U.S. patent number 5,849,719 [Application Number 08/725,968] was granted by the patent office on 1998-12-15 for method for treating allergic lung disease.
This patent grant is currently assigned to The Regents of the University of California. Invention is credited to Dennis A. Carson, Eyal Raz.
United States Patent |
5,849,719 |
Carson , et al. |
December 15, 1998 |
**Please see images for:
( Certificate of Correction ) ** |
Method for treating allergic lung disease
Abstract
The invention is directed to a method for treating both the
early and late phases of allergic asthma by introducing naked
polynucleotides which operatively encode for the asthma-initiating
antigen into the host. The antigen-encoding polynucleotides are
administered to host tissues which contain a high concentration of
antigen presenting cells (e.g., skin and mucosa) relative to other
host tissues. Expression of the asthma-initiating antigen encoding
polynucleotides of the invention inside of antigen presenting cells
(without substantial secretion therefrom) induces antigen tolerance
while suppressing IgE antibody formation in the early phase of the
disease, and also suppresses cytokine-mediated eosinophil
accumulation in the late phase of the disease. Devices and
compositions for use in the methods of the invention are also
described.
Inventors: |
Carson; Dennis A. (Del Mar,
CA), Raz; Eyal (San Diego, CA) |
Assignee: |
The Regents of the University of
California (Oakland, CA)
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Family
ID: |
24916669 |
Appl.
No.: |
08/725,968 |
Filed: |
October 4, 1996 |
Related U.S. Patent Documents
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Application
Number |
Filing Date |
Patent Number |
Issue Date |
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333068 |
Nov 1, 1994 |
5697647 |
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112440 |
Aug 26, 1993 |
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Current U.S.
Class: |
514/44R;
424/184.1; 514/958; 536/23.1 |
Current CPC
Class: |
C07K
14/495 (20130101); C12N 15/87 (20130101); C07K
16/00 (20130101); A61K 39/145 (20130101); A61K
39/00 (20130101); A61P 37/02 (20180101); C07K
14/77 (20130101); G01N 33/5091 (20130101); A61B
17/20 (20130101); C07K 14/5406 (20130101); C07K
14/005 (20130101); A61K 48/00 (20130101); C07K
14/55 (20130101); C07K 14/245 (20130101); A61B
17/205 (20130101); A61K 39/12 (20130101); A61P
11/06 (20180101); A61K 39/35 (20130101); A61P
37/08 (20180101); C07K 2317/77 (20130101); A61K
2039/541 (20130101); A61K 2039/53 (20130101); A61K
2039/57 (20130101); C12N 2760/16022 (20130101); A61K
2039/51 (20130101); A61K 38/00 (20130101); A61K
2039/5154 (20130101); Y10S 514/958 (20130101); A61K
2039/55561 (20130101); C12N 2760/16034 (20130101) |
Current International
Class: |
C07K
14/77 (20060101); C07K 14/54 (20060101); A61B
17/20 (20060101); C07K 16/00 (20060101); A61K
39/00 (20060101); A61K 39/145 (20060101); A61K
39/35 (20060101); C12N 15/87 (20060101); A61K
48/00 (20060101); C07K 14/11 (20060101); C07K
14/005 (20060101); C07K 14/195 (20060101); C07K
14/245 (20060101); C07K 14/435 (20060101); C07K
14/55 (20060101); C07K 14/495 (20060101); G01N
33/50 (20060101); A61K 38/00 (20060101); A01N
043/04 (); A61K 031/70 (); A61K 039/00 (); C07H
021/02 () |
Field of
Search: |
;514/44 ;536/23.1
;424/184.1 |
References Cited
[Referenced By]
U.S. Patent Documents
Foreign Patent Documents
Other References
Manickan, E et al. Critical Reviews in Immunology. 17(2):139-154
Mar. 1997. .
Hoyne, GF and Lamb, JR. Immunology and Cell Biology. 74:180-188
Feb. 1986. .
Tang, et al.; "Genetic Immunization is a Simple Method for
Eliciting an Immune Response"; Nature, vol. 356, Mar. 12, 1992, pp.
152-154. .
Stribling, et al.; "Aerosol Gene Deliver in vivo"; Proc. Natl.
Acad. Sci. USA; vol. 89, pp. 11277-11281, Dec. 1992; Medical
Sciences..
|
Primary Examiner: Saunders; David
Assistant Examiner: Vandervegt; F. Pierre
Attorney, Agent or Firm: Fish & Richardson P.C.
Government Interests
STATEMENT OF GOVERNMENT RIGHTS
This invention may have been made with Government support under
Grant Nos. AR07567 and AR25443, awarded by the National Institutes
of Health. The Government may have certain rights in this
invention.
Parent Case Text
RELATED PATENT APPLICATIONS
This is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No.
08/333,068, filed Nov. 1, 1994 now U.S. Pat. No. 5,679,647, which
is in turn a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser.
No. 08/112,440, filed in the United States Patent and Trademark
Office on August 26, 1993, now abandoned.
Claims
The invention claimed is:
1. A method for immunotherapy of allergic asthma in a host
comprising:
immunizing the host against an asthma-initiating antigen by
introducing a naked polynucleotide composition comprised of a
recombinant expression vector which encodes an asthma-initiating
antigen into antigen presenting cells in the host's mucosa, wherein
the polynucleotide is naked in that it is not complexed to any
colloidal material which interferes with uptake of the
polynucleotide by the antigen presenting cells;
wherein the asthma-initiating antigen is expressed in the antigen
presenting cells to stimulate Th1 lymphocytes in the host and
inhibit antigen-stimulated IgE antibody production as well as
cytokine mediated eosinophil infiltration of lung tissue.
2. The method according to claim 1 wherein the polynucleotide
composition is introduced into the respiratory passages of the
host.
3. The method according to claim 2 wherein the naked polynucleotide
composition is aerosolized.
4. A method for immunotherapy of allergic asthma in a host
comprising:
immunizing the host against an asthma-initiating antigen by
introducing a naked polynucleotide composition comprised of a
recombinant expression vector which encodes an asthma-initiating
antigen into antigen presenting cells in the host's skin, wherein
the polynucleotide is naked in that it is not complexed to any
colloidal material which interferes with uptake of the
polynucleotide by the antigen presenting cells;
wherein further the asthma-initiating antigen is expressed in the
antigen presenting cells to stimulate Th1 lymphocytes in the host
and inhibit antigen-stimulated IgE antibody production as well as
cytokine mediated eosinophil infiltration of lung tissue.
5. The method according to claim 1 further comprising
administration of an immunostimulatory peptide to the host.
6. The method according to claim 4 further comprising
administration of an immunostimulatory peptide to the host.
7. The method according to claim 5 wherein the peptide is
co-expressed by the recombinant expression vector.
8. The method according to claim 6 wherein the peptide is
co-expressed by the recombinant expression vector.
Description
BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION
1. Field of the Invention
The invention relates to a method for treating both the early and
late phases of allergic lung disease. In particular, the invention
relates to a method for immunizing a host against allergic asthma
through use of asthma-initiating antigen-encoding polynucleotide
compositions.
2. History of the Prior Art
Asthma is one of the common chronic lung diseases of industrialized
countries. The airway narrowing which characterizes the disease is
associated with antigen stimulated immune system activation,
including elevation of antigen-specific IgE levels in the early
phase of the disease and eosinophil infiltration of lung tissue in
the late phase of the disease.
Specifically, during the early phase of the disease, activation of
Th2 lymphocytes stimulates the production of IgE antibody, which in
turn triggers the release of histamine and other immune mediators
from mast cells. During the late phase of the disease, IL-4 and
IL-5 cytokine production by CD4+ helper T lymphocyte type 2 (Th2)
cells is elevated. These cytokines are believed to play a
significant role in recruiting eosinophils into lung tissue, where
tissue damage and dysfunction result.
Persons suffering from allergic asthma are conventionally treated
by immunization against the asthma-initiating antigen with an
antigen-based composition. Antigen immunization limits the
antigen-stimulated events of the early phase of allergic asthma,
albeit at the risk of inducing IgE mediated anaphylaxis. However,
such classical immunization schemes do not target the
cytokine-mediated events of the late phase immune response in
allergic asthma.
SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION
The invention consists of a method for treating allergic asthma in
a host which reduces the allergic immune responses that are
characteristic of both the early and late phases of the disease.
This is accomplished according to the invention by administering an
asthma-initiating antigen-encoding polynucleotide to the host in a
manner which induces intracellular expression of the antigen in
antigen presenting cells. The expressed antigen is presented to
host CD4.sup.+ T lymphocytes in a manner which activates class 1
helper T (Th1) lymphocytes in preference to Th2 lymphocytes.
Thus, the polynucleotide immunization scheme of the invention
allows the clinician to induce tolerance to an asthma-initiating
antigen in a host with little risk of stimulating the Th2
lymphocyte mediated IgE antibody production and mast cell
activation events which characterize the early phase of allergic
asthma. In addition, the immunization scheme of the invention also
reduces Th2 cell release of IL-4 and IL-5, thus substantially
limiting the eosinophil accumulation in lung tissue which
characterizes the late phase of allergic asthma. In this manner,
the invention provides a more efficacious, less risk-intensive
means of treating allergic asthma than is presently available in
the art.
In practice, a suitable candidate for treatment according to the
method of the invention is a host in whom allergic asthma has been
diagnosed and for whom at least one asthma-initiating antigen
(i.e., a proteinaceous antigen which triggers an allergic response
in the host that results in asthmatic symptoms being experienced by
the host) has been identified.
According to the method of the invention, the host is immunized
with a pharmaceutical composition comprised of a recombinant
expression vector (preferably a plasmid or cosmid, hereafter
"polynucleotide composition"). The recombinant expression vector
incorporates a polynucleotide which encodes the asthma-initiating
antigen. To enhance Th1 lymphocyte activation to a therapeutically
sufficient level, the polynucleotide composition is administered to
a tissue of the host which contains a relatively high concentration
of antigen presenting cells (e.g., skin or mucosa, such as the
mucosa of the respiratory tract) as compared to other host tissues.
Advantageously, targeting the dense population of antigen
presenting cells present in the skin and mucosa for expression of
antigen permits relatively minute doses of polynucleotide
composition to be applied toward a therapeutic effect in the
host.
Where desired, the recombinant expression vector of the
polynucleotide composition may also code for other therapeutically
significant, biologically active peptides, such as
immunostimulatory cytokines (e.g., TGF-.beta.). Alternatively, such
peptides or other therapeutically significant compounds may be
administered in conjunction with the polynucleotide compositions of
the invention.
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS
FIG. 1 depicts the results of an ELISA for anti-NP IgG before
intranasal introduction of naked pCMVRNP to Balb/c mice.
FIG. 2 depicts the results of an ELISA for anti-NP IgG in an
unanesthetized group of Balb/c mice.
FIG. 3 depicts the results of an ELISA for anti-NP IgG in an
anesthetized group of Balb/c mice.
FIG. 4 is a photograph of the results of histological studies of
skin at the point of entry for pCMVRNP in Balb/c mice showing
uptake of the plasmid by mononuclear cells (APC's). An APC is
indicated by an arrows; a tissue cell (not containing the plasmid)
is indicated by a slashed line.
FIG. 5 depicts the results of an ELISA for IgG 2A type antibodies
in sera for mice (1) injected intradermally or intramuscularly with
a polynucleotide encoding .beta.-galactosidase, or (2) the enzyme
by intradermal injection.
FIG. 6 depicts the results of an ELISA for IgG 1 type antibodies in
sera for mice (1) injected intradermally or intramuscularly with a
polynucleotide encoding .beta.-galactosidase, or (2) the enzyme by
intradermal injection.
FIG. 7 depicts the results of an ELISA for IgG 2A type antibodies
in sera of the mice described with respect to FIG. 5 after a
booster injection of antigen.
FIG. 8 depicts the results of an ELISA for IgG 1 type antibodies in
sera of the mice described with respect to FIG. 6 after a booster
injection of antigen.
FIG. 9 depicts the results of an ELISA for IgG 2A type antibodies
in sera for mice (1) introduced by scratching the skin with tynes
coated with a polynucleotide encoding .beta.-galactosidase, or (2)
the enzyme by intradermal injection.
FIG. 10 depicts the results of an ELISA for IgG 1 type antibodies
in sera for mice (1) introduced by scratching the skin with tynes
coated with a polynucleotide encoding .beta.-galactosidase, or (2)
the enzyme by intradermal injection.
FIG. 11 is a map of the pGREtk eukaryotic expression vector.
FIG. 12 is a map of the pVDRtk eukaryotic expression vector.
FIG. 13 depicts the results of an ELISA for total IgE antibody
levels in mice after immunization with an antigen-encoding plasmid
(pCMV-Lac-Z), the antigen itself (.beta.-galactosidase), or a
control (non-encoding) plasmid (pCMV-BL).
FIG. 14 depicts the results of an ELISA for antigen-specific IgE
antibody levels in mice after immunization with an antigen-encoding
plasmid (pCMV-Lac-Z), the antigen itself (.beta.-galactosidase), or
a control (non-encoding) plasmid (pCMV-BL).
FIG. 15 depicts the results of an ELISA for levels of IL-2 and
INF.gamma. after immunization of mice with an antigen-encoding
plasmid (pCMV-Lac-Z) or the antigen itself
(.beta.-galactosidase).
FIG. 16 depicts the results of an assay to detect antigen-specific
cell lysis by T lymphocytes from mice immunized by epidermal
administration of pCMV-NP plasmid.
FIG. 17 depicts the results of an assay to detect antigen-specific
cell lysis by T lymphocytes from the mice described in FIG. 16 in
absence of pulsing of the cells with the antigen.
FIG. 18 depicts the results of an ELISA for
anti-.beta.-galactosidase antibodies after administration of (1) a
polynucleotide encoding the enzyme by intramuscular or intradermal
injection, and (2) the enzyme by intradermal injection.
FIG. 19 depicts the results of an ELISA for
anti-.beta.-galactosidase antibodies in sera from the mice
described with respect to FIG. 18 after a booster injection of
antigen.
DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION
Throughout this description, the preferred embodiment and examples
shown should be considered as exemplars, rather than limitations on
the invention.
I. DEFINITIONS
The following definitions are provided to simplify discussion of
the invention. Those skilled in the art will, however, recognize
that these definitions may be expanded to include equivalents
without departing from the legitimate scope or spirit of the
invention. For this reason, these definitions should not be
construed as limiting the invention.
a. "Polynucleotide" refers to DNA or RNA and can include sense and
antisense strands as appropriate to the goals of the therapy
practiced according to the invention. Polynucleotide in this
context may include oligonucleotides. Polynucleotides useful in the
invention are those which are incorporated into recombinant
expression vectors that include promoter and other sequences
necessary for expression of the desired translation product(s);
e.g., a peptide or protein. The method of the invention can be
practiced using known either viral or non-viral recombinant
expression vectors, although the latter are preferred. Preferably,
these vectors will incorporate complementary DNA (cDNA) which
encode for the desired translation product(s).
b. "Polynucleotide composition" refers to a pharmaceutically safe
polynucleotide free of a delivery vehicle (such as liposomes or
colloidal particles); i.e., a "naked" polynucleotide in a carrier
which will not impair antigen recognition of the
polynucleotide.
c. "Asthma-initiating Antigen" refers to one or more proteinaceous
antigens (1) to which the host has been determined to be allergic;
and (2) which stimulate asthmatic symptoms in the host.
d. "Antigen Presenting Cells" or "APC's" include known APC's such
as Langerhans cells, veiled cells of afferent lymphatics, dendritic
cells and interdigitating cells of lymphoid organs. The definition
also includes mononuclear cells such as (1) lymphocytes and
macrophages which take up and express polynucleotides according to
the invention in skin and (2) mononuclear cells (e.g., as depicted
in histological photographs contained herein). These cells are not
tissue cells but are likely to be antigen presenting cells. The
most important of these with respect to the present invention are
those APC's which are known to be present in high numbers in
epithelia and thymus dependent areas of the lymphoid tissues,
including epidermis and the squamous mucosal epithelia of the
buccal mucosa, vagina, cervix and esophagus (areas with "relatively
high" concentrations of APC's). In addition to their definitions
set forth below, therefore, "skin" and "mucosa"0 as used herein
particularly refer to these sites of concentration of APC's.
e. "Host" refers to the recipient of the therapy to be practiced
according to the invention. The host may be any vertebrate, but
will preferably be a mammal. If a mammal, the host will preferably
be a human, but may also be a domestic livestock, laboratory
subject or pet animal.
f. "Target tissue" refers to the tissue of the host in which
expression of a polynucleotide is sought.
g. "Skin" as used herein refers to the epidermal, dermal and
subcutaneous tissues of a host.
h. "Mucosa" refers to mucosal tissues of a host wherever they may
be located in the body including, but not limited to, respiratory
passages (including bronchial passages, lung epithelia and nasal
epithelia), genital passages (including vaginal, penile and anal
mucosa), urinary passages (e.g., urethra, bladder), the mouth, eyes
and vocal cords. Respiratory passages are the primary target tissue
for introduction of polynucleotide compositions to treat allergic
asthma according to the invention.
i. "Point of Entry" refers to the site of introduction of the naked
polynucleotide into a host, including immediately adjacent
tissue.
j. "Th1/Th2 Response(s)" refer, respectively, to types 1 and 2
helper T lymphocyte (Th) mediated immune responses. Th2 responses
include the allergy-associated IgE antibody class as well as
elevated levels of IL-4 and IL-5 cytokines by Th2 lymphocytes.
Soluble protein antigens tend to stimulate relatively strong Th2
responses. In contrast, Th1 responses are induced by antigen
binding to macrophages and dendritic cells. that is induced
preferentially by antigens that bind to and activate certain APC's;
i.e., macrophages and dendritic cells. Th1 cells secrete IL-2,
interferon (IFN)-.gamma. and tumor necrosis factor (TFN)-.beta.
(the latter two of which are involved in macrophage activation and
delayed-type hypersensitivity in response to antigen
stimulation).
k. "Synthesis" refers to well-known means of synthesizing
polynucleotide sequences and may include isolation and purification
of native polynucleotides.
l. "Peptide" refers to small peptides, polypeptides, oligopeptides
and proteins which have a desired biological effect in vivo.
m. "Iontophoresis" refers to a known means of transdermal
transmission presently used to deliver peptides continuously to a
host. More specifically, it is a process that facilitates the
transport of ionic species by the application of a physiologically
acceptable electrical current. This process and other transdermal
transmission means are described in Chien, et al. Transdermal Drug
Delivery, "Novel Drug Delivery Systems", Ch. 7, part C, (Marcel
Dekker, 1992), the relevant disclosures of which are incorporated
herein by this reference for the purpose of illustrating the state
of knowledge in the art concerning techniques for drug
delivery.
n. "Detergents/Absorption Promoters" refers to chemical agents
which are presently known in the art to facilitate absorption and
transfection of certain small molecules, as well as peptides.
o. "Dermal" and "Epidermal Administration" mean routes of
administration which apply the naked polynucleotide(s) to or
through skin. Dermal routes include intradermal and subcutaneous
injections as well as transdermal transmission. Epidermal routes
include any means of irritating the outermost layers of skin
sufficiently to provoke an immune response to the irritant. The
irritant may be a mechanical or chemical (preferably topical)
agent.
p. "Epithelial Administration" involves essentially the same method
as chemical epidermal administration, except that the chemical
irritant is applied to mucosal epithelium.
q. "IL" refers to interleukin.
r. "IFN" refers to interferon.
II. DISCUSSION
A. Theory of the Invention
The method of the invention exploits the unexpected discovery that
asthma-initiating antigen-encoding polynucleotide compositions
which are taken up and expressed in host APCs (1) stimulate
production of Th1 lymphocytes in preference to Th2 lymphocytes; (2)
consequently suppress the IgE antibody production characteristic of
the early phase of allergic asthma; and (3) consequently reduce the
IL-4/IL-5 stimulated eosinophil infiltration of lung tissue
characteristic of the late phase of the disease. Notably,
administration of polynucleotide compositions which encode
asthma-initiating antigens (or fragments thereof) not only
suppresses IgE antibody production, but also does so from the
outset of therapy, thus reducing the risk of anaphylaxis posed by
classical immunotherapy. Thus, the method of the invention
effectively and immediately manipulates the T lymphocyte
compartment of the host immune response to reduce both the IgE and
cellular immune-mediated events associated with allergic
asthma.
More specifically, the method of the invention introduces
asthma-initiating antigens into the intracellular compartment of
host APCs present in the target tissue, where the antigen is
retained without substantial secretion therefrom (see, Examples IV
through VII). This intracellular expression and retention of
antigen preferentially stimulates Th1 responses against the
antigen. Because the Th2 response to extracellular antigen achieved
in classical immunotherapy is avoided, IgE production and IL-4/IL-5
release in response to extracellular antigen is also avoided.
For example, as shown in Examples VII and VIII, IgE and IL-4 levels
in expressed antigen-challenged mice were surprisingly very low,
while asthma-initiating antigen-specific CTL levels (Example IX)
and Th1 cell secretion of INF.gamma. (Example VIII) were enhanced
(as compared to protein challenged and control mice). The
suppression of IgE and IL-4 production achieved in mice immunized
according to the invention continued despite subsequent challenge
with the plasmid or protein, even when combined with adjuvant
(Examples VII-VIII). Thus, while both mice challenged with protein
antigen and mice immunized according to the invention developed IgG
mediated tolerance to the immunizing antigen, the latter mice
suffered far less from the IgE mediated immune events which
characterize the early phase of allergic asthma.
In addition, mice immunized according to the invention fare better
in the late phase of allergic asthma than do protein-antigen
immunized mice. In particular, the data in Example II demonstrate
that administration of ovalbumin antigen-encoding polynucleotide
compositions to murine models for allergic asthma produced (with
adjuvant) up to a 90% reduction in eosinophil infiltration of lung
tissue in the mice on subsequent asthma-initiating antigen
challenge, as compared to control mice. Thus, the mice immunized
according to the invention were protected from eosinophil
infiltration of lung tissue far better than their protein-antigen
immunized litter mates.
Thus, in contrast to classical allergic asthma immunotherapy, the
asthma-initiating antigen-encoding gene immunotherapy of the
invention abrogates both asthma-initiating antigen-specific and
non-specific IgE production in the early phase of allergic asthma,
protects the host from further production of IgE even on subsequent
asthma-initiating antigen challenge, and reduces cellular lung
infiltration and airway hypersensitivity in the late phase of the
disease.
B. Polynucleotide Compositions Useful in the Invention
1. Useful antigen-encoding polynucleotides and recombinant
expression vector constructs
In allergic asthma, the symptoms of the disease are triggered by an
allergic response in a host to an allergen. The polynucleotide
sequences of many nucleic acids which code for asthma-initiating
antigen allergens are known. All such polynucleotide sequences are
useful in the method of the invention. Examples of some of the more
common allergens for use in the invention are set forth below;
those of ordinary skill in the art will be familiar with additional
examples, the use of which is encompassed by the invention.
For use in the method of the invention, the recombinant expression
vector component of the polynucleotide compositions of the
invention may encode more than one asthma-initiating antigen,
different peptides of an asthma-initiating antigen, or a
combination of the two. The polynucleotides may encode for intact
asthma-initiating antigen or T cell epitope(s) of an
asthma-initiating antigen, engineered by means well-known in the
art to be non-secreting.
As noted above, many asthma-initiating antigen-encoding
polynucleotides are known in the art; others can be identified
using conventional techniques such as those described elsewhere
below. Examples of known asthma-initiating antigen-encoding
polynucleotides include cDNAs which code for IgE reactive major
dust mite asthma-initiating antigens Der pI and Der pII (see, Chua,
et al., J.Exp.Med., 167:175-182, 1988; and, Chua, et al.,
Int.Arch.Allergy Appl. Immunol., 91:124-129, 1990), T cell epitope
peptides of the Der pII asthma-initiating antigen (see, Joost van
Neerven, et al., J.Immunol., 151:2326-2335, 1993), the highly
abundant Antigen E (Amb aI) ragweed pollen asthma-initiating
antigen (see, Rafnar, et al., J.Biol.Chem., 266:1229-1236, 1991),
phospholipase A.sub.2 (bee venom) asthma-initiating antigen and T
cell epitopes therein (see, Dhillon, et al., J.Allergy
Clin.Immunol., 90:42-51, 1992), white birch pollen (Betvl) (see,
Breiteneder, et al., EMBO, 8:1935-1938, 1989), and the Fel dI major
domestic cat asthma-initiating antigen (see, Rogers, et al.,
Mol.Immunol., 30:559-568, 1993). The published sequences and
methods for their isolation and synthesis described in these
articles are incorporated herein by this reference to illustrate
knowledge in the art regarding asthma-initiating antigen-encoding
polynucleotides.
In addition, expression (by the same or a different recombinant
expression vector) or co-administration of therapeutically
beneficial peptides such as TGF-.beta., TNF-.beta., IL-2 and
IFN-.gamma. enhance the Th1 response sought by the method of the
invention. IL-2 and IFN-.gamma. are of particular interest in this
regard because, in recent clinical trials, IL-2 and gamma
interferon have proved toxic at dosages sufficient to interfere
with production of IgE.
The polynucleotides to be used in the invention may be DNA or RNA,
but will preferably be a complementary DNA (cDNA) sequence. The
polynucleotide sequences used in the invention must be (a)
expressible and (b) either non-replicating or engineered by means
well known in the art so as not to replicate into the host genome.
Illustrations of the preparation of polynucleotides suitable for
use in the invention follow. It will, however, be apparent to those
skilled in the art that other known means of preparing
nonreplicating polynucleotides may also be suitable.
In general, DNA sequences for use in producing therapeutic and/or
immunogenic peptides of the invention can be obtained by several
methods. For example, the DNA can be isolated using hybridization
procedures which are well known in the art. These include, but are
not limited to: 1) hybridization of probes to genomic or cDNA
libraries to detect shared nucleotide sequences; 2) antibody
screening of expression libraries to detect shared structural
features and 3) synthesis by the polymerase chain reaction (PCR).
The development of specific DNA sequences encoding or fragments
thereof, can also be obtained by: 1) isolation of double-stranded
DNA sequences from the genomic DNA: 2) chemical manufacture of a
DNA sequence to provide the necessary codons for the polypeptide of
interest; and 3) in vitro synthesis of a double-stranded DNA
sequence by reverse transcription of mRNA isolated from a
eukaryotic donor cell. In the latter case, a double-stranded (cDNA)
complement of mRNA.
A cDNA library believed to contain a polynucleotide of interest can
be screened by injecting various mRNA derived from cDNAs into
oocytes, allowing sufficient time for expression of the cDNA gene
products to occur, and testing for the presence of the desired cDNA
expression product, for example, by using antibody specific for a
peptide encoded by the polynucleotide of interest or by using
probes for the repeat motifs and a tissue expression pattern
characteristic of a peptide encoded by the polynucleotide of
interest. Alternatively, a cDNA library can be screened indirectly
for expression of therapeutic and/or immunogenic peptides having at
least one epitope using antibodies specific for the peptides. Such
antibodies can be either polyclonally or monoclonally derived and
used to detect expression product indicative of the presence of
cDNA of interest.
Screening procedures which rely on nucleic acid hybridization make
it possible to isolate any gene sequence from any organism,
provided the appropriate probe is available. Oligonucleotide
probes, which correspond to a part of the sequence encoding the
protein in question, can be synthesized chemically. This requires
that short, oligopeptide stretches of amino acid sequence must be
known. The DNA sequence encoding the protein can be deduced from
the genetic code, however, the degeneracy of the code must be taken
into account. It is possible to perform a mixed addition reaction
when the sequence is degenerate. This includes a heterogeneous
mixture of denatured double-stranded DNA. For such screening,
hybridization is preferably performed on either single-stranded DNA
or denatured double-stranded DNA.
The polynucleotide which encodes each asthma-initiating antigen may
be conjugated to or used in association with other polynucleotides
which code for regulatory proteins that control the expression of
these polypeptides or may contain recognition, promoter and
secretion sequences. Those of ordinary skill in the art will be
able to select regulatory polynucleotides and incorporate them into
the polynucleotide compositions of the invention (if not already
present therein) without undue experimentation. For example,
suitable promoters for use in murine or human systems and their use
are described in Current Protocols in Molecular Biology, supra at
Ch. 1.
Together with appropriate regulatory sequences, polynucleotide(s)
for use in the invention are incorporated into a recombinant
expression vector, preferably a non-viral plasmid or cosmid vector.
Use of a non-viral vector, particularly one which comprises a
replicator, will prolong expression of the gene in target tissues.
Certain plasmid vectors are also good mediators of immune responses
to immunogenic peptides because high levels of expression are
achieved when the gene encoding the peptides is incorporated into
the vector.
The recombinant expression vectors (both viral and non-viral) most
preferred for use in the invention are described in detail in
co-pending, commonly assigned U.S. patent application Ser. No.
08/593,554, currently pending, the disclosure of which is
incorporated herein by reference for the purpose of illustrating
vectors useful in the invention. Briefly, the preferred expression
vectors for use in the invention include at least one palindromic,
non-coding region (i.e., a region where the nucleotide sequence of
one strand is the reverse complement of a corresponding region of
the complementary strand) of at least 6 nucleotides in length. Each
such palindromic region includes an unmethylated CG dinucleotide
sequence; i.e., at least two adjacent nucleotides, where one such
nucleotide is a cytosine and the other such nucleotide is a
guanine.
In double-stranded molecules, each CG dinucleotide sequence present
in the palindromic region is itself palindromic; i.e., the cytosine
of the CG sequence on one strand is paired with a guanine in a CG
sequence on the complementary strand. In single-stranded molecules,
the relative position of each CG sequence in the palindromic
dinucleotide is preferably 5'-CG'3'. Most preferably, each CG
dinucleotide sequence present in the palindromic region of the
preferred expression vectors is flanked by at least two purine
nucleotides (e.g., GA or AA) and at least two pyrimidine
nucleotides (e.g., TC or TT). Examples of specific expression
vector constructs useful in immunizing a host are set forth in
co-pending, commonly assigned application Ser. No. 08/593,554, now
pending.
Such expression vector constructs possess the advantage of
stimulating cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) activity to a greater
degree than occurs on introduction into a host of control vectors
which lack the palindromic sequences described above. In addition,
those expression vectors which incorporate the flanking purine and
pyrimidine nucleotides as described above also enhance stimulation
of B lymphocyte activity in response to expressed initiating
antigen. Thus, the expression vectors described above are preferred
for their activity as immunostimulatory adjuvants to boost the host
immune response to the initiating antigen which is expressed to
immunize the host according to the method of the invention.
Other particularly useful recombinant expression vectors for use in
the invention are those which incorporate a promoter that can be
switched "on" or "off" after the vector has been administered to
the patient. Use of such expression vectors in the invention aids
in minimizing, if not avoiding, extracellular stimulation of IgE
antibody formation against expressed asthma-initiating antigen.
Particularly efficacious examples of such promoters are the ligand
inducible nuclear receptor promoters. Nuclear receptors represent a
family of transcriptional enhancer factors that act by binding to
specific DNA sequences found in target promoters known as response
elements. Specific members of the nuclear receptor family include
the primary intracellular targets for small lipid-soluble ligands,
such as vitamin D.sub.3 and retinoids, as well as steroid and
thyroid hormones ("activating ligands").
Nuclear receptors activated by specific activating ligands are well
suited for use as promoters in eukaryotic expression vectors since
expression of genes can be regulated simply by controlling the
concentration of ligand available to the receptor. For example,
glucocorticoid-inducible promoters such as that of the long
terminal repeat of the mouse mammary tumor virus (MMTV) have been
widely used in this regard because the glucocorticoid response
elements are expressed in a wide variety of cell types. One
expression system which exploits glucocorticoid response elements
responsive to a wide variety of steroid hormones (e.g.,
dexamethasone and progesterone) is a pGREtk plasmid (containing one
or more rat tyrosine amino transferase glucocorticoid response
elements upstream of the herpes simplex virus thymidine kinase (tk)
promoter in pBLCAT8+), transfected in HeLa cells (see, Mader and
White, Proc.Natl.Acad.Sci USA, 90:5603-5607, 1993 [pGRE2tk]; and,
Klein-Hitpass, et al., Cell, 46:1053-1061, 1986 [pBLCAT8+]; the
disclosures of which are incorporated herein by this reference to
illustrate knowledge in the art concerning construction of suitable
promoters derived from nuclear receptor response elements ["NRRE
promoters"]). The pGREtk promoter (see, map at FIG. 11) is
particularly effective in stimulating controlled overexpression of
cloned genes in eukaryotic cells (Mader and White, supra at
5607).
Another particularly suitable NRRE promoter for use in the
invention is one which is inducible by the vitamin D.sub.3 compound
1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D.sub.3 and non- hypercalcemic analogs
thereof (collectively, "vitamin D.sub.3 activating ligands"). NRRE
promoters inducible by vitamin D.sub.3 activating ligands contain
the vitamin D.sub.3 receptor (VDR) response elements PurG(G/T)TCA
which recognizes direct repeats separated by 3 base pairs. Vitamin
D.sub.3 response elements are found upstream of human osteocalcin
and mouse osteopontin genes; transcription of these genes is
activated on binding of the VDR (see, e.g., Morrison and Eisman,
J.Bone Miner.Res., 6:893-899, 1991; and, Ferrara, et al.,
J.Biol.Chem., 269:2971-2981, 1994, the disclosures of which are
incorporated herein by this reference to illustrate knowledge in
the art of vitamin D.sub.3 responsive inducible promoters). Recent
experimental results from testing of a recombinant expression
vector containing the mouse osteopontin VDR upstream of a truncated
herpes simplex virus thymidine kinase (tk) promoter suggested that
9-cis-retinoic acid can augment the response of VDR to
1,25-hydroxyvitamin D.sub.3 (see, Carlberg, et al., Nature,
361:657-660, 1993).
Ferrara, et al. also described vitamin D.sub.3 inducible promoters
in recombinant expression vectors constructed using multiple copies
of a strong VDR; in particular, the mouse osteopontin VDR (composed
of a direct repeat of PurGTTCA motifs separated by 3 base pairs).
This VDR conforms to the PurGG/TTCA consensus motifs which have
previously been shown to be responsive not only to vitamin D.sub.3,
but also to thyroid hormone and/or retinoic acid. As many as three
copies of the mouse VDR was inserted into pBLCAT8+; immediately
upstream of the herpes simplex virus tk promoter (see, e.g., FIG.
12 [map of pVDREtk]). Transfection of the resulting VDREtk vector
into COS cells (producing a "VDR expression system") proved to be
particularly useful in that COS cells contain the nuclear retinoid
X receptor (RXR) that has been shown to act as an auxiliary factor
for binding of VDR to its response element.
The VDR expression system (and functionally equivalent expression
systems under the control of, for example, human osteocalcin gene
promoter) is uniquely suited for use in the invention.
Specifically, expression of initiating antigen administered to a
mammal according to the invention by epidermal or dermal routes
(particularly the former) in a vitamin D.sub.3 responsive
expression system can be switched on by topical administration of a
1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D.sub.3 preparation at the point of entry
(and off by withdrawing the vitamin D.sub.3 preparation and/or
modulated by applying or withdrawing a source of retinoic acid to
or from the point of entry). Conveniently, 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin
D.sub.3 and nonhypercalcemic analogs thereof have been approved for
use in topical preparations by the United States Food and Drug
Administration for the treatment of psoriasis and are commercially
available.
In vivo tests of the NRRE promoters in human skin indicate that
they are inducible on systemic exposure to their corresponding
response elements (see, Tsou, et al., Exp.Cell Res., 214:27-34,
1994 [retinoic acid activation of retinoic acid response element
coupled to a Lac-Z reporter molecule in epidermis of transgenic
mice]). Given the expected retention of polynucleotides
administered dermally or epidermally at the point of entry (thus
making them available for exposure to topically absorbed response
elements; see, e.g., discussion at pages 15-16 and data in Example
IV), it can be reasonably predicted that use of NRRE promoters for
expression of such polynucleotides will also permit their in vivo
control through topical administration of appropriate NRRE promoter
activating ligands (e.g., 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D.sub.3
transcriptional activators with a VDR expression vector for
expression of the polynucleotide of interest).
Thus, use of an NRRE promoter recombinant expression vector for
administration and expression of initiating antigens according to
the invention permits control of expression to, for example, switch
on expression when dosing is needed or switch off expression in the
event of an adverse reaction to the expressed protein or
peptide.
2. Pharmaceutically effective polynucleotide compositions for use
in the method of the invention
Compositions of polynucleotide(s) prepared as described above may
be placed into a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier for
introduction into a host. The carrier chosen should not impair
antigen recognition of the polynucleotide composition; for this
reason, liposomal and colloidal particle-based delivery vehicles
are not desirable for use in the invention. Thus, polynucleotide
compositions suitable for use in the invention will most preferably
consist of "naked" polynucleotides in a pharmaceutically safe
carrier.
Pharmaceutically acceptable carriers may include sterile aqueous of
non-aqueous solutions, suspensions, and emulsions. Examples of
non-aqueous solvents are propylene glycol, polyethylene glycol,
vegetable oils such as olive oil, and injectable organic esters
such as ethyl oleate. Aqueous carriers include water,
alcoholic/aqueous solutions, emulsions or suspensions, including
saline and buffered media. Parenteral vehicles include sodium
chloride solution, Ringer's dextrose, dextrose and sodium chloride,
lactated Ringer's or fixed oils. Intravenous vehicles include fluid
and nutrient replenishers, electrolyte replenishers (such as those
based on Ringer's dextrose), and the like. Preservatives and other
additives may also be present such as, for example, antimicrobials,
antioxidants, chelating agents, and inert gases and the like.
Further, a may be lyophilized using means well known in the art,
for subsequent reconstitution and use according to the
invention.
Absorption promoters, detergents, chemical irritants or mechanical
irritation means can enhance transmission of the polynucleotide
composition through the point of entry. For reference concerning
general principles regarding promoters and detergents which have
been used with success in mucosal delivery of organic and
peptide-based drugs, see Chien, Novel Drug Delivery Systems, Ch. 4
(Marcel Dekker, 1992). Specific information concerning known means
and principles of nasal drug delivery are discussed in Chien, supra
at Ch 5. Examples of suitable nasal absorption promoters are set
forth at Ch. 5, Tables 2 and 3; milder agents are preferred.
Further, known means and principles of transdermal drug delivery
are also discussed in Chien, supra, at Ch. 7. Suitable agents for
use in the method of this invention for mucosal/nasal delivery are
also described in Chang, et al., Nasal Drug Delivery, "Treatise on
Controlled Drug Delivery", Ch. 9 and Table 3-4B thereof, (Marcel
Dekker, 1992). Suitable agents which are known to enhance
absorption of drugs through skin are described in Sloan, Use of
Solubility Parameters from Regular Solution Theory to Describe
Partitioning-Driven Processes, Ch. 5, "Prodrugs: Topical and Ocular
Drug Delivery" (Marcel Dekker, 1992), and at places elsewhere in
the text.
It is expected that these techniques (and others which are
conventionally used to facilitate drug delivery) may be adapted to
preparation of polynucleotide compositions for use in the methods
of the invention by those of ordinary skill in the art without
undue experimentation. In particular, although the approaches
discussed in the preceding paragraphs have not, to the inventors'
knowledge, been previously used for polynucleotide delivery, it is
believed that they are suitable for use to that end. For that
reason, the references identified above, while not essential to the
inventive methods, are incorporated herein by this reference.
C. Means For, And Routes Of, Administration of Polynucleotide
Compositions.
Although it is not intended that the invention will be entirely
limited by a particular theory as to the mechanism of expression
involved, it is believed that a biological response in these
tissues following administration of the polynucleotide compositions
of the invention into skin or mucosa is achieved because the
polynucleotide is expressed intracellularly in the cytoplasm of
mononuclear cells, most likely the host's antigen presenting
cells.
More specifically, polynucleotide compositions do not appear to be
taken up directly by fibroblasts or other tissue cells in
significant quantities (see, histological study in Example IV and
FIG. 4). This conclusion is borne out by studies showing that (1)
intradermal administration of even minute amounts of polynucleotide
compositions into mice induced a prominent Th1 response (indicative
of antigen presentation by macrophages and dendritic cells; see,
Examples V and VII); (2) intradermal administration of
polynucleotide composition to mice induced the formation of
cytotoxic T cells without stimulating production of detectable
levels of antibody (see, Example VIII); and, (3) induction of
prolonged immunological memory with respect to the polynucleotide
expression product as an antigen (Example X). It therefore appears
that the immunogenicity of polynucleotide compositions depends not
on the amount of protein expressed thereby, but instead in part on
the type of cell transfected (e.g., antigen presenting cells versus
tissue cells).
Therefore, the ideal target tissue will be one in which
approximately 1% to 2% of the cell population is comprised of
antigen presenting cells; e.g., mucosa or skin. The mucosa of the
respiratory tract is the primary target tissue for immunization
against asthma-initiating antigens to treat allergic asthma;
however, the skin may also be a target tissue for immunization
against contact allergens as well as for administration of, for
example, pre-immunization and booster doses of antigen as well as
other therapeutically significant peptides. In addition, because
IgE molecules are predominately present in mucosa and skin, use of
these routes as points of entry according to the invention can be
expected to be particularly effective in moderating allergic
responses to antigen.
For use in primary immunizations against asthma-initiating
antigens, intranasal administration means are most preferred. These
means include inhalation of aerosol suspensions or insufflation of
the polynucleotide compositions of the invention. Nebulizer devices
suitable for delivery of polynucleotide compositions to the nasal
mucosa are well-known in the art and will therefore not be
described in detail here.
To enhance absorption of the polynucleotide compositions of the
invention, the compositions may include absorption promoters and/or
detergents described in Section II-B, supra. To increase the
population of APC's at the site of entry, a chemical irritant may
also be employed.
In particular, the polynucleotides may include a chemical which
irritates the outermost epithelial cells of the mucosa, thus
provoking a sufficient immune response to attract additional APC's
to the area. An example is a keratinolytic agent, such as the
salicylic acid used in the commercially available topical
depilatory creme sold by Noxema Corporation under the trademark
NAIR.
Dermal routes of administration, as well as subcutaneous
injections, are useful in co-administration of other
therapeutically significant peptides, as well as in immunizations
and antigen boosters. The means of introduction for dermal routes
of administration which are most preferred are those which are
least invasive. Preferred among these means are transdermal
transmission and epidermal administration.
For transdermal transmission, iontophoresis is a suitable method.
Iontophoretic transmission may be accomplished using commercially
available "patches" which deliver their product continuously
through unbroken skin for periods of several days or more. Use of
this method allows for controlled transmission of pharmaceutical
compositions in relatively great concentrations, permits infusion
of combination drugs and allows for contemporaneous use of an
absorption promoter.
An exemplary patch product for use in this method is the LECTRO
PATCH trademarked product of General Medical Company of Los
Angeles, Calif. This product electronically maintains reservoir
electrodes at neutral pH and can be adapted to provide dosages of
differing concentrations, to dose continuously and/or to dose
periodically. Preparation and use of the patch should be performed
according to the manufacturer's printed instructions which
accompany the LECTRO PATCH product; those instructions are
incorporated herein by this reference.
Epidermal administration essentially involves mechanically or
chemically irritating the outermost layer of the epidermis
sufficiently to provoke an immune response to the irritant.
Specifically, the irritation should be sufficient to attract APC's
to the site of irritation. As discussed previously, it is believed
that the APC's then take up and express the administered
polynucleotide composition.
Alternatively, additional APC's can be attracted to the point of
entry with mechanical irritant means. An exemplary mechanical
irritant means employs a multiplicity of very narrow diameter,
short tynes which can be used to irritate the skin and attract
APC's to the site of irritation, to take up polynucleotide
compositions transferred from the end of the tynes. For example,
the MONO-VACC old tuberculin test manufactured by Pasteur Merieux
of Lyon, France contains a device suitable for introduction of
polynucleotide compositions.
The device (which is distributed in the U.S. by Connaught
Laboratories, Inc. of Swiftwater, Pa.) consists of a plastic
container having a syringe plunger at one end and a tyne disk at
the other. The tyne disk supports a multiplicity of narrow diameter
tynes of a length which will just scratch the outermost layer of
epidermal cells. Each of the tynes in the MONO-VACC kit is coated
with old tuberculin; in the present invention, each needle is
coated with a pharmaceutically effective polynucleotide composition
or a mixture thereof. Use of the device is according to the
manufacturer's written instructions included with the device
product; these instructions regarding use and administration are
incorporated herein by this reference to illustrate conventional
use of the device. Similar devices which may also be used in this
embodiment are those which are currently used to perform allergy
tests.
D. Dosing Parameters for the Polynucleotide Compositions of the
Invention
As noted above, it is probable that introduction of relatively low
doses of asthma-initiating antigen-encoding polynucleotide to APC's
using the method of the invention assists the asthma-initiating
antigen in being expressed and retained intracellularly, thus
limiting the extracellular availability of the asthma-initiating
antigen for stimulation of IgE antibody production and formation of
asthma-initiating antigen/IgE antibody complexes. Conversely, it
appears that introduction of relatively "high" doses of
asthma-initiating antigen-encoding polynucleotides (e.g.,
substantially greater than about 50 .mu.g in mice) can stimulate
production of IgE antibody at levels that are more comparable to
those produced in mice injected subcutaneously with an
asthma-initiating antigen, possibly due to extracellular release of
antigen.
Thus, the preferred embodiment of the method for treatment of
allergies of the invention will be one in which the
asthma-initiating antigen-encoding polynucleotide is administered
in "low" doses (e.g., preferably less than about 50 .mu.g of
polynucleotide in mice). Those of ordinary skill in the art will
readily be able to determine an equivalent dosage level for use in
humans. Those of ordinary skill in the art will be familiar with
the course of dosing employed in asthma-initiating antigen
immunotherapy (i.e., priming, booster and maintenance dosing),
which course will be suitable for use in the method of the
invention. Generally, it can be expected that murine equivalent
doses of less than about 50 .mu.g, and even less than about 10
.mu.g, will be suitable for priming, booster and maintenance doses
in humans.
Alternatively, the priming dose of asthma-initiating
antigen-encoding polynucleotide may be followed by booster and/or
maintenance doses of asthma-initiating antigen. Once an immunologic
memory regarding the asthma-initiating antigen has been induced
through introduction of an asthma-initiating antigen-encoding
polynucleotide, that memory is maintained despite subsequent
asthma-initiating antigen challenge.
Advantageously, because a polynucleotide that will operatively
encode for an antigen is administered in lieu of the antigen
itself, the quantity of foreign material being introduced to the
host is relatively minimal. Moreover, routes of administration of
polynucleotide compositions through skin or mucosa require a lower
concentration of DNA to produce the same magnitude of immune
response than does, for example, the intramuscular route of
administration for the same compositions (e.g., about 10-50 fold
lower; see, e.g., Example X). As a result, the invention lends
itself well to the administration of polynucleotide compositions
which code for up to several hundred different antigens for use in
immunizing a host against more than one asthma-initiating antigen
at a time. Thus, the invention also encompasses the administration
of a peptide cocktail (i.e., mixture of polynucleotides) via
expression of gene constructs containing, for example, up to 200
asthma-initiating antigen encoding polynucleotide sequences under
the control of a single promoter.
Means to confirm the presence and quantity of expressed peptides
are well-known to those skilled in the art and will not, therefore,
be described in detail. Certain such means are illustrated in the
Examples provided below; generally, they include immunoassays (such
as enzyme-linked immunoabsorbent assays), PCR techniques, and
immunohistological analyses performed according to techniques which
are well known in the art. Dosages of the administered
polynucleotides can be adjusted to achieve the desired level of
expression based on information provided by these detection and
quantification means as well as in vivo clinical signs known to
practitioners skilled in the clinical arts.
Examples illustrating aspects of each embodiment of the invention
are provided below. They should be regarded as illustrating rather
than limiting the invention.
EXAMPLE I
MURINE MODEL FOR THE AIRWAY HYPERREACTIVITY OF ALLERGIC ASTHMA
Aeroasthma-initiating antigen challenged mice of different strains
model the airway hyperreactivity seen in allergic asthma. Suitable
murine strains for use in modeling the disease include Balb/c mice
(which are IL-5+ and produce enhanced concentrations of IL-4 in
response to CD4+ lymphocyte priming), C57BL/6 mice (which are IL-5
deficient, for detailed study of IL-5 induced tissue damage in
asthma) and W/W.sup.v mice (which are mast cell deficient, for
detailed study of mast cell activation in asthma).
Disease modeling mice are conveniently prepared by intraperitoneal
or subcutaneous injection of ovalbumin ("OVA") in carrier (e.g.,
sterile saline), followed by antigen challenge with aerosolized
antigen. For example, mice may be immunized with 25 .mu.g OVA by
subcutaneous injection (with or without adjuvant) weekly for 4-6
weeks, then challenged with 2 or 3 weekly aerosolizations of OVA at
a concentration of 50 mg/ml in phosphate buffered saline (PBS)
delivered in 20 minute intervals or at a concentration of 10 mg/ml
0.9% saline daily for about a week (in three 30 minute intervals
daily). Nebulizer devices for use in the aerosolization are
available from Aerotech II, CIS-US, Bedford, Mass.), with a nasal
chamber adapted for murine nasal passages (e.g., a nose-only
chamber from Intox Products, Albuquerque, N. Mex.). When driven by
compressed air at a rate of 10 liters/min., the devices described
produce aerosol particles having a median aerodynamic diameter of
1.4 .mu.m.
Control mice are preferably littermates which are protein-antigen
challenged without prior immunization. For further details
concerning this animal model, those of skill in the art may wish to
refer to Foster, et al., J.Exp.Med., 195-201, 1995; and, Corry, et
al., J.Exp.Med., 109-117, 1996.
EXAMPLE II
REDUCTION OF EOSINOPHIL ACCUMULATION IN LUNG TISSUE IN A MURINE
ASTHMA MODEL
Three sets of 3-4 C57BL/6 mice, 6-10 weeks of age, were prepared as
models of allergic asthma as described in Example I (subcutaneous
injection of OVA followed by antigen challenge at a concentration
of 50 mg OVA/ml PBS). Prior to immunization according to this
scheme, two sets of the mice were pre-immunized with plasmid
expression vectors which included genes for soluble OVA and
ampicillin resistance (AmpR). One of the sets of pre-immunized mice
received plasmids which encoded a chimeric antigen expressed as a
product of fusion between the gene encoding OVA and the gene for
the transferrin receptor. This "fusion" plasmid directs the
production of a transmembrane, non-secreted protein at the site of
immunization. Pre-immunization was performed by subcutaneous
injection as described in Example VII.
On days 0, 7, 14 and 21, the two sets of pre-immunized mice and set
of control mice were injected subcutaneously with 25 .mu.g of OVA
in 0.2 ml PBS. On days 26 and 31, each mouse was nebulized with 10
ml of 50 mg OVA/ml PBS using the nebulizer device described in
Example I.
On day 32, each mouse was bled by tail snip (approximately 50 .mu.l
volume) into a 0.1 mM solution of PBS and EDTA. Red blood cells in
solution were lysed with 150 mM NH.sub.4 Cl and 10 mM KHC0.sub.3 in
dH.sub.2 0 then stained (Wright-Giesma stain). Lung lavage from
each mouse was obtained after sacrifice by canalization of the
trachea and lavage with 800 microliters PBS, then the lavage
product was stained. Bone marrow samples from each mouse were
obtained by flushing of extracted femur marrow with PBS.
Histological specimens of lung and trachea tissue were obtained
from the right lower lobe of the lung and trachea. Specimens were
frozen, sectioned to a 5 micron width and stained with DAB
peroxidase.
Eosinophil counts (with a single count=at least 300 cells) were
obtained in each sample from each mouse. Results are expressed in
the Table below as percent eosinophils compared to total leukocytes
in each sample. In summary, the control mice (nos. 1-4) had an
average of 41.3% eosinophils in the lung/trachea tissue samples. In
contrast, the mice pre-immunized with the soluble OVA encoding
plasmid (nos. 53-56 and 57-60) had 50% less eosinophil accumulation
in these tissues compared to the control mice. Interestingly, the
mice pre-immunized with the chimeric antigen encoding plasmid (nos.
65-68) had at least 90% reduction in eosinophil accumulation in
these tissues as compared to the control mice. These data indicate
that the IL-4 and IL-5 stimulated eosinophil accumulation in lung
tissue which characterizes the late phase of allergic asthma is
inhibited by polynucleotide immunization according the immunization
scheme of the invention.
TABLE 1 ______________________________________ Mouse Bone
Peripheral Broncheoalveolar # Marrow blood Lavage
______________________________________ 1 9.3 2.0 47.4 2 6.0 >avg
10.3 4.4 >avg 5.0 65.0 >avg 43.1 3 14.3 12.1 24.2 4 11.4 1.4
35.7 53 0.3 3.6 45.0 54 4.2 >avg 3.9 5.8 >avg 4.2 20.4
>avg 25.4 55 0.8 2.5 10.9 56 10.2 4.8 (trachea damaged) 57 1.5
1.3 2.7 58 1.5 >avg 1.4 5.2 >avg 2.3 2.2 >avg 3.5 59 1.9
1.2 1.3 60 0.6 1.5 7.8 65 3.2 1.2 14.2 66 4.4 >avg 3.8 3.5
>avg 1.9 31.0 >avg 21.3 67 4.9 1.7 34.1 68 2.7 1.2 5.8
______________________________________
EXAMPLE III
GENE EXPRESSION FOLLOWING INTRANASAL INTRODUCTION OF A
POLYNUCLEOTIDE COMPOSITION
To test the level of protein expression following intranasal
introduction of a polynucleotide composition (here, one to express
influenza ribonucleoprotein from a plasmid under the control of a
CMV promoter) was introduced to Balb/c mice in 3 groups of 6
intranasally. Levels of anti-NP IgG in peripheral blood before and
after introduction of the plasmid at various serum dilutions were
measured by ELISA as described in Example II. Blood was drawn from
each mouse after intranasal introduction after 6 weeks.
FIGS. 1-3 graphically depict the results of the ELISA assays before
and after intranasal introduction of the plasmid. The graphs plot
ELISA titer against serum dilution. In FIG. 1, values are shown for
individual mice from each group (#1-3) and an average value from
all mice in each group (#G1-G3).
Without anesthesia, mice in a second group which received
3.times.7.5 .mu.g of plasmid showed enhanced titers of antibody as
compared to background (FIG. 1). These data are shown in FIG.
2.
A third group of mice received the same gravity of plasmid under
anesthesia. Expression of RNP as indicated by titers of anti-NP IgG
in these mice was substantially similar to the expression achieved
in the unanesthetized mice. The data for the anesthetized mice are
shown in FIG. 3.
Expression can be enhanced by additional use of absorption
promoters, and prolonged by time-released promoters whose identity
and use are known in the art such as those suggested in Chien,
supra, at Ch. 5.
EXAMPLE IV
HISTOLOGICAL STUDIES SHOWING CELL UPTAKE OF POLYNUCLEOTIDE
COMPOSITIONS BY MONONUCLEAR CELLS AT THE POINT OF ENTRY IN SKIN
Three days after intradermal injection of the tails of naked
pCMV-lacz (encoding .beta.-galactosidase) into Balb/c mice, the
mice were sacrificed. Tissue cultures were obtained at the point of
entry for the plasmid and stained for E. coli .beta.-galactosidase
activity. A photograph (40.times. magnification) of a slide from
the histological examination of these cultures is contained in FIG.
4.
As shown in FIG. 4, uptake of the plasmid is shown (in blue) to be
by mononuclear cells. The fibroblasts in the tissue samples are not
stained, thus indicating that the plasmid was not taken up by these
cells. The rounded, mononuclear cells which did take up the plasmid
appear to be macrophages and/or other antigen presenting cells,
which would indicate that uptake of the plasmid is by
phagocytosis.
EXAMPLE V
SELECTIVE INDUCTION OF A Th1 RESPONSE AFTER ADMINISTRATION OF
POLYNUCLEOTIDE COMPOSITIONS ACCORDING TO THE INVENTION
In mice, IgG 2A antibodies are serological markers for a Th1 type
immune response, whereas IgG 1 antibodies are indicative of a Th2
type immune response. Th2 responses include the allergy-associated
IgE antibody class; soluble protein antigens tend to stimulate
relatively strong Th2 responses. In contrast, Th1 responses are
induced by antigen binding to macrophages and dendritic cells. Th1
responses are to be of particular importance in the treatment of
allergies and AIDS.
To determine which response, if any, would be produced by mice who
received polynucleotide compositions according to the invention,
mice were vaccinated with pCMV Lac-Z or protein as described in the
preceding example. At 2 week intervals, any IgG 2a and IgG 1 to
.beta.-galactosidase were measured by enzyme-linked immunoabsorbent
assay (using antibodies specific for the IgG 1 and IgG 2A
subclasses) on microtiter plates coated with the enzyme.
As shown in FIG. 5, only the mice who received the plasmid by ID
injection produced high titers of IgG 2A antibodies. As shown in
FIG. 6, immunization of the mice with the enzyme itself ("PR")
induced production of relatively high titers of IgG 1 antibodies.
In the IM injected mice, low titers of both IgG 2A and IgG 1
antibodies were produced without apparent selectivity. The data
shown in the FIGURES comprise averages of the values obtained from
each group of 4 mice.
To determine the stability of the antibody response over time, the
same group of animals were boosted with 0.5 .mu.g of enzyme
injected intradermally. As shown in FIGS. 7 and 8 boosting of ID
injection primed animals with the enzyme induced a nearly 10-fold
rise in IgG 2A antibody responses (i.e., the antibody titer rose
from 1:640 to 1:5120), but did not stimulate an IgG 1 response.
These data indicate that the selective Th1 response induced by ID
administration of polynucleotide compositions is maintained in the
host, despite subsequent exposure to antigen.
EXAMPLE VI
Th1 RESPONSES IN MICE AFTER ADMINISTRATION OF POLYNUCLEOTIDE
COMPOSITIONS WITH A MECHANICAL IRRITANT
The experiments described in Example V were repeated in separate
groups of mice, except that (1) only a priming dose was tested, and
(2) the pCMV Lac-Z plasmid was administered to one group of 4 mice
using the MONO-VACC.RTM. tyne device described in the disclosure,
while .beta.-galactosidase protein (10 .mu.g) was administered to
another group of 4 mice by intradermal (ID) injection.
As shown in FIG. 9, the mice who received plasmid produced
relatively low titers of IgG 1 antibody compared to the mice who
received the protein. In contrast, as shown in FIG. 10, the mice
who received plasmid produced substantially higher titers of IgG 2A
antibody as compared to the mice who received the protein.
Interestingly, the mice who received the plasmid via scratching of
their skin with the tyne device produced even higher titers of IgG
2A antibody than did the mice who received the same plasmid via ID
injection (both of which groups produced higher titers of IgG 2A
antibody than did the mice who received the plasmid via IM
injection). These results indicate that scratching of skin with the
tyne device attracts greater number of APC's to the "injured" point
of entry for the polynucleotide compositions and are consistent
with the theory that APC's are more efficient targets for gene
administration and expression than are muscle or other somatic
cells. The data shown in the FIGURES comprise averages of the
values obtained from each group of 4 mice.
EXAMPLE VII
SUPPRESSION OF IgE ANTIBODY RESPONSE TO ANTIGEN BY IMMUNIZATION
WITH ANTIGEN-ENCODING POLYNUCLEOTIDES
Five to eight week old Balb/c mice were immunized with one of two
recombinant expression vectors: pCMV-Lac-Z or a control plasmid,
pCMV-BL (which does not encode for any insert peptide). A third
group of the mice received injections of antigen
(.beta.-galactosidase). Plasmid DNA was purified and its endotoxin
content reduced to 0.5-5ng/1mg DNA by extraction with TRITON X-114
(Sigma, St. Louis, Mo.). Before inoculation, pDNA was precipitated
in ethanol, washed with 70% ethanol and dissolved in pyrogen free
normal saline.
Immunization was by intradermal injection of plasmid DNA loaded
onto separate tynes of a MONO-VACC.RTM. multiple tyne device
(Connaught Lab, Inc., Swiftwater, Pa.). Briefly, the tyne devices
were prepared after extensive washing in DDW and overnight soaking
in 0.5% SDS (sulfated dodecyl saline), washed again in DDW, soaked
overnight in 0.1N NaOH, washed again in DDW and dried at 37.degree.
C. for 8 hours. Six .mu.l of plasmid DNA dissolved in normal saline
were pipetted onto the tynes of the tyne device just prior to each
inoculation described below. The total amount of pDNA loaded on the
device per inoculation was 25 .mu.g each of pCMV-Lac-Z and pCMV-BL.
For purposes of estimating actual doses, it was assumed that less
than 10% of the pDNA solution loaded onto the tyne device was
actually introduced on injection of the tynes into intradermal
tissue.
Each mouse was treated 3 times with 2 inoculations of each plasmid
in a one week interval injected intradermally at the base of the
tail. Another group of mice received a single intradermal injection
in the base of the tail of 10 .mu.g of .beta.-galactosidase protein
(dissolved in 50 .mu.l of normal saline) in lieu of pDNA.
Toward inducing an IgE antibody response to subsequent
asthma-initiating antigen challenge, each group of mice was
injected once intraperitoneally with 0.1 ml of phosphate buffered
saline (PBS) solution containing lug of antigen
(.beta.-galactosidase; Calbiochem, San Diego, Calif.) and 3mg of
ALUM aluminum hydroxide as adjuvant (Pierce Chemical, Rockford,
Ill.) 14 weeks after the initial immunization. Total IgE was
assayed in sera from the mice 4 times over the subsequent 4
consecutive weeks.
IgE was detected using a solid phase radioimmunoassay (RAST) in a
96 well polyvinyl plate (a radioisotopic modification of the ELISA
procedure described in Coligan, Current Protocols In Immunology,
Unit 7.12.4, Vol. 1, Wiley & Sons, 1994), except that purified
polyclonal goat antibodies specific for mouse .epsilon. chains were
used in lieu of antibodies specific for human Fab. To detect
anti-Lac-Z IgE, the plates were coated with .beta.-galactosidase
(10 .mu.g/ml). The lowest IgE concentration measurable by the assay
employed was 0.4 ng of IgE/ml.
As shown in FIG. 13, mice injected with pCMV-Lac-Z produced only
low levels of total IgE antibody (averaging about 250 CPM in RAST)
as compared to mice injected with .beta.-galactosidase (averaging
about 1000 CPM in RAST). Moreover, IgE levels in the plasmid
injected mice remained consistently low (averaging about 250-450
CPM) despite boosting with protein (indicating that tolerance was
acquired in these mice on initial immunization), while IgE levels
in the protein injected mice rose substantially (averaging about
1500 to 2000 CPM) after boosting, then eventually tapered off to
control levels at week 4 as tolerance was acquired by the protein
injected mice through repeated exposure to the protein antigen.
Measuring specifically the anti-antigen response by each group of
mice, as shown in FIG. 14, anti-Lac-Z IgE levels in the plasmid
injected mice again were consistently low both before and after
boosting (averaging about 250 CPM in RAST), while the protein
injected mice developed high levels of anti-Lac-Z, particularly
after the first antigen booster injection, when anti-Lac-Z levels
in the mice rose to an average of about 3000 CPM. Consistent with
acquisition of tolerance, anti-Lac-Z IgE levels in the protein
injected mice declined over time, but continued to rise in the
control mice who had not received any immunization to
.beta.-galactosidase.
These data show that the plasmid injected mice developed an antigen
specific Th1 response to the plasmid expression product with
concomitant suppression of IgE production, while tolerance was
acquired in the protein injected mice only after development of
substantially higher levels of total and antigen specific IgE
antibodies.
EXAMPLE VIII
IL-4 AND INF.gamma. LEVELS IN MICE AFTER IMMUNIZATION WITH ANTIGEN
OR ANTIGEN-ENCODING POLYNUCLEOTIDES
To confirm that the results shown by the data presented in Examples
V through VII can be attributed to the selective induction of Th1
responses (e.g., INF.gamma. secretion) in plasmid injected mice
(which responses are believed to exert a negative effect on IgE
stimulatory Th2 responses; e.g., secretion of IL-2), levels of IL-2
and INF.gamma. were assayed in the sera of the plasmid and protein
injected mice of Example VII at week one, after one booster
injection of antigen. IL-2 levels were assayed using a commercial
kit; INF.gamma. levels were assayed with an anti-INF.gamma. murine
antibody assay (see, e.g., Coligan, Current Protocols in
Immunology, Unit 6.9.5., Vol. 1, Wiley & Sons, 1994).
As shown in FIG. 15, levels of IgE stimulatory IL-4 in the protein
injected mice were substantially higher than in plasmid injected
mice (by about a 9:1 ratio). Conversely, levels of INF.gamma. in
the plasmid injected mice were substantially higher than in the
protein injected mice (by a ratio of about 11:1).
EXAMPLE IX
PRODUCTION AND MAINTENANCE OF CYTOTOXIC T LYMPHOCYTES AFTER
IMMUNIZATION WITH ANTIGEN OR ANTIGEN-ENCODING POLYNUCLEOTIDES
As discussed elsewhere above, it is believed that cytotoxic T
lymphocytes (CTLs) suppress Th2 cell activity, which in turn would
suppress the ability of such cells to stimulate the development of
IgE antibodies. To confirm whether the plasmid injected mice
developed CTL's and maintained the anti-antigen protection afforded
thereby, CTL levels in plasmid injected and control mice were
measured.
The plasmid injected mice were immunized with a plasmid encoding
influenza ribonucleoprotein. Control mice received a plasmid that
did not code for an insert peptide (pCMV-BL). The total amount of
pDNA loaded on the tyne device per inoculation was 50 .mu.g of
pCMV-NP and 25 .mu.g of pCMV-BL.
36 weeks after immunization, the mice were sacrificed and
splenocytes were removed for use in standard mixed lymphocyte
cultures. The cultures were grown in the presence of a known
synthetic peptide representing the major H-2.sup.d restricted CTL
epitope of the NP protein. The cultures were assayed for anti-NP
CTL activity 5-6 days later using NP peptide pulsed 10 syngeneic
P815 tumor cells (ATCC # TIB64, Rockville, Md.) as targets.
As shown in FIG. 16, mixed lymphocyte cultures prepared from the
pCMV-NP injected animals displayed high levels of specific anti-NP
cytolytic activity, reaching 10%, 30% and 80% of specific lysis at
an effector to target (E/T) ratio of 5:1, 15:1 and 45:1,
respectively. Control mice only displayed 1%, 1% and 9% under the
same conditions. Further, in absence of exposure to the H-2.sup.d
epitope peptide, there were not significant differences in CTL
activity in the pCMV-NP injected and control mice (FIG. 17). These
data indicate selective activation of Th1 cells in the pCMV-NP
injected mice.
EXAMPLE X
PROLONGED IMMUNOLOGIC MEMORY INDUCED BY ANTIGEN STIMULATION OF T
CELLS AFTER ADMINISTRATION OF POLYNUCLEOTIDE COMPOSITIONS
0.1, 1, 10 and 100 .mu.g of polynucleotide compositions in plasmid
form (0.5-5 ng/1 mg DNA endotoxin content) encoding the E.coli
enzyme .beta.-galactosidase under the control of the CMV promoter
("pCMV Lac-Z") were administered to groups of 4 mice/dosage/route
either intramuscularly ("IM") or intradermally ("ID"). For
comparison, another group of 4 mice/dosage received 100 .mu.g
.beta.-galactosidase protein ("PR") intradermally. All injections
were made using 50 .mu.l normal saline as carrier. IM and ID
injections were made with a 0.5 ml syringe and a 28.5 gauge needle.
Antibodies were thereafter measured by enzyme-linked
immunoabsorbent assay at 2 week intervals.
Briefly, total antibodies were measured using .beta.-galactosidase
(Calbiochem, Calif.) as the solid phase antigen. Microtiter plates
(Costar, Cambridge, Mass.) were coated with 5 .mu.g of antigen
dissolved in 90 mM borate (pH 8.3) and 89 mM NaCl (i.e., borate
buffered saline; BBS) overnight at room temperature and blocked
overnight with 10 mg/ml of bovine serum albumin in BBS.
Serum samples were serially diluted in BBS starting at a 1:40
dilution for the first 8 weeks, them a 1:320 dilution thereafter.
These samples were added to the plates and stored overnight at room
temperature. Plates were washed in BBS+0.05% polysorbate 20, then
reacted with a 1:2000 dilution of alkaline phosphatase labeled goat
anti-mouse IgG antibody (Jackson Immunoresearch Labs., West Grove,
Pa.) for 1 hour at room temperature, or were reacted with a 1:2000
dilution of alkaline phosphatase labeled goat anti-mouse IgG 1
antibody (Southern Biotech of AL), or were reacted with a 1:500
dilution of alkaline phosphatase labeled rat anti-mouse IgG 2A
antibody (Pharmingen, of Calif.), under the same conditions. Plates
were washed again, then a solution of 1 mg/ml of p-nitrophenol
phosphate (Boehringer-Mannheim, Indianapolis, Ind.) in 0.05 M
carbonate buffer (pH 9.8), containing 1 mM MgCl.sub.2 was added.
Absorbance at 405 nm was read 1 hour after addition of substrate to
the plates.
As shown in FIG. 18, antibody responses of equivalent magnitude
were induced in the animals who had received the pCMV Lac-Z
plasmids by ID injection and the animals who had received the PR,
while lesser antibody responses were measured in the animals who
had received the pCMV Lac-Z plasmids by IM injection.
To assess for T cell memory, the animals were then boosted with 0.5
.mu.g of PR at a separate site by ID injection. If these animals
had developed memory T cells to control production of antibody to
.beta.-galactosidase, they would be expected to mount a more
vigorous immune response after boosting with soluble protein
antigen than had been demonstrated in response to the priming dose
of antigen.
As shown in FIG. 19, it is clear that the animals which had
received ID injections of pCMV Lac-Z plasmid had developed
substantially better immunological memory than did animals which
had received either IM injections of plasmid or of PR. Further, the
memory which was developed by the ID injected animals persisted for
a minimum of about 12 weeks.
* * * * *