
analysis of fluorescence intensity. All scale bars are 20
.mu.m.
FIG. 6. Nanowires provide efficient, high-resolution loading of
BSA-FITC for flat and elevated features. Fluorescent images of flat
(A-D) and elevated (E-H) nanowire arrays of 10 .mu.m (A, E), 20
.mu.m (B, F), 40 .mu.m (C, G), and 80 .mu.m (D, H) feature sizes
loaded with BSA-FITC at 5 .mu.g/cm.sup.2 showed efficient loading
for all feature sizes tested. Scale bars are 50 .mu.m.
The ability to concentrate reagents onto high-resolution patterns
could be employed to enhance biological analysis. For example, this
approach could be utilized to miniaturize biological assays into a
microarray format while providing high-throughput, low-waste
loading of reagents or samples. In addition to efficient loading,
the concentration of luminescent samples to microscale regions may
also increase local signal intensity, thereby enhancing
sensitivity. Furthermore, based on a pore density of approximately
10.sup.8 pores/cm.sup.2 for the 290 nm pore size AAO membranes,46
nanowires fabricated from these membranes to 15 .mu.m in length and
320 nm in diameter will provide an approximately 1000-fold increase
in surface area available for conjugation of biomolecules or
reagents, also potentially enhancing signal intensity.
This loading approach may also have applications to biomedical
microdevice technology. Microfabricated devices loaded with drug
can significantly increase the uptake of drug in vitro and in vivo.
Here, an example of polymeric, nanowire-coated microparticles was
presented and an inherent mechanism for high-throughput, low-waste
drug loading was demonstrated. These microparticles were detachable
from the silicon wafer (FIG. 7) and were similar in geometry to
previously developed microfabricated devices for enhanced drug
uptake. Specifically, they were planar in shape with a drug
reservoir on only one side of the device, features shown to
facilitate adhesion to monolayers of epithelial cells and
unidirectional drug release toward epithelial tissue. The nanowire
coating may provide additional advantages, as nanowires are capable
of interacting with epithelial layers to increase cytoadhesion and
interrupting cell-cell junctions to enhance epithelial
permeability.
FIG. 7. Elevated nanowire-coated microparticles were detachable. A
brightfield image of elevated nanowire coated microparticles
following detachment by scraping the silicon wafer with a
razor.
Example 3
Hierarchical Topographical Influence of Nanowire-Coated
Microdevices on Cellular Behavior
The application of micropatterned nanowire arrays to provide
hierarchical topographical control over cellular behavior was
investigated. Microscale topography influences cell growth through
the alignment of cells with topographical features, a cellular
behavior known as contact guidance. This influence over cellular
shape and elongation can alter cytoskeletal tension, resulting in
altered signal transduction. Nanoscale features, which approach the
macro-molecular scale, interact more directly with integrins,
transmembrane receptors that allow cells to recognize and bind to
their external environment, leading to the formation of focal
adhesion complexes. Both the nanoscale distribution of integrin
receptors and the micron-scale size and shape of focal adhesions
influence cellular behavior through downstream signaling pathways.
In vivo, cells reside in niche environments with tissue-specific
micro- and nanotopography. Skin, bone, tendon, neural tissues,
skeletal muscle, and blood vessels all present hierarchical
micro/nanostructures of specific dimensions. Scaffolds designed to
mimic the micro- and nanotopography of cellular niche environments
have been used to decrease fibrosis and enhance regeneration for
wound healing, maintain stem cell pluripotency in vitro, and direct
stem cell growth and differentiation for therapeutic
applications.
To investigate the ability of micropatterned nanowire arrays to
simultaneously influence cells on both the microscale and
nanoscale, 3T3 fibroblast cells were grown on scaffolds consisting
of flat PCL, PCL nanowires, micropatterned flat PCL (with grooves
10 .mu.m in width and 5 .mu.m in height), and micropatterned
nanowire arrays (with grooves 10 .mu.m in width and nanowires 5
.mu.m in length) (FIG. 8 A-D). After two days of culture,
fibroblasts were fixed, permeabilized, and stained to visualize
nuclei, actin, and vinculin, a focal adhesion protein (FIG. 8 E-L).
While fibroblasts cultured on arrays without micropatterns showed
isotropic morphology as indicated by actin staining (FIG. 8 E-F),
fibroblasts cultured on micropatterned scaffolds extended along the
scaffold grooves (FIG. 8 G-H). However, fibroblasts cultured on
micropatterned nanowires showed a significantly higher degree of
elongation than cells cultured on flat PCL microgrooves lacking
nanotopography. Vinculin staining, which visualized the effects of
scaffold topography on cellular focal adhesion formation, provided
a possible explanation for this enhanced cellular elongation. The
extensions of cells grown on nanowire arrays (FIG. 8 J,L) showed
increased vinculin localization relative to cells grown on
scaffolds lacking nanotopography (FIG. 8 I,K). This observation
suggested that nanowires enhanced focal adhesion formation, which
agrees with previous studies demonstrating that polymeric nanowire
membranes promote cellular adhesion.
FIG. 8. Micropatterned nanowire arrays simultaneously influence
cellular behavior on both the micro- and nanoscales. Fibroblasts
were cultured on flat PCL (A), PCL nanowire (B), micropatterned
flat PCL (C), and micropatterned PCL nanowire (D) scaffolds (imaged
with SEM). Staining of actin (green) and nuclei (blue) merged with
brightfield scaffold images (E-H) demonstrated that micropatterned
scaffolds (G-H) promote cellular alignment to scaffold grooves,
with micropatterned nanowires (H) providing enhanced cellular
elongation relative to micropatterned flat PCL (G). Vinculin (red)
and nuclei (blue) staining (I-L) demonstrated that nanowire
scaffolds increased vinculin localization to cellular extensions
(J, L) relative to cells cultured on flat PCL scaffolds (I, K),
indicating that nanowires enhanced focal adhesion formation. Scale
bars are 50 .mu.m.
Taken together, these results demonstrate that the micropatterned
nanowire arrays influenced cells through both microgroove-mediated
contact guidance and nanowire-mediated focal adhesion formation to
provide a unique cellular morphology not achievable through micro-
or nanotopographies alone. With customizable micropatterning and
tunable nanowire length and diameter, this fabrication approach
could be used to create scaffolds designed to mimic different
cellular niche environments with specific nanoscale topographies
and microscale patterns. As PCL can be functionalized and
matrix-loaded with chemical factors, signaling molecules may also
be incorporated into these scaffolds to further recapitulate
cellular niche environments.
Example 4
Nanowire-Coated Microdevice Fabrication
Another example of fabricating a nanowoire-coated microdevice is
shown in FIG. 9.
FIG. 9. A. 1) PMMA (2.sup.nd layer from the bottom) 2) PVA
(3.sup.rd layer from the bottom) 3) SU-8 (4.sup.th layer from the
bottom) were spin cast onto a silicon wafer (bottom most layer). B.
SU-8 was selectively crosslinked by exposure through a photomask.
C. Reactive ion etching with oxygen plasma was performed for
pattern transfer to PVA and PMMA layers. D. Dissolution of
sacrificial PVA layer in water released overlying SU-8. E.
Microdevices were brought into contact with PCL (gray) spin-cast
onto a second wafer (black) at 80.degree. C. PCL-PMMA devices (F)
were then templated with a nanoporous aluminum oxide membrane at
80.degree. C. (G), which was subsequently dissolved in 1 M NaOH,
leaving nanowire-coated microdevices (H). I. Microdevices were
loaded with drug by capillary action during solvent
evaporation.
Example 5
Enhanced Microdevice Cytoadhesion
Nanowires enhanced microdevice cytoadhesion (FIG. 11). Devices with
flat and nanowire surfaces were incubated on a layer of Caco-2
cells for 10 min before exposure to increasing shear forces at 5
min. intervals, and the fraction of devices remaining after
exposure to each shear force was determined.
Example 6
Enhanced Epithelial Permeation of Protein
Nanowire-coated microdevices enhanced epithelial permeation of
protein (FIG. 12). BSA loaded onto nanowire-coated microdevices or
as a bolus dose was added to the apical chamber of a transwell
insert with a monolayer of Caco-2 cells, and the mass of BSA
permeating through the Caco-2 cell monolayer to the basolateral
chamber was measured over 18 hours.
Materials and Methods
Micropatterned Nanowire Array Fabrication
Micropattered PCL nanowire arrays on PMMA were fabricated by
spin-coating a nanoporous AAO membrane (GE Healthcare, Piscataway,
N.J.) with Microposit S1818 positive photoresist (MicroChem,
Westborough, Mass.) at 2500 rpm for 30 s with a ramp speed of 1000
rpm/s. The photoresist was baked at 110.degree. C. for 1 min. and
allowed to cool. The photoresist was then exposed to 225 mJ/cm2 of
405 nm UV light through a computer-designed photomask with grooves
with 10, 20, 40, or 80 .mu.m widths and equal spacing or other
various micropatterns. The micropatterned AAO membrane was then
submerged in 351 Developer (MicroChem) for 1 min. with gentle
shaking, rinsed with dH2O, and allowed to dry. Separately, a
silicon wafer was coated with a 110 mg/mL solution of 950 kDa PMMA
in anisole (MicroChem) at 350 rpm for 15 s followed by 1400 rpm for
30 s and baked at 110.degree. C. for 1 min. The resulting 5 .mu.m
PMMA base layer was coated with an overlying layer of PCL (Mn=80
kDa, Sigma-Aldrich) 5, 10, or 15 .mu.m in thickness. The 5, 10, and
15 .mu.m PCL layers were obtained by spin-coating 50 to 150 mg/mL
PCL in 2,2,2-trifluoroethanol (TFE) at 1000 to 2000 rpm for 30 s
following a pre-spin at 500 rpm for 10 s. The PCL was then brought
into contact with the micropatterned side of the AAO membrane and
heated to 80.degree. C. for 5 min. After uptake of melted PCL into
pores of the AAO membrane in regions not coated with photoresist,
the AAO membrane and photoresist were selectively dissolved in 0.5
M NaOH for 1 h to expose the PCL nanowires. Finally, the features
were rinsed 5 times with dH.sub.2O. For cell culture experiments,
the film was peeled from the silicon wafer prior to
sterilization.
To fabricate nanowire arrays on discrete PMMA microstructures, a
110 mg/mL solution of 950 kDa PMMA in anisole (MicroChem) was
spin-coated onto a silicon wafer at 350 rpm for 15 s followed by
1400 rpm for 30 s and baked at 110.degree. C. for 1 min. The PMMA
layer was coated with Microposit S1818 positive photoresist at 500
rpm for 10 s followed by 2500 rpm for 30 s and baked at 110.degree.
C. for 1 min. The photoresist was then exposed to 225 mJ/cm2 of 405
nm UV light through a computer-designed photomask with arrays of
opaque squares with 10, 20, 40, or 80 .mu.m edge lengths and equal
spacing or other various micropatterns. The wafers were then
submerged in 351 Developer for 1 min. with gentle shaking, rinsed
with IPA, and dried with nitrogen. The photoresist pattern was then
transferred to the PMMA layer by reactive ion etching with oxygen
plasma (450 W, 200 mTorr, 6.5 min.) to form PMMA microstructures.
The remaining photoresist was stripped with Microposit Remover
1112A (MicroChem) for 1 min. under gentle shaking. The PMMA
features were then heated to 80.degree. C. and brought into contact
with PCL spun-cast onto a separate wafer at thicknesses of 5, 10,
or 15 .mu.m, and the wafers were separated. The PCL-coated features
were templated with an AAO membrane at 80.degree. C. for 5 min.,
and the membrane was subsequently etched in 0.5 M NaOH for 1 h.
Finally, the features were washed 5 times with dH2O.
Non-Templated, Micropatterned PCL Film Fabrication
SU-8 2005 (MicroChem) was spun-cast onto a silicon wafer at 500 rpm
for 10 s followed by 5000 rpm for 30 s and baked at 95.degree. C.
for 1 min. The SU-8 was then exposed to 365 nm UV light at 100
mJ/cm.sup.2 through a photomask with 10 .mu.m grooves with equal
spacing and baked at 95.degree. C. for 2 min. The wafer was
developed in SU-8 Developer (MicroChem) for 1 min. under gentle
shaking, rinsed with IPA, and dried with nitrogen. Sylgard 184
(Sigma-Aldrich) polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) was mixed and de-gassed
according to the manufacture's instructions and poured over the
SU-8 mold. After de-gassing under vacuum for an additional 30 min.,
the PDMS was cured at 100.degree. C. for 1 h, allowed to cool, and
peeled from the SU-8 mold. A 100 mg/mL solution of 80 kDa PCL in
TFE was then poured over the PDMS mold and allowed to cure
overnight at room temperature. The PCL film was submerged in
200-proof ethanol, peeled from the PDMS mold, and treated with 0.5
M NaOH for 1 h prior to sterilization for cell culture. See FIG.
19.
Measurement of AAO Membrane Pore Diameter and Density and PCL
Nanowire Diameter
Cross sections of Whatman Anodise.RTM. AAO membranes with nominal
pore diameters of 0.02, 0.1, and 0.2 .mu.m and nanowires resulting
from templating PCL with these membranes were imaged with SEM, and
the images were analyzed with ImageJ software to measure the
average diameters of the AAO pores and PCL nanowires. 50
measurements were made for each sample. Pore density of AAO
membranes with 200 nm nominal pore sizes were determined by imaging
five 2 .mu.m.times.2 .mu.m regions of the AAO surface and counting
the number of pores in each region, including overlapping pores on
the bottom and left edges of the region and excluding overlapping
pores on the right and top edges of the region. Mean values were
reported with standard deviation.
Contact Angle Measurements
Contact angle measurements were performed with a Rame-Hart Standard
Goniometer (Model 200-F4). 5 .mu.L water were dispensed onto films
with surfaces consisting of untemplated PCL, untemplated PCL
treated with 0.5 M NaOH for 1 h (to match NaOH treatment for AAO
membrane etching), and PCL nanowires with and without pre-wetting.
Pre-wetting consisted of submerging the membanes in water for 1
min., spinning the films at 2000 rpm for 5 s to remove excess
water, and imaging droplets within 1 min after spinning. Contact
angles were measured on both sides of each droplet for 3 droplets
per sample with DROPimage Standard software, and mean contact
angles were reported with standard deviation.
Drug and Reagent Localization
PMMA microstructures coated with either non-templated PCL or PCL
nanowires were wetted with FITC-BSA and FITC-dextran (average MW=10
kDa) in dH.sub.2O and Oregon Green--paclitaxel and Nile red in
ethanol at 5 .mu.g/cm.sup.2. The microstructures were then inverted
and allowed to dry at room temperature. Arrays coated with
non-templated PCL were fabricated in an identical manner to arrays
coated with nanowires, except the templating step was omitted. PCL
nanowire arrays on PMMA films were loaded in an identical manner to
PMMA microstructures. All arrays used for drug localization were
fabricated using PCL thicknesses of 10 .mu.m. Z-stacks of
drug/reagent-loaded features were captured at 1 .mu.m intervals,
capturing the entire microarray structures and wafer base layer,
with a spectral confocal microscope (FIGS. 4, 17). Drug/reagent
localization was also observed with a conventional fluorescence
microscope (FIGS. 14, 6, 16). Three-dimensional reconstruction of
confocal images was performed with ImageJ software. Localization
efficiency was calculated by merging Z-stacks into a single image
according to average intensity and quantifying fluorescence
intensity with ImageJ. Specifically, localization efficiency was
calculated as the ratio of fluorescence intensity integrated over
microstructured regions to the total fluorescence intensity
integrated over the entire region analyzed. Localization
efficiencies were reported with standard deviation.
Cell Culture, Staining, and Imaging
PMMA-PCL films with PCL layers 5 .mu.m in thickness were templated
with AAO membranes patterned with grooves 10 .mu.m in width and
spacing. These films had nanowires approximately 5 .mu.m in length
as calculated from the corresponding SEM image shown in FIG. 3,
panel A, accounting for the 45.degree. imaging angle. Non-templated
PCL, non-patterned nanowire array (fabricated without lithography
steps), and micropatterned non-templated PCL (grooves 10 .mu.m in
width and 5 .mu.m in height) films were used as controls, with all
films incubated in 0.5 M NaOH for 1 h to avoid differences in PCL
surface treatment. Prior to cell seeding, the films were rinsed
with dH.sub.2O 5-10 times and then incubated in a 70% ethanol
solution for 5 min. The films were then rinsed in dH.sub.2O and
allowed to dry under sterile conditions. The films were seeded with
NIH/3T3 cells (ATCC, Manassas, Va.) in DMEM (ATCC) medium
supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum and 1.times.
Penicillin-Streptomycin at a density of 5000 cells/cm.sup.2.
Following two days of cell culture, cells were fixed with 4%
paraformaldehyde, permeabilized in 1% Triton X, and blocked in 1%
BSA in PBS. The cells were then stained for vinculin with
polyclonal anti-vinculin antibodies produced in rabbit
(Sigma-Aldrich) diluted 100-fold in 1% BSA in PBS followed by Alexa
Fluor.RTM. 647 anti-rabbit IgG antibodies produced in goat
(Invitrogen) diluted 200-fold in 1% BSA in PBS. The cells were also
stained with Alexa Fluor.RTM. 488 Phalloidin (Life Technologies)
and DAPI (Invitrogen) and mounted for fluorescence imaging. To
quantify cellular elongation, at least three separate regions of
cells were selected for each sample, and the distance between the
two furthest points of each fully visible cell as determined from
actin staining was quantified using ImageJ. To quantify cellular
alignment (FIG. 19, the angle of the line formed by these points
relative to the horizontal axis of the images (which was aligned to
microgrooves, if present), was determined using ImageJ, and results
were plotted in polar histograms with bins of 30.degree.
ranges.
While the present invention has been described with reference to
the specific embodiments thereof, it should be understood by those
skilled in the art that various changes may be made and equivalents
may be substituted without departing from the true spirit and scope
of the invention. In addition, many modifications may be made to
adapt a particular situation, material, composition of matter,
process, process step or steps, to the objective, spirit and scope
of the present invention. All such modifications are intended to be
within the scope of the claims appended hereto.
* * * * *