U.S. patent number 5,994,126 [Application Number 08/261,537] was granted by the patent office on 1999-11-30 for method for in vitro proliferation of dendritic cell precursors and their use to produce immunogens.
This patent grant is currently assigned to The Rockefeller University. Invention is credited to Kayo Inaba, Gerold Schuler, Ralph M. Steinman.
United States Patent |
5,994,126 |
Steinman , et al. |
November 30, 1999 |
Method for in vitro proliferation of dendritic cell precursors and
their use to produce immunogens
Abstract
A method for producing proliferating cultures of dendritic cell
precursors is provided. Also provided is a method for producing
mature dendritic cells in culture from the proliferating dendritic
cell precursors. The cultures of mature dendritic cells provide an
effective means of producing novel T cell dependent antigens
comprised of dendritic cell modified antigens or dendritic cells
pulsed with antigen, including particulates, which antigen is
processed and expressed on the antigen-activated dendritic cell.
The novel antigens of the invention may be used as immunogens for
vaccines or for the treatment of disease. These antigens may also
be used to treat autoimmune diseases such as juvenile diabetes and
multiple sclerosis.
Inventors: |
Steinman; Ralph M. (Westport,
CT), Inaba; Kayo (Kyoto, JP), Schuler; Gerold
(Innsbruck, AT) |
Assignee: |
The Rockefeller University (New
York, NY)
|
Family
ID: |
27365767 |
Appl.
No.: |
08/261,537 |
Filed: |
June 17, 1994 |
Related U.S. Patent Documents
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Application
Number |
Filing Date |
Patent Number |
Issue Date |
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040677 |
Mar 31, 1993 |
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981357 |
Nov 25, 1992 |
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861612 |
Apr 1, 1992 |
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Current U.S.
Class: |
435/325; 435/326;
530/351; 435/373; 435/372; 530/350; 435/339; 514/17.9; 514/6.9 |
Current CPC
Class: |
A61K
39/0008 (20130101); C12N 5/0639 (20130101); A61P
37/00 (20180101); A61K 2039/5154 (20130101); C12N
2501/25 (20130101); A61K 2035/122 (20130101); C12N
2501/22 (20130101); C12N 2501/23 (20130101) |
Current International
Class: |
A61K
39/00 (20060101); C12N 5/06 (20060101); A61K
35/12 (20060101); C12N 005/00 () |
Field of
Search: |
;435/240.2,240.21,240.3,240.31,240.23,325,326,339,373,372 ;514/2
;530/350,351 |
References Cited
[Referenced By]
U.S. Patent Documents
Foreign Patent Documents
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0 546 787 A2 |
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Jun 1993 |
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EP |
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0 563 485 A1 |
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Oct 1993 |
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EP |
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WO 93/20185 |
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Oct 1993 |
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WO |
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WO 94/02156 |
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Feb 1994 |
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WO |
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WO 95/15340 |
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Jun 1995 |
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WO |
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WO 91/13632 |
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Sep 1995 |
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WO |
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WO 95/28479 |
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Oct 1995 |
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WO |
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WO 95/34638 |
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Dec 1995 |
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WO |
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|
Primary Examiner: Lankford, Jr.; Leon B.
Attorney, Agent or Firm: Morgan & Finnegan, L.L.P.
Sonnenfeld; Kenneth H.
Government Interests
This invention was made with United States Government support under
NIH grant AI13013 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The
United States Government has certain rights in this invention. The
making of this invention was also supported by the Austrian
Government through grants NB 4370 (Austrian National Bank) and P
8549M (Austrian Science Foundation); and by Austrian National Bank
(JUBILAEUMSFONDS PROJECT 4889).
Parent Case Text
This application is continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application
Ser. No. 08/040,677 filed Mar. 31, 1993, now U.S. Pat. No.
5,851,756, which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent
application Ser. No. 07/981,357 filed Nov. 25, 1992 which in turn
is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No.
07/861,612 filed Apr. 1, 1992.
Claims
We claim:
1. A method of producing a population of mature dendritic cells
from proliferating dendritic cell precursor cultures,
comprising
a) providing a tissue source comprising dendritic cell
precursors;
b) culturing the tissue source on a substrate and in culture medium
to expand the number of dendritic cell precursors by allowing the
dendritic cell precursors to proliferate; wherein said culture
medium comprises GM-CSF and at least one other factor which
inhibits the proliferation or maturation of non-dendritic cell
precursors thereby increasing the proportion of dendritic cell
precursors in the culture; and
c) continuing to culture the dendritic cell precursors for a period
of time sufficient to allow them to mature into mature dendritic
cells.
2. The method of claim 1, wherein said factor inhibits macrophage
proliferation or maturation.
3. The method of claim 1, wherein said tissue source is human
blood.
4. The method of claim 3, wherein said factor is selected from the
group consisting of IL-4 and IL-13.
5. The method of claim 4, wherein said factor is IL-4.
6. The method of claim 5, wherein IL-4 is present in the culture
medium in the range of 500-1000 U/ml.
7. The method of claim 1, wherein the culture medium further
comprises TNF-.alpha..
8. The method according to claim 1 wherein fetal calf serum is
present in the culture medium in an amount of about 1 to 15%.
9. The method according to claim 1 wherein the fetal calf serum is
present in the culture medium in an amount of about 10%.
10. The method according to claim 3 wherein GM-CSF is present in
the medium at a concentration of about 1-1000 U/ml.
11. The method according to claim 10 where the GM-CSF is present in
the medium at a concentration of about 400-800 U/ml.
12. The method according to claim 11, wherein the GM-CSF is present
at a concentration of about 800 U/ml.
13. The method according to claim 1 wherein the culture medium
further comprises at least one agent selected from the group
consisting of TNF-.alpha., G-CSF, IL-1 or IL-3.
14. The method according to claim 1 wherein cord blood serum is
present in the culture medium in an amount of about 5%.
Description
TECHNICAL FIELD OF THE INVENTION
This invention relates to a method of culturing cells of the immune
system. In particular a method is provided for culturing
proliferating dendritic cell precursors and for their maturation in
vitro to mature dendritic cells. This invention also relates to
dendritic cell modified antigens which are T cell dependent, the
method of making them, and their use as immunogens. Vaccines,
methods of immunizing animals and humans using the mature dendritic
cells of the invention, and the modified antigens are also
described.
BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION
The immune system contains a system of dendritic cells that is
specialized to present antigens and initiate several T-dependent
immune responses. Dendritic cells are distributed widely throughout
the body in various tissues. The distribution of dendritic cells
has been reviewed in (1). Dendritic cells are found in nonlymphoid
organs either close to body surfaces, as in the skin and airways,
or in interstitial regions of organs like heart and liver.
Dendritic cells, possibly under the control of the cytokine
granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor, (hereinafter
GM-CSF), can undergo a maturation process that does not entail cell
proliferation (2,3). Initially, the dendritic cells process and
present antigens most likely on abundant, newly synthesized MHC
class II molecules, and then strong accessory and cell-cell
adhesion functions are acquired (4-7). Dendritic cells can migrate
via the blood and lymph to lymphoid organs (8-10). There,
presumably as the "interdigitating" cells of the T-area (8,11-13),
antigens can be presented to T cells in the recirculating pool
(14). However, little is known about the progenitors of dendritic
cells in the different compartments outlined above.
The efficacy of dendritic cells in delivering antigens in such a
way that a strong immune response ensues i.e., "immunogenicity", is
widely acknowledged, but the use of these cells is hampered by the
fact that there are very few in any given organ. In human blood,
for example, about 0.1% of the white cells are dendritic cells (25)
and these have not been induced to grow until this time. Similarly,
previous studies (20, 21) have not reported the development, in
culture, of large numbers of dendritic cells from bone marrow. A
more recent report described the development of dendritic cells in
GM-CSF supplemented marrow cultures, however no documentation as to
the origin of the dendritic cells or use of proliferating
aggregates as an enriched source of dendritic cells was observed.
(Scheicher et al. (1992)) J. Immunol. Method. 154:253-264. While
dendritic cells can process foreign antigens into peptides that
immunologically active T cells must recognize (4,6,7,14) i.e.,
dendritic cells accomplish the phenomenon of "antigen
presentation", the low numbers of dendritic cells prohibits their
use in identifying immunogenic peptides.
Dendritic cells in spleen (15) and afferent lymph (16,17) are not
in the cell cycle but arise from a proliferating precursor.
Ultimately, dendritic cells emanate from the bone marrow
(15,16,18,19), yet it has been difficult to generate these cells in
culture except for two reports describing their formation in small
numbers (20,21). Although a bone marrow precursor cell has been
reported, conditions have not been reported that direct its
proliferation in culture (Steinman, R. (1991)) "The Dendritic Cell
System and Its Role In Immunogenicity", Ann. Rev. Immunol.,
9:271-96. Identification of proliferating dendritic cells in bone
marrow, in contrast to blood, is difficult because there are large
numbers of granulocytes that develop in response to GM-CSF and
these crowd the immature dendritic cell cultures, preventing
maturation of the dendritic precursors. The use of cell surface
markers to enrich bone marrow dendritic cell precursors has been
reported to result in only modest increases because the markers are
also expressed by numerous non-dendritic bone marrow cells (Bowers,
W. E. and Goodell (1989)), "Dendritic Cell Ontogeny" Res. Immunol.
140:880-883.
Relatively small numbers of dendritic cells have also been isolated
from blood (Vakkila J. et al. (1990) "Human Peripheral
blood-derived dendritic cells do not produce interleukin 1.alpha.,
interleukin 1.beta., or interleukin 6" Scand. J. Immunol.
31:345-352; Van Voorhis W. C. et al., (1982) "Human Dendritic
Cells", J.Exp. Med., 1172-1187.) However, the presence in blood of
dendritic cell precursors has not been reported and as recently as
1989 the relationship between blood dendritic cells and mature
dendritic cells in other tissues was uncertain. Furthermore, it was
recognized that dendritic cells are "rare and difficult to isolate
and have not as yet been shown to give rise to DC [dendritic cells]
in peripheral tissues." (MacPherson G. G. (1989) "Lymphoid
Dendritic cells: Their life history and roles in immune responses",
Res. Immunol. 140:877-926).
Granulocyte/macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) is a
factor which modulates the maturation and function of dendritic
cells. (Witmer-Pack et al, (1987) "Granulocyte/macrophage
colony-stimulating factor is essential for the viability and
function of cultured murine epidermal Langerhans cells". J.Exp.Med.
166:1484-1498; Heufler C. et al., (1988) "Granulocyte/macrophage
colony-stimulating factor and interleukin 1 mediate the maturation
of murine epidermal Langerhans cells into potent immunostimulatory
dendritic cells", J. Exp. Med. 167:700-705). GM-CSF stimulated
maturation of dendritic cells in vitro suggests that the presence
of GM-CSF in a culture of dendritic cell precursors would mediate
maturation into immunologically active cells, but the important
goal of achieving extensive dendritic cell growth has yet to be
solved.
T-dependent immune responses are characterized by the activation of
T-helper cells in the production of antibody by B cells. An
advantage of T-dependent over T-independent immune responses is
that the T-dependent responses have memory, i.e. cells remain
primed to respond to antigen with rapid production of antibody even
in the absence of antigen and the immune response is therefore
"boostable". T-independent immune responses are, in contrast,
relatively poor in children and lack a booster response when a
T-independent antigen is repeatedly administered. The immunologic
memory of T cells likely reflects two consequences of the first,
"primary" or "sensitizing" limb of the immune response: (a) an
expanded number of antigen-specific T cells that grow in response
to antigen-bearing dendritic cells, and (b) the enhanced functional
properties of individual T cells that occurs after dendritic cell
priming (Inaba et al., (1984) Resting and sensitized T lymphocytes
exhibit distinct stimulatory (antigen presenting cell) requirements
for growth and lymphokine release; J.Exp.Med. 160:868-876; Inaba
and Steinman, (1985) "Protein-specific helper T lymphocyte
formation initiated by dendritic cells", Science 229: 475-479;
Inaba et al., (1985) "Properties of memory T lymphocytes isolated
from the mixed leukocyte reaction", Proc.Natl.Acad.Sci.
82:7686-7690).
Certain types of antigens characteristically elicit T-cell
dependent antibody responses whereas others elicit a T-cell
independent response. For example, polysaccharides generally elicit
a T-cell independent immune response. There is no memory response
and therefore no protection to subsequent infection with the
polysaccharide antigen. Proteins, however, do elicit a T-cell
dependent response in infants. The development of conjugate
vaccines containing a polysaccharide covalently coupled to a
protein converts the polysaccharide T-independent response to a
T-dependent response. Unfortunately, little is known concerning the
sites on proteins which confer their T-cell dependent character,
therefore hampering the design of more specific immunogens.
As stated above, dendritic cells play a crucial role in the
initiation of T-cell dependent responses. Dendritic cells bind and
modify antigens in a manner such that the modified antigen when
presented on the surface of the dendritic cell can activate T-cells
to participate in the eventual production of antibodies. The
modification of antigens by dendritic cells may, for example,
include fragmenting a protein to produce peptides which have
regions which specifically are capable of activating T-cells.
The events whereby cells fragment antigens into peptides, and then
present these peptides in association with products of the major
histocompatibility complex, (MHC) are termed "antigen
presentation". The MHC is a region of highly polymorphic genes
whose products are expressed on the surfaces of a variety of cells.
MHC antigens are the principal determinants of graft rejection. Two
different types of MHC gene products, class I and class II MHC
molecules, have been identified. T cells recognize foreign antigens
bound to only one specific class I or class II MHC molecule. The
patterns of antigen association with class I or class II MHC
molecules determine which T cells are stimulated. For instance,
peptide fragments derived from extra cellular proteins usually bind
to class II MHC molecules, whereas proteins endogenously
transcribed in dendritic cells generally associate with newly
synthesized class I MHC molecules. As a consequence, exogenously
and endogenously synthesized proteins are typically recognized by
distinct T cell populations.
Dendritic cells are specialized antigen presenting cells in the
immune response of whole animals (14,31). Again however, the
ability to use dendritic cells to identify and extract the
immunogenic peptides is hampered by the small numbers of these
specialized antigen presenting cells.
Particle uptake is a specialized activity of mononuclear and
polymorphonuclear phagocytes. Dead cells, immune complexes, and
microorganisms all are avidly internalized. Following fusion with
hydrolase-rich lysosomes, the ingested particles are degraded
(60,61). This degradation must be to the level of permeable amino
acids (62,63) and saccharides, otherwise the vacuolar apparatus
would swell with indigestible materials (64,65). Such clearance and
digestive functions of phagocytes contribute to wound healing,
tissue remodeling, and host defense.
Another consequence of endocytosis, the processing of antigens by
antigen presenting cells (APCs), differs in many respects from the
scavenging function of phagocytosis. First, processing requires the
generation of peptides at least 8-18 amino acids in length (66,67),
while scavenging entails digestion to amino acids (62,63).
Secondly, presentation requires the binding of peptides to MHC
class II products (6,68), whereas scavenging does not require MHC
products. Thirdly, antigen presentation can function at a low
capacity, since only a few hundred molecules of ligand need to be
generated for successful stimulation of certain T-T hybrids (69,70)
and primary T cell populations (71). During scavenging, phagocytes
readily clear and destroy hundreds of thousands of protein
molecules each hour (63). Lastly, antigen presentation is best
carried out by cells that are rich in MHC class II but show little
phagocytic activity and few lysosomes, i.e., dendritic cells and B
cells, while phagocytes (macrophages and neutrophils) often have
low levels of class II and abundant lysosomes. These observations,
together with the identification of antigenic specializations
within the endocytic system of dendritic cells and B cells, have
lead to the suggestion that the machinery required for antigen
presentation may differ from that required for scavenging, both
quantitatively and qualitatively (31).
In the case of dendritic cells, there have been indications that
these APCs are at some point during their lifetime capable of
phagocytic activity. Pugh et al. noted Feulgen-stained inclusions
in some afferent lymph dendritic cells and suggested that
phagocytosis of other cells had taken place prior to entry into the
lymph (16). Fossum noted phagocytic inclusions in the
interdigitating dendritic cells of the T cell areas in mice that
were rejecting allogeneic leukocytes (71). Reis e Sousa et al. (74)
found that freshly isolated epidermal Langerhans cells, which are
immature but nonproliferating dendritic cells, internalize small
amounts of certain particulates. Neither report, however,
demonstrates or suggests the occurrence of phagocytosis when
particles are administered to cultures of proliferating dendritic
cells.
Injection of dendritic cells pulsed with pathogenic lymphocytes
into mammals to elicit an active immune response against lymphoma
is the subject of PCT patent application WO 91/13632. In addition,
Francotte and Urbain, Proc. Nat'l. Acad. Sci., USA 82:8149 (1985)
reported that mouse dendritic cells, pulsed in vitro with virus and
injected back into mice, enhances the primary response and the
secondary response to the virus. Neither the report by Francotte
and Urbain and patent application WO 91/13632 provide a practical
method of using dendritic cells as an adjuvant to activate the
immune response because both of these methods depend on dendritic
cells obtained from spleen, an impractical source of cells for most
therapies or immunization procedures. In addition, neither report
provides a method to obtain dendritic cells in sufficient
quantities to be clinically useful.
SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION
This invention provides a method of producing a population of
dendritic cell precursors from proliferating cell cultures. The
method comprises (a) providing a tissue source comprising dendritic
cell precursors; (b) treating the tissue source from (a) to
increase the proportion of dendritic cell precursors to obtain a
population of cells suitable for culture in vitro; (c) culturing
the tissue source on a substrate in a culture medium comprising
GM-CSF, or a biologically active derivative of GM-CSF, to obtain
proliferating nonadherent cells and cell clusters; (d) subculturing
the nonadherent cells and cell clusters to produce cell aggregates
comprising proliferating dendritic cell precursors; and (e)
serially subculturing the cell aggregates one or more times to
enrich the proportion of dendritic cell precursors.
In another embodiment of this invention, cells may be cultured in
the presence of factors which increases the proportion of dendritic
cell precursors by inhibiting the proliferation or maturation of
non-dendritic cell precursors.
For example, cells may be cultured in the presence of factors which
inhibit macrophage proliferation and/or maturation. Such a factor
should be provided in an amount sufficient to promote the
proliferation of dendritic cells while inhibiting the proliferation
and/or maturation of macrophage precursor cells or macrophages.
Examples of such agents include Interleukin-4 (IL-4) and
Interleukin-13 (IL-13). These agents are particularly useful for
culturing cells from preferred tissue sources such as blood, and
more preferably specifically human blood isolated from healthy
individuals.
This invention also provides a method of producing in vitro mature
dendritic cells from proliferating cell cultures. The method
comprises (a) providing a tissue source comprising dendritic cell
precursor cells; (b) treating the tissue source from (a) to
increase the proportion of dendritic cell precursors in order to
obtain a population of cells suitable for culture in vitro; (c)
culturing the tissue source on a substrate in a culture medium
comprising GM-CSF, or a biologically active derivative of GM-CSF,
to obtain non-adherent cells and cell clusters; (d) subculturing
the nonadherent cells and cell clusters to produce cell aggregates
comprising proliferating dendritic cell precursors; (e) serially
subculturing the cell aggregates one or more times to enrich the
proportion of dendritic cell precursors; and (f) continuing to
culture the dendritic cell precursors for a period of time
sufficient to allow them to mature into mature dendritic cells.
To reduce the proportion of non-dendritic precursor cells, the
tissue source may be pretreated prior to culturing the tissue
source on a substrate to obtain the non-adherent cells or during
the early stages of the culture. Preferred tissue sources for the
practice of the invention are bone marrow and, in particular,
blood.
This invention also provides a method of increasing the proportion
of dendritic cells present in the tissue source by pretreating the
individual with a substance to stimulate hematopoiesis.
When bone marrow is used as the tissue source the pretreatment step
comprises killing cells expressing antigens which are not expressed
on dendritic precursor cells by contacting the bone marrow with
antibodies specific for antigens not present on dendritic precursor
cells in a medium comprising complement. Removal of undesirable
non-dendritic cell precursors may also be accomplished by adsorbing
the undesirable non-dendritic or their precursor cells onto a solid
support.
This invention also provides dendritic cell precursors and
dendritic cells in amounts which may be used therapeutically and
which also may be used to prepare new therapeutic antigens. In
addition, the dendritic cell precursors and dendritic cells
prepared according to the method of this invention are also
provided.
Another embodiment of the invention are antigen-activated dendritic
cells prepared according to the method of the invention in which
antigen-activated dendritic cells have been exposed to antigen and
express modified antigens for presentation to and activation of T
cells.
This invention also provides novel antigens which are produced by
exposing an antigen to cultures of dendritic cells prepared
according to the method of the invention in which the antigen is
modified by the dendritic cells to produce modified antigens which
are immunogenic fragments of the unmodified or native antigen and
which fragments activate T cells.
These novel antigens may be used to immunize animals and humans to
prevent or treat disease.
This invention also provides a method of preparing antigens from
dendritic cell precursors comprising providing precursor dendritic
cells from a population of precursor cells capable of
proliferating, contacting the precursor cells with antigen for a
period of time sufficient to allow the dendritic cell precursors to
phagocytose the antigen and obtain antigen-containing dendritic
cell precursors; culturing the antigen containing-dendritic cell
precursors under conditions and for a period of time sufficient for
the antigen to be processed and presented by dendritic cell
precursors.
The antigens processed by the dendritic cell precursors as a result
of phagocytosis may themselves be used alone or in combination with
adjuvants including dendritic cell precursors to evoke an immune
response in an individual to the antigen.
Also provided are compositions and methods for increasing the
number of myeloic dendritic progenitor cells in blood in those
individuals.
In a further embodiment, the yield of dendritic cell precursors is
increased by culturing the precursors in a sufficient amount of
GM-CSF and other cytokines to promote proliferation of the
dendritic cell precursors. Other cytokines include but are not
limited to G-CSF, M-CSF, TNF-.alpha., Interleukin-3, and
Interleukin-1.alpha., Interleukin-1.beta., Interleukin 6,
Interleukin-4, Interleukin-13 and stem cell factor.
In another embodiment, the invention provides self-peptide antigens
produced by pulsing the dendritic cells of the invention with a
protein to which an individual has developed an immune response and
extracting the relevant self-peptide or autoantigen.
This invention also provides a method of treating autoimmune
diseases by treating an individual with therapeutically effective
amounts of self-peptides produced according to the method of the
invention to induce tolerance to the self-proteins.
The treatment of autoimmune diseases comprising administering to an
individual in need of treatment a therapeutically effective amount
of antigen-activated dendritic cells where the antigen is a
self-protein or autoantigen is also provided.
The use of the compositions and methods of the invention to treat
autoimmune diseases selected from the group of juvenile diabetes,
myasthenia gravis, and multiple sclerosis is also provided.
This invention also provides treatment for inflammatory diseases in
which the pathogenesis involves exaggerated T cell mediated immune
responses such as those present in atopic dermatitis and contact
dermatitis.
This invention also provides a method for providing an antigen to a
host comprising exposing an antigen to a culture of dendritic cells
prepared according to the method of this invention to produce
antigen-activated dendritic cells followed by inoculating the host
with the antigen-activated dendritic cells.
This invention further provides a method of activating T cells
comprising the use of proliferating dendritic cells for capturing
protein, viral, and microbial antigens in an immunogenic form in
situ and then presenting these antigens in a potent manner to T
cells either in vitro or in situ.
This invention additionally provides a method comprising the use of
mature and precursor dendritic cells to present MHC class I and II
products with antigen peptides.
This invention also provides a method for making antigenic peptides
that are specific for an individual's MHC products thereby
increasing the number of specialized stimulatory antigenic
presenting cells available to provide an immunogenic response in an
individual.
Also provided are compositions and methods to treat infectious
diseases, including but not limited to diseases caused by
mycobacteria including tuberculosis, bacteria, and viruses.
Compositions and methods for using dendritic cells or dendritic
cell precursors as vehicles for active immunization and
immunotherapy in situ are also provided.
Vaccines comprised of any of the antigens or antigen-activated
dendritic cells described above are also provided as are the
methods of immunizing against disease in humans or animals
comprising administering any of the compositions of the
invention.
An object of this invention is to provide a method of culturing
dendritic cell precursors in vitro so that they evolve into mature
dendritic cells suitable for use as immunogens or adjuvants when
combined with an antigen.
It is also an object of this invention to provide dendritic cell
precursors capable of phagocytosing antigenic material to be
processed and presented by the dendritic cell precursors.
Another object of this invention is to provide a convenient and
practical source of sufficient quantities of dendritic cells and
dendritic cell precursors to be useful in the treatment or
prevention of disease.
Another object of this invention is to provide novel immunogens
comprising the dendritic cells or dendritic cell precursors of this
invention which have been exposed to antigen and express modified
antigen on their surface.
Another object of this invention is to provide antigens which have
been modified through their exposure to dendritic cell precursors
or dendritic cells and which modified antigens are effective as
T-cell dependent antigens.
A further objective of the invention is to provide a method of
immunizing individuals with T-cell dependent antigens for the
prevention and treatment of disease.
FIGURE LEGENDS
FIG. 1. Flow plan for inducing dendritic cell "colonies."
FIG. 2. FIG. 2 comprises FIGS. 2A through 2F which are FACS
analyses of dendritic cells released from proliferating aggregates.
Several mAbs which recognize various cell surface determinants on
dendritic cell precursors (23,24,28) are shown. Except for MHC
class I and II products, the phenotype of the released cells is
homogeneous. The staining with no primary mAb was identical to RB6
and RA3.
FIG. 3. FIG. 3 comprises FIGS. 3A through 3F which are FACS
analyses of dendritic cell precursors that could be dislodged by
Pasteur pipetting of proliferating aggregates, (3A, 3B and 3C) and
dendritic cells released spontaneously (3D, 3E and 3F) in culture.
The mAb are: M1/42 anti-MHC class I [ATCC # TIB 126]; NLDC145
anti-interdigitating cell (13); M5/114 anti-MHC class II [ATCC #
TIB 120]; 33D1 anti-dendritic cell [ATCC # TIB 227]; B5-5
anti-thy-1. The staining with anti-MHC mAbs is bimodal, but the
released cell fraction of dendritic cells is richest in expression
of MHC class I and II.
FIG. 4. MLR stimulating activity of populations isolated from the
GM-CSF stimulated mouse blood cultures [see text].
FIG. 5. (FIGS. 5A-5B) Progressive development of MLR stimulating
activity in bone marrow cultured in the presence of GM-CSF.
Ia-negative precursors, B and T cell-depleted marrow cells were
cultured in GM-CSF with 3/4 of the medium being replaced every 2 d.
At each time point, the cells were dislodged by gently pipetting.
After irradiation, graded doses of marrow cells were applied to
3.times.10.sup.5 allogeneic [C57BL/6, (5A, left)] or syngeneic
[BALB/C.times.DBA/2 F1 (5B)] T cells and cultured for 4 days in the
MLR. 3H-TdR uptake was measured at 80-94 h [values are means of
triplicates with standard error bars].
FIG. 6. (FIGS. 6A-6B) Physical properties of the MLR stimulating
cells that develop in GM-CSF supplemented bone marrow cultures [see
text].
6A. Cultures similar to those in FIG. 5 were separated into
nonadherent [open symbols] and loosely adherent fractions [closed
symbols], the latter being cells that could be dislodged by gently
pipetting over the monolayer. For the d4 separations, loosely
adherent cells [mainly granulocytes] were rinsed away at d2, and
for the d6 separation, granulocytes were rinsed away at d2 and d4.
The cells were irradiated and applied in graded doses to allogeneic
T cells as in FIG. 5.
6B. At the indicated time points, free cells and cell aggregates
were dislodged from the stromal monolayer and separated by 1 g
sedimentation. The aggregates were cultured for 1 day to provide
released cells. These cells were irradiated and tested as MLR
stimulators, as were firmly adherent cells that were dislodged in
the presence of 10 mM EDTA [open squares].
FIG. 7. (FIGS. 7A-7F) Cell cytofluorometry of the development of
Ia-positive cells from aggregates within bone marrow cultures
supplemented with GM-CSF.
GM-CSF stimulated, bone marrow cultures [left (7A, 7D),
unfractionated] were compared with loosely attached cell aggregates
[middle (7B, 7E)] and cells released from the aggregates after
overnight culture [right (7C, 7F)]. The cells were taken at day 4
(7A, 7B, 7C) or day 6 (7D, 7E, 7F), so that the released cells were
analyzed at day 5 and day 7. The cells were stained with no primary
mAb [no iry], or with mAb to granulocytes [RB-6] or MHC class II
products [B21-2] followed by FITC-mouse anti-rat Ig.
FIG. 8. FIGS. 8A through 8E are detailed cell cytofluorometric
phenotype analyses of the Ia-positive cells released from the
growing dendritic cell aggregates. Contaminating, Ia-negative
granulocytes were gated out on the basis of lower forward light
scatter, so that one could examine the expression of many surface
antigens on the larger cells using rat (FIGS. 8A through 8D) and
hamster anti-mouse mAbs (7,17) (FIG. 8E) as indicated.
FIG. 9. Quantitation of developing cells that bear the dendritic
cell restricted granule antigens 2A1 and M342.
Dendritic cells contain intracellular granules that react with the
mAb such as M342 and 2A1 (34) mAbs. Ia-negative nonlymphocytes from
mouse marrow were cultured in GM-CSF, and the loosely adherent
granulocytes rinsed away at d2 and d4. The data on day 2 and 4
represent cells that could be dislodged by pipetting, while the
data on d3 and d5-8 were cells released from the monolayer. At each
of the indicated time points, at least 500 cells were counted in
cytospins prepared and stained. [See text]. When cultures are
started at 5.times.10.sup.5 cells/cm.sup.2 and fed with 3/4 volume
fresh medium every 2 days, the yields of total and Ia.sup.+ cells
were at d2, 1.05.times.10.sup.6 and 2.1.times.10.sup.4, at d4
1.81.times.10.sup.6 and 2.12.times.10.sup.5, and at d6,
1.54.times.10.sup.6 and 3.21.times.10.sup.5.
FIG. 10. Progenitor-progeny relationships in growing dendritic
cells. Growing aggregates were separated at d4 from bone marrow
cultures and pulsed with .sup.3 H-TdR at 0.1 .mu.Ci/ml,
3.times.10.sup.5 cells/well, for 12 h. All wells were replaced with
fresh medium and returned to culture for 1, 2, or 3 days of chase.
The yields of released cells during the chase were 2.0, 2.9, and
3.0.times.10.sup.5 respectively per well. The content of Ia.sup.+
cells was 28% after the pulse, and 47%, 55%, and 62% on days 1, 2,
and 3 respectively. The data are shown as percentage of cells that
were radiolabeled, with the filled in bars being cells that express
the 2A1 granule cell antigen of mature dendritic cells.
FIG. 11. Diagram of the proposed pathway of dendritic cell
development in marrow cultures supplemented with GM-CSF. A
proliferating aggregate forms from a precursor that either attaches
to the cell stroma or is itself adherent. During dendritic cell
differentiation, which is evident at the periphery of the aggregate
and in cells released therefrom, there is a progressive increase in
cell processes, MHC class II, NLDC-145 surface antigen, and M342
and 2A1 intracellular antigen [see text] and a progressive decrease
in adherence to plastic.
FIG. 12. (FIGS. 12A-12D) Diff-Quick stains of developing dendritic
cells that have been exposed to latex and carbon.
12A. An aggregate of developing dendritic cells cytospun after a 20
h exposure to 2u latex spheres. Many cells in the aggregate are
labeled with the uniform latex particles [arrows].
12B. Same as A, but the cultures were chased for a day to allow the
production of mature single dendritic cells. Many of the released
dendritic cells contain the uniform and lucent latex spheres
arranged around a clear cut centrosphere [arrows].
12C. Same as A and B, but the aggregates were pulsed with colloidal
carbon and then chased for a day in carbon-free medium. The
centrosphere of some of the mature dendritic cells that release
from the aggregate contain small but clear cut endocytic granules
of black, indigestible phagocytic tracer [arrows].
12D. Mature dendritic cells were exposed to carbon after they had
been produced from proliferating aggregates. Carbon deposits are
not evident.
FIG. 13. (FIGS. 13A-13D) Uptake of BCG into developing dendritic
cells using two-color labels for acid fast bacilli and dendritic
cell antigens. Clusters of developing dendritic cells [6 d marrow
cultures induced with GM-CSF] were exposed for 20 h to BCG. The
monolayers were washed and chased in medium with GM-CSF for 2 d.
The cells were dissociated, labeled with FITC-anti-I-A mAb, and the
class II-rich cells were isolated by cell sorting [most of the
cells in the culture are class II-rich as shown previously (16)].
The sorted cells were cytospun, stained with auramine-rhodamine to
visualize the cell-associated BCG, and double labeled with a
different mAb and immunoperoxidase. The left and right panels of
each pair are phase contrast (FIGS. 13A and 13C) and acid fast
(FIGS. 13B and 13D) views respectively. Arrows on the left indicate
the location of the bacilli on the right. The label for class II,
[I-A and I-E, M5/114] outlines the cell processes better than the
dendritic cell-restricted NLDC-145 antibody.
FIG. 14. (FIGS. 14A-14D) Electron microscopy of BCG in dendritic
cells.
As in FIG. 2, BCG was added to GM-CSF stimulated d6 bone marrow
cultures for a day. After washing and 2 more days of culture, the
released cells were processed for electron microscopy.
14A (.times.5,400), 14B (.times.3,100). Low power views to show the
typical dendritic cells with numerous processes and a few
phagocytosed BCG [arrows].
14C (.times.20,000), 14D (.times.15,000). Higher power views to
show phagosomal membranes against the BCG, as well as organelles of
the dendritic cell centrosphere including endocytic vacuoles [E],
Golgi apparatus [GA], and small vesicles with a dense core [*].
FIG. 15. Antigen presentation to CFA primed (FIG. 15A)/IFA (FIG.
15B) primed T cells.
T cells were purified from lymph nodes that drain paws that had
been primed with complete [CFA] or incomplete [IFA] Freunds
adjuvant. The different APCs are listed. Mature dendritic cells are
d8 bone marrow cultures, and immature dendritic cells are from d5-6
cultures.
FIG. 16. Antigen presentation to naive lymph node T cells in
situ.
Growing cultures of bone marrow dendritic cells were pulsed with
BCG at d5-6, and used immediately or after a 2 d chase culture to
activate T cells. The populations were injected into the paws of
naive mice without artificial adjuvants. Five days later the
draining lymph nodes were taken and stimulated in vitro with graded
doses of PPD or BSA (the dendritic cells had been grown with fetal
calf serum), the BSA to serve as a nonparticulate antigen. Data are
means and standard errors for groups of 5 mice, each studied
separately. Control lymph nodes not exposed to BCG pulsed dendritic
cells did not respond to PPD or to BSA (<2000 cpm).
FIG. 17. (FIGS. 17A-17C) Antigen presentation to naive spleen cells
in situ.
Growing cultures of bone marrow dendritic cells were pulsed with
BCG at d5-6 (immature), at d7-8 (mature), or at d5-6 followed by a
2 d chase. 10.sup.6 cells of each group were injected i.v. into
groups of mice. 5 or 10 days later, the spleen cells were cultured
in vitro with graded doses of PPD (17A and 17C) or BSA (17B) as
antigen. Since the dendritic cells were cultured in FCS, the use of
BSA serves as control to ensure that all dendritic cell populations
were comparably immunogenic in vivo. Unprimed spleen did not
respond to either BSA or PPD.
FIGS. 18A, 18B and 18C. Mixed Leukocyte Reaction (MLR) assay of
human dendritic cells produced according to the method described in
Example 6. Graded doses of irradiated cells (30 to 30,000 in serial
3 fold dilutions) were added to 2.times.10.sup.5 accessory
cell-depleted T cells. The T cell response of cells that had been
cultured the absence of added cytokine (X); and in the presence of
GM-CSF (.smallcircle.); GM-CSF+IL-1.alpha. (.circle-solid.);
GM-CSF+TNF-.alpha. (.quadrature.); GM-CSF+TNF-.alpha.+IL-1.alpha.
(.box-solid.); GM-CSF+IL-3 (.DELTA.); and GM-CSF+IL-3+IL-1
(.tangle-solidup.) was measured with a 16 h pulse of .sup.3
H-thymidine on the 5th day. The response of non-dendritic cells is
also shown in C, (.diamond-solid.). Three different experiments,
shown in FIGS. 18A, 18B, and 18C are presented. Patients providing
cells for experiments A & B were pretreated with G-CSF; patient
in experiment C was pretreated with GM-CSF. Cytokines were used at
the following concentrations: rhu GM-CSF, 400 or 800 U/ml; rhu
IL-1.alpha., 50 LAF units/ml (IL-1.alpha. was present in cultures
only during the last 24 hours prior to harvesting the cells); rhu
TNF-.alpha. 50 U/ml; and rhu IL-3 100 U/ml. The values on the X
axis represent the number of dendritic cells except for X where
dendritic cells were absent and the number is equivalent to total
cell number. Standard deviations of triplicate cultures were
<10% of the mean, and are not shown.
FIG. 19. FIG. 19 comprises FIGS. 19A through 19E which shows
development of DCs in liquid cultures of cord blood mononuclear
cells supplemented with GM-CSF and TNF. After 6 d small adherent
aggregates are visible under the inverted phase contrast microscope
(19A). Higher magnification reveals that they display typical veils
at their edges (white arrows), and are affixed to adherent
spindle-shaped cells (19B). At d14 the DC aggregates have become
much larger (19C), and then finally release typical single DCs
which display many processes (19D, bright field), notably
characteristic veils (arrow indicates one such veil that appears en
face) (19E, phase contrast). 19A, 19C, .times.25; 19B, .times.100;
19D, 19E, .times.350.
FIG. 20. FIG. 20 comprises FIGS. 20A through 20F and shows T cell
stimulatory function (1.degree. allogeneic MLR) of dendritic cells
(DC) grown from cord blood with GM-CSF+TNF .alpha. (20A), DC grown
with GM-CSF+TNF from blood of cancer patients after high-dose
chemotherapy and G-CSF treatment (20B), and DC grown from normal
peripheral blood with GM-CSF+TNF .alpha. (20C) or with GM-CSF+IL-4
(20D, 20E, 20F). Responder cells were purified T lymphocytes
(2.times.10.sup.5 in 96 flat bottom wells). Equal numbers of
irradiated (3000 rad, .sup.137 Cs) blood DC (closed circles in all
panels) as identified by FACS analyses (CD1a.sup.+ /HLA-DR.sup.+
cells, compare FIG. 23) were compared both to cultured epidermal
Langerhans cells [LC] from the same donor in 20D and to poorly
stimulating cell populations (whole PBMC in 20D, and 20E; adherent
macrophages from the same cultures in 20C; control cultures grown
in the absence of cytokines in 20F [open triangles]). Note that DC
are 10-50-fold stronger than PBMC (20D, 20E) or macrophages (20C)
and that they are comparable to DC from skin (20D). In addition,
20B and 20E show the enhancing effect of IL-1 (added during the
last 24 h of culture) on the T cell stimulatory capacity of DC.
Without cytokines no immunostimulatory DC develop in the cultures
(20F).
FIG. 21. FIG. 21 comprises FIGS. 21A through 21C which shows
development of DCs in liquid cultures of normal, adult blood
mononuclear cells supplemented with GM-CSF+IL-4. On d2.5 small
adherent DC aggregates are readily visible under the inverted phase
contrast microscope (21A). On d7 the DC aggregates have become
nonadherent, very large, and loose (21B). The nonadherent fraction
of the cultures was harvested and vigorously resuspended to obtain
single DCs in large numbers (21C, arrows mark some veils). 21A,
21B, .times.25; 21C, .times.500.
FIG. 22. FIG. 22 comprises FIGS. 22A through 22D and shows
phenotype and proliferation characteristics of DCs grown from
normal blood with GM-CSF+IL-4. Fluorescence pictures in each row
represent identical microscopic fields of double-labeled cytospin
preparations. Left panels are stained with anti-HLA-DR. DC grown in
GM-CSF and IL-4 are strongly HLA-DR positive (22A, left) but
display only a dull spot of anti-CD68 reactivity (22A right). In
contrast, control cells grown in parallel without cytokines (mainly
macrophages) show an inverted pattern: very low HLA-DR (22B, left)
but brilliant CD68 expression (22B, right). MAb Lag (22C, right)
identifies occasional Birbeck granule containing cells in the
center of an HLA-DR-expressing aggregate of DC (22C, left).
Peroxidase staining of nuclei and nucleoli with mAb Ki-67 (22D)
demonstrates that proliferation occurs predominantly in aggregates
(22D, left); singly dispersed DC derived from firmly adherent cells
(see text) are not stained (22D, right). 22A-22C, .times.200; 22D,
.times.100.
FIG. 23 Cytofluorographic analysis of dendritic cells (DC) grown
from normal peripheral blood with GM-CSF+IL-4. Two different
representative experiments are shown. Epidermal Langerhans cells
(LC) cultured for 3 d were included in one experiment for
comparison. Three color immunolabeling was performed. Cells were
stained with different mouse mAb's followed in sequence by
biotinylated anti-mouse Ig, streptavidin-phycoerythrin, mouse Ig
for blocking free binding sites, and FITC-conjugated anti-HLA-DR.
Dead cells and lymphocytes were excluded from analysis by propidium
iodide staining and light scatter properties, respectively. More
than 90% of the remaining cells were strongly MHC-class II positive
and constituted DC. The phenotype of this population is shown here
(shaded curves). Isotype-matched control antibodies are included in
each histogram (bold curves). Blood DC display a phenotype typical
for DC as described and almost identical to cultured LC in direct
comparison (Lenz, et al. (1993). J. Clin. Invest., 92:2587;
Freudenthal, P. S. and R. M. Steinman. (1990) Proc. Natl. Acad.
Sci. USA., 87:7698; Romani, et al. (1989) J. Invest. Dermatol.,
93:600; O'Doherty, et al. (1993) J. Exp. Med., 178:1067. Notably,
they do not express CD14 but have high levels of MHC molecules
(HLA-ABC, DR, DQ, DP), adhesions (CD54, CD58, CD11a*, CD11c), and
costimulatory molecules (CD40, B7/CD80). They are also negative
with markers for granulocytes (CD15), NK cells (CD16), B cells
(CD19*, CD20), and T cells (CD3, CD8*). Expression of CD5 and the
staining pattern of CD45RA and -RO are as described for DC isolated
from fresh blood O'Doherty, et al. (1993) J. Exp. Med., 178:1067
(34).
FIG. 24. Ultrastructure of DCs grown from normal, adult blood
mononuclear cells with GM-CSF+IL-4. Low power view (.times.4,700)
shows three profiles of DCs. Arrowheads indicate veils, i.e. thin
cytoplasmic processes devoid of organelles. Area marked by bracket
is shown at higher magnification (.times.33,000) to demonstrate the
characteristic abundance of mitochondria and paucity of
lysosomes/phagosomes.
DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION
This invention relates to a method of producing cultures of
proliferating dendritic cell precursors which mature in vitro to
mature dendritic cells. The dendritic cells and the dendritic cell
precursors produced according to the method of the invention may be
produced in amounts suitable for various immunological
interventions for the prevention and treatment of disease.
The starting material for the method of producing dendritic cell
precursors and mature dendritic cells is a tissue source comprising
dendritic cell precursors which precursor cells are capable of
proliferating and maturing in vitro into dendritic cells when
treated according to the method of the invention. Such precursor
cells are nonadherent and typically do not label with mAb markers
found on mature dendritic cells such as Ia antigens, 2A1 and M342
antigens (34, 44) and the NLDC145 interdigitating cell source
antigen (13). Preferably such tissue sources are spleen, afferent
lymph, bone marrow and blood. More preferred tissue sources are
bone marrow and blood. Blood is also a preferred tissue source of
precursor cells because it is easily accessible and could be
obtained in relatively large quantities.
To increase the number of dendritic precursor cells in animals,
including humans it is preferable to treat such individuals with
substances which stimulate hematopoiesis. Such substances include
G-CSF, GM-CSF and may include other factors which promote
hematopoiesis. The amount of hematopoietic factor to be
administered may be determined by one skilled in the art by
monitoring the cell differential of individuals to whom the factor
is being administered. Typically, dosages of factors such as G-CSF
and GM-CSF will be similar to the dosage used to treat individuals
recovering from treatment with cytotoxic agents. Preferably, GM-CSF
or G-CSF is administered for 4 to 7 days at standard doses prior to
removal of source tissue to increase the proportion of dendritic
cell precursors. (Editorial, Lancet, 339: Mar. 14, 1992, 648-649).
For example, we have determined that dosages of G-CSF of 300
micrograms daily for 5 to 13 days and dosages of GM-CSF of 400
micrograms daily for 4 to 19 days have resulted in significant
yields of dendritic cells.
Fetal or umbilical cord blood, which is also rich in growth factors
is also a preferred source of blood for obtaining precursor
dendritic cells.
According to a method of the invention, the tissue source may be
treated prior to culturing to enrich the proportion of dendritic
precursor cells relative to other cell types. Such pretreatment may
also remove cells which may compete with the proliferation of
dendritic precursor cells or inhibit their proliferation or
survival. Pretreatment may also be used to make the tissue source
more suitable for in vitro culture. The method of treatment will
likely be tissue specific depending on the particular tissue
source. For example, spleen or bone marrow if used as a tissue
source would first be treated so as to obtain single cells followed
by suitable cell separation techniques to separate leukocytes from
other cell types. Treatment of blood would involve cell separation
techniques to separate leukocytes from other cells types including
red blood cells (RBCs) which are toxic. Removal of RBCs may be
accomplished by standard methods known to those skilled in the art.
In addition, antitoxins such as anti-erythroid monoclonal VIE-64
antibody which bind RBCs may be used to facilitate binding of RBC
to a substrate for removal using a panning technique.
According to a preferred method of this invention, when bone marrow
is used as the tissue source, B cells are removed prior to
culturing of bone marrow in GM-CSF. While B cells and pre-B cells
do not grow in response to GM-CSF, they represent approximately 50%
of the initial marrow suspension and thereby preclude the use of
staining with anti-Ia monoclonal antibodies to quickly enumerate
dendritic cells. Additionally, granulocytes are GM-CSF responsive
and readily proliferate in the presence of GM-CSF. As such, the B
cells and granulocytes mask the presence of dendritic cell
precursors. B cells can express the M342 and 2A1 granular antigens
that are useful markers for distinguishing dendritic cells from
macrophages and granulocytes. Moreover, granulocytes have a
tendency to overgrow the cultures and compete for available GM-CSF.
The most preferred method under this invention is to remove the
majority of nonadherent, newly-formed granulocytes from the bone
marrow cultures by gentle washes during the first 2-4 days in
culture.
Preferably, in one form of pretreatment cells which compete and
mask the proliferation of precursor dendritic cells are killed.
Such pretreatment comprises killing cells expressing antigens which
are not expressed on dendritic precursor cells by contacting bone
marrow with antibodies specific for antigens not present on
dendritic precursor cells in a medium comprising complement.
Another form of pretreatment to remove undesirable cells suitable
for use with this invention is adsorbing the undesirable precursor
cells or their precursors onto a solid support using antibodies
specific for antigens expressed on the undesirable cells. Several
methods of adsorbing cells to solid supports of various types are
known to those skilled in the art and are suitable for use with
this invention. For example, undesirable cells may be removed by
"panning" using a plastic surface such as a petri dish.
Alternatively, other methods which are among those suitable include
adsorbing cells onto magnetic heads to be separated by a magnetic
force; or immunobeads to be separated by gravity. Non adsorbed
cells containing an increased proportion of dendritic cell
precursors may then be separated from the cells adsorbed to the
solid support by known means including panning. These pretreatment
step serves a dual purpose: they destroy or revives the precursors
of non-dendritic cells in the culture while increasing the
proportion of dendritic cell precursors competing for GM-CSF in the
culture.
In addition, Ia-positive cells, i.e. B cells and macrophages
preferably are killed by culturing the cells in the presence of a
mixture of anti Ia-antibodies, preferably monoclonal antibodies,
and complement. Mature dendritic cells which are also present in
bone marrow are also killed when the cells from the bone marrow are
cultured in the presence of anti Ia-antibodies, however, these
mature dendritic cells occur in such low quantities in the blood
and bone marrow and possess such distinct antigenic markers from
dendritic cell precursors that killing of these mature dendritic
cells will not significantly effect the proliferation and yield of
dendritic cell precursors. T and B cells as well as monocytes which
also may be present in the bone marrow may be killed by including
antibodies directed against T and B cell antigens and monocytes.
Such antigens include but are not limited to CD3, CD4, the B cell
antigen B220, thy-1, CD8 and monocyte antigens. The remaining
viable cells from the bone marrow are then cultured in medium
supplemented with about 500-1000 U/ml GM-CSF and cultured as
described below. It should be noted that CD4 and CD8 antigens may
be present on young dendritic cell precursors, therefore,
antibodies directed to these antigens may deplete the dendritic
cell precursor populations.
When blood is used as a tissue source, blood leukocytes may be
obtained using conventional methods which maintain their viability.
According to the preferred method of the invention, blood is
diluted into medium (preferably RPMI) containing heparin (about 100
U/ml) or other suitable anticoagulant. The volume of blood to
medium is about 1 to 1. Cells are pelleted and washed by
centrifugation of the blood in medium at about 1000 rpm (150g) at
4.degree. C. Platelets and red blood cells are depleted by
suspending the cell pellet in a mixture of medium and ammonium
chloride. Preferably the mixture of medium to ammonium chloride
(final concentration 0.839 percent) is about 1:1 by volume. Cells
are pelleted by centrifugation and washed about 2 more times in the
medium-ammonium chloride mixture, or until a population of
leukocytes, substantially free of platelets and red blood cells, is
obtained.
Any isotonic solution commonly used in tissue culture may be used
as the medium for separating blood leukocytes from platelets and
red blood cells. Examples of such isotonic solutions are phosphate
buffered saline, Hanks balanced salt solution, or complete growth
mediums including for example RPMI 1640. RPMI 1640 is
preferred.
Cells obtained from treatment of the tissue source are cultured to
form a primary culture on an appropriate substrate in a culture
medium supplemented with GM-CSF or a GM-CSF derivative protein or
peptide having an amino acid sequence which sequence maintains
biologic activity typical of GM-CSF. The appropriate substrate may
be any tissue culture compatible surface to which cells may adhere.
Preferably, the substrate is commercial plastic treated for use in
tissue culture. Examples include various flasks, roller bottles,
petri dishes and multi-well containing plates made for use in
tissue culture. Surfaces treated with a substance, for example
collagen or poly-L-lysine, or antibodies specific for a particular
cell type to promote cell adhesion may also be used provided they
allow for the differential attachment of cells as described below.
Cells are preferably plated at an initial cell density of about
7.5.times.10.sup.5 cells per cm.sup.2. At this dose, the surface is
not fully covered by cells, but there are no big spaces (2-3 cell
diameters) either.
When bone marrow which has been treated to reduce the proportion of
non-dendritic cell precursors is cultured, aggregates comprising
proliferating dendritic cell precursors are formed. The Ia-negative
marrow nonlymphocytes comprising dendritic cell precursors are
preferably cultured in high numbers, about 10.sup.6 /well
(5.times.10.sup.5 cells/cm.sup.2) Liquid marrow cultures which are
set up for purposes other than culturing dendritic cell precursors
are typically seeded at 1/10th this dose, but it is then difficult
to identify and isolate the aggregates of developing dendritic
cells.
The growth medium for the cells at each step of the method of the
invention should allow for the survival and proliferation of the
precursor dendritic cells. Any growth medium typically used to
culture cells may be used according to the method of the invention
provided the medium is supplemented with GM-CSF. Preferred medias
include RPMI 1640, DMEM and .alpha.-MEM, with added amino acids and
vitamins supplemented with an appropriate amount of serum or a
defined set of hormones and an amount of GM-CSF sufficient to
promote proliferation of dendritic precursor cells. Serum-free
medium supplemented with hormones is also suitable for culturing
the dendritic cell precursors. RPMI 1640 supplemented with 5% fetal
calf serum (FCS) and GM-CSF is preferred. Cells may be selected or
adapted to grow in other serums and at other concentrations of
serum. Cells from human tissue may also be cultured in medium
supplemented with human serum rather than FCS. Medias may contain
antibiotics to minimize bacteria infection of the cultures.
Penicillin, streptomycin or gentamicin or combinations containing
them are preferred. The medium, or a portion of the medium, in
which the cells are cultured should be periodically replenished to
provide fresh nutrients including GM-CSF.
GM-CSF has surprisingly been found to promote the proliferation in
vitro of precursor dendritic cells. Cells are cultured in the
presence of GM-CSF at a concentration sufficient to promote the
survival and proliferation of dendritic cell precursors. The dose
depends on the amount of competition from other cells (especially
macrophages and granulocytes) for the GM-CSF, or to the presence of
GM-CSF inactivators in the cell population. Preferably, the cells
are cultured in the presence of between about 1 and 1000 U/ml of
GM-CSF. More preferably cells from blood are cultured in the
presence of GM-CSF at a concentration of between about 30 and 100
U/ml. This dose has been found to be necessary and sufficient for
maximal responses by cells obtained from mouse blood. Most
preferably, cells are cultured in the presence of GM-CSF at a
concentration of about 30 U/ml. GM-CSF at a concentration of
between about 400-800 U/ml has been found to be optimal for
culturing proliferating human dendritic cells from blood. Cells
from bone marrow require higher concentrations of GM-CSF because of
the presence of large numbers of proliferating granulocytes which
compete for the available GM-CSF, therefore, doses between about
500-1000 U/ml are preferred for cultures of cells obtained from
marrow.
When suspensions of mouse bone marrow are cultured in the presence
of GM-CSF, three types of myeloid cells expand in numbers. (1)
Neutrophils predominate but do not adhere to the culture surface.
Neutrophils have a characteristic nuclear morphology, express the
RB-6 antigen, and lack MHC class II products. (2) Macrophages are
firmly adherent to the culture vessel, express substantial levels
of the F4/80 antigen, and for the most part express little or no
MHC class II [but see below].
When mouse or human blood leukocytes are cultured in GM-CSF at 30
U/ml or 400-800 U/ml, respectively, the cultures develop a large
number of aggregates or cell balls from which typical dendritic
cells are eventually released. In the absence of GM-CSF, no
colonies develop. Cytologic criteria may be used to initially
detect the dendritic cells which characteristically extend large,
sheet-like processes or veils (25-27).
GM-CSF may be isolated from natural sources, produced using
recombinant DNA techniques or prepared by chemical synthesis. As
used herein, GM-CSF includes GM-CSF produced by any method and from
any species. "GM-CSF" is defined herein as any bioactive analog,
fragment or derivative of the naturally occurring (native) GM-CSF.
Such fragments or derivative forms of GM-CSF should also promote
the proliferation in culture of dendritic cell precursors. In
addition GM-CSF peptides having biologic activity can be identified
by their ability to bind GM-CSF receptors on appropriate cell
types.
It may be desirable to include additional cytokines in the culture
medium in addition to GM-CSF to further increase the yield of
dendritic cells. Such cytokines include granulocyte
colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF), monocyte-macrophage
colony-stimulating factor (M-CSF), interleukins 1 .alpha. and 1
.beta., 3, 4, 6, and 13 (IL-1 .alpha., IL-1.beta., IL-3, IL-4, IL6,
and IL-13 respectively), tumor necrosis factor .alpha.
(TNF.alpha.), and stem cell factor (SCF). Cytokines are used in
amounts which are effective in increasing the proportion of
dendritic cells present in the culture either by enhancing
proliferation or survival of dendritic cell precursors. Preferably,
cytokines are present in the following concentrations: IL-1.alpha.
and .beta., 1 to 100 LAF units/ml; TNF-.alpha., 5-500 U/ml; IL-3,
25-500 U/ml; M-CSF, 100-1000 U/ml; G-CSF, 25-300 U/ml; SCF, 10-100
ng/ml; IL-4, 500-1000 U/ml and IL-6, 10-100 ng/ml. More preferred
concentrations of cytokines are: IL-1.alpha., 50 LAF units/ml;
TNF.alpha., 50 U/ml; IL-3, 100 U/ml; M-CSF, 300 U/ml; and G-CSF,
100 U/ml. Preferred cytokines are human proteins. Most preferred
cytokines are produced from the human gene using recombinant
techniques (rhu). (TNF.alpha.) at concentrations from about 10-50
U/ml may be used to increase dendritic cell yields several
fold.
In certain tissue sources the presence of non-dendritic cell
precursors or stem cells capable of maturing to non-dendritic cells
may reduce the proportion of mature dendritic cells obtained. It
may therefore be desirable to reduce the population of
non-dendritic cells present in the culture by including factors
which inhibit the proliferation or maturation of non-dendritic cell
precursors. For example, if human blood isolated from healthy
humans is the tissue source for dendritic precursors it is
preferred that isolated peripheral blood mononuclear cells are
cultured in GM-CSF and at least one additional agent. This agent
should inhibit the proliferation and/or maturation of other cell
types within the culture. It is preferable that such an agent
inhibit macrophage proliferation and/or maturation without
substantially inhibiting dendritic cell proliferation and/or
maturation. Examples of such a macrophage inhibiting agent
includes, but are not limited to, IL-4 and IL-13. A suggested range
for IL-4 is 500-1000 U/ml. It is preferred that the IL-4 be present
at the start or immediately thereafter of the culture. The IL-4 may
be isolated from natural sources or recombinantly produced.
Without being bound by theory the TNF-.alpha. may facilitate the
proliferation of dendritic progenitors present in human cord blood
and human blood isolated from chemotherapeutic patients pretreated
with GM-CSF but does not enhance proliferation of many dendritic
precursors present in normal human blood.
GM-CSF, however is essential for the proliferation and maturation
of dendritic cell precursors.
TNF-.alpha. appears to facilitate the proliferation of dendritic
cell progenitors cultured in GM-CSF found in cord blood (Caux et al
Nature (1992) 360:258-261; example 8 and blood isolated from
chemotherapeutic patients pretreated with GM-CSF). However
TNF-.alpha. does not appear to facilitate dendritic cell
proliferation in many dendritic cell progenitors isolated from
normal human blood and cultured in GM-CSF (see example 8).
TNF-.alpha. may, however negatively impact on antigen retention and
presentation in non-proliferating dendritic cells. In another
embodiment of this invention proliferating dendritic cell are
cultured in the presence of GM-CSF and TNF-.alpha. at a time
sufficient to allow increased proliferation of the dendritic cell
progenitors without impairing the antigen presenting and retention
abilities of the dendritic cell.
The primary cultures from the tissue source are allowed to incubate
at about 37.degree. C. under standard tissue culture conditions of
humidity and pH until a population of cells has adhered to the
substrate sufficiently to allow for the separation of nonadherent
cells. The dendritic cell precursor in blood initially is
nonadherent to plastic, in contrast to monocytes, so that the
precursors can be separated after overnight culture. Monocytes and
fibroblasts are believed to comprise the majority of adherent cells
and usually adhere to the substrate within about 6 to about 24
hours. Preferably nonadherent cells are separated from adherent
cells between about 8 to 16 hours. Most preferably nonadherent
cells are separated at about 12 hours. Any method which does not
dislodge significant quantities of adherent cells may be used to
separate the adherent from nonadherent cells. Preferably, the cells
are dislodged by simple shaking or pipetting. Pipetting is most
preferred.
To culture precursor cells from human blood from this primary
culture, cells which have been depleted of cells that are not
dendritic cell precursors are cultured on a substrate at a density
of preferably about 5.times.10.sup.5 cells per cm.sup.2. After 5
days, with feedings every other day, cell aggregates appear (also
referred to as "balls"). These aggregates may then be treated as
described below.
The nonadherent cells from the primary culture are subcultured by
transferring them to new culture flasks at a density sufficient to
allow for survival of the cells and which results in the
development over time of clusters of growing cells that are loosely
attached to the culture surface or to the firmly adherent cells on
the surface. These clusters are the nidus of proliferating
dendritic cell precursors. As used herein "culture flasks" refers
to any vessel suitable for culturing cells. It is desirable to
subculture all of the nonadherent cells from the primary culture at
a density of between about 2.times.10.sup.5 cells and
5.times.10.sup.5 cells per cm.sup.2. Preferably at about
2.5.times.10.sup.5 per cm.sup.2. Cells are incubated for a
sufficient time to allow the surface of the culture dish to become
covered with a monolayer of tightly adherent cells including
macrophages and fibroblasts affixed to which are aggregates of
nonadherent cells. At this time, any nonadherent cells are removed
from the wells, and the cellular aggregates are dislodged for
subculturing. Preferably the cells from the aggregates are
subcultured after about 10 days or when the number of aggregated
cells per cm.sup.2 reaches about 3 to 4.times.10.sup.5.
For serially subculturing the aggregated cells, the aggregated
cells are dislodged from the adherent cells and the aggregated
cells are subcultured on a total surface area of preferably between
about 2 to 5 times that of the surface area of the parent culture.
More preferably the cells are subcultured on a surface area that is
about 3 times the surface area of the parent culture. Cells having
sheet-like processes typical of dendritic cells appear in the
culture at about 4-7 days. Between about day 10 and day 17 of
culture the number of single cells that can be recovered from a
given surface area doubles. Both dendritic cell precursors and
mature dendritic cells are present in the aggregates.
For producing dendritic cell from bone marrow, preferably the
distinctive aggregates of proliferating, less mature dendritic
cells are separated away from the stroma at about after about 4-6 d
of culture. Large numbers of dendritic cells are released and it is
this released population that expresses the cardinal features of
mature dendritic cells. Because bone marrow initially contains a
greater proportion of dendritic cell precursors than blood, only
about 4-6 days of culture of the cells obtained from bone marrow
are necessary to achieve about the same number of cells which are
obtained after about 10 to 25 days of culture of cells obtained
from blood.
To further expand the blood derived population of dendritic cells,
cell aggregates may be serially subcultured multiple times at
intervals which provide for the continued proliferation of
dendritic cell precursors. Preferably, aggregates are subcultured
prior to the release into the medium of a majority of cells having
the dendritic cell morphology, for example between about 3 and 30
days. More preferably aggregates of cells are subcultured between
about 10 to 25 days in culture, and most preferably at 20 days. The
number of times the cells are serially subcultured depends on the
number of cells desired, the viability of the cells, and the
capacity of the cultures to continue to produce cell aggregates
from which dendritic cells are released. Preferably, cells can be
serially subcultured for between about 1 to 2 months from when the
nonadherent cells were subcultured or between about one to five
times. More preferably cells are serially subcultured about two to
three times. Most preferably cells are serially subcultured
twice.
According to a preferred method, to serially subculture the cells
of the primary and subsequent cultures, cells are dislodged by
pipetting most of the aggregates of growing dendritic cells as well
as some cells in the monolayer of growing macrophages and
fibroblasts. Pipetting usually disrupts the aggregates,
particularly the peripheral cells of the aggregates which are more
mature. With time in culture, e.g., at 2 weeks, the aggregates of
the growing dendritic cells become more stable and it is possible
to dislodge the aggregates for separation by 1 g sedimentation.
Alternative approaches may be used to isolate the mature dendritic
cells from the growing cultures. One is to remove cells that are
nonadherent and separate the aggregates from cells attached to
substrate and single cells by 1 g sedimentation. Dendritic cells
are then released in large numbers from the aggregates over an
additional 1-2 days of culture, while any mature dendritic cells
can be isolated from other single cells by floatation on dense
metrizamide as described (Freudenthal and Steinman, Proc. Natl.
Acad. Sci. USA 87:7698-7702, 1990). The second method, which is
simpler but essentially terminates the growth phase of the
procedure, is to harvest all the nonadherent cells when the
aggregates are very large, leave the cells on ice for about 20
minutes, resuspend vigorously with a pipette to disaggregate the
aggregates and float the mature dendritic cells on metrizamide
columns.
Typically the contents of five 16 mm wells are applied to a 6 ml
column of 50% FCS -RPMI 1640 in a 15 ml conical tube [Sarstedt,
62.553.002 PS]. After at least 20 min, the applied medium and top 1
ml of the column are removed. RPMI is added, the aggregates are
pelleted at 1000 rpm at 4.degree. for 5 min, and the cells are
suspended gently for subculture in fresh medium.
Various techniques may be used to identify the cells present in the
cultures. These techniques may include analysis of morphology,
detecting cell type specific antigens with monoclonal antibodies,
identifying proliferating cells using tritiated thymidine
autoradiography, assaying mixed leukocyte reactions, and
demonstrating dendritic cell homing.
The dendritic cells besides being identified by their sellate shape
may also be identified by detecting their expression of specific
antigens using monoclonal antibodies.
A panel of monoclonal antibodies may be used to identify and
characterize the cells in the GM-CSF expanded cultures. The
monoclonal antibodies are reviewed elsewhere (23, 24 which are
incorporated herein by reference).
Among the specific monoclonal antibodies suitable for identifying
mature dendritic cells are: 1) those which bind to the MHC class I
antigen (M1/42 anti-MHC class I [ATCC # TIB 126]); 2) those which
bind to the MHC class II antigen (B21-2 anti-MHC class II [ATCC #
TIB 229]; M5/114 anti-MHC class II [ATCC # TIB 120]); 3) those
which bind to heat stable antigen (M1/69 anti-heat stable antigen
[HSA, ATCC #TIB 125]); 4) 33D1 anti-dendritic cell antibodies [ATCC
# TIB 227]; 5) those which bind to the interdigitating cell antigen
(NLDC145 anti-interdigitating cell (13); and 6) those which bind to
antigens in granules in the perinuclear region of mature dendritic
cells (monoclonal antibodies 2A1 and M342, (23) Agger et al.).
Other antigens which are expressed by the dendritic cells of the
invention and which may be used to identify mature dendritic cells
are CD44 (identified with monoclonal antibody 2D2C), and CD11b
(identified with monoclonal antibody M1/70. The M1/69, M1/70, M1/42
monoclonal antibodies are described in Monoclonal antibodies, NY,
Plenum 1980, ed. R. Kennett et al. pages 185-217 which is
incorporated herein by reference. Those of skill in the art will
recognize that other antibodies may be made and characterized which
are suitable for identifying mature dendritic cells. Similarly, the
production of dendritic precursor cells also facilitates the
production of antibodies specific for dendritic precursor
cells.
To identify and phenotype the proliferating cells and their
progeny, cultures may be labelled with tritiated thymidine to
identify the cells in the S phase of mitosis. In addition to
labelling the cells with a mitotic label, cells may also be
co-labelled with monoclonal antibodies to determine when markers
associated with mature dendritic cells are expressed. The
distinctive phenotype of the dendritic cell precursors is stable so
that for example, the dendritic cell progeny do not become
macrophages even when maintained in macrophage colony stimulating
factor (M-CSF).
Another index of dendritic cell maturity is the ability of mature
dendritic cells to stimulate the proliferation of T-cells in the
mixed leukocyte reaction (MLR). The ability of dendritic cells to
migrate to lymph nodes, i.e., dendritic cell homing is another
index of dendritic cell maturation which may be used to assess the
maturity of the cells in culture.
The criteria that have become evident for identifying dendritic
precursor cells according to the invention enables the
identification of proliferating progenitors of dendritic cells in
other organs. It is known that proliferating precursors give rise
to the rapidly turning over populations of dendritic cells in
spleen (15) and afferent lymph (16). The proliferation of
leukocytes [other than T cells] occurs in the bone marrow, but it
may be that for dendritic cells, the marrow also seeds the blood
and other tissues with progenitors which then proliferate
extensively as shown here. By being able to prepare the otherwise
trace dendritic cell in large numbers according to the method of
this invention, other previously unexplored areas of dendritic cell
function may now be determined. Specifically, growing dendritic
cells will facilitate molecular and clinical studies on the
mechanism of action of these APCs, including their capacities to
capture and retain antigens in an immunogenic form and act as
adjuvants for the generation of immunity in vivo.
There is an increased interest in the use of constituent proteins
and peptides to modulate T cell responses to complex microbial and
cellular antigens in situ. Typically artificial adjuvants such as
alum are required to produce a maximum immunogenic effect. Several
antigens are known to be immunogenic when administered in
association with dendritic cells but in the absence of additional
adjuvants (1). The immunogenicity of dendritic cells in situ has
been shown with for example contact allergens (45), transplantation
antigens (46-49), and more recently foreign proteins (31,50,51).
Other types of antigens include but are not limited to microbial,
tumor and viral antigens. Dendritic cells serve directly as APCs in
situ, because the T cells that are primed are restricted to
recognize only antigens presented by the particular MHC class of
the immunizing dendritic cells rather than host APCs (14,31,50,51).
These observations, when coupled with data that dendritic cells are
efficient at capturing protein antigens in an immunogenic form in
situ (52-54), allow these APCs to be considered "nature's
adjuvant". This invention therefore enables the utilization of
dendritic cells by disclosing methods and compositions suitable for
providing sufficient quantities of dendritic cell precursors in
order to take advantage of their unique antigen presenting
capabilities in clinical and therapeutic practices.
Dendritic cells are capable of processing complex antigens into
those peptides that would be presented by self MHC products. Among
the preferred embodiments of our invention is a method for using
dendritic cells whereby the dendritic cell precursors internalize
particulates during an early stage in their development from
proliferating progenitors. We have established that stimulation of
bone marrow suspensions with GM-CSF leads to the production of
clusters of proliferating dendritic cell precursors. The cells that
pulse label with 3H-thymidine in the clusters lack many of the
characteristic markers of dendritic cells, e.g., stellate shape and
antigenic features like NLDC-145 antigen and high levels of MHC
class II. In pulse chase experiments, 3H-thymidine-labeled progeny
with all the features of dendritic cells are released. We have
found that cells within the aggregate also are phagocytic, and that
in analogous pulse chase protocols, the progeny dendritic cells are
clearly labeled with the phagocytic meal. When the particles are
BCG organisms such as those causing tuberculosis, mycobacterial
antigens associated with the dendritic cells are presented in a
potent manner to T cells in vitro and in situ.
Foreign and autoantigens are processed by the dendritic cells of
the invention to retain their immunogenic form. The immunogenic
form of the antigen implies processing the antigen through
fragmentation to produce a form of the antigen that can be
recognized by and stimulate T cells. Preferably, such foreign or
autoantigens are proteins which are processed into peptides by the
dendritic cells. The relevant peptides which are produced by the
dendritic cells may be extracted and purified for use as
immunogens.
Peptides processed by the dendritic cells may also be used as
toleragens to induce tolerance to the proteins processed by the
dendritic cells or dendritic cell precursors. Preferably when used
as toleragens, the processed peptides are presented on dendritic
cells which have been treated to reduce their capacity to provoke
an immune response as by inhibiting their accessory function by
blocking accessory molecules such as B7 present on the dendritic
cells.
The antigen-activated dendritic cells of the invention are produced
by exposing antigen, in vitro, to the dendritic cells prepared
according to the method of the invention. Dendritic cells are
plated in culture dishes and exposed to antigen in a sufficient
amount and for a sufficient period of time to allow the antigen to
bind to the dendritic cells. The amount and time necessary to
achieve binding of the antigen to the dendritic cells may be
determined by immunoassay or binding assay. Other methods known to
those of skill in the art may be used to detect the presence of
antigen on the dendritic cells following their exposure to
antigen.
Without being bound by theory, the information at present suggests
that the development of dendritic cells proceeds by the following
pathway [FIG. 11]. The dendritic cell precursors in both blood and
marrow lack MHC class II antigens as well as B and T cell and
monocyte markers [B220, CD3, thy-1, CD4/8], and the precursors are
nonadherent. The precursors attach to the stroma and give rise to
aggregates of class II positive cells. Perhaps the growing
aggregates arise from a subset of strongly class II-positive cells
that are found in the firmly adherent monolayer even at later time
points. However, these firmly adherent, class II rich cells lack
the MLR stimulatory activity of dendritic cells and may express
substantial levels of Fc.gamma. receptors and the F4/80 antigen.
The final stage of development is that the loosely attached
aggregate releases mature, nonproliferating dendritic cells. The
latter have even higher levels of MHC class II [FIGS. 2-3] and can
attach transiently to plastic, much like many of the dendritic
cells released from spleen (25). As development occurs in the
aggregate, there seems to be a reduction in the levels of
cytoplasmic staining for Fc.gamma. receptors and F4/80 antigen, and
an increase in granule [M342, 2A1] and surface antigens [33D1,
NLDC145] that are characteristic of dendritic cells. Lastly,
accessory function for primary T-dependent immune responses
increases as cells are released from the growing aggregates.
Mature dendritic cells, while effective in sensitizing T cells to
several different antigens, show little or no phagocytic activity.
To the extent that endocytosis is required for antigen processing
and presentation, it was not previously evident how dendritic cells
would present particle-associated peptides. Based on our work, it
is now evident that progenitors to dendritic cells which this
invention provides can internalize such particles for processing
and presentation. The types of particles which may be internalized
by phagocytosis include bacteria, viral, mycobacteria or other
infectious agents capable of causing disease. Accordingly, any
antigenic particle which is internalized and processed by the
dendritic cell precursors of this invention is also suitable for
making the various immunogens, toleragens and vaccines described as
part of this invention. Processing of antigen by dendritic cells or
dendritic cell precursors includes the fragmentation of an antigen
into antigen fragments which are then presented.
Phagocytoses of particulate matter by dendritic cell precursors may
be accomplished by culturing the dendritic cell precursors in the
presence of particulate matter for a time sufficient to allow the
cells to phagocytose, process and present the antigen. Preferably,
culturing of the cells in the presence of the particles should be
for a period of between 1 to 48 hours. More preferably, culturing
cells in the presence of particulate matter will be for about 20
hours. Those of skill in the art will recognize that the length of
time necessary for a cell to phagocytose a particle will be
dependent on the cell type and the nature of the particle being
phagocytosed. Methods to monitor the extent of such phagocytosis
are well known to those skilled in the art.
Cells should be exposed to antigen for sufficient time to allow
antigens to be internalized and presented on the cell surface. The
time necessary for the cells to internalize and present the
processed antigen may be determined using pulse-chase protocols in
which exposure to antigen is followed by a wash-out period. Once
the minimum time necessary for cells to express processed antigen
on their surface is determined, a pulse-chase protocol may be used
to prepare cells and antigens for eliciting immunogenic
responses.
The phagocytic dendritic precursor cells are obtained by
stimulating cell cultures comprising dendritic precursor cells with
GM-CSF to induce aggregates of growing dendritic cells. These
dendritic precursor cells may be obtained from any of the source
tissues containing dendritic cell precursors described above.
Preferably, the source tissue is bone marrow or blood cultures.
Cells within these aggregates are clearly phagocytic. If the
developing cultures are exposed to particles, washed and "chased"
for 2 days, the number of MHC-class II rich dendritic cells
increases substantially and at least 50% contain internalized
particles such as BCG mycobacteria or latex particles. The
mycobacteria-laden, newly developed, dendritic cells are much more
potent in presenting antigens to primed T cells than corresponding
cultures of mature dendritic cells that are exposed to a pulse of
organisms.
A similar situation pertains when BCG-charged, dendritic cells are
injected into the footpad or blood stream of naive mice. Those
dendritic cells that have phagocytosed organisms induce the
strongest T cell responses to mycobacterial antigens in draining
lymph node and spleen. The administration of antigens to GM-CSF
induced, developing dendritic cells--by increasing both antigen
uptake and cell numbers--will facilitate the use of these APCs for
active immunization in situ. The production of such strong
immunogenic responses due to the presentation of antigen by the
dendritic cells makes these cells and this system particularly
desirable as adjuvants useful for producing immunogenic responses
in individuals. Such immunogenic responses and the development of
antibodies to the presented antigens may be used to treat ongoing
infections or prevent future infections as with a vaccine. The use
of dendritic cells to produce a therapeutic or prophylactic immune
response in an individual may be particularly useful to treat or
prevent infection by drug resistant organisms, such as, for
example, the BCG mycobacterium causing tuberculosis.
Immunogenicity of ingested particles can be obtained with BCG
mycobacteria (FIGS. 12-13). In any inoculum of the BCG vaccine,
there are live bacilli [approximately 50% of the bacilli act as
colony forming units], dead bacilli, and probably a number of
mycobacterial proteins. The phagocytosed pool of BCG is being
presented to T cells by dendritic cells. This is evident after
comparing the presentation of mycobacterial antigens with bovine
serum albumin (BSA), a component of the serum in which the
dendritic cells are grown. All the APC populations were comparable
in presenting BSA, but dendritic cells that had phagocytosed the
most BCG were the most effective APCs for mycobacteria (FIGS. 12
and 13, .diamond-solid.). BCG particle uptake, therefore, accounts
for the bulk of the mycobacterial priming by the dendritic cell
precursors.
Another embodiment of this invention is therefore to pulse
dendritic cell precursors with mycobacteria tuberculosis bacteria
antigen, including for example BCG antigen, to induce host
resistance to mycobacteria infection, a matter of importance given
the need to develop better vaccination and treatment protocols for
tuberculosis, including the drug resistant variety (78).
In effect, the pulse and chase protocol which may be used to charge
developing dendritic cells with organisms according to our
invention allows the two broad components of immunostimulation to
take place sequentially. These components are a) antigen capture
and presentation, here the capture of particulates by immature
dendritic cells, and b) development of potent accessory or
immunostimulatory functions during the chase period. The situation
is comparable to that seen in the handling of soluble proteins
(4,6) and particles (74) by epidermal Langerhans cells. Each of the
two broad components of APC function entails many subcomponents.
For example, immature dendritic cells not only are more phagocytic
but display other features needed for antigen presentation such as
active biosynthesis of abundant MHC class II molecules and
invariant chain (6,7) and numerous acidic endocytic vacuoles
(36).
The capacity to charge APCs with antigens using pulse chase
protocols may be a special feature of dendritic cells. Prior
studies with macrophages and B cells had suggested that T cell
epitopes are short-lived (75). The results described here and
elsewhere (6,14,71) indicates that immunogenic peptides can be long
lived on dendritic cells at least 2 days prior to injection into
mice. This retention capacity should enable dendritic cells to
migrate and sensitize T cells in draining lymphoid tissues over a
period of several days (14,50,51).
An important feature of the dendritic cells of this invention is
the capacity to efficiently present microbial and other antigens on
both class I and II products. In the case of BCG, the bulk of the
primed cells are CD4+ T cells, most likely because the antigenic
load is handled by the endocytic pathway and MHC class II products
(76). In the case of influenza, it has been found that the class I
pathway for inducing CD8+ cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL) requires
adequate delivery of antigen (infectious virus) into the cytoplasm,
whereas the purely endocytic pathway delivers noninfectious virions
for presentation only to CD4.sup.+ helpers (77). Developing
dendritic cell cultures provides an opportunity for charging MHC
class I products with peptide, since cell proliferation allows
various methods of gene insertion (as with retroviral vectors) to
be applied.
According to this further embodiment of the invention, the
proliferating dendritic cells may be injected with a vector which
allows for the expression of specific proteins by the dendritic
cells. These viral proteins which are expressed by the dendritic
cell may then be processed and presented on the cell surface on MHC
I receptors. The viral antigen-presenting cells or the processed
viral antigens themselves may then be used as immunogens to produce
an immunogenic response to the proteins encoded by the vector.
Vectors may be prepared to include specific DNA sequences which
code and express genes for proteins to which an immunogenic
response is desired. Preferably, retroviral vectors are used to
infect the dendritic cells. The use of retroviral vectors to infect
host cells is known to those skilled in the art and is described in
WO 92/07943 published May 14, 1992 and in Richard C. Mulligan,
"Gene Transfer and Gene Therapy:Principle, Prospects and
Perspective" in Enology of Human Disease at the DNA Level. Chapter
12. J. Linsten and A. Peterson, eds. Rover Press, 1991 which are
both incorporated herein by reference.
By using developing dendritic cells to charge MHC class I and/or II
products, several desirable components of T cell modulation in situ
can be achieved. Antigen uptake and presentation by immature
progenitors, allows the APC to tailor the peptides that are
appropriate for an individual's MHC products, and increases the
number of specialized stimulatory APCs. These properties of
dendritic cell progenitor populations meet many of the demands for
using cells as vehicles for active immunization and immunotherapy
in situ.
The present invention provides for the first time a method of
obtaining dendritic cells in sufficient quantities to be used to
treat or immunize animals or humans with dendritic cells which have
been activated with antigens. In addition, dendritic cells may be
obtained in sufficient quantities to be useful as reagents to
modify antigens in a manner to make the antigens more effective as
T-cell dependent antigens.
To use antigen-activated dendritic cells as a therapeutic or
immunogen the antigen-activated dendritic cells are injected by any
method which elicits an immune response into a syngeneic animal or
human. Preferably, dendritic cells are injected back into the same
animal or human from whom the source tissue was obtained. The
injection site may be subcutaneous, intraperitoneal, intramuscular,
intradermal, or intravenous. The number of antigen-activated
dendritic cells reinjected back into the animal or human in need of
treatment may vary depending on inter alia, the antigen and size of
the individual. A key feature in the function of dendritic cells in
situ is the capacity to migrate or home to the T-dependent regions
of lymphoid tissues, where the dendritic cells would be in an
optimal position to select the requisite antigen-reactive T cells
from the pool of recirculating quiescent lymphocytes and thereby
initiate the T-dependent response.
According to the preferred method of stimulating an immune response
in an individual, a tissue source from that individual would be
identified to provide the dendritic cell precursors. If blood is
used as the tissue source preferably the individual is first
treated with cytokine to stimulate hematopoieses. After isolation
and expansion of the dendritic cell precursor population, the cells
are contacted with the antigen. Preferably, contact with the
antigen is conducted in vitro. After sufficient time has elapsed to
allow the cells to process and present the antigen on their
surfaces, the cell-antigen complexes are put back into the
individual in sufficient quantity to evoke an immune response.
Preferably between 1.times.10.sup.6 and 10.times.10.sup.6 antigen
presenting cells are injected back into the individual.
The novel antigens of the invention are prepared by combining
substances to be modified or other antigens with the dendritic
cells prepared according to the method of the invention. The
dendritic cells process or modify antigens in a manner which
promotes the stimulation of T-cells by the processed or modified
antigens. Such dendritic cell modified antigens are advantageous
because they can be more specific and have fewer undesirable
epitopes than non-modified T-dependent antigens. The dendritic cell
modified antigens may be purified by standard biochemical methods.
For example, it is known to use antibodies to products of the major
histocompatibility complex (MHC) to select MHC-antigenic peptide
complexes and then to elute the requisite processed peptides with
acid [Rudensky et al., Nature 353:622-7 (1991); Hunt et al.,
Science 255: 1261-3 (1992) which are incorporated herein by
reference].
Antigen-activated dendritic cells and dendritic cell modified
antigens may both be used to elicit an immune response against an
antigen. The activated dendritic cells or modified antigens may by
used as vaccines to prevent future infection or may be used to
activate the immune system to treat ongoing disease. The activated
dendritic cells or modified antigens may be formulated for use as
vaccines or pharmaceutical compositions with suitable carriers such
as physiological saline or other injectable liquids. The vaccines
or pharmaceutical compositions comprising the modified antigens or
the antigen-activated dendritic cells of the invention would be
administered in therapeutically effective amounts sufficient to
elicit an immune response. Preferably, between about 1 to 100
micrograms of modified antigen, or its equivalent when bound to
dendritic cells, should be administered per dose.
The present invention also provides a method and composition for
treating autoimmune disease. Such autoimmune diseases include but
are not limited to juvenile diabetes, multiple sclerosis,
myasthenia gravis and atopic dermatitis. Without being bound by
theory, it is believed that autoimmune diseases result from an
immune response being directed against "self-proteins", i.e.,
autoantigens that are present or endogenous in an individual. In an
autoimmune response, these "self-proteins" are being presented to T
cells which cause the T cells to become "self-reactive". According
to the method of the invention, dendritic cells are pulsed with the
endogenous antigen to produce the relevant "self-peptide". The
relevant self-peptide is different for each individual because MHC
products are highly polymorphic and each individual MHC molecules
might bind different peptide fragments. The "self-peptide" may then
be used to design competing peptides or to induce tolerance to the
self protein in the individual in need of treatment.
Because dendritic cells can now be grown from precursors according
to the methods and principles identified here, and because
dendritic cells can modify antigens to produce killer T cells, the
compositions of this invention are particularly useful as vaccines
towards viruses and tumor cells for which killer T cells might
provide resistance.
EXAMPLES
Example 1
Production of Mouse Dendritic Cells In Vitro From Proliferating
Dendritic Cell Precursors From Blood
Materials
A. Mice
BALB/C, BALB/C.times.DBA/2 F1, BALB/C.times.C57BL/6 F1,
C57BL/6.times.DBA/2 F1, and C57BL/6 males and females, 6-8 weeks of
age were purchased from Japan SLC Inc [Shizuoka, Japan], the
Trudeau Institute [Saranac Lake, N.Y.], and Charles River Wiga
[Sulzberg, FRG]. Four preparations of rGM-CSF were evaluated with
similar results, the yield of dendritic cells reaching a plateau
with 30-100 U/ml. The preparations were from Dr. S. Gillis, Immunex
Corp, Seattle Wash.; Genetics Institute [supernatant from COS cells
transfected with mGM-CSF; used at 30U/ml or greater]; and Dr. T.
Sudo [supernatant from CHO cells transfected with the expression
vector, pHSmGM-CSF (22), and E.Coli expressed material].
B. Blood Preparation: Blood was obtained by cardiac puncture or
from the carotid artery
The blood was diluted in, or allowed to drip into, RPMI-1640 with
100 U/ml heparin [about 2 ml/mouse]. Blood cells were pelleted at
1000 rpm at 4.degree., resuspended in RPMI 1640, and sedimented
again. The pellet was suspended in 1 ml RPMI 1640 per mouse and
mixed with an equal volume of 1.66% ammonium chloride in distilled
water to lyse the red cells. After 2 min at room temperature, the
suspension was spun at 1000 rpm at 4.degree.. The pellet, which
still contained red cells, was resuspended again in 0.5 ml RPMI and
0.5 ml NH.sub.4 Cl for 2 min, diluted in RPMI, and sedimented
again. After 2 more washes, most platelets and red cells had been
depleted and a population of blood leukocytes had been
obtained.
C. Aggregates of proliferating dendritic cells from blood
supplemented with GM-CSF
Blood leukocytes, usually from C.times.D2 F1 mice, were cultured in
16 mm tissue culture wells [24 well dishes, Costar, #25820] in
medium (1 ml per well) supplemented with GM-CSF at 30 U/ml and at
1.5.times.10.sup.6 cells/well. The medium was RPMI 1640
supplemented with 5% fetal calf serum [JRH Biosciences, Lenexa,
Kans.], 50 uM 2-ME, 20 ug/ml gentamicin, and recombinant mouse
GM-CSF. After overnight culture, many monocytes adhered and the
nonadherent cells were transferred to new 16 mm wells. The adherent
cells did not develop dendritic cell colonies, but during the next
week, the nonadherent populations exhibited three changes. First,
most of the lymphocytes and granulocytes died or could be removed
by washing. Second, the surface of the well became covered with a
monolayer of tightly adherent cells that included macrophages and
fibroblasts. Third, affixed to scattered sites on the monolayer,
there developed small aggregates of cells. The cultures were fed
with GM-CSF (30 u/ml) at day 6-7 and then every 3 days by
aspirating 0.5-0.75 ml of the medium and adding back an equal
volume of fresh medium with GM-CSF. The aggregates continued to
expand in number and size. At about day 10, the cells were ready to
be subcultured. Any residual loose cells could be rinsed off prior
to dislodging the aggregates into fresh medium and GM-CSF. About
0.8-1 million dislodged cells per original well were divided into 3
subculture wells.
Most of the aggregates disassembled during this first subculture,
while the bulk of the adherent monolayer remained attached to the
original well. Upon transfer, most of the cells in the dislodged
aggregates adhered as single cells to the new culture well but over
a period of 2-3 days, aggregates reappeared. The aggregates again
were affixed to adherent stromal cells, but these adherent cells
were much less numerous than the dense monolayer in the original
culture. Over the next 4-7 days, aggregates filled the wells. These
colonies were often larger than those of the original wells and
were covered with many sheet-like processes typical of dendritic
cells. It was more difficult to count cells at this point, since
many of the aggregates contained a core of tightly associated
cells. However, the number of single cells that could be recovered
per well expanded about 2 fold between days 10 and 17 of
culture.
If the cultures were allowed to overgrow, some cells with the
morphology of dendritic cells were released. More typically, the
cells were not allowed to overgrow and the aggregates were
dislodged and subcultured again at about 20 days. Prior to
subculture, the aggregates could be purified from free cells by 1 g
sedimentation. Such separations were more easily performed with
longer periods of culture, i.e., it was easier to isolate intact
aggregates at 3 vs. 2 vs. 1 week of culture. With additional
subculturing, the number of aggregates that were produced per well
was progressively reduced. However colonies of growing cells, as
confirmed by 3H-TdR labeling and autoradiography [below], could be
generated in subcultures for 1-2 months. Following subculturing at
2-3 weeks, typical single dendritic cells were now released into
the medium. By direct observation with video recording, these
released cells had the active motility of dendritic cells,
continually extending and retracting large veils or sheet-like
processes. In the presence of continued GM-CSF, one observed both
free dendritic cells as well as expanding colonies. In the absence
of GM-CSF, only free dendritic cells were released and the
aggregates essentially fell apart and did not reform in the medium
and colonies of aggregates did not develop. The yields of free
dendritic cells per subculture ranged from
0.3-2.5.times.10.sup.5.
In summary, from a starting blood mononuclear culture of
1.5.times.10.sup.6 cells, where dendritic cells were difficult to
detect, we on average obtained 5-10 subcultures each with at least
3-10.times.10.sup.4 released dendritic cells at 3 weeks, as well as
many aggregates capable of further proliferation. Therefore
aggregates of growing cells were developing in mouse blood
supplemented with GM-CSF, and these aggregates were covered with
dendritic cells many of which could be released spontaneously into
the medium.
D. Phenotype of the cell aggregates and dendritic cells released
therefrom
Cytospin preparations were made in a Shandon cytocentrifuge using
3-10.times.10.sup.4 cells. The slides were stored with desiccant
prior to fixation in acetone and staining with mAb followed by
peroxidase mouse anti-rat Ig [Boehringer Mannheim Biochemicals,
#605-545] or rabbit anti-hamster Ig [Accurate Chemical &
Scientific Corp, # JZY-036-003]. The preparations were stained with
Giemsa and mounted in Permount for bright field analysis. For
cytofluorography [FACScan, Becton Dickinson], aliquots of cells
were stained with primary rat or hamster mAb followed by FITC mouse
anti-rat Ig [Boehringer, #605-540] or biotin rabbit anti-hamster Ig
[Accurate, JZY-066-003] and FITC-avidin.
Cytospin preparations of 2-3 week cultures were examined with a
panel of mAb and an immunoperoxidase method. The released cells,
and many of the cells that could be dislodged from the periphery of
the aggregate, were similar in their stellate shape and phenotype.
Most of the cells stained strongly with mAb to MHC class II, the
CD45 leukocyte common antigen, CR3 receptor CD11b, and heat stable
antigen (HSA), and CD44. Staining with mAbs to the Fc receptor
[2.4G2] and macrophage F4/80 antigen (MAC) was weak or undetectable
in >95% of the cells. The cultures contained only rare B cells
[B220 mAb, RA-3], T cells [thy-1 mAb, B5-5], or granulocytes [GRAN,
mAb RB6]. Some cells at the periphery of the aggregate, and many of
the cells that were released from the aggregates, were stained with
two markers that are largely restricted to dendritic cells. The
interdigitating cell antigen [mAb NLDC 145 (13), IDC], which also
binds to thymic epithelium, stained many but not all of the
dendritic profiles. Virtually all of the dendritic profiles stained
with mAbs 2A1 and M342 stain granules in the perinuclear region of
mature dendritic cells, B lymphocytes, as well as interdigitating
cells in sections through the T areas of lymphoid organs.
Macrophages from many sites [blood monocytes; peritoneal cavity
macrophages; macrophages in sections of lymph node, thymus, spleen]
do not contain 2A1 or M342-reactive granules.
Cytofluorography was used to gain semi-quantitative information on
the expression of antigens at the cell surface. A panel of mAb were
applied to two populations: cells that could be dislodged from the
aggregates by Pasteur pipetting, and cells that were released
spontaneously when the aggregates were subcultured for 1 day. These
"dislodged" and "released" populations were identical in their
dendritic shape and in phenotype but for some exceptions that are
considered below. The phenotype of the released cells is shown in
FIG. 2, and the few differences between aggregated and released
cells are in FIG. 3. Virtually all the dendritic cells developing
in and from the aggregates expressed high levels of the leukocyte
common [CD45, mAb M1/9.3] and heat stable [mAbs M1/69 and J11d]
antigens, as well as high levels of CD44 and CD11b [mAb M1/70]. Low
levels of the following antigens were detected on the cell surface:
the dendritic cell antigen 33D1, the macrophage marker F4/80, the
Fc.gamma. receptor antigen 2.4G2, the p55 IL-2 receptor CD25
antigen 3C7, and the CD11c integrin N418 [FIG. 2]. These antigens
were noted on all cells by FACS even though many of the antigens
like F4/80 and 2.4G2 were weak or absent in the cytoplasm with an
immunoperoxidase method. Several antigens were absent: RB6
granulocyte, RA3 B cell, B5-5 thy-1, GK 1.5 CD4, and SER-4 marginal
zone macrophage [FIG. 2].
Expression of class I and II MHC products by the dendritic cells in
these cultures was very high but nonetheless bimodal [FIGS. 2 and
FIG. 3]. Most of the dendritic cells that were dislodged from the
aggregates had somewhat lower levels of MHC class I and II, while
dendritic cells that were released from the aggregates had very
high levels of MHC products. The other marker that was different in
the released and loosely attached dendritic cells was NLDC 145
which was higher in the released population. [FIG. 3, top panels].
We conclude that the phenotype of the cells that arise from the
proliferating aggregates is very much like that seen in cultured
dendritic cells from skin, spleen, and thymus (24,28) with the
exception that the M1/70 CD11b marker is more abundant.
E. 3H-TdR autoradiography to verify growth of dendritic cell
precursors
After 2 and 3 weeks in liquid culture, the wells contained numerous
expanding aggregates of cells, and in some cases were already
releasing nonadherent dendritic cells in large numbers. Cultures
were labeled with 3H-thymidine to identify and phenotype the
proliferating cells and their progeny. For pulse labeling, 3H-TdR
was added to the cultures [6 Ci/mM, 1 uCi/ml final]. 2 h later, the
medium was replaced with 3H-TdR free medium, and the cultures were
separated into nonadherent released cells and residual adherent
aggregates for examination on cytospin preparations [Shandon Inc,
Pittsburgh Pa., #59900102]. The cytospin cells were stained for
specific antigens with mAb and immunoperoxidase as above. Also, the
slides were dipped in photographic emulsion [Kodak autoradiography
emulsion type NTB2 #165-4433] for exposure [5 days] prior to
development, staining with Giemsa, and mounting in Permount. For
pulse chase experiments, a lower dose of 3H-TdR was used to
maintain cell viability, but the cells were handled similarly
otherwise. The pulse was applied at 0.1 uCi/ml for 2 h or for 16 h,
the latter to provide higher initial labeling indices. The cells
were washed and chased for 1-3 days prior to harvesting and
analysis as above with immunoperoxidase, autoradiography, and
Giemsa staining.
The 2 and 3 week cultures were exposed to 3H-TdR and examined for
proliferative activity. The labeled cells were washed, spun onto
slides, and the cytospins stained with mAb and an immunoperoxidase
method prior to dipping and exposure to photographic emulsion.
Important markers were mAbs 2A1 and NLDC-145 which recognize
intracellular granules and a cell surface antigen in mature
dendritic cells respectively.
When cultures were labeled with a 2 h pulse of 3H-TdR, it was
apparent that the labeling index in the aggregates was very high,
at least 10-15% of the profiles in the aggregates being in S phase.
In contrast, if 3H-TdR was applied to cultures that were releasing
typical nonadherent dendritic cells, the released fraction
contained only rare labeled profiles. If GM-CSF was removed, 3H-TdR
labeling ceased within a day. Virtually all the 3H-TdR labeled
cells in the aggregate failed to label with mAb to markers found on
mature dendritic cells i.e., 2A1 and NLDC145. The level of staining
with anti-MHC class II mAb was less on the cells in S-phase than in
the released dendritic cell populations [not shown].
Pulse chase experiments were then done to establish that labeled
cells in the aggregate were giving rise to typical dendritic cells.
Cultures were first exposed to a low dose of 3H-TdR, either for 2 h
or for 16 h, the latter to label a larger percentage of the cells
in the aggregates. The wells were washed free of radiolabel, and
then the aggregates were dislodged and separated from free cells by
1 g sedimentation. The aggregates were transferred to fresh medium
without radiolabel, and over the next 1-3 days of culture, many
dendritic cells were released into the medium. When the "chased"
cultures were examined, several findings were apparent. The
labeling index remained high, i.e., most of the progeny of cells
that were proliferating in the aggregates were not being lost from
the cultures. Second, the grain counts were diluted several fold
from those apparent in the original pulse. Third, cells expressing
the markers of mature dendritic cells [NLDC145, the 2A1 granular
antigen, high levels of MHC class II] were now radiolabeled.
Therefore the cellular aggregates that GM-CSF was inducing in
cultured mouse blood were actively proliferating and releasing
nonproliferating progeny with many of the typical cytologic and
antigenic features of mature dendritic cells including the 2A1
granular antigen, the NLDC145 marker, and high levels of MHC class
II.
F. Accessory cell function for T cell proliferative responses
MLR stimulating activity was monitored in the GM-CSF treated blood
cultures. Cells from the blood cultures were exposed to 1500 rads
[137Cs] and applied in graded doses to 3.times.10.sup.5 purified
syngeneic or allogeneic T cells in 96 well, flat-bottomed microtest
wells. The T cells were nylon wool nonadherent, spleen and lymph
node suspensions that were treated with anti-Ia plus J11d mAbs and
complement to remove residual APC. 3H-TdR uptake was measured at
72-86 h [6 Ci/mM, 4 uCi/ml final].
Initially there was little or no MLR stimulating activity [FIG. 4,
.star-solid.]. Some stimulating activity was noted at day 1 of
culture [FIG. 4, .smallcircle.]. An examination of cytospin
preparations revealed that these 1 day nonadherent blood cells had
a low [<0.3%] but clear subset of Ia-rich, dendritic profiles.
By day 7, when the proliferating aggregates were first evident on
the monolayer, the stimulating activity of the dislodged aggregates
had increased further, but was still 100 times less in specific
activity than typical dendritic cells [FIG. 4, compare .DELTA. and
.circle-solid.] even though most of the cells at day 7 and
subsequent time points were MHC class II positive. By day 14, at
which time typical nonadherent dendritic cells were just beginning
to be released from the aggregates, the nonadherent population had
considerable MLR stimulating activity, [FIG. 4, .gradient.]. After
3 weeks, typical mature dendritic cells had become abundant, and
these indeed stimulated comparably to their splenic counterparts
[FIG. 4, compare .diamond. and .circle-solid.]. Other cells in the
culture, such as those dislodged from the aggregates, were about 10
fold less active than dendritic cells [FIG. 4, .diamond-solid.]. We
conclude that the aggregates of proliferating dendritic cells have
some MLR stimulating activity but that it is the mature released
cells that are fully potent, some 100-300 times more active on a
per cell basis than the populations in the starting culture at 1-7
days. During day 7-20 of culture, total cell numbers also expanded
at least 5-10 fold.
G. Homing activity of dendritic cells in vivo
A second specialized feature of dendritic cells is their capacity
to home to the T areas of peripheral lymphoid tissues (8,10).
Dendritic cells or other cell types were labeled at
2-10.times.10.sup.6 /ml with carboxyfluorescein for 10 min on ice
[Molecular Probes C-1157; 30 uM final concentration in Hanks
balanced salt solution (HBSS) with 5% FCS], washed in RPMI 1640,
and injected in a volume of 50 ul RPMI-1640 into the foot pads. One
day later, the draining popliteal lymph nodes were removed, frozen
in OCT medium, and sectioned [10.mu.] in a cryostat. To sample the
entire node, we took duplicate specimens at regular intervals. The
sections were applied to multiwell slides [Carlson Scientific
microslides #111006], stored at -20.degree. C., dried in a
desiccator 30' prior to use [or left at room temp overnight], fixed
in acetone, and stained with a peroxidase conjugated rabbit
anti-FITC antibody [Dakopatts, P404]. To verify that the dendritic
cells in the lymph node were in the T-dependent areas as described
(8), we added appropriate mAb to B cell, T cells, macrophages, or
dendritic cells and visualized the latter with alkaline phosphatase
conjugated mouse anti-rat Ig [Boehringer Mannheim, #605-5357] plus
a chromogen kit [Biomeda Corp, Foster City Calif. #S04]. We then
blocked endogenous peroxidase with "Endo Blocker" [Biomeda Corp,
#M69] followed by the peroxidase anti-FITC as above.
Blood leukocytes, even when given at a dose of 10.sup.6 cells per
footpad, failed to home to the lymphoid organ. When we tested
dendritic cells that had been generated with GM-CSF from blood,
homing to the T area was observed with injections of 200,000 cells.
The selective localization to the T areas was confirmed by double
labeling the specimens with mAb that stain B cells or T cells.
Therefore dendritic cells produced in culture have the key
functional features of this lineage: homing to the T-dependent
regions and strong accessory activity.
H. Requirements for generating dendritic cell colonies from
blood
The surface phenotype of the blood cell that gives rise to the
dendritic cell colonies was assessed by treating the starting
population with antibodies and complement. Treatment with either
33D1 anti-dendritic cell, anti-MHC class II, or anti thy-1 did not
eliminate the colony forming unit [not shown]. Instead, removal of
thy-1.sup.+ or Ia.sup.+ cells enriched colony numbers several fold.
CSF's other than GM-CSF were also tested, either at the start of
the 1-3 week culture, or upon transfer of 2-3 week old aggregates
to form veiled cells. None of the CSF's tested, i.e., IL-3, M-CSF,
G-CSF, SCF, supported the formation of colonies or mature dendritic
cells. Therefore the growing dendritic colonies are very much
dependent upon GM-CSF.
In an effort to identify proliferating precursors to the dendritic
cell system, we set up cultures from several tissues that lacked
mature dendritic cells and supplemented these with different growth
factors particularly the CSF's [M-CSF, G-CSF, IL-3, GM-CSF, IL-1,
and SCF]. Dendritic cell precursors were not observed from neonatal
epidermis, which contains mainly Ia.sup.- Langerhans cells (29). To
avoid overgrowth of granulocytes in bulk bone marrow cultures which
may make the identification of typical cell colonies or large
numbers of dendritic cells difficult, it is preferred to remove the
nonadherent, proliferating granulocytes on days 2 and 4. Blood,
which has few typical dendritic cells in the mouse (30), proved to
be very effective for obtaining dendritic cell precursors. Growing
cell aggregates appeared after about 6 days in culture, and these
were often covered with profiles having the unusual and motile
processes of dendritic cells. With time, typical nonadherent
dendritic cells were released. The latter had the morphology and
movement of dendritic cells as previously described in cultured
mouse spleen, mouse skin, lymph from several species, and human
blood (25-27). Therefore to identify proliferating dendritic cells,
it seems critical to begin with an appropriate starting population,
preferably blood, and to supplement the culture with GM-CSF.
Without wishing to be bound by any theory, we think that the
initial aggregates that appeared in the cultures represented
clones, since very small groups of 4-6 cells were observed early on
e.g., day 5. We tried to prove that the aggregates were clonal by
mixing blood cells from strains that were distinguished with
markers to polymorphic antigens like CD44 and MHC class II. However
we could not complete the experiments since we found that mouse
strains differed in the number and speed with which colonies
developed. BALB/C and DBA [and F1 strains derived therefrom] were
the most active; B6 and B10 were several times less active; and
strains like CBA/J, C3H/He, and A/J were poor sources of
proliferating, dendritic cell aggregates.
The precursors to the aggregates of proliferating dendritic cells
were not typical monocytes or dendritic cells, because the number
of aggregates that developed could be increased substantially if
one depleted monocytes by adherence or Ia-positive cells with
antibody and complement. Without wishing to be bound by theory, we
tentatively conclude that blood contains an Ia-negative precursor
that forms a proliferating aggregate. In the aggregate, dendritic
cells mature and are released as nonproliferating progeny.
The formation of aggregates of dendritic cells required exogenous
GM-CSF. If the aggregates were placed in macrophage or
granulocyte-restricted CSF's [M-CSF, G-CSF], proliferation ceased
and neither macrophages nor granulocytes were formed. Because the
cultures contained macrophages and some stromal cells, in addition
to the dendritic cell aggregates, it was possible that other
cytokines were being produced that were critical to the formation
of dendritic cells. It appears however that the cells in the
aggregates have lost responsiveness to M- and G-CSF, and that
dendritic cells represent a distinct myeloid pathway of
development. Perhaps, without wishing to be bound by theory, the
pathway originates from a common precursor in which the dendritic
cell lineage is an offshoot that no longer responds to macrophage
and granulocyte restricted CSF's.
Labeling with 3H-thymidine, using pulse and pulse-chase protocols,
was important in establishing the precursor-product relationships
that were taking place in these liquid cultures. In a 2 h pulse,
virtually every labeled cell lacked two typical markers of mature
dendritic cells, i.e., the NLDC-145 interdigitating cell surface
antigen (13) and the recently identified 2A1/M342 granular
cytoplasmic antigens (34). These mAb do not stain most macrophage
populations that we have examined either as isolated cells [blood,
spleen, peritoneal macrophages] or in sections [thymic cortex,
spleen red pulp, lymph node medulla]. In pulse chase protocols,
large numbers of labeled progeny were released from the aggregates,
and these released cells were nonadherent, motile, and strongly
stimulatory in the MLR. After combined autoradiography and
immunoperoxidase labeling, the labeled progeny carried the granular
antigens, the NLDC-145 antigen, and very high levels of MHC class
II. Each of these cytologic and antigenic markers are largely
restricted to dendritic cells.
Without wishing to be bound by theory, we believe that maturation
to typical nonproliferating dendritic cells occurred within the
aggregate. The aggregates were covered with cells with the
sheetlike or veiled processes of dendritic cells. Cells with
markers of mature dendritic cell markers [high MHC class II, 2A1
positive granules, NLDC antigen] were also observed at the
periphery of the cell aggregates. However, it was difficult to
isolate the aggregate intact, i.e., without dislodging these more
mature cells. The mechanism whereby dendritic cells matured and
left the aggregate was not clear. Maturation was enhanced in older
cultures [>2 weeks] or by removing adherent stroma cells. Both
proliferation and maturation was blocked if the cultures contained
too many fibroblasts.
The functional maturation that occurred in the proliferating
aggregate is striking. The dendritic cells that were generated in
culture were potent MLR stimulators. 100 dendritic cells induced a
much stronger primary MLR than 100,000 blood leukocytes. The
increase in stimulating activity per Ia-positive cell was at least
2 logs between the time that the aggregates first appeared and the
time that typical dendritic cells were released in large numbers.
Over this time period, cell recovery increased 5-10 fold. Also the
dendritic cell progeny homed in a precise way to the T cell area of
lymph node, another functional property that was not detectable in
blood cells [data not shown].
Example 2
Generation of Large Numbers of Dendritic Cells From Mouse Bone
Marrow Cultures Supplemented With GM-CSF
Materials
A. Mice
Female BALB/C, male DBA/2, and female C57BL/6 mice, 7 wks old, were
purchased from Japan SLC [Hamamatsu, Shizuoka, Japan].
BALB/C.times.DBA/2 F1, of both sexes 7-10 wks old, were from Japan
SLC and the Trudeau Institute, Saranac Lake, NY.
Reagents: The culture medium was RPMI-1640 [Nissui, Tokyo, Japan;
GIBCO, Grand Island, N.Y.] supplemented with 5% FCS, 50 .mu.M
2-Mercaptoethanol, and 20 .mu.g/ml gentamicin. Murine rGM-CSF
[10.sup.8 U/mg protein] was kindly provided by Kirin Brewery Co
[Maebashi, Gumma, Japan]. A panel of rat and hamster mAbs to mouse
leukocyte antigens is described elsewhere (23, 24). FITC- and
peroxidase-conjugated mouse anti-rat IgG were purchased from
Boehringer Mannheim [Indianapolis, IN] and FITC- and
peroxidase-conjugated goat anti-hamster Ig [.gamma. and L-chain]
were from Jackson Immunoresearch Lab [Westgrove, Pa.] and Caltag
[San Francisco, Calif.] respectively.
B. Bone marrow cultures
After removing all muscle tissues with gauze from the mouse femurs
and tibias, the bones were placed in a 60 mm dish with 70% alcohol
for 1 min, washed twice with PBS, and transferred into a fresh dish
with RPMI-1640. Both ends of the bones were cut with scissors in
the dish, and then the marrow was flushed out using 2 ml of
RPMI-1640 with a syringe and 25G needle. The tissue was suspended,
passed through nylon mesh to remove small pieces of bone and
debris, and red cells were lysed with ammonium chloride. After
washing, lymphocytes and Ia-positive cells were killed with a
cocktail of mAbs and rabbit complement for 60 min at 37.degree. C.
The mAbs were GK 1.5 anti-CD4, HO 2.2 anti-CD8, B21-2 anti-Ia, and
RA3-3A1/6.1 anti-B220/CD45R all obtained from the ATCC [TIB 207,
150, 229, and 146 respectively]. 7.5-10.times.10.sup.5 cells were
placed in 24 well plates [Nunc, Naperville, IL] in 1 ml of medium
supplemented with 500-1000 U/ml rGM-CSF. The cultures were usually
fed every 2 d for about 2 to 10 days, by gently swirling the
plates, aspirating 3/4 of the medium, and adding back fresh medium
with GM-CSF. An object of these washes was to remove nonadherent
granulocytes without dislodging clusters of developing dendritic
cells that were loosely attached to firmly adherent
macrophages.
To enrich for growing dendritic cells, we utilized a procedure
similar to that described for the mouse blood cell cultures of
Example 1. Briefly, the aggregates of attached cells were dislodged
with Pasteur pipettes and applied to 6 ml columns of 50% FCS-RPMI
1640. Residual granulocytes in the cultures, often in aggregates as
well, were easily dissociated at this step. Upon 1 g sedimentation
of the dislodged cells, clusters moved to the bottom of the tube
and single granulocytes were left at the top. The aggregates were
subcultured at 2-3.times.10.sup.5 /ml in fresh medium with GM-CSF,
typically for 1 day in 16 mm wells. After overnight culture, large
numbers of typical dendritic cells were released. Adherent
macrophages also expanded in these cultures, but most remained
firmly adherent to the culture surface.
C. Cytological Comparison of Dendritic Cell Precursors and
Ia-negative, Bone Marrow Nonlymphocytes
To compare the released [dendritic-cell enriched; top] and adherent
[macrophage-enriched; bottom] fractions of 7 day bone marrow
cultures, Ia-negative, bone marrow nonlymphocytes were cultured in
GM-CSF. At days 2 and 4, nonadherent cells were gently washed away
and at day 6, the loosely attached cell aggregates were isolated by
1 g sedimentation. After a day in culture, the cells that were
released from the aggregates were cytospun onto glass slides and
stained with different mAbs plus peroxidase anti-Ig as well as
Giemsa and nonspecific esterase. The firmly adherent cells in the
original cultures were dislodged with EDTA and also cytospun. Many
dendritic profiles are in the released fraction [a hand lens is
useful to detect cell shape and contaminating granulocytes, in the
Giemsa stain], while the adherent cells are for the most part
typical vacuolated macrophages. Strong MHC class II expression
occurs on all released cells but for a few typical granulocytes.
Only a subset of the firmly adherent cells express class II. Most
released cells express the 2A1 endocytic vacuole antigen, while the
adherent cells are 2A1 weak or negative.
D. Cell surface and intracellular antigens
Cell surface staining utilized cytofluorography [FACScan; Becton
Dickinson, Mountain View Calif.]. Staining with primary rat or
hamster mAbs was followed by FITC-conjugated mouse anti-rat or goat
anti-hamster Ig's as described in Example 1D. A panel of mAbs to
cell surface (23, 24) and to intracellular antigens (33, 34) was
tested on cytospin preparations. We studied both adherent and
nonadherent populations, the former being dislodged in the presence
of 10 mM EDTA [the adherent cells were rinsed twice with PBS and
once with EDTA-PBS, and then incubated with EDTA-PBS for 20 min at
37.degree. C.]. The cytospins were fixed in acetone and stained
with mAbs followed by peroxidase conjugated anti-rat or
anti-hamster Ig. The peroxidase was visualized with
diaminobenzidine, and the nuclei counterstained with Giemsa.
E. Cytologic assays
Giemsa stains were performed on cytospin preparations as was the
case for the nonspecific esterase [.alpha.-naphthyl acetate as
substrate] stain using standard methods (35) except that the
cytospin preps were fixed with 2% glutaraldehyde in Hanks medium
instead of buffered acetone formalin. Phase contrast observations,
usually of living cells, were made with inverted microscopes [Nikon
Diaphot] at a final magnification of 100 and 400.times..
Transmission electron microscopy (36) and .sup.3 H-thymidine
autoradiography were performed on developing dendritic cells as
described in Example 1E.
F. Mixed leukocyte reactions:
Cells from the bone marrow cultures were exposed to 15 Gy of X-ray
irradiation and applied in graded doses to 3.times.10.sup.5
syngeneic or allogeneic T cells in 96 well flat bottomed culture
plates for 4 d. The T cells were prepared by passing spleen and
lymph node suspensions through nylon wool and then depleting
residual APCs with anti-Ia plus J11d mAbs plus complement.
3H-thymidine uptake was measured at 80-94 h after a pulse of 4
uCi/ml [222 GBq/mmol; American Radiolabeled Chemicals, Inc,
St.Louis, Mo.].
G. Aggregates of proliferating dendritic cells from mouse bone
marrow supplemented with GM-CSF
Prior to culture, we treated the marrow suspensions with a cocktail
of mAbs to B cells, T cells, and MHC class II antigens plus
complement. This pretreatment of bone marrow cells which reduces
the number of B cells and granulocytes, is necessary to identify
growing dendritic cells in bone marrow because B cells and
granulocyte are also GM-CSF responsive and proliferate and mask the
presence of dendritic cell precursors.
Accordingly, at d2 and d4 of culture, we gently swirled the plates
to remove loosely adherent cells which proved to be granulocytes
typical in morphology and expression of the RB6 antigen [see
below]. With these steps, we recognized by day 4 cellular
aggregates attached to a layer of adherent cells. Some of the
profiles in the aggregates had the veil or sheet-like processes of
dendritic cells. The aggregates could be dislodged by gentle
pipetting and separated by 1 g sedimentation. Within 3 h of
replating, many spiny adherent cells emigrated from the clusters
and had the appearance of fresh splenic adherent cells (13). After
another day of culture, these adherent cells came off the surface
and many typical dendritic cells were seen floating in the culture
medium. Optimal yields of dendritic cells were obtained when the
aggregates were harvested on day 6 and then cultured overnight. The
capacity of bone marrow to generate dendritic cells is striking,
>5.times.10.sup.6 from the 4 major hind limb bones in a
week.
Attached to the surface of the culture wells were cells with the
cytologic features of macrophages, and these also expanded in
numbers during the first week of culture. These cells could be
dislodged by pipetting after incubation at 37.degree. C. in the
presence of 10 mM EDTA.
If the cultures were maintained in M-CSF, large numbers of
macrophages grew out and were firmly attached to the plastic
surface. However, no dendritic cells or dendritic cell aggregates
were apparent. If a mixture of M-CSF and GM-CSF was applied, then
colonies of adherent macrophages as well as aggregates of growing
granulocytes and dendritic cells were noted.
H. Development of potent MLR stimulator cells in bone marrow
cultures
It is known that suspensions of mouse bone marrow are not active as
MLR stimulators (38) and do not contain detectable dendritic cells
(30). Given the cytologic observations above, we cultured
Ia-negative, bone marrow nonlymphocytes for 6 d and checked MLR
stimulating activity at daily intervals. As long as the cultures
were supplemented with GM-CSF, strong MLR stimulating activity
developed [FIG. 5]. The increase was progressive and by day 6, as
few as 100 of the marrow cells induced MLRs with stimulation
indices of 20 or more.
To correlate the development of MLR stimulating activity with the
appearance of dendritic cells in these heterogenous cultures, we
first separated the cultures into nonadherent and loosely adherent
fractions [FIG. 6A]. The nonadherent cells, which were mainly
granulocytes in the first 4 days, were obtained by gently swirling
the plates and harvesting the cells. The loosely adherent cells,
which contained the aggregates of presumptive dendritic cell
precursors and dendritic cells at day 4 and later times, were
dislodged by pipetting over the surface of firmly adherent stromal
cells. At d2 and at d4, the most potent stimulating activity was in
the adherent fraction. By d6, the nonadherent fraction was very
active. If one tested firmly adherent macrophages, there was no MLR
stimulating activity [FIG. 6B, open squares].
As mentioned above, in the presence of GM-CSF the cultures
developed aggregates of growing cells that release typical
dendritic cells between d4-8 of culture. These aggregates could be
isolated by gentle pipetting over the monolayer followed by 1 g
sedimentation. When the aggregates were returned to culture,
populations enriched in dendritic cells were released, and these
released cells proved to have the very strong MLR stimulating
activity that is characteristic of dendritic cells [FIG. 6B].
I. Cell surface markers--cytofluorography
By cytofluorography, two populations of cells were readily
distinguished in the nonadherent or easily dislodged cells. One
population had a low forward light scatter, high levels of the RB6
antigen, and low levels of MHC class II. The other population was
larger and had the reciprocal phenotype. The aggregated cells were
enriched relative to unfractionated cultures in MHC class II
positive cells [Fig 8, compare left and middle], and the level of
MHC class II on individual cells increased when the aggregates were
cultured overnight to release highly enriched populations of
dendritic cells [FIG. 8, compare middle and right]. More MHC class
II rich, RB6 antigen negative cells were seen in day 6 verses day 4
cultures [FIG. 8]. None of the cells reacted with the mAbs to the
B220 antigen of B cells or the SER-4 antigen of macrophages [not
shown].
More detailed FACS studies were performed on cells that had been
released from the aggregates. The granulocytes were gated out on
the basis of lower forward light scattering. The larger, dendritic
cells had uniformly high levels of MHC class I and II as well as
CD44 and CD11b [Mac1; M1/70]. Intermediate level staining was noted
for the heat stable antigen [HSA; M1/69], CD45 [M1/9.3], and CD18
[2E6]. Lower level staining was evident for the low affinity IL-2
receptor [CD25, 7D4], interdigitating cell antigen [NLDC-145],
Fc.gamma. receptor [2.4G2], dendritic cell antigen [33D1],
macrophage antigen [F4/80], and CD11c p150/90 .beta.2-integrin
[N418]. Several antigens were not detectable including phagocyte
[SER-4 marginal zone macrophage, RB6 granulocyte] and lymphocyte
[RA3-6.1 B lymphocyte; thy-1, CD3,4,8 T lymphocyte] markers. This
phenotype is similar in many respects to that seen in splenic and
epidermal dendritic cells (24, 27, 28). The one exception is the
high level in the marrow-derived cells of CD11b, an integrin that
helps mediate emigration of myeloid cells from the vasculature.
J. Cytospin preparations
Cytospins were prepared to further compare the released dendritic
cells with the firmly adherent stromal population. By Giemsa stain,
the cells that had released from the aggregates had the typical
stellate shape of dendritic cells, while the adherent cells were
for the most part vacuolated macrophages. Many of the dendritic
cells had a perinuclear spot of nonspecific esterase stain, while
the more adherent populations had abundant cytoplasmic
esterase.
The released cells stained strongly for MHC class II products,
except for the contaminants with typical granulocyte nuclei. The
strongly adherent cells contained a subpopulation of class II
positive cells. Recently antigens have been described that are
primarily localized in intracellular vacuoles of dendritic cells
and B cells but not mononuclear phagocytes. The antibodies are
termed M342 (34) and 2A1. Many of the dendritic cells had strong
2A1 stain, and a smaller number expressed M342. The adherent cells
had a few profiles with weak 2A1.
The development of Ia-positive cells, and cells expressing granular
intracellular antigens, was quantitated on cytospins. [FIG. 10].
MHC class II antigens were expressed first, followed by the 2A1 and
M342 granular antigens. [FIG. 10]. By day 8, the majority of the
cells were dendritic and had high levels of MHC class II products
and 2A1 antigen. If granulocytes were not removed from the
cultures, the yield of nonadherent cells was much larger but the
highest percentage of MHC class II positive cells that we detected
was 30%, and it was difficult to identify and isolate the
aggregates that were the site of dendritic cell growth.
When the cytospins were stained for other myeloid antigens, the
released cells stained weakly and sometimes not at all above
background with monoclonals to the Fc.gamma. receptor [2.4G2] and
macrophage restricted antigen [F4/80]. Most of the firmly adherent
cells in contrast stained strongly for both antigens. This suggests
that while low levels of 2.4G2 and F4/80 are found on the surface
of the released dendritic cells, synthesis and expression are
probably being downregulated much as occurs when epidermal
dendritic cells are placed in culture (27).
On day 4, some 30-50,000 Ia-positive cells were floating in the
cultures, while on both day 6 and on day 8, another 50-100,000
Ia-positive cells were harvested. The quantitative data indicated
that each well produced some 200,000 or more Ia-positive cells in a
week. Since we obtain about 20-30 wells of the starting Ia-negative
marrow cells from two tibia and two femurs, the total yield of
Ia-positive cells is 5.times.10.sup.6 or more, exceeding the total
estimated number of Langerhans cells in the skin of a mouse
(27).
K. 3H-thymidine pulse chase experiments
To further document the proliferation and differentiation of
dendritic cells in these cultures, clusters of cells were isolated
on day 4, exposed to a 12 h pulse of .sup.3 H-thymidine, and
examined by autoradiography immediately or after 1, 2 and 3 days of
chase in .sup.3 H-thymidine free medium. The majority of cells in
the aggregate were labeled initially, and almost all cells released
from the aggregates were labeled. During the chase, increasing
percentages of the released progeny expressed the 2A1 granule
antigen of mature dendritic cells.
L. Electron microscopy
The released cells had many large veils or lamellipodia extending
from several directions of the cell body. The cytoplasm had many
mitochondria, few electron dense granules and lysosomes, but
several electron lucent vesicles some with the cytologic features
of multivesicular bodies. The numerous cell processes extending
from the dendritic cells were evident in the semi-thin sections of
our preparations.
A bone marrow-derived dendritic cell at d5 of culture shows many
cytoplasmic veils. A close up of the perinuclear region shows
profiles of smooth reticulum and vacuoles. There are few lysosomal
or phagocytic structures.
Example 3
Mouse Dendritic Cell Progenitors Phagocytose Particulates
Sensitizing Mice to Mycobacterial Antigens In Vivo
Material and Methods
A. Mice
BALB/C.times.DBA/2 F1, C57BL/6.times.DBA/2 F1, and BALB/C male and
female mice were purchased from the Trudeau Institute [Saranac
Lake, N.Y.] and Japan SLC [Hamamatsu] and used at 6-10 weeks of
age.
B. Bone marrow cultures
As described in Example 2 above, bone marrow was flushed from the
femus and tibias, depleted of red cells with 0.83% ammonium
chloride, and cultured in 24 well plates [Nunc, Napaville, Ill. and
Corning #25820, Corning N.Y.] at 10.sup.6 cells/well in 1 ml of
RPMI-1640 supplemented with 5% fetal calf serum, 20 ug/ml
gentamicin, and 1000 U/ml of recombinant murine GM-CSF [Kiren
Brewery, Maebashi, Gumma, Japan; 9.7.times.10.sup.7 U/mg]. At d2,
0.75 ml of medium and the nonadherent cells were removed, and
replaced with fresh medium. This was repeated at d4-5, thereby
removing most of the developing granulocytes and leaving behind
clusters of proliferating dendritic cells adherent to a stroma that
included scattered macrophages. The culture medium was then
supplemented with particulates of BCG mycobacteria [described in
greater detail below], and phagocytosis was allowed to proceed for
20-24 h usually on d5-6. At this point the cultures were rinsed
free of loose cells and particles, and the cells analyzed
immediately for particle uptake. Alternatively cells in the washed
cultures were dislodged and 3-4.times.10.sup.6 cells transferred to
a 60 mm Petri dish for a 1 or 2 day "chase" period in
particle-free, fresh, GM-CSF supplemented medium. Class II-rich,
mature dendritic cells developed during the chase as described in
Example 2, and these were isolated by cell sorting [below]. To
compare the phagocytic activity of developing and mature dendritic
cells, particles were also administered to 7-8 d bone marrow
cultures that are rich in single nonproliferating mature dendritic
cells.
C. Particulates
BCG mycobacteria [Trudeau Institute, 1.5-2.4.times.10.sup.8 CFU/ml;
Kyowa Pharmaceutical Industries, Tokyo] were administered at
approximately 10.sup.7 live BCG per 16 mm diameter well. Uptake was
assessed following an "acid fast" stain using an auramine-rhodamine
procedure that is more sensitive than Ziehl Neelsen and facilitates
organism counts. Colloidal carbon [Pellikan Ink, Hannover, Germany]
was added at 1:2000 dilution. The carbon was identified as a black
granular stain in specimens stained with Diff-Quik.sup.R [Baxter
Healthcare Corp, Miami, Fla.]. Suspensions of 2u latex particles
[0.5% v/v; Seradyn, Indianapolis, IN] were applied to the cultures
at 50 ul/well, a dose which covers the surface of the culture well
with beads.
D. Isolation of mature dendritic cells by cell sorting
As noted before in Example 2, the dendritic cells that are produced
in GM-CSF stimulated bone marrow cultures express very high levels
of surface MHC class II products [monoclonals B21-2, TIB 227 and
M5/114, TIB 120 from the ATCC] as well as moderate levels of a
dendritic cell-restricted antigen recognized by monoclonal
NLDC-145. Immediately after the pulse with BCG, or after an
additional 2 days of "chase" culture, the cells were stained with
biotin B21-2 and FITC-streptavidin [Tago, Burlingame, Calif.].
Class II-rich cells then were sorted [FACStar Plus, Becton
Dickinson, Mountainview, Calif.] and cytospun onto glass slides
[Shandon Inst. Sewicky, Pa.]. The sorted cells were stained with
Diff Quick.RTM. which outlines the stellate shape of dendritic
cells in cytospins and allows enumeration of profiles containing
perinuclear depots of internalized colloidal carbon or latex
spheres. To visualize BCG, the cytospins were fixed in absolute
acetone for 10 min at room temperature and stained with M5/114
anti-class II, NLDC-145 anti-dendritic cell, or RA3-6B2 anti-B220
or anti-B cell [the latter as a control] followed by POX conjugated
mouse anti-rat Ig [Boehringer Mannheim, Indianapolis, Ind.] and
diaminobenzidine tetraHCl [Polyscience Inc, Warrington, Pa.]. The
preparations were then double labeled for acid-fast bacilli with
auramine rhodamine. Virtually all the cells in the preparation were
rich in NLDC-145 and MHC class II products. The number of BCG
bacilli in at least 400 cells were enumerated.
E. Electron microscopy
To prove that cell-associated BCG were all internalized, the
dendritic cells produced in pulse chase protocols [above] were
fixed in 2.5% glutaraldehyde and processed for EM as described in
Example 2.
F. Antigen presentation in vitro
Mice were primed with complete Freunds' adjuvant [CFA, SIGMA,
St.Louis, Mo.; 25 ul in the fore and rear paws] or as a control,
mycobacteria-free incomplete Freunds' [ICFA]. 7-14 d later, the
draining lymph nodes were dissociated into a single cell suspension
and depleted of APCs with mabs to MHC class II, B220, and heat
stable antigens [M5/114 anti-Ia, RA3-6B2 anti-B220, and J11d
anti-HSA; TIB 120, 146, and 183 from the ATCC respectively] and
rabbit complement. 3.times.10.sup.5 of these APC-depleted, primed T
cells were cultured in 96 well flat-bottomed microtest wells
[Corning #25860] in RPMI-1640 medium supplemented with 0.5% mouse
serum and 50 uM 2-mercaptoethanol. Graded doses of BCG-pulsed, bone
marrow or spleen APCs were added. 1 uCi of 3H-thymidine [NEN,
Boston, Mass.; 20 Ci/mmol; 4 uCi/ml] uptake was added to monitor
DNA synthesis at 72-88 h. Data shown are means of triplicates in
which standard errors were <15% of the mean.
G. Antigen presentation in vivo
APCs that had been pulsed with antigen in vitro were administered
in vivo to unprimed C.times.D2 F1 mice. To prime T cells in
draining lymph node, 2.times.10.sup.5 dendritic cells were injected
into the paws, and lymph node cells were prepared 5 d later. To
prime T cells in spleen, 10.sup.6 cells were injected i.v., and
splenocytes were prepared 5 or 10 d later. To measure T cell
priming, bulk lymph node or spleen cells were cultured as above and
challenged with graded doses of protein antigens, either purified
protein derivative [PPD, from Statenserum Institute, Copenhagen,
Denmark, or from Dr. Ichiro Toida, Research Institute for BCG in
Japan, Kiyose, Tokyo] or bovine serum albumin [Sigma] and
3H-thymidine measured at 72-88 h. To characterize the proliferating
cells, the populations were treated with antibodies and complement
prior to measuring 3H-thymidine uptake.
H. Phagocytosis of latex particles within clusters of developing
dendritic cells: pulse and pulse chase protocols
When mouse bone marrow or blood is stimulated with GM-CSF,
proliferating cell aggregates appear, and these give rise to large
numbers of typical immunostimulatory dendritic cells. In bone
marrow, which was used for the experiments described below, the
proliferating aggregates are best identified by washing away the
majority of nonadherent granulocytes that are also induced by
GM-CSF in the cultures. At d5-6, the time point when the aggregates
were first sizable [5-10 cells wide], we applied different
particles over a 20-22 h period.
Following administration of 2u latex spheres, heavy labeling was
noted in scattered macrophages on the monolayer. In addition, some
clear labeling occurred within the developing dendritic cell
aggregates [FIG. 12A]. Aggregates that had been exposed to
particles were recultured an additional 2 days. During this time,
large numbers of cells were released into suspension. These
primarily were mature dendritic cells with characteristic stellate
shapes and high levels of MHC class II and NLDC-145 antigens. When
the released cells were examined by light microscopy, many
contained latex spheres and often around a clear perinuclear zone
or centrosphere [FIG. 12B]. We also studied colloidal carbon uptake
in a similar manner. When aggregates were pulsed with colloid and
mature dendritic cells allowed to form during a chase period, some
of the released cells had a centrosphere with small but clear cut
carbon deposits [FIG. 12C]. In contrast, when latex or carbon was
offered to mature dendritic cells, little uptake occurred [FIG.
12D].
I. BCG mycobacteria uptake by developing dendritic cells--acid fast
stains
Live BCG mycobacteria were administered as the phagocytic meal over
a 20-22 h period using the protocol for administering latex
particles described above. Cell-associated bacilli were visualized
by a sensitive fluorescent acid-fast stain. Following the 20 h
pulse, the developing dendritic cell aggregates contained many
organisms. To isolate the more mature dendritic cells from the
cultures, the cells were resuspended and sorted those cells with
high levels of MHC class II products. Immediately after the BCG
pulse, about 20% of the sorted cells contained acid fast bacilli
[Table 1]. The majority of MHC class II-weak cells were not studied
further because of excessive stickiness during cell sorting.
Companion cell cultures were then studied after 2 days of a chase
culture. Because many mature dendritic cells formed during the
chase period, the number of Ia-rich progeny had increased four fold
[Table 1].
TABLE 1 ______________________________________ Frequency of
dendritic cells with phagocytosed BCG organisms in GM-CSF
stimulated mouse bone marrow cultures Exp't BCG # cells % #BCG/ #
exposure counted phagocytic DC
______________________________________ 1 d5-6 pulse 469 18.1 2.6
498 18.5 2.5 2 d5-6 pulse 444 22.5 3.0 463 22.2 2.9 pulse, 2d chase
564 57.1 3.8 579 57.0 3.2 3 D5-6 pulse 440 21.8 2.1 623 22.8 2.9
pulse, 2d chase 487 50.3 2.9 511 58.7 4.
______________________________________
Quantitative data of dendritic cells containing BCG. Mouse bone
marrow cultures were stimulated in 16 mm wells for 5 d with GM-CSF,
washed, and exposed to BCG organisms for 20 h. The cultures were
washed again and either examined immediately, or pooled and
transferred to a 60 mm dish for an additional 2 d chase culture.
The dendritic cells in the cultures were selected as Ia-rich cells
using a fluorescent activated cell sorter and then cytospun onto
glass slides for staining for acid fast bacilli. During the chase
period, the percentage of Ia-rich cells in the cultures increased
2-2.5 fold, and the total number of cells increased 2 fold,
resulting in a 4-5 fold increase in the number of Ia-rich
cells.
The percentage of dendritic cells containing BCG also rose to 50%
[Table 1, FIG. 13]. Double labeling experiments verified that cells
with acid fast bacilli expressed MHC class II and the dendritic
cell-restricted NLDC 145 antigen FIG. 13. Because the total number
of MHC class II and NLDC145 positive cells had increased 4-fold in
just 2 d, it is likely that these BCG-laden dendritic cells were
derived from less mature but phagocytic progenitors in the
aggregates.
J. Electron microscopy of BCG pulsed APCs
The perinuclear location of the cell-associated particles by light
microscopy indicated that organisms had been internalized. The
matter was verified by electron microscopy. About 50% of the
dendritic cell profiles contained internalized BCG, although the
number of organisms per profile was small, usually one but only up
to four, FIGS. 14 A, B. Each organism seemed to occupy its own
vacuole. It appeared that a phagosomal membrane closely
approximated most bacilli, FIGS. 14 C, D.
K. Presentation in vitro of mycobacterial antigens to primed T
cells
To test the presenting function of dendritic cells that had been
pulsed or pulse-chased with BCG organisms, we first prepared
antigen-responsive T cells from the draining lymph nodes of mice
that had been injected with CFA [complete Freund's adjuvant, which
contains heat-killed mycobacteria] or with incomplete Freund's
adjuvant [IFA as control; see Methods]. When dendritic cells were
added to IFA-primed T cells, a syngeneic mixed leukocyte reaction
was observed. This was comparable whether or not the APCs had been
exposed to BCG. [FIG. 15, right]. However, when dendritic cells had
been pulsed with BCG and added to CFA-primed T cells, strong
proliferative responses were induced [FIG. 15, left]. If dendritic
cells were tested immediately after the one day pulse, or after an
additional 2 day chase period, the chased population was much more
potent. [FIG. 15, left; compare .diamond-solid. and
.tangle-soliddn.]. As few as 100 BCG pulse-chased, dendritic cells
elicited sizable T cell responses in vitro [FIG. 15, left
.diamond-solid.]. The BCG pulse-chased populations also were 5-10
times more potent in inducing responsiveness to mycobacterial
antigen than mature dendritic cells freshly exposed to either PPD
or BCG. [FIG. 15 left, compare .diamond-solid. with .circle-solid.,
.tangle-solidup.]. Therefore, it appeared that the extent of
phagocytosis correlated with the efficacy of presentation, as the
pulse chased populations were the most active APCs and contained
the most intracellular BCG. [Table 1].
L. Presentation in vivo of mycobacterial antigens to unsensitized
mice
Comparable populations of BCG-pulsed, and BCG-pulsed and chased,
APCs were tested for the capacity to present mycobacterial antigens
to unprimed mice. Following injection into the footpads, strong
responsiveness to PPD was observed. [FIG. 16]. Again the dendritic
cells were the most potent if tested after a 2 d chase [FIG. 16;
compare .diamond. and .DELTA.], and this chase period greatly
increased the total yield of dendritic cells.
To test if the increased antigen presenting function of BCG
pulse-chased dendritic cells was related to the increased number of
APCs carrying BCG, the primed populations were also tested for
responsiveness to bovine serum albumin [BSA], since the dendritic
cells had been grown in the presence of fetal calf serum. All the
dendritic cell populations, regardless of the details of the
exposure to BCG, primed mice similarly to BSA. [FIG. 16, filled
symbols]. This indicates that each population was comparably
efficient in immunizing to a soluble protein, whereas the dendritic
cells that had phagocytosed BCG were more effective in eliciting
responses to mycobacterial antigens.
The surface markers of the primed cells were tested by antibody and
complement mediated lysis of the populations prior to measuring
3H-thymidine uptake [data not shown]. The proliferating cells were
positive for thy-1, but negative for MHC class II, heat stable
antigen, and B220. Anti-CD4 hybridoma culture supernatant blocked
proliferation more than 85% i.e., the primed cells were helper-type
T cells.
Priming was also observed when spleen T cells were tested after an
intravenous infusion of BCG-pulsed and BCG-pulse chased dendritic
cells [FIG. 17]. The cells were more responsive at 5 versus 10 days
after injection [compare FIGS. 17A and C]. Again dendritic cells
that had been cultured ["chased"] for 2 days after exposure to BCG
were the most potent [FIG. 12 compare .diamond-solid. with
.tangle-solidup.; but all populations primed the spleen cells
similarly to BSA [FIG. 17B]. We conclude that dendritic cell
progenitors capture and retain mycobacterial antigens in a manner
that is highly immunogenic in vivo.
Example 4
Antigen activated dendritic cells as immunogens
Dendritic cells prepared according to the method described in
Example 1 are plated at a concentration of approximately
1.times.10.sup.5 cells per well of a 24 well plastic culture plate.
The cells are incubated in RPMI 1640 containing 5% fetal calf serum
and GM-CSF (30 u/ml). Antigen is added to the dendritic cell
cultures and the cultures are incubated with antigen for
approximately 4 hours or for sufficient time to allow the dendritic
cells to handle the antigen in an immunologically relevant form, or
in a form that can be recognized by T cells. Such handling of the
antigen by the dendritic cells involves the dendritic cells 1)
acquiring, 2) processing, and 3) presenting the antigen to the T
cells in a form which is recognized by the T cells. Following
binding of the antigen to the dendritic cells the cells are
collected from the culture and used to immunize syngeneic mice. The
activated dendritic cells are injected subcutaneously into the mice
in an amount sufficient to induce an immune response to the
antigen.
Example 5
Dendritic Cell Modified Antigen
Dendritic cells prepared as described in Example 1 are pulsed with
a protein antigen for a time sufficient to allow the dendritic
cells to acquire, process and present the modified antigen on the
surface of the dendritic cells. The dendritic cells are then
collected from the culture for extraction of the modified
antigen.
For extraction of the modified antigen, the dendritic cells are
solubilized with detergent to extract the modified antigen bound to
MHC molecules. The MHC molecules bound to modified antigen are
purified by precipitation with antibodies which bind the MHC
molecules such as MH2. The modified antigens are extracted from the
precipitate for analysis.
Example 6
Preparation of Dendritic Cells from Human Blood
A. Patients
Seventeen experiments were performed with blood from human patients
undergoing consolidation chemotherapy (15 with leukemias/lymphomas
in full remission, 2 with solid tumors) followed by treatment with
G-CSF. Three experiments were performed with blood from patients
after chemotherapy (1 (acute myeloic) leukemia, 2 solid tumors) and
GM-CSF treatment. The results of three experiments, two from the
G-CSF treated group of patients, A and B, and one from the GM-CSF
treated group of patients, C, are presented.
B. Rationale
Results of procedures described in Example 1 relating to mouse
blood and Example 2 relating to bone marrow (J. Exp. Med.
175:1157-1167, 1992 and J. Exp. Med. 176:16931702, 1992),
identified several features of dendritic cell growth and
development: (a) dendritic cell progenitors do not express the MHC
class II antigens that are typical of mature immunostimulatory
progeny and of many other cell types (B cells, monocytes); (b)
dendritic cell progenitors require GM-CSF and perhaps other
cytokines that can be provided by the cells in culture or as
supplements to proliferate and mature; (c) critical steps in
dendritic cell growth and development take place in distinctive
aggregates that are loosely adherent to standard tissue culture
surfaces; (d) by monitoring the appearance of these aggregates, one
can evaluate the numerous variables that are pertinent to the
generation of dendritic cells, a trace but specialized type of
antigen presenting cell that operates in a potent fashion to induce
T cell immunity and tolerance in situ (Ann.Rev.Immunol. 9:271-296,
1991).
C. Protocol
1. Blood mononuclear cells were isolated by sedimentation in
standard dense media, here Lymphoprep (Nycomed, Oslo).
2. The isolated mononuclear cells were depleted of cells that were
not dendritic cell progenitors. These contaminants were coated with
monoclonal antibodies to CD3 and HLA-DR antigens and depleted on
petri dishes coated with affinity-purified, goat anti-mouse IgG
("panning").
3. 10.sup.6 cells in 1 ml of culture medium were plated in 16 mm
diameter plastic culture wells (Costar, Rochester, N.Y.). The
medium was RPMI-1640 supplemented with 50 uM 2mercaptoethanol, 10
mM glutamine, 50 ug/ml gentamicin, 5% serum from cord blood
(without heat inactivation) or 5% fetal calf serum (with
inactivation), and 400 U/ml human recombinant GM-CSF. Every 2nd day
thereafter and for a total of 16 days, the cultures were fed by
removing 0.3 ml of the medium and replacing this with 0.5 ml of
fresh medium supplemented with the cytokines.
Cells were cultured under the following conditions: 1) without
presence of additional cytokines; 2) GM-CSF, 400 or 800 U/ml; 3)
GM-CSF, 400 or 800 U/ml, plus IL-1.alpha., 50 LAF units/ml for the
last 24 h of culture; 4) GM-CSF, 400 or 800 U/ml, plus TNF.alpha.,
50 U/ml; 5) GM-CSF, 400 or 800 U/ml, plus TNF-.alpha., 50 U/ml,
plus IL-1.alpha., 50 LAF units/ml for the last 24 h of culture; 6)
GM-CSF, 400 or 800 U/ml, plus IL-3, 100 U/ml; 7) GM-CSF, 400 or 800
U/ml, plus IL-3, 100 U/ml, plus IL-1.alpha., 50 LAF units/ml for
the last 24 h.
In experiment C, non-dendritic cells which sank in dense
metrizamide were also tested.
4. Characteristic proliferating dendritic cell aggregates
(hereafter termed "balls") appeared by the 5th day, as evident upon
examination with an inverted phase contrast microscope. These balls
expanded in size over the course of a week (day 5-11). Some balls
appeared in the original wells (steps 3 and 4), but typically these
did not enlarge to the same extent as the nonadherent wells (step
4). The wells must be subcultured, e.g., 1 well split into 2-3
wells, as cell density increases.
5. Two alternative approaches were used to isolate the mature
dendritic cells from the growing cultures. One method consisted of
removing cells that were nonadherent and separate the balls from
nonballs by 1 g sedimentation. Dendritic cells were then released
in large numbers from the balls over an additional 1-2 days of
culture, and mature dendritic cells were isolated from the nonballs
by floatation on dense metrizamide as described (Freudenthal and
Steinman, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 87:7698-7702, 1990). The
second method is simpler but essentially terminates the growth
phase of the procedure. According to the second procedure, the
nonadherent cells were harvested when the balls were very large.
The cells were left on ice for 20 minutes, resuspended vigorously
with a pipette to disaggregate the balls, and the mature dendritic
cells were floated on metrizamide columns.
6. To demonstrate the immunostimulatory activity of the dendritic
cell progeny, graded doses of irradiated cells (30 to 30,000 in
serial 3 fold dilutions) were added to accessory cell-depleted T
cells (200,000 for the mixed leukocyte reaction assay, MLR; 150,000
for the oxidative mitogenesis assay, OXMI). The T cell response was
measured with a 16 h pulse of 3H-thymidine on the 5th (MLR) or 2nd
day (OXMI). T cell-stimulation experiments (oxidative mitogenesis
and mixed leukocyte reaction) were performed in the presence of 1
microgram/ml indomethacin. Data from three MLR experiments are
presented in FIGS. 18A, B, and C.
D. Results
1. GM-CSF is an essential cytokine. G-CSF, M-CSF, IL-3, or no
cytokine do not permit the development of dendritic cell balls.
GM-CSF at 400-800 U/ml is optimal, irregardless of whether donors
had been treated with either GM-CSF or G-CSF to expand the number
of myeloid progenitor cells in blood. Addition of TNF.alpha. at
10-50 U/ml usually but not always increased dendritic cell yields
up to two-fold (cf. Caux et al., (1990) Tumor necrosis factor alpha
strongly potentiates interleukin-3 and granulocyte-macrophage
colony-stimulating factor-induced proliferation of human
hematopoietic CD34+ progenitor cells, Blood 2292-2298). As evident
from the representative experiments described in FIGS. 18A, B and
C, TNF.alpha. supplementation also substantially improves the
function of the dendritic cell progeny. rhu IL-1.alpha. (50 LAF
units/ml) in some experiments proves a further increase in
function, when added during the last 24 h of the culture.
Experiments with tissue from patients with solid tumors or
leukemias/lymphomas gave comparable results with regard to the
generation of dendritic cells. 2. Starting from 60 ml of blood, and
after culturing in the presence of GM-CSF only, the yield of
typical mature immunostimulatory dendritic cells was
6-12.times.10.sup.6 cells, representing 40-80% of the total cells.
This yield is at least 20 times greater than the yield of mature
dendritic cells in 60 ml of fresh blood which would be at most 5%
(3-6.times.10.sup.5) of this (Proc. Natl. Acad.Sci. 87:7698-7702,
1990).
3. The phenotype of the dendritic cells generated by this method
included the fact that the cells were strongly positive for HLA-DR,
MHC class II products but negative for CD1a, CD14, and B cell
markers.
4. The development of granulocytes in the cultures reduces the
purity of the dendritic cells. Typically, these granulocyte balls
are more adherent and are left behind at the day 2 transfer step of
the protocol. If these adherent granulocyte colonies reappear,
simply transfer the growing dendritic cells may be transferred to
another well.
Example 7
Other sources of dendritic cell progenitors have been tested
according to the method described in Example 6:
a) For two patients, a small sample of bone marrow was also
provided. When the above procedure was applied, the dendritic cell
balls and mature immunostimulatory dendritic cells were formed in
large numbers.
b) Blood from 7 normal donors has been evaluated using the method
described in Example 6. The number of balls proved to be much less
(10-20/well of 2.times.10.sup.6 cells), but the use of normal blood
is obviously simpler and has the advantage that granulocyte
colonies do not form as noted before (comment 5) in comparing mouse
blood and marrow, J.Exp. Med. 175:1157-1167, 1992 vs. J.Exp. Med.
176:1693-1702, 1992).
c) Fetal or umbilical cord blood was also tested, because it too
contains more progenitor cells than adult blood. Since the number
of CD34+ progenitors is still very small (about 1%), we tested the
simpler method above in which CD34+ cells are not purified
initially. DC balls are readily induced, except that red blood
cells which are toxic were depleted. By adding the anti-erythroid
monoclonal VIEG4 (provided by Dr. W. Knapp, Vienna) to the panning
step (step 2), and using an additional floatation on Lymphoprep
(step 1) after panning. The yields of dendritic cells from cord
blood are roughly comparable to that described in the method
(1-5.times.10.sup.6 dendritic cells, representing 20-40% of the
total cells from 40 ml cord blood without a metrizamide floatation
step). The balls are more adherent, and the dendritic cells express
CD1a, in contrast to adult blood.
Example 8
Generation of Large Numbers of Dendritic Cells From Human Blood
Cultures Supplemented with GM-CSF and IL-4
Materials
A. Culture medium: was RPMI 1640 supplemented with 200 mM
L-glutamine, 50 mM 2-ME, 20mg/ml gentamicin, and either 5-10% FCS
[56.degree. C., 0.5 h; Seromed, Biochrom KG, Berlin, Germany), or,
in some experiments with 5% cord blood serum.
B. Recombinant human cytokines: GM-CSF (3.1.times.10.sup.6 U/mg)
was kindly provided by Dr. E. Liehl (Sandoz Research Institute,
Vienna, Austria), TNF.alpha. (6.times.10.sup.7 U/mg) by Dr. G. R.
Adolf (Ernst Boehringer Institut fur Arzneimittelforschung, Vienna,
Austria), and IL-1a [3.times.10.sup.8 U (D10 assay)/mg] by Dr. P.
Lomedico (Hoffmann La Roche Inc., Nutley, N.J., USA). IL-4 was
commercially obtained material (1.times.10.sup.7 U/mg) (Genzyme
Co., Boston, Mass.) or supernatant from IL-4 gene transfected COS
cells (3.times.10.sup.4 U/ml) kindly provided by Dr. G. Le Gros
(Ciba-Geigy Ltd., Basel, Switzerland). M-CSF (1.9.times.10.sup.6
U/mg) was a gift of Dr. S. Clark, Genetics Institute, Cambridge,
Mass. IL-3 and G-CSF were purchased from Genzyme Co.
C. Monoclonal Antibodies: We used the following mouse mab's
(referenced in Lenz, et al., (1993) J. Clin. Invest. 92:2587 unless
defined here): W6/32, anti-HLA-A,B,C (HB95 from the ATCC) ; L243,
anti-HLA-DR (Becton-Dickinson [BD], Mountain View, Calif.); 9.3F10,
anti-HLA-DR+DQ (HB180) from ATCC); RFD1, anti-HLA-DQ-related (gift
of L. W. Poulter, London, England); B7/21, anti-HLA-DP (BD);
UCHL-1, anti-CD45RO (Dako Corp., Glostrup, Denmark); 4G10,
anti-CD45RA; 3C10 and LeuM3 (BD), anti-CD14; EBM11, anti-CD68
(Dako); LeuM1, anti-CD15 (BD); LeuM9, anti-CD33 (BD); HPCA-1,
anti-CD34 (BD); Leu11b, anti-CD16 (BD); 2A3, anti-CD25 (BD); IV.3
(C. L. Anderson, Columbus, OH) and CIKM5 (G. Pilkington, Melbourne,
Australia), anti-FcgRII/CD32; 15-1, anti-FceRI (J. -P. Kinet,
Rockville, Md., W ang, et al, (1992) J.Exp. Med., 175:1353; OKT-6,
anti-CD1a (Ortho Pharmaceuticals, Raritan, N.J.); Leu4 (BD) and
OKT-3 (Ortho), anti-CD3; Leu3a+b, anti-CD4 (BD); Leu1, anti-CD5
(BD); Leu2a, anti-CD8 (BD); Leu12, anti-CD19 (BD); Leu16, anti-CD20
(BD); VIB-E3, anti-CD24 (W. Knapp, Vienna, Austria); G28-5,
anti-CD40 (J. A. Ledbetter, Seattle, WA); TB133, anti-LFA-1/CD11a
and CLB54, anti-CD18 (both from S.T. Pals, Amsterdam, The
Netherlands); LeuM5, anti-CD11c (BD); 7F7, anti-ICAM-1/CD54 (M. P.
Dierich, Innsbruck, Austria); AICD58, anti-LFA-3/CD58 (Immunotech,
Marseille, France) ; BB1, anti-B7/BB1/CD80 (E. A. Clark, Seattle,
Wash.) ; Lag, anti-Birbeck-granule-associated (M. Kashihara-Sawami,
Kyoto, Japan Kashihara, et al., (1986) J. Invest. Dermatol.,
87:602); VIE-G4, anti-glycophorin (O. Majdic, Vienna, Austria);
Ki-67, proliferation-associated antigen (Dako, Gerdes, et al.,
(1984) J. Immunol., 133:1710).
D. Culture of DC from cord blood: Cord blood was collected
according to institutional guidelines during normal full-term
deliveries. PBMC (peripheral blood mononuclear cells) were isolated
by flotation on Lymphoprep (Nycomed, Oslo, Norway), washed,
incubated once in saturating concentrations of anti-glycophorin
mAb, anti HLA-DR and anti CD3, washed, panned (10 min. on ice, then
20 min. at RT) twice onto bacterial petridishes coated with goat
anti-mouse Ig (H+L) Ab (Jackson Lab., Avondale, Pa.). The
nonadherent fractions were then plated in 24-well dishes (Costar,
Cambridge, Mass., USA) and cultured as described in detail in
Results.
E. Culture of DC from blood of cancer patients: Peripheral blood
was obtained with informed consent from cancer patients in complete
remission during hematopoietic recovery following high-dose
consolidation chemotherapy and administration of G-CSF [300 .mu.g
human rG-CSF (Neupogen, Hoffmann-La-Roche Ltd.) s.c./d ] (15
patients with leukemias/lymphomas, 2 with solid tumors) or GM-CSF
[400 .mu.g (Leukomax, Sandoz Ges m.b.H) s.c./d] (1 patient with
leukemia, 2 with solid tumors]. PBMC were prepared by sedimentation
in Lymphoprep, coated with anti HLA-DR+anti CD3 mAb's, washed, and
panned twice as described above. Nonadherent, depleted fractions
were then processed according to the protocol described in detail
in Results.
F. Culture of DC from blood of healthy adults: PBMC were obtained
from either 40 to 100 ml heparinized fresh whole blood or
leukocyte-enriched buffy coats (Freudenthal, P. S. and R. M.
Steinman (1990) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 87:698, and processed as
described in detail in Results.
G. Phenotypic analysis: Phenotypic analysis was performed exactly
as described previously in Romani, et al., (1989) J. Invest.
Dermatol., 93:600 by immunolabeling and flow cytometry analysis,
and by immunoperoxidase/-fluorescence on cells cytospun or attached
by poly-L-lysine to glass slides.
H. T cell stimulation assays: Allogeneic 1.degree. MLR (mixed
luihexyte reaction) and oxidative mitogenesis were performed
exactly as described in Romani, et al., (1989) J. Invest.
Dermatol., 93:600.
I. Cord blood mononuclear cells as a source for DC progenitors:
Three different situations to generate DCs from proliferating
progenitors or precursors in blood were evaluated. Our goals were
to define requisite criteria and cytokines for proliferating DCs,
but at the same time to avoid the need to enrich for CD34+
progenitor populations which are so few in number. We began with
cord blood, since a prior report had shown that
0.5-1.times.10.sup.6 enriched [>95%] CD34+ cord blood cells
could give rise to 1-2.5.times.10.sup.7 DCs if cultured for 14 days
in a combination of GM-CSF and TNF (Caux, et al., (1992) Nature,
360:258). A limitation to this previous protocol was that cord
blood only contains 0.9-2.6% CD34+ cells (Mayani, et al., (1993)
Blood, 81:3252). Therefore we modified the technique described
above used with adult mouse blood (Example 1), in which
unfractionated cells, or MHC class II negative cells, were cultured
in GM-CSF. We found that the varying, yet substantial percentage of
nucleated erythroid cells in human cord blood was toxic and that
these could be removed by panning with anti-glycophorin A mAb. We
began, then with erythroid-depleted cord blood cells with a low
buoyant density [<1.077 g/ml] and plated these at
1-2.times.10.sup.6 /ml in 1 ml of standard medium supplemented with
GM-CSF (400-800 U/ml] +/- TNF [50 U/ml]. The wells were fed every
other day by aspirating 0.3 ml medium and adding back 0.5 ml medium
with cytokines.
The subsequent events were similar to those described previously
with mouse blood. First, small adherent aggregates appeared after
4-7 d [FIG. 19A and FIG. 19B]. Many of the peripheral cells
displayed a veiled or dendritic appearance, and these adhered
loosely to a nest of spindle-shaped cells. Nonadherent cells could
be removed by carefully rinsing in warm medium, but this was not
essential. The adherent aggregates enlarged over the next 7-10 d,
indicating proliferative activity [FIG. 19C]. Then typical "veiled"
DCs [FIG. 19D-FIG. 19E] were released. These DC aggregates only
developed if GM-CSF was added to the medium. TNF-.alpha. although
not essential, increased aggregate size and DC yield 50-100%. It
was advantageous to remove the TNF-.alpha. during the last 1-2 d of
culture to permit the release of single, mature DCs.
The released DCs were identified by three sets of criteria. First,
the cells by inverted phase contrast microscopy showed
characteristic thin motile cytoplasmic processes or veils [FIG.
19D-FIG. 19E]. By EM, the typical ultrastructure of DCs was noted
[see below, FIG. 24]. Only one Langerhans cell granule (=Birbeck
granule) was found in 100 cell profiles. Second, the DCs had the
standard phenotype i.e., HLA-DR rich but negative for markers of
other cells e.g., CD3/14/19/20. Like epidermal Langerhans cells,
CD1a was detected but only 1-2% of the cells reacted with an
antigen associated with Langerhans cell granules [anti-Lag]
(Kashihara, et al., (1986) J. Invest. Dermatol., 87:602), and these
interestingly were in the center of rare residual aggregates.
Third, the cord blood derived DCs were potent stimulators of
resting T cells in the primary MLR [FIG. 20A] as well as oxidative
mitogenesis [not shown]. The inclusion of TNF in the culture medium
increased the immunostimulatory function of the DCs [FIG. 20A].
The above protocol has proven reproducible in 21 standardized
experiments and generates 1-5.times.10.sup.6 DCs from 40 ml of cord
blood at a purity of 20-50% (Table II). Purity can be increased to
>80% by flotation on metrizamide (Freudenthal, P.S. and R. M.
Steinman, (1990) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 87:7698) columns. We
conclude (a) it is not necessary to enrich for CD34+ precursors to
generate typical DCs from cord blood, and (b) the criteria that
proved useful in identifying aggregates of proliferating
progenitors in mouse blood are also applicable to human cells.
J. DC progenitors in the blood of cancer patients during
hematopoietic recovery from chemotherapy: We next studied blood
mononuclear cells from cancer patients in full remission
[leukemias/lymphomas and solid tumors] following high-dose
chemotherapy and either G-CSF [17 patients] or GM-CSF [3 patients]
treatment. It is known that in the hematopoietic recovery of such
patients, progenitors are mobilized into the blood in substantial
numbers [0.5-6.0% CD34+ cells] (Eaves, C. J. (1993) Blood, 82:1957;
Pettengell, et al., (1993) Blood, 82:3770). Instead of enriching
for CD34+ cells, we simply removed CD3+ and DR+ cells by panning,
and then plated 1-2.times.10.sup.6 cells in 1 ml medium with 5-10%
FCS or 5% cord serum plus 400-800 U/ml GM-CSF. The nonadherent
cells were transferred at d2 (or in some experiments at d1) and
cultured for 16 d feeding every other day.
Growing DC aggregates appeared on day 3-5 and expanded in size
until day 11 [not shown, but compare FIG. 21]. The aggregates
developed peripheral veils, and initially were loosely attached to
a stroma but later were nonadherent. The wells were subcultured
e.g., 1 well split to 2-3 wells, when the cell density increased or
if more tightly adherent, smooth, non-DC clusters appeared
[contaminating macrophage and granulocyte progenitors]. When the DC
aggregates became very large (d12-d16), it was easy to dissociate
the cells and float the mature DCs on metrizamide columns.
The DCs that developed in this manner had a typical morphology by
light and electron microscopy [not shown, but see FIGS. 21 and 24].
The phenotype was again MHC class II rich but null for CD3/14/19/20
[not shown]. MLR stimulatory function was potent [FIG. 20B]. In
contrast to cord blood derived DCs, CD1a and Lag antigens were not
seen (not shown).
GM-CSF proved essential for DC development. G-CSF, MCSF and IL-3
were inactive. Exposure to 3000 rads of ionizing irradiation
blocked DC development. Addition of TNF-.alpha. at 10-50 U/ml
usually though not always increased DC yields up to 2 fold, and
always improved the function of DCs [FIG. 20B]. Human rIL-1 [50 LAF
unit/ml], when added during the last 24 h in some experiments,
further increased function [FIG. 20B].
Starting from 40 ml blood, and using both GM-CSF and TNF-.alpha.,
the yield (Table II) of mature DCs was 4-8.times.10.sup.6 at 16 d
with 60-80% purity. This is at least 20 times the yield of mature
DCs in fresh normal blood (Freudenthal, P. S. and R. M. Steinman,
(1990) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 87:7698; O'Doherty, et al.
(1993) J. Exp. Med., 178:1067).
TABLE (II) ______________________________________ DC Progenitors in
Human Blood DC Enrichment Yields/ DC Type of DC Time of 40 ml
Enrich- Cytokines Blood Donor Progenitors Culture Blood ment Added
______________________________________ Neonatal, Remove 10-20 d 1-5
.times. 10.sup.6 20-50% GM-CSF cord blood glycophorin.sup.+
TNF.alpha. erythroid cells Adult blood Remove 16 d 4-8 .times.
10.sup.6 60-80% GM-CSF patients & CD3.sup.+ & TNF.alpha.
chemotherapy HLA-DR.sup.+ & CSF cells therapy Adult blood, Bulk
PBMC, 5-7 d 3-8 .times. 10.sup.6 40-80% GM-CSF normal adherent
& IL-4 loosely adherent
______________________________________
K. Proliferating DC aggregates from normal adult blood: When we
applied the above methods to blood from healthy adults, we did
observe some small, adherent, veiled aggregates between d8-16. In
all 20 experiments, the aggregates then deteriorated and did not
enlarge, leaving behind nonviable cells or less often a few
macrophages. Because a stromal monolayer was not evident in the
cultures, we next omitted the panning step with anti-CD3 and HLA-DR
in case the panning antibodies removed required accessory cells. We
simply plated 10.sup.6 bulk mononuclear cells in 1 ml of medium
with GM-CSF [800 U/ml] and TNF-.alpha. [50 U/ml], and after 1 day
gently removed the nonadherent lymphocytes. We then observed the
adherent cells every 12 h under the inverted microscope. To our
surprise, many small adherent aggregates developed within 2 d, and
most were covered with typical DC veils. However within 2 more
days, the aggregated cells became round and gave rise to a
monolayer of macrophages. These events took place whether GM-CSF,
or GM-CSF plus TNF-.alpha. were added. However by d12-16 typical
expanding DC aggregates appeared in some of the wells. These
aggregates were loosely affixed to an adherent monolayer similar as
previously observed in mouse blood (Inaba, et al., (1992) J. Exp.
Med., 175:1157) [not shown]. The DCs that were released were
typical in morphology, phenotype [not shown], and T cell
stimulatory function [FIG. 20C]. The yield was about 4% of the
initial number of mononuclear cells plated, which is far greater
than the 0.51% yield of DCs in fresh blood (Freudenthal, P. S. and
R. M. Steinman, (1990) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 87:7698;
O'Doherty, et al. (1993) J. Exp. Med., 178:1067).
Not wishing to be bound by theory, we suspect from these findings
that DC precursors were actually quite numerous in blood, but that
the precursor still had the potential to give rise to macrophages.
The latter is known to be the case for the colony forming units
that GM-CSF induces in mouse (Inaba, et al., (1993) Proc. Natl.
Acad. Sci. USA, 90:3038). Since IL-4 at 500-1000 U/ml blocks
macrophage colony formation (Jansen, et al., (1989) J. Exp. Med.,
170:577), we added IL-4 to GM-CSF and repeated the experiments.
The combination of GM-CSF and IL-4 produced two striking findings.
First the numerous, initial veiled aggregates [FIG. 21Aa] did not
transform into macrophages but rather increased rapidly in size
over the next few days [FIG. 21B]. The aggregates became
nonadherent, displayed typical veils all over the periphery, and
began to release mature DCs [FIG. 21C]. Second, the single adherent
cells [presumably monocytes] that were scattered in between the
small adherent aggregates, also became nonadherent and developed
processes similar to those of typical DCs [not shown]. Growing DC
aggregates only formed in the presence of both GM-CSF and IL-4. The
initial nonadherent fraction also developed some aggregates but
these were obscured by the excess of lymphocytes.
After having made these observations in 20 experiments, we found it
simpler to use larger 35 mm wells. The protocol was to plate
5-20.times.10.sup.6 plain bulk mononuclear cells in 3 ml of medium,
to discard the nonadherent cells at 2 h with a very gentle rinse,
and then to culture the adherent cells in medium supplemented with
GM-CSF [800 U/ml] and IL-4 [500 U/ml]. With the above gentle wash,
the nonadherent cells did not develop DC aggregates, but with more
vigorous washing, the aggregates mainly developed in the
nonadherent fraction.
The presumptive DC aggregates were verified to be proliferating by
two criteria: staining of .about.10% of the cells with the Ki-67
mAb that identifies an antigen in cycling cells (Gerdes, et al.,
(1984) J. Immunol., 133:1710) [FIG. 22Dd], and sensitivity to 3000
rads. In contrast the tightly adherent populations, which could
develop single cells with the appearance of DCs [see above], were
nonproliferating as evidenced by a lack of staining with anti-Ki 67
mAb [FIG. 22D] and a resistance to 3000 rads of irradiation.
The combination of GM-CSF and IL-4 reproducibly gives rise to large
growing DC aggregates over a 5-7 d period. At that time, growth
essentially ceased. The aggregates then could be disassembled by
pipetting into DCs with characteristic morphology at the light
[FIG. 21C] and EM level [FIG. 24], a typical surface phenotype
[FIG. 23], and strong T cell stimulatory function [FIGS. 20D-20F].
Human rIL-1 [50 LAF units/ml], when added during the last 24 h of
culture, amplified the stimulatory function of DCs similar as
observed with murine DCs isolated from spleen or epidermis
(Heufler, et al., (1988) J. Exp. Med., 167:700; Koide, et al.,
(1987) J. Exp. Med., 165:515). Interestingly the blood-derived DCs
expressed CD1a, CD4, and FceRI as is typical of epidermal
Langerhans cells (Wang, et al., (1992) J. Exp. Med., 175:1353;
Romani, N., P., Fritsch, and G. Schuler. (1991). "Identification
and phenotype of epidermal Langerhans cells." In Epdermal
Langerhans Cells. G. Schuler, editor. CRC Press, Boca Raton. 49-86;
Bieber, et al., (1992) J. Exp. Med., 175:1285). Birbeck granules
were not detectable by EM however, and only a rare cell in the
center of a residual DC aggregate stained with anti-Lag mAb
(Kashihara, et al., (1986) J. Invest. Dermatol., 87:602) [FIG.
22C]. Anti-CD68 immunostaining revealed a perinuclear zone of
reactivity in some of the DCs [FIG. 22A], a feature that differs
from the strong diffuse granular staining of macrophages [FIG.
22B].
The yield of mature, immunostimulatory DCs (Table II) was 6-15% of
the mononuclear cells plated. This is many times greater than the
number of DCs that can be identified in unstimulated blood [0.3-1%]
(Freudenthal, P. S. and R. M. Steinman, (1990) Proc. Natl. Acad.
Sci. USA, 87:7698; O'Doherty, et al. (1993) J. Exp. Med.,
178:1067). The above protocol and yield [3-8.times.10.sup.6 DCs/40
ml of blood] has proven reproducible in over 25 experiments with
blood from healthy males and females [25-60 yrs], using either
fresh venapuncture or buffy coat preparations.
DC progenitors in human blood--identification:
These findings of necessity appear methodological in nature but in
fact outline a pathway whereby the distinct DC lineage can be
induced to proliferate and mature from precursors that are
relatively plentiful in human blood. The methodological caste of
our results reflects the difficulty inherent in identifying
precursors and progeny in this distinctive immunostimulatory
pathway. DCs are not yet known to express a lineage-specific
surface antigen, as is the case with lymphocytes, e.g., CD3, CD19,
CD20. A lack of lineage specific markers is also typical of the
individual human myeloid lineages e.g., monocytes, neutrophils,
basophils, eosinophils. However, these other myeloid lineages have
distinctive tinctorial properties and distinctive CSF's e.g., M-CSF
and G-CSF. DCs in contrast are only known to respond to the
multilineage cytokine GM-CSF (Witmer-Pack, et al., (1987) J. Exp.
Med., 166:1484; Heufler, et al., (1988) J. Exp. Med., 167:700;
Koch, et al., (1990) J. Exp. Med., 171:159), and their peculiar
morphology, phenotype and function is best outlined with a
composite of approaches (Steinman, et al. Annu. Rev. Immunol,
9:271.
Given these inherent difficulties, we searched for criteria that
were similar to those that had been used to identify immature DC
progenitors [e.g., MHC class II negative] in mouse blood (Inaba, et
al., (1992) J. Exp. Med., 175:1157) and bone marrow (Inaba, et al.,
(1992) J. Exp. Med., 176:1693). Mouse DCs proliferate within a
characteristic aggregate that attaches loosely to an underlying
stroma and is covered with large sheet-like processes or veils
[compare FIGS. 19, 21]. By defining conditions that give rise to
such aggregates, at first containing a few cells but growing to
>10 cells in diameter, we could establish that proliferating DC
progenitors are readily detectable in the blood of all healthy
adults, and that one could use these progenitors to generate
relatively large numbers of typical immunostimulatory DCs within 7
days, i.e. 3-8 million of such cells/40 ml of blood.
Like cells derived from mouse blood, the critical finding regarding
human blood, including blood from normal individuals, is the
requirement for GM-CSF. Cells from normal human blood in the
presence of GM-CSF alone were capable of supporting dendritic cell
precursors but formed significantly fewer large aggregates compared
to cells from mouse blood. However, human blood contained
significantly larger numbers of macrophages. IL-4, a known
inhibitor of macrophage colony formation (Jansen, et al., (1989) J.
Ex. Med., 170:577), allowed extensive DC growth and maturation to
ensue [FIG. 21].
DC progenitors in human blood--cytokine requirements:
To study the properties of DC progenitors in blood, it is not
necessary to enrich for CD34+ multilineage progenitors which are so
rare (<0.1%) in normal blood (Ema, et al., (1990) Blood,
75:1941). The need for exogenous cytokines may vary from one
experimental situation to another depending on their endogenous
production (e.g. TNF) by cells in the culture. However, it is to
date essential to add GM-CSF. Exogenous TNF-.alpha. is useful to
increase DC numbers and function, as described by Caux et al.
(1992) Nature, 360:258), but primarily when one uses cord blood or
blood from patients who are receiving CSF therapy to compensate for
chemotherapy. The function of TNF may be to diminish granulocyte
production Santiago-Schwarz, et al. (1993) Blood, 82:3019; Caux, et
al., (1993) J. Exp. Med., 177:1815), and to enhance responsiveness
of an early progenitor to GM-CSF as by inducing a chain of the
GM-CSF receptor (Santiago-Schwartz, et al. (1993), Blood, 82:3019;
Caux, et al., (1993) J. Exp. Med., 177:1815). With normal adult
blood, IL-4 is the desired exogenous cytokine that is to be applied
in combination with GM-CSF. Without being bound by theory, we
suspect that IL-4 acts by suppressing the monocyte differentiation
potential of the DC progenitor (Jansen, et al., (1989) J. Exp.
Med., 170:577).
GM-CSF is essential to grow DCs from all sources used. Additional
cytokines required for optimal DC growth from the various sources
are, however, strikingly different (TNF .alpha. versus IL-4). We
suspect that this is due to the fact that the main DC progenitors
involved differ. In cord blood the DC aggregates likely derive from
CD34+ cells as preliminary experiments (N. Romani, unpublished)
have shown that depletion of CD34+ cells from the initial inoculum
virtually abolishes the formation of DC aggregates. This also
readily explains the need to add TNF a which is known to induce
responsiveness to GM-CSF of CD34+ cells (Santiago-Schwartz, et al.,
Blood, 82:3019; Caux, et al., (1993) J. Exp. Med., 177:1815).
Ongoing experiments indicate that IL-4 does not seem to enhance DC
development from precursors that arise in cord blood mononuclear
cells supplemented with GM-CSF and TNF-.alpha. [D. Brang,
unpublished]. We do not yet know, however, whether IL-4 is produced
endogenously in such cultures. Endogenous IL-4 might
suppress--similar to exogenously added IL-4 in adult blood
cultures--the monocyte differentiation potential of more mature DC
progenitors that derive from CD34+ multilineage progenitors in
response to GM-CSF and TNF .alpha.. DC developmental pathways in
cultures of blood derived from cancer patients during hematopoietic
recovery are presumably similar to cord blood. Besides CD34+ cells
it is, however, likely that more committed precursors are also
involved as the percentage of CD34+ cells in the CD3/HLA-DR
depleted mononuclear cell fraction did not strictly correlate with
DC yields. In normal adult blood in response to GM-CSF and TNF
.alpha. only after a prolonged culture period (2 weeks) some DC
aggregates emerged likely from early, rare DC progenitors similar
to those in cord blood or blood of cancer patients during
hematopoietic recovery. The main DC progenitor(s) in normal adult
blood, however, appear(s) to be more frequent as only 2 days of
culture are needed before many DC aggregates appear [FIG. 21].
Prior work in mouse (Inaba, et al., (1993) Proc. Natl. Acd. Sci.
USA, 90:3038) and man (Reid., et al., (1992) J. Immunol, 149:2681)
has described that the multilineage colonies that are induced by
GM-CSF in semisolid agar cultures contain all 3 types of myeloid
progeny, i.e. granulocytes, macrophages, and dendritic cells. The
principal DC progenitor in normal human peripheral blood seems more
differentiated since granulocytes do not develop. This committed
progenitor is GM-CSF responsive, and likely bipotential, developing
into macrophages rather than DCs unless its monocyte
differentiation potential is suppressed by IL-4.
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While we have hereinbefore described a number of embodiments of
this invention, it is apparent that the basic constructions can be
altered to provide other embodiments which utilize the methods and
compositions of this invention. Therefore, it will be appreciated
that the scope of this invention is defined by the claims appended
hereto rather than by the specific embodiments which have been
presented hereinbefore by way of example.
* * * * *